Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
CALCULUS
FOR
BEGINNERS
INTEGRAL
FOR
CALCULUS
BEGINNERS
WITH
AN
INTRODUCTION
TO
THE
STUDY
OF
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
BY
JOSEPH
FORMERLY
FELLOW OF
EDWAEDS,
SIDNEY
SUSSEX
M.A.
COLLEGE,
CAMBRIDGE
MACMILLAN
AND NEW
AND
YORK
CO.
1896
All
rightsreserved
First
1890.
Reprinted
With additions
1892,
1894
1893.
and
reprinted
1896.
GLASGOW
PRINTED
AT
THE
UNIVERSITY
PRESS
BY
ROBERT
MACLEHOSE
AND
CO.
PREFACE.
THE
present
volume
to
a
is
intended of the
the
to
form
sound
study
student
beginning
companion,
it does
at
are
the
for Beginners,
but rather which
not
therefore of
at
completeness,
of the for the
a
the
omission
portions
best
subject
later
usually regarded
It will of be
left that
reading.
cesses prothe
found,
however,
are
ordinary
as
integration
methods calculation of
to the
fully treated,
and
also
principal
and of the solids
of
Rectification of
the
Quadrature,
and surfaces
is
volumes Some
revolution. student of
indication useful
the the
also
afforded of
to the
other
as
applications
method of
a
such
general
be
in
obtaining
of
a
position
of Inertia. of
a
Centroid,
As
in want
the
value
Moment
the
it
seems
that should
the
path
be
student
Applied
of
blocked of
by
acquaintance
methods
solving
M298720
vi
PREFACE.
elementaryDifferential Equations,and
time that his
course
at the
a
same
should the
be
stopped for
some
tematic sys-
study
and added
more
of
subject in
brief of
complete
has been of the
to and
exhaustive of
the
treatise,a
account
ordinarymethods
such
solution
all including
meet
the of
student
is
likelyto
with of
in
a
his
reading
to the
Analytical Statics,
Dynamics
Linear
and Particle,
the
Rigid Dynamics. Up
Differential the consistent The been
Equation
been
Constant
as
subjecthas
with
fullyas
text
the scope
of the
present work.
have
selected
to
these
examples should
be
by
in
explained
in sets
book-work
may
firmly fixed
harder
the
at
a
mind
the
more
before
ends
the attacking
somewhat
are
of the
chapters.These
character, and
generallyof
call for
miscellaneous
greater
these
ingenuity, though
been set actually in
few
present any
A largeproportion of difficulty.
examples have
the
sources
examinations, and
for them
are
to
which
am
indebted
usuallyindicated.
PREFACE.
vii
My
the
acknowledgments
works of
many
are
due
in
some
degree
on
to
of
the
modern
writers
the
subjects
Treatises
treated
of,
Bertrand
but
more
especially
and
to
the
of
and
Todhunter,
to
fessor Pro-
Greenhill's
interesting
the
more
Chapter
advanced
on
the
Integral
may
Calculus,
consult
with
which
student
great
are
advantage.
due
to
My kindly
the
thanks
several
friends
who
have
sent
me
valuable
suggestions
with
regard
to
desirable
scope
and
plan
of
the
work.
JOSEPH
EDWARDS.
October,
1894.
CONTENTS.
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
CHAPTER
I.
NOTATION,
Determination of from
SUMMATION,
APPLICATIONS.
PAGES
an
Area,
......
1
"
Integration
Volume of
the
Definition,
10
4
"
9 13
Revolution,
"
CHAPTER
II.
GENERAL
METHOD.
STANDARD
FORMS.
Theorem,
.......
14
"
19
21
"
and
Notation,
......
20
obeyed
xn,
by
the
Integrating
Symbol,
. .
22 23"26 26"28
Integration
Table of
x~l,
Results,
CHAPTER
III.
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
Method The
of
Changing
the
Variable,
......
29
"
32 36
"
Hyperbolic
Functions,
33
Additional
Standard
Results,
37"41
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER INTEGRATION
BY
IV. PARTS.
PAGES
"by Integration
Geometrical Extension of the
Parts"
of
Product,
43"47
....
Proof, Rule,
48"49 50"52
V. FRACTIONS. 55
"
Cases,
Fraction
57
........
with
Rational
Numerator
and
nominator, De58"61
CHAPTER
SUNDRY
VI. METHODS.
STANDARD
Integrationof
Powers Powers Powers and
f^L
J \/K
or
65"68
... .
Products
of Sines and
Cosines,
.....
69"74
75
"
of Secants of
Cosecants,
or
76
78
Tangents
a
Cotangents,
"
77
.....
"
/rfv
+ o
cos
etc.,
79"83
CHAPTER REDUCTION
of xm-lXP, Integration Reduction Formulae where X
VII. FORMULAE.
bxn,
....
87"89
90
"
for
/ xm~lXpdx,
93
Reduction
Formulae
7T
for
94
"
95
Evaluation
of
/ sii\nxdx,
j"z
r -i
ain^x cos^x
dx,
96
"
102
CONTENTS.
xi
CHAPTER MISCELLANEOUS
VIII. METHODS.
PAGES
Integrationof
/^).fx.9 X. Y
.......
109"117
118
.
i\f
of some Integration SpecialFractional Forms, General and Geometrical Illustrations, Propositions Some Elementary Definite Integrals, Differentiation under an Integral Sign,
. .... ....
"
119
"
120
.
124
125 128
"
127
129
"
IX.
Curve-Tracing,
for Rectification for
a
.......
135"137
Illustrative
.....
Formulae
and
Examples,
13S
"
Modification Arc of
an
Closed Curve,
........
Evolute,
Intrinsic Arc
Equation,
Curve,
........
144
"
149 150
of Pedal
........
CHAPTER
X.
QUADRATURE.
Cartesian
Formula,
Closed
........
153
.......
"
157
Polars, Curve,
.....
158"160 161"163
.......
Expressions,
between
a
'.''-.
.
164"165
Curve,
.........
two
Radii
of Curvature
and
the
Evolute,
Areas of
166"167
........
Pedals,
168"175
.......
CorrespondingAreas,
176
"
177
XI.
OF
VOLUMES
SOLIDS
OF
REVOLUTION. 183"184
.......
.......
185"187
xii
CONTENTS.
PAGES
Theorems Revolution
of
Pappus,
a
.......
188
......
191
of
Sectorial
Area,
192
CHAPTER
XII.
OF
SECOND-ORDER
ELEMENTS
AREA.
MISCELLANEOUS
Element,
.....
195 199
"
198
201
Centroids Surface
of
Inertia,
"
202"203
.....
204
"
207
DIFFERENTIAL
CHAPTER
EQUATIONS.
XIII.
THE
EQUATIONS
Genesis Variables Linear of
a
OF
FIRST
Differential
Equation,
.....
Separable, Equations,
219
CHAPTER
XIV. ORDER
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
FIRST
(Continued}.
221
"
Homogeneous Equations,
One Letter
226
Absent, Form,
227"229
230"233
Clairaut's
CHAPTER
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
SECOND
EQUATIONS.
Linear One
Equations,
Absent,
of
.
235
"
236
Letter
237"238
a
General Exact
Term,
. .
239
. . . .
"
240
241"242
CONTENTS.
xiii
XVI.
EQUATION
COEFFICIENTS.
WITH
CONSTANT
PAGES
Form
of
Solution, Function,
.....
243"244 245
"
Complementary
Particular
251
Integral,
Reducible
to Linear
Equation
Coefficients,
XVII. MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
266"269
Orthogonal
Some Further
Important
270
"
271
Illustrative
Examples,
272"277
Answers,
278"308
ABBREVIATION. To indicate
cases
the
sources
from
a
which of
many have
as
of
the
an
examples
examination
"
are
derived, in
in
common,
where
group
are
colleges
held follows
the St.
references
abbreviated
(a)
Peter's, Pembroke,
Corpus
Christi, Queen's,
and
St.
Catharine's.
(j8)
=
King's.
and
(7)
(d)
Emanuel,
and
Sidney
Sussex.
Christ's, Emanuel,
Sidney
Sussex.
(e)
King's.
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
CHAPTER
I.
NOTATION,
SUMMATION,
APPLICATIONS.
1. The
Use
and
Aim
of
the is
Integral
the
Calculus.
of of
an deavour en-
Integral
to
Calculus
some
outcome
obtain
general
space bounded
method
finding
the
area
of
the
plane
by
given
of
curved
lines. In
area
the it is
a
problem
necessary
of
to
the
determination this of
some
such
an
suppose
space small of
divided elements.
up
into We the
each
very
large
have of
to
number form
sum
very
then limit is
obtaining
when
the
of
ultimately
infinitesimally
increased. that when it
may
once
their
number It will
infinitely
be found is such
areas
such be
method
to
a
of other
summation
discovered,
as
applied
length
of
problems
line,
volumes
moments
E. i. c.
the of
finding
surfaces
of of
the
curved the of
etc.
"E
the
given
the
shape
and
bounded of
by
the
them,
determination of
inertia,
positions
A
Centroids,
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Throughout the book all coordinate all angles will supposed rectangular,
measured
in
axes
will be
circular
measure,
and
otherwise
Area.
Form
of Series to
of the portion to find the area Supposeit is required of space bounded AB, defined by by a given curve of and BM its Cartesian equation, the ordinates AL A and
0,0,0,0,
Fig. 1.
Let the
=
LM
Q^Qv QiQz,
be divided into n equal small "f lengthA, and let eacn """"
"
LQV parts,
a
Then b abscissae of A and ". a of the curve, be the equation (f)(x) y LA, QiPp $2^2*e^c-'through the several
=
points L, of lengths are etc., ^(a+K), ^(a+2A),etc. "j"(a), Qv Q2, Let their extremities be respectively A, P1? P2, etc., the rectangles and complete AQV PjQg,P2Q3,etc. of these n rectangles falls short of Now the sum of the n small figures, the area sought by the sum etc. Let each of these be supposed 1, P1J22P2,
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the
the may
term
h(f"(a+nh) or
is taken.
A0(6)
which limit
vanishes of this
when series
limit
Hence
the
also be written f6
I
a
"t"(x)dx.
3.
Integration from
summation
as
the
Definition.
be effected
:
"
This
may
we
sometimes
now
by
elementary means,
Ex.
1.
proceed
to illustrate
Cb
Calculate
/ e*dx.
Here
we
have
to
evaluate
+ ea+"
+ ea+h Lth==Qh[ea
where
This
+ nh.
ea)-^-=e* =Lth^h^p\ea=Lth^(eb
-
e\
"
"
"
Art.
15.]
/b
Now
r=n-l
xdx
we
have
to find
Lt
2
r="
("+rA)A,
where
2(a + rh)h
and
in the
limit
becomes
22'
obtain the limit when h is
/61 "$x
a
we
have
to
diminished indefinitely
of
NOTATION,
SUMMATION,
APPLICATIONS.
"
b+ h
"'
without each limit, of these becomes
h diminishes
II
a
b'
Thus
J
a
/"==*.* f*JL
.r2
a
Ex. 4.
Prove
ab initio that
/"
We
now
are a [sin
sin
ofo?
=
cos
cos
6.
to
terms]A,
sinf a+n
\
"
sin
|
*
"
-
This
expression
=
cosf a
"
cos
" a
(2n
1)-j"
2JJsin2
sm-
which
when
A is
the form
cos
b.
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
Prove
by
summation
that
2.
"
cosh b
"
cosh
a.
3.
/b
4. As
a
cos
OdO
sin 6
"
sin
a.
of Integration
further
xm.
example we
sum
next
propose
to consider
of the series
6
7 h
=
--
"
a
,
and
is made
The
m indefinitely large,
+ 1 not
1
being zero.
when A be is of
[Lemma.
"
Limit
of
fy v"/
I\m+l
_
yin +
"
is
+ 1
Aym
may
whatever diminished, indefinitely y finite magnitude. For the expression be written may
be, provided it
-1
may
consider the
to
be
unity,and
/
we
may
l
,
therefore whatever
apply
Binomial of m+l.
Theorem
to
expand
^\7?l+ ( 1 -J--
be the value
NOTATION,
SUMMATION,
APPLICATIONS.
(See Dif.
"becomes
Gale,
13.)
Thus
the
expression
+ I when
A is
diminished.] indefinitely
In the result
put
and
i/ success! vely
=
a,
a+h, a+2h,etc....a + (n
(
"
l)h,
we
get
l-am+l_
~
r,
_
1
_
(a + n^
h(a+n-Ui)m
or
adding numerators
for
a new
for
new
numerator
and
nominat de-
denominator,
(a+ n^l
'
m+1
In may accordance be written
'6
with
the b"
notation
of Art.
2, this
xmdx="
m+1
8
The letters
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
whatever, represent any finite quantities become infinite between
x=a
and
When
in the
is
zero
for
1 and
the 0, ultimately
theorem
comes be-
xmdx=
o
"
"7
if
+ 1 be
positive,
or
oo
if m
+ 1 be
negative.
This theorem
may
be written
also
"r
as according
m+1
is positive or
negative.The
limit
or,
which
is the
same
thing,
"M4-'
-Lstn=
oo
the
former
1
"
by
-"?,
"
i.e. by 0 in the
oo
limit,
is will
n or as m+1 according
is therefore also
case
when
+ l=0
be discussed later.
Ex. Find the of the the of portion the parabola 7/2=4a# the ordinate x"c.
1.
area
bounded
by
the curve,
and #-axis,
NOTATION,
Let
us
SUMMATION,
APPLICATIONS.
divide
NM
is the
length c into n equal portionsof which Then if (r+l)th,and erect ordinates NP, MQ.
the
PR when
be
n
drawn
to NM, parallel
sum
the
is infinite of the
of such
Lt^PN.NM
c.
or
[By
Area
Art.
4.]
=f
extreme
=f
of the
area
of the Ex.
ordinate
arid abscissa
2.
of
rod
whose
densityvaries
as
the
of the distance from one end. with power Let a be the length of the rod, o" its sectional area supposed uniform. Divide the rod into n elementary portions each of
length
of
1
\
"
-
-.
The densitv
volume is w-,
n mass
of the and
(r+l)th
element
from
the
end
|
zero
its
(
*
"
to
(7+la\m
"
*"
Its
.
is therefore and
coa**1-
**
10
Thus the
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
mass
of the whole
ra+1
5. Determination
of
Volume
of Revolution.
formed to find the volume by required axis the revolution of a given curve about an AB in its own planewhich it does not cut. the Taking the axis of revolution as the cc-axis, The in Art. 2. be described exactly as figure may
Let
it be
Fig. 3. trace in elementaryrectangles AQV P-fy^P2Qz"etc., and their revolution circular discs of equal thickness, of volumes L2 LQ19 "jrA nrP^ Q", etc. The several annular portionsformed by the revolution of the portionsAR^^ P^R^P^ P2E3P3, etc.,may be con. .
12
Then have
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
dividingas
before
into
re
y^dx /c
"
4a:r
/ xdx
2
AN PA7' and
of =J cylinder
as [Or if expressed a
radius
heightAN.
series dx
Volume
4a?r
I
o
[c
x
r
=
"
2a?rc2.]
of the
=
[Art.4.]
formed spheroid prolate
l about
Ex.
2.
Find
the volume
by
the
revolution
of the
~+^ellipse
2 *
the #-axis.
Fig. 5.
Dividing as
axes
before the
coincide with
into
whose
/ Try^dx.
Now -a2
a
x*)dx
5[a*.("-0)-^]
or
and
the whole
volume
is
NOTATION,
SUMMATION,
obtain the
APPLICATIONS.
13
same
result
without
using
EXAMPLES.
1. Find
the
area
bounded #=".
by
the
curve
"
^^ the #-axis,and
the ,#-axis find the
the
ordinates
area
#=a,
2. If the
in
Question
method
1 revolve
round
volume
of the
3. Find
by
the
2, the
area
of the when
the
x
=
triangle
a.
formed
by
Find
line y=x tan 0, the #-axis and of the cone formed also the volume the #-axis. of the
line
this
triangle
revolves
4. Find
volume the
revolution
cut
y-axisof
of the
off
by
latus-rectum. volume
=
5. Find
sphere formed
.r-axis.
the
circle
x2+y2
the
curves,
the the
6. Find
areas
figures bounded
the ordinate
area
by
x
=
each
of
the
following
volume
#-axis, and
revolution
=
formed
by
of each
about
(a)
7/3 a*a
(8)
7. Find each the
mass as
aty
a
of the of
circular
disc from
of the
which
centre.
the
density at
by the #-axis,supposing
point
varies the
distance the
8. Find
mass
prolate spheroid
=
formed the
revolution the
of the
l ellipse^2/a2-f^/2/62
about
density at
each
point to
be //x,
CHAPTEE
II
GENEEAL
METHOD.
STANDAED
FOEMS.
6.
the
Before
proceeding
Calculus,
will the in
we
further shall
cases
with
applications
a us
of
Integral
which of result
establish enable
general
to
theorem the
many
infer
operation
n
indicated
by
I
a
"p(x)dx
without often
to
the
usually
or
tedious,
and
of
Algebraic
Trigonometrical
Summation.
7. finite and PROP. and b of
Let
"/)(x) be
any
function
of
which values
is
a
continuous the b
"
between
x
given
a
finite
and
variable
a
let
be
"
6,
n
suppose
the
each
difference
to
be
a
=
into is
portions
to
equal
limit
h,
so
that
sum
b
"
required
find
the
of
ike
+
of +
the
ft[0O)
when increased
"p(a + h)
diminished
4"(a + 2h)+...
0(6
and
h)
0(6)],
n
is
indefinitely,
therefore
without
at
once
limit.
be
seen
[It
be the
may
that
sum
this
is
limit
is
finite, for
if
"$"(a+rh)
greatest
term
the
+ rh) a)"t"(a
+ h"$"(a
GENERAL
METHOD.
STANDARD
FORMS.
15
of
which
x
is
intermediate
a.]
of
x
Let
be \fs(x)
another
function
such
that
is "j)(x)
that
We
shall then
prove
that
Lth^["fa)+^a+h)+^
By
and
where
definition
^a)*
a
=
therefore is
a:
diminishes
limit
is
zero
when
+halt
etc.,
"
where
the
quantities a2,
limits
a3,
...,
an
are
all, like
av
whose quantities
are
zero
when
h diminishes
indefinitely. By addition,
+ 0(a + h)+ "f"(a h["f"(a)
Let then
be the
of greatest is
the
quantities av
i.e.
a2,
an,
Afoi+ag+^.+On]
and therefore vanishes
"nha,
"("
"
a)a,
in the limit.
Thus
16
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
limit zero; hence if desire,it may be added to the left-hand member and it may then be stated that this result, The
term
is in fc"/"(6)
the
we
of
.e.
This
result
by
the
p\/r(a3) J
that when is "/"(x) process obtain
rb
the form
of
the of
differential
or algebraic
to
I
a
"j)(x)dx may
be
to denote
notation
so
to let
I "f"(x)dx express
a
"
b becomes
(j)(x)dx fb
we
shall be
understood fb
to
-\I,(a)]
or
Lta=00\ "f"(x)dx.
Ex. Hence
1.
The
differential have
coefficient of ^"
is
plainlyxm.
if
we "$"(x)=xm
m+1
+ \
m+l
GENERAL
METHOD.
STANDARD
FORMS.
17
cos a?
differential coefficient is
is
cos
dx
sin b
"
sin
a.
The Hence
quantitywhose
differential coefficient
is e* is
Ex. 4.
EXAMPLES.
Write
1.
X
down
the values of
2. I X 2i,
0
/V"dr, CiX) /b
a
it
/V"cfo?, 3.
Cf/JCm
o.
ir
rl
,-2
I
cfo, d/X^
4.
/2
cos
rA
r4
dx,
6.
sec2^;dx^
7.
/
o
ia
8. Geometrical
The
Illustration of Proof.
above theorem may be
proof of
thus be a
:
"
the
of a curve of which the ordinate is finite Let AB portion and continuous all points between A and B, as also the at makes tangent of the angle which the tangent to the curve with the a?-axis. Let the abscissae of A and B be a and b respectively. Draw ordinates A N, BM. be divided Let the portionNM into n equal portionseach of lengthh. Erect ordinates at each of these pointsof division
cutting the
curve
in
P, Q, R,
...,
etc.
tangents AP^
to parallel
the
Draw lines
the
successive
AP2,PQ2JQR2,...,
the let and ,r-axis,
=
let the
equation of
the
curve
be
y then
=
and ^r(x\
etc.,
E.
I. C.
18
and
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the lengths respectively
-h),
...,
are
Now
sum algebraic
of i.e.
is
...,
MB-NA,
s,
Fig. 6.
Now
portion within square brackets may be shewn for instance be For if R^ with h. diminish indefinitely the sum of the several quantities PjP, Q^ etc., greatest
the
to
the
[P1P+Q1Q+...]
But if the abscissa of
is
"nR1R,
i.e.
"(b-a)-}~.
be called #, then
and
+ (x)
+ -^"(x
Qh\
that
R^R
4- "9A) "(x
=
(x+ Oh),
and which is
(6 a)
-
an
infinitesimal in
of general
20 10. When
we are
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
is not specified and the form of the (at present) merely enquiring
a
the
lower
limit
function \fr(x), unknown differential coefficient whose is the known function $(#), the notation used is
the limits
beingomitted.
11. Nomenclature.
The nomenclature
b
of these
or
is as expressions
follows
r(p(x)dx
is called the "definite" b ; a and
limits
fx
I where
a
or "j)(x)dx
\[s(a) \{s(x)
"
is called
"f"(x)dxor
without
as
-^(x)
the
limits and regarded merely specified any of reversal of an operation the differential is called
an
calculus
"indefinite"
"
or
unconnected
"
integral.
12. Addition It will be
of
Constant.
that if is "p(x)
the differential coefficient of ^]s(x\ it is also the differential coefficient whatever of \lr(x) C is any constant + C where ; for is zero. the differential coefficient of any constant obvious
we Accordingly
might
write
This
constant
is however
not
GENERAL
METHOD.
STANDARD
FORMS.
21
but
will be
understood
to
exist
in
integration
form
;
for
instance is the
Idx }*/I-x2
,
is sin'1^
or
"
cos~%, for
Vl
pressions. ex-
But
what
a
is
reallytrue
is that
cos"1^
differ by
constant, for
so
that
f
"7
dx
Vl-a2
,
sin ~lx
or
dx=
"
cos-^
J/s/l-a;2
the
constants beingdifferent. arbitrary
14. Inverse
Notation.
verse notation for the inAgreeably with the accepted tions, funcand inverse Hyperbolic Trigonometrical we might express the equation
or
j5^)
it is useful occasionally
^);
to
and
employ
this
notation,
22
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
character which very well expresses the interrogative of the operation are we conducting.
15. General
Laws
satisfied
by
the
Integrating
Symbol \dx.
(1) It will symbols that
be
plain from
the
meaning
of
the
but that
(2) The
for if u, v,
be any
functions of
x,
-T-j |u^+l^^+l^^r
and therefore
constants) (omitting
=
For
if
-j"
v,
and d
,
be any du
constant,we
have
so
that
(omitting any
constant
of
integration)
au
\avdx9
or
a\vdx=\avdx,
establishes the theorem.
which
GENERAL
METHOD.
STANDARD
FORMS.
23 of
16. We several
17.
Integration of
xn.
By differentiation of
d
_
"
+ 1
nrfll
we
obtain
xn+l
_
dx
+ l
seen
Hence
been
already
in
Art.
and
in
Thus
power
the of
x
rule
for the
Increase is,
so
by
the index
increased.
For
example,
/nA
X X
r
=
11
x~^
~"''}X x=if
EXAMPLES.
}x
T4=
"4^4-
TTn'^e down
the
of integrals
1.
x
"#"
^7999 #1000.
^"J
""}
-^"Jf
O.
24
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
18. The
Case
of x~\
that x~l Thus
or
-
is the
differ-
logx.
fl
Jx
\-dx
This therefore forms
f
an
logx.
to the apparent exception
^n+l
rule general
\xndx
=
19. The
Supplyingthe
deduced have
as
case. limiting
/xndx
=
"
-I-A
n+l
n+l
where
C+
"".
+ l
and
is still an
constant. arbitrary
Taking the
limit when
l=0,
the form
takes
logx,
and
as
C is
we arbitrary
may
-
suppose
that
it contains another
tively nega-
infinite A. portion
portion
togetherwith
arbitrary
7i
~\~J.
Thus
20. In
we
the
same
way
as
in the
of integration
xn
have
1
=
+ b)n (n + V)a(ax
and
+ 6) ^-log(a% "v
=
"
GENERAL
METHOD.
STANDARD
FORMS.
25
and
therefore
f/
y
\(ax+o)ndx
IA
+ ")n+1 (oo5
'
=
"
"/
(n+l)a
and
I '"r Jax + b
we
-\og(ax + b\ 6V
a
f fFor convenience
shall often find
Jax
+ b
"jdx
printed as
Jax
"
I
+ b'
-r,
Jja2+x*
EXAMPLES.
dx
as
I J*Ja* +
,"
x*
o,
etc.]
Write
down
1. ax,
a
the
of integrals
a
"
of1, a+x,
x_ a+x a? x
'
x,
a"x?
1 a-\-x
2
x
3.
a
+ x
"
bx
(a-#)2" (a x)n*
"
a+x
a-x*
x+a
"
(a+x)2
(a
"
xY
21. We
may
next
remark
coefficients of
and ["f"(x)]n+l
log$(x)are respectively
and
we
have
{["t"(x)]n"t"'(x)dx
=
and
is of great especially the integral It may thus : be put into words use. of is the differential of which the numerator any fraction is coefficient of the denominator log (denominator). second results
"
The
of these
For
example,
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
/ /co\,xdx J
=
*"
xdx
X
#,
Sill
/tan
.#
dx
"
"
"
-a?^
"
log sec
x-
cosx
EXAMPLES.
Write down the of integrals
nex,~-,
" Ct ~\~
(a
now
be
that perceived
the
of operations
Calculus are of a tentative nature, and Integral in integration ledge success depends upon a knowof the results of differentiating the simple
It is therefore forms
same
functions. of standard
necessary is now
as
the practically
and differentiation,
of the the righthand members differentiating results. The list will be gradually extended list givenlater. supplementary PRELIMINARY TABLE
TO OF
RESULTS MEMORY.
TO
BE
COMMITTED
28
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
them.
as x
The
reason
is obvious. the
Each
of these
functions
decreases
efficients co-
increases
are
through
therefore further and
a
first
quadrant
; their
differential of each
" "
Also For
it is
the dimensions
" "
side.
zero
instance,x
is of
to
"
X"1
dimensions.
There
C
could dx
therefore
be
no
prefixed
a
the
in-
tegral. Again
/
J
2 d~"
-\-X
is of dimensions -1.
-1.
the result of
integrationmust
not
be
of dimensions is of
zero
Thus
integralcould
student should the
be
tan"1a
(which
no
dimensions).
therefore factor
-
have is to be
in remembering difficulty
in which
cases
prefixed.
EXAMPLES.
Write
:
"
down
the
indefinite
integrals of
the
'
2.
3.
cos2-,
2 cot
x
coss#
.
sin #,
4.
+ tan
x,
cos^f
.
-+-^snr^/
\sin^7
#e + e*
'
log sin
^sec-1^.
\/^-i*
CHAPTER
III.
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
25. The
to
z
Change
of
the
Independent
may
Variable.
be
independent
by
the
variable
x
=
changed
from
change
F(z), by
the
formula
being
Or if
any
we
of
x.
V=f(x),
the
formula
To
prove
this, it is only
necessary
to
write
\Vdx\
then
=F.
du But
--
du
= "-_-=
dx
dz
~rrdx
V-j-9
dz
dz
dx
whence
I
=
-j-.
dz
30
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Thus
to
/ integrate
1
Then
and the
becomes integral
*"
dz
26. In
usingthe
formula
after
the choosing
to
form
use
it is usual
make
equation
j^=F'(z)dx
as
F'(z)dz]
the formula
be
we precedingexample,after puttingtan~1^ti=0,
write
*=d*
-
and
l+.r
I+x*
27. We
is
a
next
one
case
when
the
integration
definite
limits. specified
x
=
The
result obtained
above, when
F(z) is
be
and
b,we
have
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
31
when
x x
a,
z z
F~
when
b,
F~
\a) ; \b}.
f{F(z)}=-j^,{F(z)}
and
whence
so
with rethat the result of integrating gard f{F(z)}F'(z) limits F~\a) and F~\b) is identical to z between with that of integrating f(x)with regardto x between the limits
Ex.1. Let
a
and
6.
Evaluate
/
-
cos
\Txdx.
;
N/a?
dx=Zzdz 2-2(^2=2
x"z^^ and
-
therefore I -cos2. J z
cosfjxdx"
^x
/cos
J
dz
smz
Ex. Let
2.
Evaluate
/.Aos
x^dx. 3xPdx=dz
and ^3=2;,
/.
therefore
/^2cos x*dx
llcoszdz ^smz=^
=
sin x\
Put
^?=tan
e, then dx=sec20d6
when when
#
=
0,
1,
we
have have
0,
4
we
0=.T ;
32
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
ir
ir
:.
f-T^=dx \J\+*
P *?"| sec20 dB
{
=
sec#
{
-
B tan fsec
0 dB
fsec 0 "
dx
x _x
sec
sec
V2
1.
Ex.4.
Evaluate
f
"4
exdx
=
\ Tsech^^]. [i.e.
e'
jo
When
Let
3=e.
6^
^, then
dz.
when
Hence
rtan-'/V= tenL
""
tan-1
2
"
Ji
The
indefinite
is tan~V. integral
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate
excosex
(Put
^=4
cos(log x)
(Pat logx
I*
4
"
2. Evaluate
J 1+^4
acos#
J l-f#6
(Put a*=z). v
x.
reintegrate+ fl ^ Evaluate
"
-,
a^sin
ex + b tanh
(Put ^+1=4
5. Evaluate
/"
dx
-
6. Evaluate
a*
7. Evaluate
/*"
"da?
-1
J 2V^(1+^)
8. Evaluate
[
/
J 2W#
dx.
9. Evaluate
dx.
-
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
33
NOTE
ON
THE
HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS.
28. Definitions.
it is desirable that the purposes of integration the definitions and student shall be familiar with of the direct and inverse fundamental properties functions. hyperbolic values of the By analogy with the exponential functions the exponential cosine, etc., sine, tangent,
For
"
_
"
e-*
~
ex+e~x
_
__
ex-e~x
PTP
2
are
e?+e-*'
written respectively
cosh x,
tanh#,
etc.
29. We
Elementary Properties.
have clearly
tanh
-,
C/
X "C"JLJ.iJ.l
coth
=
"
e~x
sinho?
t"rihx
-=cosh
2 sinh
cosh
"
"
"
-^"
^
"
sinh2#,
common
AM
i. c.
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Forms. for
the
search sinh"1^.
meaning
of
the
inverse
function Put
then
smh
"
x"
log(x"
a
with expression
sign, positive
y,
we
have
ty+e-y cosh y
==
"
JL
e*y
ey
=
x"*Jx*-l,
log(x " *Jxl 1),
"
with expression
1
positive sign,
viz.,
/#2
"
as
32.
Again,puttingi"nh-lx
x
=
"
y,
we
have
tanh
and
therefore
e2y=-"
1"
x
whence
tanh
lx
4-log S ^
"
"-
1"
05
36
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
cu-l
=
whence
tan-
0, 2
eu-l
^TTT
=
tan2
2"
and
tan
a;
.e-
0_e-
!~4^-: ~2~
Hence
^
=
tan
1sinh u
gd u.
Thus
logtan(j+|)=gd-^
of
x.
EXAMPLES.
Establish the
1.
results : following
"
/cosh#cfo?=sinh#.
4.
/cosech2.rc^= -coth#.
2.
/sinh
J
xdx
cosh
x.
5.
J cosh%
/sm,.^o?.r
"
sech
x.
3.
6. (sech2A'dr=taiihtf.
J
7. Writing sg results :
"
for sin
gd x, etc.,establish
the
following
(a) /
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
,*
37
36.
Integralsof
and
The
differential coefficient of
-4-f
-
loge"
is
* =
log"
a
,
"
smh
,
-
1 l.
dx
=
..
bimilarly
37. In resemble and the
0.
.,
x
--
\/x2
"
a?
Jx/^2-^2
the inverse for the
log
^ =cosh-1-.
,
forms hyperbolic
these
^,
results
that
integral I
sin'1-* viz.,
a
38. We
f To find I dx Hence
)*Jx*+a^
=
put
oj
cosh
du
and
\/x2 +
=
az
cosh
u.
W^2
+ tt2
leZu t6
= =
sinh"1-.
a
u,
we
have
du
=
f
J
7 laK
=u
cosh~1-.
a
11^
Integralsof
39. To Let then
integrate *A2-tf2.
a?
=
a a
sin 0 ;
cos
dx
0 d$,
38
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
and
{+/tf-^dx
=
ia sin 6
cos
0+
-^
or
sina
integrate
cc
=
sinh z,
cf^ since
1 + sinh20
acosh0
then
cosh2z,
we
have
I J^^dx
a2\ cosh2z
dz
|a sinh
.....
Va2
2-smh-1x
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
39
integrate
x
"
a a
cosh z, sinh
z
dx since
cosh%
"
dz ;
sinh20,
a2 sinh20 dz
Jsif^cPdx J
C62?
=
Ja
sinh
cosh
"
^-,
\2
or
"
a2!
-log-
we
42. If have
we
put
tan#
", and
therefore
__
x ^
sec
05
a? + J log(tan
.,
sec
^),
snce or
_ _
2 cos2#
J log^
n
-,
"1"
40
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
43.
Integralsof
^ 2t
=
cosec
and
sec
x.
Let tan
1
-
dz
7
=
"
dx
or
-;
"
dz
"
^dx
2tan2
Thus
n,
smx
I cosec
xdx"\
"
logz
logtan
^.
example let x
dx
=
-=
2*
+ y.
sec
ydy
Hence
Isec xdx
r+s) (
or
""
*x-
44. We
have
now
the STANDARD
ADDITIONAL f dx
. ,
FORMS,
x+\/x*+a?
g
a
Jx/^+o1
f
dx
,x
JTP^l
\\/a2 x2dx
"
=1"g
I+/x2 4 a2 die
l+Jx2 a2dx
"
fi2
=
2G"
METHOD
OF
SUBSTITUTION.
Icosec
dx
logtan^.
EXAMPLES.
Write
down
the
of integrals
3.
4.
5.
7.
1 8.
cosec
2#, cosec(a#+"),
-sin2^'
1"
tanV
3sin^-
^'
10. Deduce
"/
sin ^7+ 6
cos
as
^j
11.
Find
\SQexdx by puttingsin
x=z.
42
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
12.
Show
that
/ /
sec x
dx
=
cosh
13.
Integrate
tflogtf'
when
lrx
represents
log
log
log
...
the
^7,
log
being
repeated
times.
r
15.
Prove
[ST.
PETER'S
COLL.,
etc.,
1882.]
44
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
with
new
which
may
the
original
product.
be put into words thus rule may of the product "j"(x)\{s(x) Integral 46. The
=
:
"
1st function
-the
Ex. Here another
1.
1st x Int. of
2nd].
Integratex
it is
important
which
to
connect
if
x
possiblejxcosnxdx
has been function in removed. Then
with This
in integral
the factor
$(x\ placeof x.
since in the
Thus
by
the rule
(xvxnxd**,*!*"?J
'
/"l.5
J
sin
"
9^7
If
"~~~~\
cosn"N
-
I
n /
n\
cos nx
sin
'
nx
47.
an
be taken
as
one
Thus
/logxdx"
=
/1 logx
.
dx
logx
log x
"
/x
"
x)dx -(log
=x
"
I \dx
INTEGRA
TION
B T
PARTS.
45
48. The
be
several repeated
mt.
Thus
f 9 / #2cos
#2sin
"
-
nx
"
nx
f sin / 2#
0
-
nx
7 dx.
and
n
finally,
Hence
f
J
$x^ J
nx
dx
=**** "
n
-*\_^COS
nL
n
#2sin
_ ~
nx
Zx
I
cos T9
nx
2 sin
7^
nx
*
of the subsidiary into 49. If one returns integrals form this fact may be utilized to infer the the original result of the
Ex.
1.
integration.
dx
=
/eaxsin bx
/eaxcos
and
"sin
bx-~\
e^cos
bx
dx,
and
bx dx
"cos
bx+-l
e^sin bx dx ;
if P therefore,
stand
/eax$m
we
bx dx
/eaxcos
bx,
bx
dx,
have
aP
+bQ
eaxsin
and
whence
-bP+aQ=eftxco8bx"
n P=eax-
nrct
sin bx
=
"
"
b
r?
cos
bx
/
a2+o2
and
w+v
"
(a2 +
(bx 62)~Yeaxcos
\
"
tan"1
).
aJ
46
The
we
INTEGRAL
CALCUL
US.
student
will observe
that
these
"
results
are
the
same
that
should
obtain
by puttingn=
I in the formulae
^)""ss""it^"^(^+"^)'
Gale, for Beginners, Art. 61, Ex. 4.] [Diff.
And
pnsi^
this
/
is
otherwise
game as
obvious.
For
a
""
if to
differentiate
62 and
to
rxsm/j^,\ jg fag
increase the
to
multiply by
r
""
factor
Va2 +
which integration,
is the
inverse
and
must operation,
divide
out
again
the
factor
Va2+62
diminish
the
angle by
xl
tan"1-.
Ex.
2. r
\/a2 Integrate
"
by
the rule of
by parts. integration
J A/o2^2^=
c
-
a2sin~
l-i
Iv a2
J
"
CL
which
agrees
3
with
Ex. Here
e*xsm2x Integrate
e3xsin% cos3#
=
cos3^.
"
"
"(1
"
cos
x 4#)cos
-=
-x _(2e3a:cos
-
INTEGRA
TION
B Y
PAR
TS.
47
Hence, by Ex.
I e^siiA
1,
cos3# dx
"
"\
-j=
cos
fx
"
tan~
1r j
J_
-
3\/2 ,: V
cos(3^-^--^cosf5^-tan-1|) V 3/J 4/
^34
[Compare
n=
"
Ex.
l in the
result.]
EXAMPLES.
sin
cos
#,
sin
#2logtf, ^n(log^)2. ^nlog^7, e*sin x cos ^ cos 2#. e^sin^costf, eaxsin^ sin qx sin r^?.
7. Calculate
|^sin^^,
0
/*x sin2^pc?^1, /
0 0
8. Show
that
9.
Integrate Isin"1^^,/^sin"1^^, \
50. Let
axes
Geometrical
Illustration.
and
referred to be any arc of a curve Ox, Oy, and let the coordinates of P of Q (xv y^).
PQ
Let
PN,
QM
abscissae of the
area
be
the
ordinates
and
PNMQ
rect.
OQ
rect. OP
area
But
area
PNMQ
48
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
and
area
PN^M^Q
I x dy.
cv\ o o
Thus
ri
Let
us
now
consider the
curve
to be defined
by
the
equations
and and let y
t0and t"be
the values of t corresponding to #0, y0, and a^, 2/1 of cc and y respectively.
ri
ri
7
I
*0
2/"x^=l vdu=\
*"
"0
r*i
and
I o?c?2/=l udv**\
and
INTEGRA
TION
B Y
PARTS.
'*
49
so
that the
above equation
may
be written
geometrically.
51.
Integralsof
the
nx
Form
nx
I a^sin
Reduction
#mcos dx, I
dx.
for such integrals the above as be found. Denote them respectively readily by may have at Sm and Cm. Then, integrating we by parts,
once cos nx m~
formulae
and(7m=
Thus
and
Om=
cosnx
=
,sin7i#
,
"_ ---
____+m^
771(971 v___
"
and
Cm=
n
"
-l"-
,cosnx
----
m(m
"
1)
"
Thus and m
when
=
the four
for integrals
the
cases
are
found, viz.,
"Sn
"
I sin
nxdx=
D
cos n
me
,
E. I. C.
50
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
GT0
=
xv
f
I
cos nx
sinrac
dx
7
=
at. o\
=
~
eosnx
Icesin
nx
dx
"
"
sinnx \"
,
t
0
=
\ cos \x J
can
T^CC ax
be deduced
by
successive
of applications
formulae. of the
52. Extension
Rule
of
for
Integration by
dashes denote
Parts.
If
to
u
and
be
functions suffixes
and
differentiations and
x we
rule for
with respect integrations of the extension prove the following may by parts, integration
=
\uvdx
uvl
"
u'v
where
u^n~1^ is written
for =uvl
with
TI
"
dashes; for
\uvdx
"
\u\dx,
Vuf'Vzdx,
"
I u'"vBdx ufv^
etc.
=
I u^'v^dx,
etc.
u(n~ Vvn
I vf^Vndx.
52
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
we
have bx dx
=
"
Ixneaxsm
eaxsin (bx
r
"
d")
"
^ r2
eaxsin(bx
"
r3
^^~
n\
or
eax{P sin bx
"
cos
where
X
-
3-
COS
30"
"
...
xn
xn~l sin 0
"
xn~^ sin
Q=
"
"
^-
20
n(n
"
1)" ^- sin 30
...
Similarly
L^a*cos ix
Ex.
1.
dx
eP*{Pcos bx+Q
sin
bx}.
Integrate ix^smxdx.
\e*smxdx
"
Since
S^e^sinf .r
-^J,
-
we
have
f^3ea:sm^^=^32'^ea;sm('.r ^ 3^22~Vsin^
-
2"
.
VVsinf ?" 4
.77
-
6
.
2~VsinCr- TT)
=etc.
Ex.
2.
Prove
^|
^Vto^ito-^-iy^j^^ /r=n
EXAMPLES.
1.
-rjQ ^s
(d)
/"
(5) (sfaitr^xdx.
(c)
(e) \
INTEGRA
TION
B Y
PARTS.
53
2.
Integrate (a) [x
dx. sm"1f
(c) /sin-1'
(")
/^5^"'.
tan
-
(d)
/ptn
~
lx
pin tan
lx
-dx.
(c)
J
*-*
dx.
dx.
4.
Integrate (a)
../*..
I
...
r
..
e(suix + cosx)ax.
(a)
\x
dx.
2." dx.
ax
sin bx dx,
b log"\dx. -j
Integrate
/log
-
sin'1^ dx.
6.
Integrate
7.
Integrate
8.
Integrate
(d) Integrate
9.
J*4"|^.
1-cos^ /" c?2v
"
^^
TKJPOS) 1892"]
(")
i
[a, 1892.]
c?v
"
"
10. Prove
/\
T-"
that
j
/u
2dx=u
du
v
"
/ v-"dx.
C d^u
11.
Integrate
/(asin%
+ 26 sin
cos
cos2^)e*^
[a,1883.]
54
Show that
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
12.
if
be
rational
function integral
of x,
where
the
series within
the
brackets
is
finite. necessarily
If
u"
Ieaxcos bxdx,
"
Ieaxsm
bx
dx,
prove
that
and
era*.
14.
-"
m+L
(m+1)2
3
^"-1 where
15.
(-ir-^!?
I stands Prove
for
logx.
that
(i.)
{e^w
J
+^""j)"2 leax^n-'2bxdx. J
a?+ri2b'2
[BERTEAND.]
16. Evaluate
and
deduce
that
iT5
277
3T9
-==9""310ge2'[a,1889.]
CHAPTER
V.
RATIONAL
ALGEBRAIC PARTIAL
FRACTIONAL
FORMS,
FRACTIONS.
ALGEBRAIC
FRACTIONAL
FORMS.
54.
Integration
of
-"
or
"
a?
\
forms
and
-"
-9(x"a\
into
Partial
*"2
Either Fractions.
of
these Thus
should
be
thrown
=___
x2
a2
"
2aj\x
"
1,
=
a^
"
a
;"
-
F
=
"
1
.1 coth"1
i^"l
a
s-
log
"
"
2a
4-
^ a;2
=!f(-J-+_J_Yfo
2aJ\a4-a)
a
"
Ja2"
x/
1
,
a+oj
F
a;
l,i
=-tanh"1-
T^l
.
^"
losr"
toa
"
2a
La
aj
56
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS,
Compare the (
with
.
forms
brackets
for
x\
-=
viz.,
1
= o
-
Jcr+or
!~n
tan'1"
a a/
dx 55.
Integrationof
Let
f-H
a
f
6
c
2
=1f.
a
dx
J
\
a^a
AV_^2a/ 2J
"
4a2
dx
or
2
we
take
as
or
the 4ac.
latter
arrangement
cording ac-
"
Thus
if 62
4ac,
or
coth"1"
7_
.
If b2
"
4"ae,
I
=
"
tan
"
l"
-.-
or
--
"
cot
These any
but differ at most by constants, expressions givencase a real form should be chosen.
in
RATIONAL
ALGEBRAIC
FRACTIONAL
FORMS.
57
56.
of of expressions Integrals
px + q
the form
can
be obtained
at
once
by
px + q
~~
_p
the
of integral
c),
of the second
part beingobtained
notice how
by
article.
[The beginnershould
obtained. shall Jirst fraction
the above
It is essential that the numerator be the that all the #'s of the
denominator, and
are
therebyexhausted.]
T?
'
+ J log(^2
4*7 +
5)
tan-1^ + 2).
be thrown
57.
+ q may
:"
Let where
X and
pa?+gsX(2oaj+6)+/i,
/x are
constants
to be determined.
Then
by comparingcoefficients,
pb
=
giving
and
--
58
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1.
f
2
xdx
.
4.
f fo+1)^
//y"
x* + 2x+l 3.
/7/y. ^a^
5.
J x2+?
6.
/Jfl-LZ-^p.
/"
f/v"
\2
/ 0^t1
"
c^
with
Rational
Numerator
the form
A~4,
9w
where
f(x) and
"/"(#)
functions of x, can be integral algebraic by resolution into Partial Fractions. integrated of putting such an The method into expression Partial Fractions has been discussed in the Differential Calculus forBeginners, Art. 66. When the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator the result consists of the A A
sum
rational
of several such
terms
as
Ax+B
and
Ax+B
the numerator is of as high or higher degreethan the denominator we may divide out until the numerator of the remainingfraction is of lower when in that can degree. The terms of the quotient be integrated fraction and the remaining at once be put into Partial Fractions as indicated above.
A
And
case
may
Now
at
once
"
integrates
Any
fraction
of the
1 r"l
form
"
-.
"
ix
^~*
^ a)
into integrates
(x"a)r~v
60
and the
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
is integral
Integrate
/
x
^
"
-dx.
?/.
Aj/
remainder,
Dividingout
y3 is a
l+
factor of the
2y
Hence
the fraction
1311111
and
therefore ^2
1 1
and
the
is integral
Ex.4. Let
Integrate
=
a?
+y
; then
"We
now
divide
out
by
RATIONAL
ALGEBRAIC
FRACTIONAL
FORMS.
61
To
shorten
the
work
we
) 1+2+1
l+
(J |
+
f+f+
tt-A-A
551
e
ll-5y-
Now and
11
-5j/-5y2
ll-
5(^-1) -5(^-l)2
by
Rule
5#2
\(x)
and
3
x
+ 1
3(^
l+#
Thus
ijj
^.2
~
I!
i
-L
1
A7
(2a?-l)-3
^2-
^-1)
and the is plainly integral
48
+ 1
62
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integratewith
regard to
the
followingexpressions :
v11*'
w'
T~\*
\V11V
~f~
\7
?T7
\'
^+ (iii.)
(iv) -/
a)-1^ + b)~\
(viii.)
"a*--")
"
"
"^
2. Evaluate
3.
Integrate
(i) W
dx f J (^2+a^2+62y
(iii) "'
4.
Integrate
(xd* (i.) v ;
J^+^2
[' (iii.) v
(iv.)f
+ l
J^+l
cto. Aa?2"t1
do?.
J^4-^2+l
RATIONAL
ALGEBRAIC
FRACTIONAL
FORMS.
63
5.
Integrate
/.
v
xdx
dx
dx
(vii.)
(iiL"
(^"T4)^"**"
^ ("")
(x\ VA*/
~(~"
6.
Integrate
~3,J~* J~.
(VI.) -7
x"" \
~t
d^t?
/T
\o/i
f j
~t
""
"/
j ^
o\'
V*-'"^*^
(viii.)
''
+ iy (#-l)2(#2
^2
1)3
7. Evaluate
8. Obtain
cos
dx
9.
Investigate
10. Show
that
r. fa
"o
_f^
64
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
11.
Prove
that
[+*
J
dx
_2?r 2?r
~~
(x*
"ax+
"2X^2
"
bx
b'2)
V3
ab(d"
[COLLEGES
7,
1891,]
12.
Show
that
the
sum
of
the
infinite
series
be
can
expressed
in
the
form
and
hence prove
that
[OXFORD,
1887.]
CHAPTER
VI.
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS,
doc
60,i.
Integration
of
where
-y=
ax2+2bx+c.
Case
When
I.
Positive.
is
positive
If
we
may dx
write
this
integral
as
which
we
may
arrange dx
as
If
I
__
If
Q p
I
_
dx
.
____.^=._.=_..___^_^==i
__
aJ 7/
+,
"\2
bz-ac
x/"J
according
form of
as
62 is
greater
or
less
than
ac,
and
the
real
the
integral
ax
,
is therefore
(Art. 36)
1
. ,
~
b
or
ax
.,
~
+
"
b
,
cosh
*
*
smh
"7^
T 1
,
Vo2
"
ac
Va
x/ac
62
according
E. T. C.
as
"2 is
"
or
"
66
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
In either
case
the
integral may
be written
in the
form logarithmic
~T=
log(ax+
^
"
b+
*Ja*Jax2 + 2bx+c),
~
the constant
T=
*J a
Also since and
1
=
logv
cosh sinh
ax
.
~
62
ac
beingomitted,
~
lz lz
sinh cosh
1
l\/z2
"
1
, ,
l\/z2 + 1
.
,
cosh
, l
+ b
=
"=.
sinh
\/aR
"
, "
ax
+ b
" "
1
=
and
sinh -7=.
V^
-1"
\/ac
7--
"
b2
"7^
cosh
T 1
-
x/aJi
\/ac
7
-?
"
\/a
b2
which and
forms therefore may be taken when a is positive less than ac respectively, b2 is greater or
61.
Case
II.
Negative.
f
"
dx
'
If in the
integral
A.
Then 1
r
)*Jax2+2bx+c
.
be
negative
write
a=
"
our
integral may
dx
be written
ZJ
or
or
"7=:
sin
68
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Ex.
2.
Integrate
(
J
be
dx
This
integralmay
written
I
dx
and
therefore
is
"
sin"1-^^"
.
\/2
which may also be
\/41
expressed as
-^cos
V2
-F="
*/41
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate
{--^"
JV^
+ 2a? + 3
{
J
-,
dx
2.
Integrate
/"
dx
dx
A/2"Ja + Zbx+cx*dx
2"#"
3.* -2#2
3.
Integrate
(c positive).
4.
Integrate /\/a +
cyPdx
(cpositive).
62. be
Functions
of
first
the
Form
-.
-"=====
x/a^2+26^+c
integratedby putting Ax+B
into the iorm
may
which,
or
may
be done
as
in Art.
;
we
by equating coefficients
Ax+B
ex/
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
69
The
of integral A
and
that
of the second
has
been
discussed
in Articles
60, 61.
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
2.37 + 3
x+b
AND
PRODUCTS
OF
SINES
AND
COSINES.
Odd
or
Cosine
with
Positive
Integral
can
sine
or
cosine
be
To
cos
c,
smxdx=
"dc,
Hence
fsin^+^cfo ((I-c2) dc
=
-
__
70
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Similarly, puttingsince
we
s, and
therefore
cosxdx=ds,
have
=
Icos*n+lx dx
(1
"
s2)nds
L_
"" '
nn
1 \7l.
64. Product
of form
sin^
cos?#, p
or
q odd.
product of the form method admits of immediate by the same integration either p or q is a positive odd integer, whenever whatever Similarly, any
the other be.
For
to integrate/sin5# .example,
-
cos4#
dx, put
cos#=c,
and
therefore Hence
sin xdx=
" "
dc.
"
/cos%
sin5^?dx
/c4(l c2)2dc
cos5^7 cos9^? 9cos7^;
~5~'
J^f~
we
"T"'
:
"
/^
sin5^ cos3# dx
proceedthus
p+^
x x
=
is
or
negative
even
admits
cot
x.
of immediate
integer,the integration
=
put tan
"
dt}and let
|
^
)n
~
ldt
8a5
,
"
4-n~*-(j
Irftan^+6a5
__
I-
4--
p + i
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
71 cosec2^ dx
if Similarly, and
we
put
cot
c,
then
"
"
dc,
\"DPxco"xdx=
result the
order.
Ex.
1.
same
as
the former
arrangedin
the
posite op-
Integratef?^"fo?.
J
sura
This may
be written
-
and
It may
also be
,
in integrated
terms
of tan
thus
"
CcosPx sPx
J sin6^?
the result Ex.
2.
-r-^-dx
=
1
"
/T
\,,
an x=-
tan~5#
" -
J taii6
same as
"
being the
before,
/sec" (9cosec"
0 d"9
ftan~*0rftan0"" -f tan~%=
f cot*0.
66. Use
of
Multiple Angles.
of a sine or cosine, or Any positive integral power of sines and integral any product of positive powers in be expressed means can cosines, by trigonometrical of the angle, series of sines or cosines of multiples a and then each term be integrated for at once; may f
siunx
nx
7 dx
=
"
\cos
and
n
ifsin
nx
dx=
cosnx
--.
72
r
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
J}x x.
/ cos
/^^2^^r^,_
x
c/Lx =:
f /"-t-UU"^^
X
.
Sin 2.27
Ex.
2,
Ex. 3.
cos%
dx=
/"
_
j=
"4"
2# + 2# +
""**
/(|+ J cos
J cos 4dc)dx
"
%x + J sin
been already
shown
that when
such
transformation
is necessary,
the second
example
/ cos3# dx
=
sin
sm x
"
x
^
which method
more
presents the
we are now
result
The be of
value especial
nor
of
sin^cos?#, where
neither p
Ex. Let
4.
cos
x
are
Integrate I8m9xdx.
+
c
sin
2
=y
x
=
then
w
cos
2t sin
"
-,
2i sin
nx
"
yn
"
"
yn
Thus
cos
8^-
16
cos
6# + 56 cos4o?-
112
cos
2^+70.
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
73
56 2# +
Thus
sin8.??
=
l(cos 8x
2
cos
6# + 28
cos
4#
cos
35),
Q*
andj
\$n$xdx="
J
5.
cos
"
irsiii8#
-
"
-8"
Osin6^
"
+ 28
.
OQsin4#
" -
"
-56
Kcsin2^? +35#
.
" "
"1
,
2i L_
2^
_J
Ex. Put
Integrate
/ sin6a7cos2^ o?^.
; then
cos
8#
"
cos
6^+8
cos
4#+ 6^
cos
2^; kx
"
10,
"
and whence
sin6^cos2^="
7J
"cos
'8# + 4
cos
"
cos
cos
2^7 +5
V,
It is convenient for such examples to remember that the several Coefficients may sets of Binomial be quickly in the scheme :" reproduced following
1 1 121 1331 14641 1 1 1 1
5
68. NOTE.
10
15
10 20 35 56
1 6 21 56 1
15 35
7
8
21 28
7
28
1 8 1
70
etc.,
each number
being formed
above
we
at
once
as
the
sum
the 7th
row
it and have
1 +
the
precedingone.
=
of the Thus in
one
mediatel im-
forming
0+1
1,
5=6,
5 + 10
15,
10 +
10=20,
etc.;
74
INTEGRAL
CALGUL
US.
and
in
multiplying out
we
such
product as
(y
1\6/
" -
+ (;*/
-
occurring above
and all the work
-
onlyneed
are
the
coefficients of
6 + 15
+ t)2 (1 t)G(l
"
appearingwill be
1
-
coefficients of
(1 t)Q (1
-
20+
5-
15
6 +
1,
+
coefficients of coefficients of
each
row
(1-/)6(1 + 0
student
are
1-5+
9-
5 + 9-5
1,
+
of The
4-10 are + 1)* 1-4+ 4+ + t)G(l to the being formed according figures will discover the
reason
4+4-4
same
1,
as
law
before. in which
of this
by
forming per-
the actual
of a+fo multiplication
are
cZ2+cfa3+... by l + ",
c,
a,
+
"
6,6 +
c+c?,etc.
the required,
(1+04(1
1,
+ 2 +
O2
were
+ 6 + 4 +
2-2-3-1,
1,
1+2-1-4-1
and the last
row are
the coefficients
are
required.
:
"
The
coefficients here
formed
6-4
=
thus
1-0=1,
4-1=3,
2,
4-6=-2,
etc.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate
odd indices in two ways.
3.
Integrate
ir ir
4. Evaluate
/
*0
ft
r"
sin^ctr,
/
0
/ cos5^?c?^,
^0
5.
Integrate sin
that
si 2.# cos2.r,
6. Show
/sin x
7. Show
/" N
dx=-"\
cos
2#
cos ""$
4# +
^\ cos
6#.
(i.)I sm
wia?
cos
w^
a^7
"
cos(m+?iV v !
" " "
76
and
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
generally
dx 2w+2aj
=
-
"c"
^3
-
s"5
/"2n-fl
~
WC"-
where
cot
x.
70. Odd
cosecant
can
of
secant
or
By
differentiation
we
have
at
once
d
"
and
(n + l)cosecn+2" n
"
cosec7lo?
"
x cosecna -7-(cot
doc
whence
(n +
and
+ (ti
1 ) secw+2^jdx
tan
secn#
I se
1 ) cose.cn+2xdx =~coix
f
cosecnx
/
cosecn#
\
dx
Thus
as
sec
dx
+ ^V logtanf^
and
we
Icosec
may infer at
once
c?x the
. .
logtan^
,
of integrals
.
sec3#,sec5#, sec7cc,
formulae.
Thus
;
=
by successively puttingn
/sec3#
dx
=
J tan
sec
^ logtan f
^V ),
/sec5^?da7= J tan
=
sec3^+ 1 /sec3^
J tan
sec3#+f tan
^7 sec
f logtanf
-+-
etc.
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
77
"
71. Such
in
formulae
the
as
are
called with
"
REDUCTION
formulae, and
student We
will meet
many
others
Chapter
sin^cos^
VII.
consideration
as
postpone till that chapter the of such an expression of the integration been have as except for such cases
alreadyconsidered.
72. Since
is
a a
positive power
of
or a
of
or a
secant
or a
cosecant
negative power
of
or a
cosine is
sine, and
positive
of
a now
power secant to
cosine
sine
negative
that
we
power
cosecant
it will appear
are
able
integrate any
or integralpositive
negative power
cosecant.
POWER
OF
TANGENT
OR
COTANGENT.
or
tangent
cotangent
dx
tann
2x(sec?x l)dx
"
Itann-2a3c?tan# ltanw"
idM.n~lx
-^
n
"
f, J
tan?l-2#cfe.
1
#,
And
since
Itan
cfc
==
logsec
and
we
Itan%c dx may
(sec2# l)dx
"
tan
"
x,
Thus
have
/tan3#cfo?=
/tan x(sec2x-l)dx
78
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
this By continuing
process
we
shall
obtain evidently
2?i-l +
2^-3
# + (-l)nff, (-l)w~1tan
and
tan-+^=^^
_
tan^^
Similarly
Icoinx dx
=
cotn
cot71-1^
=
"
--
r-
71"1
f |COtn-2#CfcE,
whilst
icot^^aj
and and
cot2^ ^ therefore
we
"
cot
"
may
thus
integrate
etc.
or
cotangent
dx
74. We
of Integration
may
write
+ b
j, sin2| s2|
-
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
79
(a
or
(fa Thus
=
-AgU-j
"
or
"(1)
CASE
I,
If
"
b this becomes
tani
a-
/a+6
or
tan
?|
2J-
Since
we
may
write
this
as
"
b,
"
1
=5- COS
1-
+ b
80
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
1
or COS"
"
+ bcosx
*-"
CASE
II.
If
"
dian.~
,
(2)
in
placeof
the form
we (1)
have
in this
case
by
Art. 54
UjiAj
"
J.
A J ft i _1_ + bcosx
f*na
sv*
A b
"
n a
"
IT. 1 Ib +
17 a
"
Vf^
,
V6^~tan2
v6 +
a
Ib+
\/b
.
"
tan
"=
"log
'
\J~b +
rjr"
"
"
tan
^
"
By
be written
tanh~:
/62-a2
2 tanh
or,
since
lz
cosh
"
02'
as
we
may
stillfurther
a. a
-L-^
tan2^
2
nX
:cosh~3
1
b+
"
^"-
b+
or
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
81
We
therefore have
"
b,
i.e.
dx
a+
bcosx
er "
b.
or
cosh-
Jl?-
a+bcosx
one
but These forms are all equivalent, forms is to be chosen when the formula
75. The
integralof
"
"
-r
a+
may
cos x
be im-
c sin
mediatelydeduced, for
b cosas-fc and
once smx
=
\/b2-{-c2cos(x tan~V ), b/
"
therefore
the proper form of the integral at can be written down in each of the cases or a greater
less than
Ex.
^/5*+c*.
dx
cos x
13 4- 3
in H- 4 sin
=f [ J
52
dx
--
(where
tana
^)
/132
_
13 + 5
:-a) coe(# a)
-
12 1
or
-i/2
.'T
"
a\
$. I. C.
82
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
f 76. The
dx
" --
integral I
Ja + 6sm#
,
may
be
easily deduced
by putting
then
f
"
dx
"
f
=B
dv
j". o sin
I-
Ja +
"^o
cos
its value
may
be written
down
in both
a^b.
it may be also independently investigated
x as
Of
by
or
+ 26 tan cos2^(
a
J. tan2^
The
then integral 2
becomes
and
two
cases
arise
as
before.
integral
I"
,
x
,"
may
be
similarly
dx
84
4. Prove
constants
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
that,with
involved
certain
limitations
on
the values
of the
J J(a-x)(x-(3)
P
and
=L= /"%=
/
a
.-(3
v
____
integrate Integrate
,.
(x
"
a)(/3 x)dx.
"
5.
"}
dx
'
JSC
.
"^%
\ (1""
}3(l-s
-
("'")
/""" \
.r
Ou27
(v-)
/
*
2^2
r
4- cos
a?
+ sin
.77
U11'-'
cos
COS.T'
^'''^
^^
J"2siii2"9 + 62cos2^'
(vii.)
cos
a
+ cos
and
(viii-) prove
o
6.
Integrate(i.)f-
dk
/ (ii.)
(iii.)
J
C?Jt'
____
^ V
a(^
b)+
"**
6(^ a)
-
7.
f Integrate 7 I
Integrate
8.
f- ^
-
J sm^
+ sm2^
9.
Integrate
10. Interate
SUNDRY
STANDARD
METHODS.
85
11.
Integrate
12.
Integrate /
J VI
sm
_dx.
x
+ sin
sec^ cosec
13,
Integrate /
"
dx.
x
J 1+
14.
Integrate /-"f^fl_f_.
J
v a
b tan2#
15. Evaluate
fVr^
/ 1 +
o
"
"^'
x
sin
16.
17.
Vsin 2(9
18.
IntegrateJ
fcot0-3cot30
19.
Integrate / J Wo?
~
20.
Integrate /"7
J (x si
21.
22.
CQS
^
6y
cos
+ cos (9(1
+ cos 6")(2
6")
23.
Integrate
1
"
" .
sin
^?
"
sin
a?
24.
"mg-coeg
cos
25.
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
26.
.
Integrate
J
sin"1
-
dx.
l+x2
27.
Integrate
J
\"
( sin^,
28.
[*"-X-dx,
'
{^^dx,
and prove that
Integrate
J
sin
2#
sin
3^
sin
4^7
sin"r
5 +
[THIN.
COLL.,
1892,]
CHAPTER
VII.
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
79.
Many
and
occur
whose
or are
integrals
of the
are
not
immediately
forms,
In
some
to
one
other not
standard
integrals algebraic
which
at
directly
may
obtainable. be the
cases,
however,
some
sucft
integrals
formula itself
linearly
connected
by
with
may
integral
mediately im-
of
another
expression,
be
to
either
integrable
than For the
or
any
rate
easier
integrate
original
function. be shown
that
instance
it will
(a2 + #2)^fe
can
be
expressed
in
terms
of
+ #2)^fe,and J(a2
this
latter
itself
in
terms
of
being
standard
form Such
the
integral
connecting
Formulae.
of
be
inferred. called
relations
are
Reduction
80. methods
The
student
will
realise been
that
several
have
already
used.
For
88
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
parts of Chapter IV., and It is proposed to consider and in the presentchapter, such formulae more fully of some for the reproduction to give a ready method of the more important,
of Integration method by the formulae A of Art. 70. of xm-lX* 81. On the integration for anything of the form a+bxn. In
where
stands
several
a
cases
the
can integration
be
performed
in
directly.
I. If p be
the positive integer, binomial
expandsinto
Next and
s
is integrable.
suppose
p fractional
-,
and
beingintegers
positive.
777/
the
case
when
=
"
is
=
positive integer.
X bnxn~ldx
+ bxn
zs,
szs~ldz
zs~l
r-
and
\x
bn)
and
when
"
is
is
(zs-a)~n+'
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
89
may may
be
put
be
TD
into
then
IV.
may
If
"
"
is
:
"
an
we or negative, integerpositive
proceedthus
rn
,
_
rn
m-\
and is
--
by
cases
II. and
a
"
"
either
positive or
b + ax~n=-zs.
777
r
"
substitution
when integrable
\-- is
n S
Three
cases or
mediately im-
integer. positive
an
integer.
an
777
"
[-p
integer.
Ex.
1.
Integrate (^(c
m=6,
3, and
Here
"
=an n
integer.
Let
so
%x*dx=
2zdz.
Then
90
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Ex. Here
2.
", n
3, p=b
and
"
+p
'
is
an
integerc
is / integral
-3-.
XT
the
becomes integral
9
*
which
=
might be put
6, the
into
fractions. If, however, z be put partial tions fracinto partial puttingthe expression and the final integration may be quickly
formulae
for
\xm~\a
be
"
^C;
then
\xm~lX^dxcan
connected
of the
xm
-
1^
m+n
-
\xm-n-IXPdx,
xm
-
lX?+ldx,
Xm+n
:
"
to according
the
rule following A
"X+1JTya+1 where
and X
and
JUL are
the smaller
of x
in the respectively
to be connected.
two
expressions
dP
are integrals
Find
-p.
arrange Re-
whose
the connection
is complete.
92
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Integrating, P=(n
and
n+I
Putting?i
5 and
ft
3,
((
J
and Then
3i
6.4
Ex.
3.
Calculate
the value
of
[^x^-^ax-x^dx,
to connect
being
positive integer. We
shall endeavour
Let
the
rule,then
Hence
(m
xfdx 2) fxm+^(2a
-
xm^(2a^
-
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
93
xm*J?Ltix
o
ra
+ 2
Jo
+ 2
o
/la,
. _
xm*j%ax
x*dX) and
be
positive integer,
2ra-l
2m-l
.
--
2m
.
-
-3
a
3/ J.m-z
5
. _
"
etc.
2m
-1
'
2m-3
m
3
' '
"mT2
Now
to find
'
+ 1
"*4
IQ or
fj^ax
"
x^dx, put
"cos
x=a(\
Then
an
0).
dx
sin ( sin 0.
we we
^l^ax
"
x^
"
Also
when when
#=0,
#
=
have have
$=0,
O
=
2a,
TT.
Hence
70=
fVsinW^-
T(l
-
cos
20)rf0
Hence
-m-
1)...3
+2?r_ 2
(m+2)(m
l)...3
EXAMPLES,
Apply
reduction
1.
the
rule formulae
stated
(when
obtain
the
following
/
J
2.
94
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
3.
(,-^
J
4.
( J
=xm^ (a"*-*X*dx
J
^P
-
{x"+n
mm]
6.
.
/
Integrateout
7. Obtain
m
=
the
m
=
of integrals
the
cases
l, m=2,
3, and
0 and
their numerical
2a.
values
when
the limits
of
are integration
83. Reduction
A
formulae be
for
sin^a? co"x
a
dx. formula
givenfor
cosqx
reduction
for
This
Isiupx
j
dx, with
any
connected
of the
I sin^
"
2# cos?#
dx,
\ si
\ si
sin^+2^ cos^
-
\ sinpx
cos9'
^x dx,
I sin^
by
the
2x cosv+2x dx,
*x
dx,
Put smaller
two
and
are
the
cos#
in respectively
whose expressions
-T-,
are integrals
the to be connected.
Find
and
rearrange
as
linear
functionof the
ax
whose expressions
are integrals
to be connected.
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
95
and Integrate
Ex. Connect the
the connection
is effected.
integrals
/"
Let P=s
=(p (p
=
"
"
"
[Note the
last two
as
linear
functionof
sin^cos^
* . .
sin^~2^7 cos%], dx
P=
(p
I ) /siii^~2^7 cos9^
(p
q)Isi
Hence
/sin.^
cos%^
8m
=
-
*~^X cosq+l* p + q
+"zi (*
P + qJ
It will be where
remembered,
or
however, that
odd
in
the
case
either p
is
an
be effected can integration The present method is useful integers. q are both even
where
p and
EXAMPLES.
Connect the
smp+2x
cosq.v dx.
2.
/siii^
I smpx
cos"~23? dx.
3.
4.
/*sin^/ sin^
+
5.
2# cos"~2# dx.
96
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
6. Prove
that
fsin^^
_
cousin-1*
n
"-I
n
f^,.
J
Employ
7. Establish
to
of reduction
/cosw#
dx,
8.
Integratesin4
84. To
calculate the
V
integrals
71
5^n
=
f 2"
I smn#?
aa?
and
J
0
(7n
=
fl I
J
0
Connect
Let P
Isinn^cdx
sinn~3#cos;E dP
"
with
Isinn
2x dx.
to according
"
"
"
dx
=
(n
---
"
l )sinn2x
~
"
.*.
f lsinn^a^= J
.
smn~lxcosx
,
"
"
If
.
-\smn~zxdx. J
when
?"
Hence
since
sin" -^
cos
"
vanishes
x
=
is
an
integernot
x
=
less than
2, when
0, and
also when
J,
we
have
71"1
=
---
"
3
^
---
71
7i
"
5
4
^
*
""wto
71
71"2
"
if
71
be
even
this
Ti-l
comes ultimately
Ti-3
3 4
Iff
"~'ii^V"g
2j J
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
97
Ti-1
7i-3 n-2
'"
that is
n
TT
422'
If
be odd
"
we
similarly get
1
"
Q
ll/
^^
A,
TJ
*
.v
f-j
" "
il/
^^
-L
"
O
"r"
9 Z"
/" 2"
.
Ufl
71
"
"P
3J
x r
"S I
dm w E*-1-11 w
rl w U**/j
-|
and
since
I sin xdx
o
"
cos
Ti-1
we
7i-3
1
"
4 2'"
have
$n
5* 3*
be
seen
In
similar way
it may
that
I"cosnxclxhas
o
the precisely
in each value as the above integral This may be shown too from odd, n even. case, n other considerations. These formulae are useful to write down quickly of the above form. any integral
same
/""".""",, "^|."
[The student should notice that these are easily by beginning with the denominator. of natural numbers ordinarysequence Thus the first of these examplesis
(10 under
written
down
most
But
when
the
is
odd,
in
forming such
no
sequence
it terminates
(3 under
2) and
factor
is
written.]
35 G
98
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
r"
85.
To
investigate integralbe
formula
for
0
2si
Let this
denoted
by f(p,q) ;
then
since
tanP^^
J
we
p + q
p + qJ p be not
have, if p and
2
q be
less than
GASP:
I.
If "" 6e
ei"e7i
2m, and
# afeo
even
2n,
(2m-l)(2m-3)
2rv
/(
3)...l
"/v
andj
/(O,2")
"
^/^
9""
=
/i
7/1
^i
"
2ft
"
TT
Thus
CASE
II.
If p
6e
6^67^
=2m,
and
q odd
=
=277
etc.
"
1,
2m~1
/(2m, 2^-1)=
-
-/(2m-2, 2^-1)
'
and
100
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
These
relations
will
be
found
an
T(n + 1) where
n-{- 1 is either
2k
+ 2
being
For
positive integer.
instance,
T(6)
=5F(5)=
=
5
.
4F(4)
5
.
4
.
3r(3)
5 .4.3.
2F(2)
5.4.3.2.ir(l) )= S
.
5!
V-) =F(f
PXiHf
I- fr(f )= i
.
f r(" )
This do
not
function propose
is
to
called
enter
Gamma its
function, but
we
into
properties
further
here. The
products
1.3.5...
2n-I 2u
...
2.4.6
TT
which
occur
in
the
foregoing
cases
of
I
o
sin^0
cos?0
d9
may
^
be
expressed
^(2n+l\_2n-l
1
at
once
in
2n-3
terms
2n-5
of
this
function.
lr/l\
'
\~~2~)
2~
V2/'
so
that
/y
7T
and
sothat
Hence
in
Case
I.
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
101
In Case
II.
In Case III.
In Case IV.
we
have evidently
the
same
result.
that in every
case
we
f
and that the ^
?9 1
+1
+ l
in occurring
the denominator
is
the
sum
of the
is
a
and
the
#4-1
^"
in the numerator.
This
formula form.
for
evaluating
Thus
rs f \in"6" cos80 dO
.,
-*
5?T
2.7-.6.5.4.3.2.f~~215'
102
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
that when either p or q previously), both of them odd the or are expression integers, without reduction sinP$cos?# is directly a integrable formula
For
at all.
instance,
=
[sin^(l-sin26'Xsm6'=^7 (sin66"cosW6" 79 J
and
Similarly,
-2 0 cos26"(l cos2"9+cos46")dcos
"i
+2"
"Jr4-"-*^*.jo,!
But
when
and
are
both
or integral required,
if the
must
and limits of
even
0 and
^,
tt
we
either
use
of Art. 83
or
as proceed
in Art. 67.
EXAMPLES.
Write down the values of
REDUCTION
FORMULAE.
103
prove
the formulae
(1}
I sm2mOcos2n6d0
J
="
-Em+n
I?L_?.-_. 2
(2)
f sin
J
4.
-Bm+n-l
down
cos
Write
the indefinite
of integrals
0 dO, fsitfO
__"
0
/"
7T
rf
rT
sin5^cos2^^.
J
0
/ sin4#"w,
J
0
/ sm26
/3"
7T 7T
6.
/"
0
/-^
/"
"T
J
the formulae of Art.
84
'
J
for
7. Deduce
sm x
dx from
the
result
r("ii)r(z"l) y 7
V
27
"
of Art. 86.
EXAMPLES.
1. Prove
that
=
(a) I cos2w"" ^
"/
M
\
\f cos2
2iii/ J
(b)
104
2.
INTEGRAL
a formula Investigate
CALCULUS.
of reduction
to applicable
when
completethe
tegrati in-
7.
3.
a formula Investigate
and
by
means
of this
show integral
that
._J_
271+2
2 27i+ 4 2.4 271+ 6
adinf
2.4.6
271 + 8
2. 4. 6. ..27i
1.3 2.4
1
I
1.3.5
"
1
_1_
OjCll ITlrT
\f
271+1
4. Prove
2^ + 3
27i + 5
2.4.6
271 + 7
(rf
*-,
6. Find
prove
reduction
formulae
for
(y)
and
[COLLEGES"CAMR]
n
7. Find
reduction
formula
for
is
evaluate
[OXFORD, 1889.]
RED
UCTION
FORMULAE,
1 05
8. Find
formulae
of reduction
x
for
/#wsin
Deduce from the latter
dx
a
and
/eaxsinnx
of reduction
dx. for
formula
a*
Jcos
Tt
8in"*"fe.
[COL1KGES
189o.]
9. If
un=
rT / si
o
prove
that
^-lrc--
and
deduce
un=
-"
2n+1 In
-^^-+^
n("" 1)
rC-f1-/ /b
--
--3),
sv
\
""
"(^" l)(n-2)
'
(2ro-lX2ft-3)...3 TT
8'
Show
that
1 V
1 \
'
wi"
2/3
n"2fifJ")
*
1
12. Find
formula
of reduction
for
f-~=L
^
v'^
"
Show
that
3. 5. 7.
..(27i+l)l
where
13.
a1} a2,
...
are
the binomial
coefficients.
[ST.JOHN'S, 1886.]
Show
that
mx
2TO
/cos
=
cosm#
dx
sn^ mm
"
r+-
4~~
sn^
~"
~T72
where
m
is
an
integer.
[COLLEGES
a,
1885.]
106
14. Show
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
that
[OXFORD, 1889.]
that if
Im,n=
(m + n)Im) n=
"
I cosm#
cosmx
1
sin
cos
nx
da:,
+
nx
m/m_i? n_i?
+
[if ^-l^(2+i+i
16.
92
93
-+^J- [BERTRAM]
m(m"l)T v
m*-n2
9"i\
If
/m?
/m
r
I cosw#
cos
nx
dx,
prove and
that
,1
cos%^7
w=
"
-
m2-^2
"I
d f cosmx\
-
cEr\oos9u;/
)+
./^m-2, n,
show
that
/I
prove
cosm^7 sin
7^^;
dx\
that
^m
'
w=
--
1
"
"
wm_i
+ n
M_I.
?i
Hence
(when
cosm#
is
of integer) positive
/If
o
sin 2mx
dx.
[7,1887.]
18. Prove
that
J
19. If
m
' r2 / cosnx
cos
nx
dx=
IT
"
2n+1" that
[BKRTRAND.]
be even,
prove
co
-
m-n.
i
. -
[COLLEGES, 1882.]
108
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
28.
Find
reduction
formula xmdx
'
for
the
integral
(log#)n'
29.
[OXFORD,
1889.]
Find
reduction
formula
C
for xmdx
[ft 1891.]
30.
Prove
that
if
X=a
Z""=/n
[ST.
31.
JOHN'S,
1889.]
Find
reduction
formulae
for
\CLJ
I tann
dx.
(Q\
f
J (a+"cos#
dx
.
csin#)n
32.
Establish
u
the
v
following
functions
formula of
x"
double dashes
integration denoting
to
x :
"
by
parts,
and and
being
suffixes
entiation differ-
integrations
respect
/ /u
(-
l)n-1nu^n-1hn+i
(-
l)"n I uMvn+idx
(- l)n
{dx (u^vndx.
[a, 1888.]
CHAPTER
VIII.
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
f
INTEGRALS
OF
dx
."
FORM
\^
of
88.
The
integration
of
expressions
dx
the
form
can
be
readily
I.
effected
in
all
cases
for
which of
X X X
and
are
both
linear
functions
x.
II. III.
linear,
quadratic.
Y
quadratic,Y
linear.
If
and
be but
both
the
quadratic
process is
more
the
integration
troublesome.
can
be
performed,
89. The
CASE
I.
and
Y is
both
linear.
best
substitution
"
Let
-fe
dx
110
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Putting
,
cdx
,
we
nave
=
,_
at/.
and
ax
+ b
-(y2
C
"
e)+ b,
and
becomes
21
"
"
jay2
the standard forms
"
ae
7 + bc
.
which, being
one
of
Jy
Ex.
2_^ "A
is
2,
immediately integrable.
Integrate /=
f
"
J (xLet
then
Thus
y-l
y+lj
same
of integration
-^ ^
when
is ^(cc) and X
any
rational F
are
and
eacfe linear.
Integrate /==
Ex.
.
J^have
%dy
and
.r
?/2 2,
-
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
Ill
so
that
-"L ="="
24/-32/
+ 16
(by common
Thus
division).
II.
linear,F quadratic.
"
proper
substitution is :
X=\
y
Let
Putting
we
ax
+ b
t/
dy
y
+ b
and
ex2 +
ex
+/=
the
has integral /=
:
"
been
reduced
to the
known
has been
alreadydiscussed.
112
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Ex.
Integrate /= #+l=y-i,
/= then
f
./
__=_
Let
and y
#+1
__
i+i-2
i+%-y2
JI*
now
appear
that any
of expression
the
J(
can
f
rational
common
integral
division
express
in
the
,,
"
torm
Af
Axn+Bxn~l+
remainder.
...
+Z
the
We thus have reduced the process of a number of terms of the class integration Eaf
to the
and
one
of the class
M -dx.
The
and latter has been discussed in the last article, of the former class may be obtained by the integrals formula
e
v '
reduction
^(^_^/)4_2r-l
TO
r-lf
v
2r
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
113
where The
Ex.
F(r)stands
for I
J
f
,
xr
dx.
as
an
\Jcx*+ ex+f
exercise.
proofof
this is left
Integrate /=
division
f ^2 + 3^+5-^.
J
(x+l)*/x2+l
*=x
By
Now
*2+3*+5
+ 2 +
and
to
integrate /
x we
put #+!=_
and
get
Thus
III.
quadratic,F linear.
"
proper
substitution is :
+/Y=y.
T /=
f
I
-
dx
"
J (ax2 + bx + c) V
"c
+/
Putting
*Jex+f=y,
edx
7
and ax24-"^ +
E. I. C.
114
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
and
I becomes
-f
can
2
i
dy
be thrown into
e)Ay*
fractions partial
Now
as
"
-j
and
each
fraction
is
by foregoingrules. integrable
that the
same
94. It
may
is also
evident
substitution the
be made
for the
of of expressions integration
form
f
_
*(")
__
dx"
where when
is "p(x)
c)\/ex +f rational,integraland
(ax2+
bx +
to yt y"
_i_ "L
"
algebraic ;
"
for
to
reduces
0 2
the
and
as
form the
"^
/j/2nj_ \
/,/2n-2_i
which
'
-
by divisi"n'
be
rules
for
partialfractions, may
expressed
and
each
term
is at
once
integrable.
Ex.
Integrate
/=
we
have
-7====2e?y,and
v^
116
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Thus Also
so
/becomes
(a2
"
that
and
Thus
/ reduces
further
to
If
"
6,we
may
arrange
/
i
-
as
/"
V^TP
Ex.
2.
/= Integrate
/
-
+ 1
-,
dy
_
3^-1
~~
2#
"
values yj2and yf of ;/2 and minimum are given 2 by x \ and # 0, and are respectively and 1, so that for real be not greater than 2 and not less than 1. values of #, ?/2 must The
maximum
= =
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
117
Now
yi-f=^-y"='
2^2
t-tfm^l-g
/2#"
-
2.37+1
Now
Thus
'=/(-,==
2
=
cosh"1?/ +
cos"1-^/3^2-
N/2 \2^-
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1. 4.
_4
"
2.
5.
"
3.
6.
118
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
of form
can
al
be thrown
+ ^sinx (Oj
+ c1cos x)
are
x + + b^siu (ax so
where
A, B, G
A + term
constants
chosen
c-fos x) that
Ca^a,
and
each
97.
+ b sin x-\- c
cos
may
be
arrangedas
cos
(a
+6^+0
.)"+
_|
-
x + + 6xsin (Oj
x)n c-[Cos
be reduced
by
the second
98. Similar
a
remarks
x
apply to
x a
+ b sinh
cosh
+ b sinh
cosh
ai + 99.
Some
Special Forms.
that sin
a?
It is easy to show
Isin^r sin
"
"
c\
a
.
"
'sin(a 6)sin(a c)
"
a),
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
119
sin2,^
and
" "
r"
-.
"
"
-.
"
a)sin(^ 6)sm(#
""
T\".
-,
"
c)
1
" ^^ "
sin2a
1/ ^^i E51111
1
,
/
__ ^^
Iv
/^ I/ I
QTTn
ollll
/7* cC"
" ^^
/Y
i tv^
f
whence I
-r",
sin
.
c?a?
M
"
.
"
. v
, /
"
" "
c)
a), lo^sm(o3 v 6
and
f
--
sin2^ dx
-
J sin(^ a)sm(x
"
-5-7
r-^-p
"
/ x o)sm(x
r
"
c)
x
"
sin2a
a
"
S
100. More
"
sin
(a
"
6)sm(a c)
"
1\
"
tan
"
7r
integrate any
_
has
shown
how
to
form
where
Ti
"
"
"
#, y
of
1 dimensions.
For
by
-
the
rules ordinary
_
^" ax
(a2 ^Xag
"
"
a3)
...
a2
which
may
be written
__
...
(ar" aw) ^
"
ar
(the factor
of the above
ar
ar
in the denominator
Proc.
Lond.
Math.
Soc.,1872.
120
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Putting
theorem
"
tan$, a1
tana1, a2
tana2, etc.,this
becomes
"
...
ar)
Thus
W: /(sin0,
~ "
cos
9)
/(sin or,
"
cos
"
a,)
7
\
"
"
^ism(ar
./
^
"
"
%)
sm(ar
an)
_logtan^ 2
J-'-'ii t/ctj-j.
;-:
.
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
sm ^ cos
^^7
x
4
cos
"
cos
cos cos
2#
^
"
cos cos
2a
a
sin 2^7
sn ^7
"
sin 2a
sn
a
"
"
cos
"
3#
x
"
cos cos
3a
.
O.
D.
cos
"
sin
sin2a)' #(sin2,#
"
PROPOSITIONS.
on general propositions
certain
f(j)(x)dx= J
~~
for each is equal to \^(^) \HC0 if "f"(x) he the differential The result beingultimately coefficient of \fs(x).
*
See Hobson's
Trigonometry, page
111.
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
121
of independent
z
it is
is used
in the
integral.
/""
1 "p(x)dx "f)(x)dx + (j
=
of "p(x) integral the left side is \{s(b) side is \^(c) the right is the same thing. illustrate this fact geometrically. us be the indefinite \[s(x)
"
Let dinates
the
curve
drawn
N^^
Then
NJP^
be 2/ N^P^ be cc
anc^ 0(#0"
a,
x
=
c,
the above
equationexpresses
+
area
the obvious
["j)(x)dx [$(x)dx.
=
"
same
notation hand
as
before
"
the left
side is side
and
the
righthand
\/r(6)T// is [
"
122
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
105. IV.
For if
we
we
put
a
"
"
y,
have if
dx
x
dy,
y
=
and
a,
0,
Hence
I "p(x)dx= I (f"(ay)dy
"
"
in
the
obvious
between
O'
Fig.9.
axes,
an
ordinate
our
like take
as our
direction positive
of the X-axis.
124
Thus since
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
sin"^^
sm"(7r #),
-
/
0
smnx
dx
/ sinw^7dx
0
and and
since
cos2n+1# cos2n#
rir
cos2n+1(?r x\ x\ cos2n(7r
" " "
I *o
+ 137(jfo7 COS2'l 0,
=
and
/ cos2w# dx
'0
%\
ft
dx. cos2n^7
We To
between
to double.
is to add
up
all such
terms
from
to
"
and
For the second quadrant sines are merely repetitions order. of the first quadrant sines in the reverse Or geometrically, the curve about $mnx the ordinate being symmetrical y
= =
the ^, and
whole
area
between
0 and
TT
is double
that
between
|.
illustrations geometrical will
Similar
apply to
other
cases.
108. VII.
If
/"net
""ti
\
For, drawing the
"j)(x)dx=n\ "j
curve
pa
it is clear that it "j"(x), of the part consists of an infinite series of repetitions the ordinates OP0 (x 0) and JV^Pj lying between bounded (x a} and the areas by the successive of the curve, the corresponding ordinates and portions the #-axis are all equal.
y
= =
Thus
f "{"(x)dx=r'(t"(x)dx= f )dx
j"wa
I
/"a =
etc.
and
71 1 "p(x)dx. ^"(x)aa;
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
125
sin
xdx=%
"
sm
"",
"
\276u?
=4
Bin
"n
7 #aa?""*4
A%n-I
""
2n-3
...-"
I
2
IT
-.
2?^
2ra- 2
Fig. 10.
SOME 109. We
ELEMENTARY have
seen
DEFINITE
that
INTEGRALS.
the
whenever
indefinite
value
of
definite
at
once
be inferred.
the
In
many
cases,
however,
the
value
of
definite
definit be inferred without can performingthe inintegral when it cannot and be even integration, performed. We propose to give a few elementaryillustrations.
Ex.
1. Evaluate
/=
{*(
J
Writing
we
have
and
vers~
TT
"
126
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Hence
1=
~3/2f(TTf\2ay
Hence
/=
|
o
Putting
and
we
?/=
a(l-cos0),
obtain
/=?an+1
f'smn+10d0
=
7ra
n+i
...
down
to
? or
3
l 22
E,
as according
is
even
or
odd.
ir
Ex.
2.
Evaluate
/=
/ logsin #
0
ofo?,
#=--#, 2
dx
"
"
dy
"
/ logcos y dy
rl
/ logcos
c"
rf
Hence
2/=
\
o
logsm^"ir+ / logcos
xdx
jo
log /I (log /f
o
IT
sin
cos
c?^
sin 2%
"
log
r"
"j
0
Io88inte"fo-i
2x=z,
o?^7
=
^dz ;
I f
Iogsin2^^=^/logsin zdz"
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
127
Thus
27=
log 2, /-^ 2i
/=|logl.
log /?
r~% -\
sin xdx"
\ log cos
J
cfo?
=
log
-.
2t
2i
Ex.
3.
Evaluate
1=
/ -^
o
Expanding
the
we logarithm,
have
If
we
put
/=
"
x=l
"y, /
"
re
have
"
^-dy
dx.
Hence
we
also have e
J
1
"^'a?^=
\-x
"
"
"o
Ex.
4.
Evaluate
-I
log(tan0+cot0X0
o
Put
^=tan(9,
.-.
1=1
(log /2
o
IT
sin ^ 4-
sin /log
0 dO
Tr
log 2.
128
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
110.
Differentiation
under
an
Integral Sign.
to be "p(x, Suppose the function to be integrated c) which is of a quantityc independent x. containing Suppose also that the limits a and b of the integration and of are finite quantities, independent c.
Then
will
J0(a?,
a,
r"
For
let
f6 \ "f"(x, c)dx.
a
Then
+ Su
f 0(o3,
"
And be
if z, say, be the
value greatest
of which
capable,
Sc is
indefinitely
'
"
'dx.
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
129
111. contain
The
c
case
in
which
is somewhat
also
present
volume.
112.
new
be used to deduce many proposition may has been performed. when one integrations This
since
Thus
f
--
L=
=dx
-*
Vc
tan-1
+
a
\l2=2(c+
*
a"
0),
c,
(x+cyJx-a
we
with
regard to
a,
we
obtain
/"
(^+ c)(^ a)
c,
r we
latter p
times
with
regard to
IJ
"2^+1
(^+c)^+1(^-a) 2
EXAMPLES.
1. Obtain
the
: integrals following
"
An-^-xi+ (ii.)
J
ar)-*^
(vi.)
J
E. T. C.
130
INTEGRA
CA LCUL
US.
2.
62
[ST.JOHN'S, 1888.]
(x2 +
a2)^^+^
I~STJ"HN'S" 1889.]
|UL*
sin
3. Find
/-
6"Vacos2^ + 67iii2"9+V
sin dx
x
[TRINITY,1888.]
the values ^
f
of
x
J (cos x
/"
cos
cos
)
C% 1890-]
Prove
constants
that,with involved,
certain
limitations
on
the
values
of the
d,L
\^ Olll
"
"
+ Zbx + (x-p)(ax?
cy*
(-ap2-2bp-cft
be
(x p)(b2 acf
-
[TRINITY,188G ]
5. Prove
that
\(cQ$x}ndx may
expressed by
j\r ^.v3
"
the series
_L
-"
-r
...
pf p etu,
n-
expansion(1+ a) 2
or negative. positive
the
W
(i\
fl
l
/a(a2
o
/"""
^2
/y.2
^'
^72)2
** x
[ST.JOHN'S, 1888.]
^UL'
dx
+
(l+tfX2+^)(3 Jo
#)
[OXFORD, 1888.]
7. Prove
that
f
-
8. Show
that
[0x^,1888.]
132
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
15. Evaluate
(i.)f
o
dx
[I.C. S.,1891.]
16. Prove
(i.)
f^an^^
sec
37+
cos
[POISSON.]
J a2
a
"
cos2.2
[OXFORD, 1890.]
(i.)
f 1-2S"fc? g
=
-
18. Prove
that
=
"
"a3
3
""
"5
"
" " -
ctf +
...
z2)
19. Prove
IT
3.5
3.5.7
[OXFORD, 1889.]
that
/-7A "^"
_T
2r~% /
2 1 1
1 2
o
"
1*3-4
Q2
1
i
2
"
o2
^"
"
beingsupposed "
20.
1.
Prove
that
that
1.1
1
''*
[A 1888.]
22.
If
$(x)dx= -,"),\*a
F $(x)dx.
0
that
b
*""6^ Jf^C~^W
c-a?) ^-6)
x
provided
[ST.JOHN'S, 1883.]
remains
finite when
vanishes.
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
AND
EXAMPLES.
133
24.
Prove
that
trate
the theorem
geometrically.
show that
25. If
f(x)=f(a+x\
and
illustrate Show
geometrically.
q-pj
\
26.
value of the the limiting 27. Determine by integration of the following series when n is indefinitely great :
"
'
+ I
n
+ 2
n
+ 3
n
ri
n
[a,1884.]
/""
(iiL)_J_+
*_+
* .-+ +
-J*/2ri*-"n?
[CLARE, etc., 1882.]
(iv-)
"
"
"
an
integer.
28. Show
[ST.JOHN'S, 1886.]
that the limit when
n
is increased
of indefinitely
'2n
3n
n2
2*
[COLLEGES, 1892.]
29. Show that the limit when
n
is infinite of
i
/*"+*.
is
e^a
this result to find the limit of
Apply
-('+
[CLARE, etc.,1886.]
134
INTEGRAL
CALCUL
US.
30.
Find
the
limiting limiting
the
n
value
of
(n\}n/n
is
when
is
infinite.
.
31.
Find
sum
the of
value
when
infinite
of
the
Tith
part
of
the
quantities
n
'
n+1
n+n
~
Ti~J
T~J
"V
and
show of
that the
it
same
is
to
the
limiting
as
value
3e
:
of
the
?ith
e
root
of base
the of
product
the
quantities
8, where
is
the
Napierian
32.
logarithms.
is
[OXFOKD,
1886.]
If that
na
always
equal
value
to
unity
of the
and
is
indefinitely
great,
show
the
limiting
product
[OXFORD.
1883.]
CHAPTER
IX.
/
EECTIFICATION,
113. propose the In the of the
next
ETC.
course
four
chapters we
of obtaining foregoingmethod of the limit of a summation by application to the problems of findingthe process of integration bounded by such lengths of curved lines,the areas of solids of and volumes lines, finding surfaces
to illustrate the
revolution, etc.
114. As idea order
we
Rules
for the
Tracing
curve
of
Curve.
some
have the
to form under
rough
in discussion, of
integration, author's refer the student to the we larger may Treatise on the Differential Calculus, Chapter XII. for a full discussion of the rules of procedure. The followingrules, however, are transcribed for
properly assign
,
limits
convenience
of
in
most
cases
115.
1. A
curve.
For
Cartesian will
Equations.
detect
glance
suffice to
symmetry
in
136
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
(a) If
no
of y occur, the curve is symmetrical powers larly Simiwith respect to the axis of x. for symmetry about the ^/-axis. odd
=
Thus
y2
4"ax is
symmetricalabout
the cc-axis.
occur
(6) If
of both x and y which all the powers be even, the curve is symmetrical about axes, e.g.,the ellipse
both
^ y*_ a2+62~
(c)Again,if on changingthe signsof x and y, the there remains unchanged, equationof the curve is symmetry in opposite quadrants,e.g., the a2,or the cubic x3+y3 3ax. hyperbola xy If the curve be not symmetricalwith regard to tion either axis, consider whether any obvious transforma= =
of coordinates
2. Notice
it
so.
whether
passes
through the
the coordinate the points where it crosses coordinates present whose axes, or, in fact any points themselves as obviously the equation to the satisfying
origin ; also
curve.
those parallel to the asymptotes; first, axes ones. ; next, the oblique 4. If the curve equate to pass through the origin of lowest degree. These will terms the terms zero givethe tangentor tangentsat the origin. the
5. Find
3. Find
dx'
y^; and
it vanishes
or
becomes
in-
or tangent is parallel
pendicul per-
to the #-axis.
of the of the other, x, it will be variables, say y, in terms in the solution, found that radicals occur frequently and that the range of admissible values of x which solve
equation for
one
RECTIFICATION,
7. Sometimes reduced to the 116. II. For the
ETC.
137
when simplified
It is advisable
"
to follow
such
routine
as
the
of
curve
values both
of 9, such
as
0,
"^, "","f
O
JP
Consider
and positive
2. Examine
values negative
whether
of 9.
symmetry a change
the of signof
about
the carclioide
a(l
"
cos$).
obvious from the equation of the curve confined that the values of r or 9 are between certain limits. If such exist they should be ascertained, asijm9, it is clear that r must e.g.,if r lie in magnitude between the limits 0 and a, and the
3. It will
=
curve
4. Examine
asymptotes,
rectilinear
the differential coefficient Any formula expressing of s proved in the differential calculus gives rise at in the integral to a formula once by integration calculus for findings. add a list of the most We common. (The references are to the author's Diff. Gale, for Beginners.} 118.
values
In each of the
the
138
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
terminate
the
arc
whose
length
Formula
in
Formula
Reference.
Observations.
P. 98.
For
Cartesian
Equa
tions of form
P. 98.
*=/(*/)"
P. 103. For Polar of form
Equation
P. 103.
Equation
ds
_
dt
M(di)+(Tt
rdr
l(dx\* Idy
P. 100.
For is
case
when
curvi
given as
use
Pp. 103,
105.
For
when
Peda
dr
Equation is given
For
use
ds
P. 148.
when
Tan
119. We
Ex.
1.
add illustrative
the
: examples
"
Find
length of
to
one
the
arc
of the
xL=kay parabola
the latus-rectum.
x"%a.
extendingfrom
y="
,
extremityof
are
yi="
the limits
#=0
and
Hence
140
Ex. p
=
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
4.
Find
the
between
arc
of the the
equiangularspiral
radii
vectores
are
which
arc
f 2- -^r
J
=r
VV2-r2sin2a
any
arc
5.
Find
the
length of
=
of the
involute
of
circle,
equation isp
s
=
where of the
^
arc
and
of
at the
beginning
and
end
120. In
Formula
for formula
Closed
Curve.
using the
in the the
case
of
closed be
curve,
it may is
observed
length of
the
the
whole
contour
given by
I pd\fs, for
"
portion
\~dj)~~]
-jy
when disappears
the limits
are
taken.
Ex.
e
Show
that
the
"
perimeter of
of its
an
of ellipse of
a
small
tricity eccen-
exceeds
by
length that
circle
having
the
same
area.
[7, 1889.]
p2 ^
is the
angle
=
-
which
makes
with
the
major
axis.
.A i^sin2^ I a( -e*sui*\ls.
-
2i
Hence
RECTIFICATION,
The radius of (r)
a
ETC.
141
circle of the
same
area
is
given by
vZ^ab^a^l-erf,
/
I
o
"
"
and
its circumference
1 27ra( \
"
-e2
4
e4
...
).
/
32
*.
Circumf.
o
' =
"
ellipsecircumf
-
circle
.
( \lo
"
\irae*
=
_
""
2ira
3'2
t"4
as
terms
e4. involving
64
EXAMPLES.
1. Find
=
the length of the arc by integration where the points between a2,intercepted
of the
x"a
cos
circle and a
2. Show
that
in
the
catenary y
cosh
the
length of
arc
from
the vertex
(where #=0)
s
=
to any
c
point is given by
x
-.
smh
c
v
3. In
the
that where
the
it meets
viz., 4(# 2a)3 27a#2,show parabola, from its curve cusp (# 2a) to the point is 2a(3v3 1). parabola
a
-
"
4. Show
that the
lengthof
the
arc
of the
cycloid,
between
5. Show
the
pointsfor
which
0=0
and
0=2^,
is
that in the
for epicycloid
which
y=(a
0 6)sin
b sin
26
measured beiijg
n
from show
the
point at
222
which
0=7rb/a.
and that x*. if
5
When measured
"=--,
from
a
that
4r+y*"a*j
on
be
cusp which
lies
the
s3 oc y-axis,
142
6. Show
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
may
cos
$, j/
7. Find
the
r (i.)
length of
=
any
arc
of the
curves
acos0. aem0.
r (iii.)
=
a6.
asin2-.
2t
r (ii.)
r (iv.)
8.
Apply
the formula
s=_"
-f cos
to \pdty
the rectify
cardioide
whose
equationis r=a(l
radii vectores
0).
of the
curve
[TRINITY,1888.}
9. Two
OP, OQ
drawn
the
initial line
a
; prove
that
is act, where
is the
the circular
[ASPARAGUS, Educ.
an arc
Times.']
can
10. Show
that the
lengthof
of the when
curve
yn=xm+n
or
"
be
found
in finite terms
in the
cases
"
is
an
integer.
11.
*m
*m
Find
curve
the
of the
two
consecutive
cusps
12. Find
the whole
lengthof
the
loopof
the
curve
3ay2=x(x-a)2i.
13. Show
[OXFORD, 1889.]
=
a? that the lengthof the arc of the hyperbola xy and x=c is equal to the arc of the between the limits x=b the limits aV2 between curve r=b, r=c. ""2(a4+r4)
=
[OXFORD, 1888.]
14. Show
that
in the
arc
parabola
d"Y
sin^w*
hence
show
that the
between intercepted
extremity of
the
RECTIFICATION,
121.
ETC.
143
Length
of the
Arc
of
an
E volute.
It has been shown Gale, for Beg.,Art. (Diff. that the difference between the radii of curvature
157)
at
Fig. 12.
two
curve
is
equal to
the
lengthof
the
of the evolute ;
if ah be the arc of the evolute of i.e., of the original then (Fig. curve, 12)
.e.
the
portionAH
(at H),
(atA)
"
/"
144
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
regardedas a rigid curve, and a from it, be unwound then the string beingkept tight, pointsof the unwinding stringdescribe a system of of which is the original AH. curves one curve parallel
e
and
if the
volute be
Ex.
Find
the
lengthof
the evolute
of the
Let a, a', be the centres of curvature /3, /3' the extremities of the axes, viz., A, A', B, B' of the evolute to the arc arc a/3 corresponds and we have (Fig. 13)
arc
ellipse. to corresponding
respectively.The
AB of the curve,
~-
"
of
curv.
of
ellipse
=
^.
lengthof
the entire
perimeter of
EXAMPLE.
in the above manner for the parabolay2 kax that the within the parabola lengthof the part of the evolute intercepted Show
=
is4a(3\/3-l).
122. Intrinsic The
Equation.
s,
the
given curve,
from
Fig. 14.
anglebetween
arc
the
is called the
RECTIFICATION,
123. To
ETC.
145
obtain
the Intrinsic
Equation
from
the
Cartesian.
be given as y=f(x). of the curve Let the equation and Supposethe #-axis to be a tangent at the origin, from the origin. the lengthof the arc to be measured Then also
tan
-^=/("),
(1)
(2)
from (2), If s be determined and x by integration eliminated between this result and equation (1), the relation between s and ^ will be obtained. required
.
Ex.
1.
Intrinsic
equationof
circle.
If
be i/r
tangent
the at the
angle between
point P,
and
a
the initial tangent at A and the have the radius of the circle, we
and
therefore
2.
s"a^r.
of the
c
Ex.
In
catenary y
ccosh-,
c
the
trinsic in-
tan
^.
=
For
tan^
as
"
^
dx
and
\/ 1
"
/-,
-r
smh2-
"
""x
=
dx
P. I. c,
146
INTEGRAL
CALCUL
US.
and
therefore
sinh
-,
so
that
and
vanish
tan
\js,
124.
To
obtain
the Intrinsic
Equation
from
the
Polar.
Fig. 16.
/
",
to the the initial line parallel pointfrom which the arc is measured.
Take
tangent at
Then
the
with the
usual notation
T
we
(1) (2)
from and 0, "f" (4), by integration of equations(2) and eliminated (3),the by means will be found. relation between s and \fs required If
s
be
found
Ex.
Find
the intrinsic
cardioide
Here and
i/r
a sin
148
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS,
125. When
the
Equation
of the Curve
is
given
as
we
have
tan
dy ^
=
d)'(t)
=
,-
-^ ax
j (t)
^_-^
.......
.....
........
(1)
By
means
of
equation(2)s
may
be
found
by
tegrati in-
between
Ex.
and
^.
In the
cycloid y"a(\ t\
*
= ,
-cos
we
have
tan
*mt
=
tan 2
1+costf
Also
^ dt
5=4a
+ cos02+ ax/(l
sin2*
2a
cos
-,
whence Hence
sin
4ot sin
if s he measured
from
the
where origin
Z=0.
126. Let
Intrinsic
Equation
of the Evolute.
be the equationof the given curve. s=f(\f/) of the arc of the evolute measured Let s' be the length fixed pointA to any other pointQ. Let from some the original 0 and P be the points sponding correon curve to the points A, Q on the evolute;p0, p the P: at 0 and radii of curvature \j/the angle the and ^ the tangent QP makes with OA produced, with the tangent at 0. the tangentPT makes angle
RECTIFICATION,
Then
and "*//-^r,
=
ETC.
149
ds
or
Fig. 18.
Equation of an Involute. if the curve the same With AQ be givenby figure, have the equation we s'=f(\}/),
127. Intrinsic
and whence
Ex. Hence The intrinsic
\Is
"
\//,
\
equation
of the
catenary
is
is s=ctsm\Ir
(Art. 123).
the intrinsic of equation its evolute
and
p0=
=
radius
c
of curvature
= =
at the vertex
y
-
and sec2i/r
s
=
T/r=0
' . .
the evolute
The
is
tan2^.
is
constant
;
we
and
if s be
so
measured
s
=
that 5=0
c
T log(sec
when
^=0,
have
150
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
128.
Length of Arc
of Pedal
Curve.
the
originupon the tangentto any curve, and ^ the angle it makes with the initial line, we regardp, % as the current may polarcoordinates of a pointon the pedalcurve. culated Hence the lengthof the pedal curve be calmay by the formula
If p be the
from perpendicular
Ex. of the
Apply the above method to find the lengthof pedalof a circle with regard to a point on the a cardioide). (i.e.
Fig.
19.
Here, if 2a
be the
diameter, we
p
=
have
=
from
the
figure
OP
*
cos
2ctcos2*.
Hence
arc
of
pedal
=
=
/2 A/a2cos4+ a2 sin2-
cos
-a
2 + C.
/2a
j
cos
*dx
4a sin
The
limits for the upper half of the Hence the whole perimeter of the
curve
are
0 and
TT.
pedal
=8a.
1 2[4asin-Jo
L-
RECTIFICATION,
ETC.
151
EXAMPLES.
1-. Find 2. Find
the the
length of
any
arc
of the
curve
fu\a x)=aP.
"
[a,1888.]
lengthof the
y
=
givenby completecycloid
a "a cos
0. 1
3. Find
from
for which the lengthof the arc measured the originvaries as the square root of the ordinate. the
curve
4. Show
equation of
a
the
parabolais
tan
sec
^r+
5.
Interpretthe expressions
line
curve.
are integrals
taken
rou
id the
of perimeter
[ST.JOHN'S, 1890.]
axis of
an
Jw
6. The
major
is ellipse
1 foot
in
length,and
its feet
is 1/10. ^/^eccentricity
Prove
its circumference
to be 3*1337
nearly.
7. Show cardioide
4r=3asec 8. Find
[TRINITY,1883.]
that
r
=
the
a(l +
0 remote
the
length of the arc of that part of the cos 0), which lies on the side of the line is equal to 4a. [OXFORD, 1888.] from the pole,
an arc
lengthof
of the cissoid
r_asin26"
cos
ff
curve
9. Find
the
lengthof
any
arc
of the
10. Show
3a3/2=2^ is 9s
11. In
a
equation of 4a(sec3Vr1).
-
the semicubical
bola para-
certain
curve
show
that
5=ee\/2+
152
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
12.
Show
that
the
length
of
an
arc
of the
curve
is
given by
13.
=/("9) +/"(#)
curve
C. the intrinsic
Show is
s
=
that
a
in the
alogseca
tion equa-
gd~l\ff.
that the
14.
Show the
length
of the
arc
of the
curve
y=logcoth-
between
X-^ the
15.
Trace
the
curve
y2
which
g"
(a
"
#)2,and
find the
length
of that
od/
corresponds to
of
an arc
loop.
1881
[ST. JOHN'S,
Find the
and
1891.]
(p
equiangular spiral pole. Show that the arcs of an from equiangular spiral measured the pole to the different with another points of its intersection pole but a different angle equiangular spiralhaving the same will form in series a [TRINITY, 1884.] geometrical progression.
an
length
of
rsma)
measured
from
the
17. has
Show
that
the
curve
whose
s
=
pedal equation
a"-.
Zi
is
p2=r2
"
a?
equation
whole
18.
that that of
the
an
length
of
the
is
equal
semi-axes
in
length
to the 19.
curve
and the
radii of the
vectores
limacon.
length
nth
pedal
loop of
the
rm=amsinmO
is
,-m
mn-m+1
a(mn+I)
o
(smmO)
of
dO.
^
of the
curve
1883
20.
Show
that
the
length
loop
CHAPTER
X.
QUADRATURE,
129. The
ETC.
Areas.
Cartesians.
bounded process of findingthe area is termed quadrature. portionof a curve It has bounded ordinates considered for the been
by
the
any
area
already shown
any curved and
x
=
in Art. 2 that
by [x
as
line
[y
sum
b] and
the
of
of inscribed
area
and rectangles;
that
the
expression
1 ydx
or
0 (x)dx.
In two
the
same
way
the
=
area
bounded
=
given abscissae [y
c, y
d]
and
fxdy.
by two Again,if the area desired be bounded given curves [y "p(%)and 2/ \^(^)]and two given ordinates it will be clear by similar \x a and x 6], reasoningthat this area may be also considered as the limit of the sum of a series of rectangles constructed
130.
=
=
"
154
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
as area
indicated will
in the
expressionfor the
Li% PQ
x=a
fj"(0) \fs(x)]dx.
J
Fig. 20.
Ex.
1.
Find
x=c,
area=
the x"d
area
bounded the
^2
-
1, the
b2
ordinates
and
Here
f ^Sr
a
2a
For the
must
put d
=a
and
c=0
and
"
a2
. .
?
2
or
^"
.
2a
givingirab
Ex.
curves
area
ellipse.
included
between
cut to
x"a.
2.
Find
=
area
the #-axis
the
at
y2 ax. and parabolatouch at the origin So the limits from of integration #=0 are (a,a). The area is therefore sought
%ax
y2
x2 and the
The
circle and
again
fa
x2
156
For the
"
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
portionbetween
a
the
as
curve
and
the
asymptote the
to
0, and double
therefore
before.
loopwe
have
a+x
for the
between portion
the
curve
and
the
/v.
_
asymptote,
x\l /O
In
dx.
" a+x
Fig.22.
To
integrateIxJa~xdx, put
J
*
a ~p x
x=a
cos
and
dx"
"a
sin 0 c?$.
Then
ftfJEfcfcl\ Va+x
-
1-cos2^
r
=
a2/
and
area
of
--}" I)
QUADRATURE,
ETC.
157
Again,
rxJ?E*dx=
J_
"a+#
cos
Bd9
[The meaning
+
of the
negativesignis
in
_
this
"
In
are
the choosing
sign before
the
radical
y=#/v/^"
*
we
tracing the
a+x
the curve below the #-axis on the left of the origin and above the axis on the rightof the origin. Hence y being be is it referred to between limits the expected to, negative that we should obtain a negative value for the expression
portionof
Thus
the whole
area
is required
in this example that the greatest also be observed assumed that infinite one. In Art. 2 it was ordinate is an for the the result area finite. Is then was every ordinate ? t rue and the the bounded curve asymptote rigorously by between limits let us integrate To examine this more closely small positive so as e is some a + e and quantity, 0, where have to exclude we the infinite ordinate at the point x" "a,
[It must
"
as
before
J
where
so
A/fEfdfc. [""c
"
*a+x
that 8 is
This
is integral
which
to the former
result
when
8 is made
to diminish
without
limit.]
158
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
1. Obtain rectum.
the
area
bounded
by
parabola and
the
its latus
bounded the areas by the curve, ordinates in the following cases : specified
"
2. Obtain
and ^7-axis,
the
(a) #=ccosh-,
to x=h.
x= x=a a
to x=b. to x"b.
3. Obtain 4. Find
the the
=
area areas
bounded
the
of X2la2+y2/b2l is divided
5. Find
by
the whole
area
X2y2=a2(y2x2)
and its
asymptotes.
the
area
6. Find
between
the
curve
y2(a+x)=(a
"
xf
and
its
asymptote.
7. Find the
area
of the
loopof
the
curve
0.
131. When
Sectorial the
area
Areas.
Folars.
is bounded by a curve r=f(6) and two radii vectores drawn from the origin divide the area into elementary in givendirections, we small angle89, as shown in the sectors with the same figure.Let the area to be found be bounded by the arc
to be found
PQ and the radii vectores OP, OQ. Draw radii vectores OP19OP2, OPn-i at equal angularintervals. Then by drawingwith centre 0 the successive circular arcs it may be at once that the seen PN, P1NV P2^2,etc., of the circular sectors OPN, OP^N^ limit of the sum is the area required. For the remaining OP2N%, etc., elements PNPV P^N^P^ P2^2P3,etc., may be made to the rotate about 0 so as to occupy new on positions
...
QUADRATURE,
ETC.
159
greatestsector say OPn-iQ as indicated in the figure. Their sum is plainly less than this sector ; and in the limit when the angle of the sector is indefinitely
diminished its
area
also diminishes
without finite.
limit provided
the radius
vector
OQ
remains
Fig. 23.
The
area
of
circular sector is
of angleof sector. X circular meas. J(radius)2 the summation Thus the area required l?L"Zr2S(), being conducted for such values of 9 as lie between Ox being xOP and 0 6 xOPn-i, i.e., xOQ in the limit,
=
=
of the will be
or
xOQ
this /3,
if xOP
a,
1.
Obtain
the
area
bounded
by
acos
sweeps
area
over
angularinterval
from
0=0
0"
-.
Hence
the
is
i.e., ^radius)*.
160
Ex. 2. Obtain
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the
area
of
loopof
the
curve
r"a
sin 3ft
This curve will be found to consist of three equal loopsas indicated in the figure (Fig. 24). The proper limits for making the integration extend over the first loop are 0=0 and 6 of 0 for which r vanishes.
=
-,
for these
are
two
successive values
.-. area
of
loop 1 fWn2
=
30 dO
f\l
-cos
60)d9
3~~ 12'
2
The
total
area
of the three
loopsis
therefore!^.
the
areas
bounded
by
3. One
r=
r
=
"2cos20+ 62sin2ft
2. One 5. The
9=13 and
6.
loopof 4. One loopof loopof r=asin2ft bounded by the portionof r=ae^coia 0=/3 + y (y being less than 2?r).
sector sector sector
a a
radii vectores
Any
of of of
7.
8.
Any
Any
9. The 10. If
cardioide
s
fi).
between
2
be the
lengthof
A
=
the
curve
r="tanhbetween the
the
originand
show
27r,and A
the
"
area
same
points,
1888.
that
a(s air).
[OXFOKD,
QUADRATURE,
132. Area Let P
on
a
ETC.
161
of
Closed
Curve.
(x,y) be the Cartesian coordinates of any point closed curve ; (x+ Sx,y + Sy)those of an adjacent
Let
Q. point
Sr , 6 +
shall suppose that in Also we polar coordinates. from P to Q along the along the curve travelling infinitesimal arc PQ the direction of rotation of the OP that the is counter-clockwise radius vector (i.e.
Fig.25.
is
on
in this travelling
ir2(S$ Hence
curve
AOPQ
f
$(xSy ySx).
"
another is
for expression
the
area
of
closed
Wxdy-ydx),
beingsuch round the completely
the limits 133. If
we
that the
curve.
point(x,y) travels
that
once
put
so
^M^
=
we (fo)
may
write
the above
is
the limits of integrati that the current point (x,y) travels so chosen As v is really once completelyround the curve. 6 is a rightanglecare tan 6 and becomes infinitewhen be taken not to integrate must throughthe value oo
to be in expressed
of
and
E. i. c.
162
Ex.
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
Find
by
this method
the
area
of the
ellipse
#2/a2+.y2/"2=l. Putting y
=
vx,
we
have
and
JV
between chosen properly
f"^L= f*
L2
Now,
0 to
oo
Hence
.
of of
quadrant =?"
"
-,
and
therefore
area
ellipse
=irab.
134. If the
current
originlie
without
we
the
curve,
as
the
elements such
as
triangular of space such as OP1QV including portions lie outside which OP2Q2 shown in the figure
point P
travels round
obtain
Fig.26.
the
curve.
These portions however are ultimately from the whole integral when the point P the element over P2Q2, for the triangular 9 is decreasing
135. If however
the
curve
cross
^ I(xdy
"
ydx), taken
round
sum
the whole
areas
the longerrepresents
of the
of the several
164
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the curve is when adapted to the cases specially defined by other systems of coordinates. Ss of a plane curve, and OF If PQ be an element the chord the pole on from the perpendicular PQ,
Fig. 28.
|OF.PQ,and any sectorial area summation the along the whole being conducted of the Integral culus CalIn the notation bounding arc.
AOPQ
=
=
this is
[Thismay
be at
once
deduced
from
| rW,
ds
thus
:"
(V2d0ir^ds sin 0 \r
= =
is (where "f"
the
angle between
the
tangent
and
the
radius vector)
137.
Tangential-PolarForm.
ds
d*p
Again,
we
since
5^
P +
have
area
ds \ \p
QUADRATURE,
a
ETC.
165
formula
suitable for
use
when
the
Tangential-Polar
equationis given.
138. Closed When
some
the
curve
simplification.
For and
term in
the perimeter
curve
first
we
is dosed
have
^
the equation of Ex. C ale.forBeginners, By Ex. 23, p. 113, Diff. the one-cusped be the as (i.e., cardioide) expressed epicycloid may p
=
Fig. 29.
Hence its whole
tween be-
limits
i/r 0
=
and
^="
becomes
IT
and
doubled.
Putting-^ 3$,this
= =
3a2
f (9sin2^
^o
co**0)dO
=
67ra2.
166
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
139.
Pedal for
Equation.
curves
Again,
we
given by
dr
their
pedal equations,
have A
ip
ds
i p
}p
sec
0 dr
sin
a,
Ex. Hence
In the any
equiangularspiral p=r
sectorial
/"2
=
area
y2si
rcosa
between evolute.
as our
curve,
two
radii
take
element
two
arc
of
area
the
by
contiguousradii
ds of the
curve.
the infinitesimal
To
first order
t
infinitesimals
this
is
and |/o2"S\^,
or
the
area
p, between
a
.e.
p\
Ex.
to the
1.
The
area
tangent
circle is
(Fig.31)
QUADRATURE,
ETC.
167
the tractrix and its asymptote is between Ex. 2. The area found in a similar manner. such that the portionof its tangent The tractrix is a curve and the ^7-axis is of constant between the point of contact
length c.
Fig.31.
the axis of
as
forming an
Fig. 32.
EXAMPLES.
1. Find
the
area
of the
two-cuspedepicycloid
[Limits \jf 0
=
to
"^=7rfor by
=
one
quadrant.] pedalequation
2. Obtain
the
same
result
means
of its
7.2 ^2 +
r=a [Limits
1^2.
one
to
2a for
quadrant.]
168
3. Find
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the
area
between
at
the radius
curvature. 4. Find
of curvature
the
tan
^,
its
evolute,
of
any
other
radius
the
any
area
between
between the
s epicycloid
AsmB^s,
its
and evolute,
5. Find
two
radii of curvature.
the
area
its
and evolute,
any
two
radii of curvature.
OF
PEDALS.
Curve.
be the tangential-polar _p=/(Vr) equation (Diff. Gale, for Beginners,Art. 130) of a given curve, S\fs will be the angle between the perpendiculars two on and the area of the pedal may be contiguous tangents,
as expressed
131).
Fig.33.
Ex. Find the
area
of the
pedal of
circle with
regardto
(thecardioide). pointon the circumference if OF be the perpendicular Here the tangent at P, and on OA the diameter obvious that OP ( 2a), it is geometrically
=
we
have
for
Hence
^/
QUADRATURE,
ETC.
169
where the limits are to be taken as 0 and TT, and the result to be doubled so as to include the lower portionof the pedal. Thus
f
J
o
4222
Fig. 34.
of
Origins of
Pedals
of
given
Area.
tangentto
be the polarcoordinates point. Let pt \js the foot of a perpendicular OF upon any givencurve.
fixed
Fig.35.
Let P
be any from
other P
fixed the
upon
170 of the
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
with pedals
0 and
between
A
certain
and Al coordinates of P
these
polar
their
regard
"
to
0, and
x9
Cartesian
Pi and p is
2 Al
=
"
cos
ifs
"
y sin
i/r,
known
=
function
"
of
\fs Hence
"
\(p \p^d\fr
"
cos
i/r
"
y sin
\l/fd\^
si \[s
1 si 2/-2
cos
Now
Jp
between
such limits that the whole pedal is described Call them will be definite constants.
-20,
and
we
-2/,
a,
2A, 6,
ax2 +
thus
obtain
=
2Al
"2A +
2gx + 2fy+
143. Character It is
a
known
that inequalities
Hence
it will be obvious
that if p, q, r,
...
stand
,
for
172
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS,
will
thereby be
removed.
Thus
"2 is
point such
that the
vanish, and
is "2
we
area
of the
pedal whose
pole
have
in the
2hxy + by*
of this conic is
"
Thus
I?
"
TT
*/ab
"
h2
,
""
,
-"
(area or conic).
closed oval the equation
^7T
For
the
case particular
of any
whence where
r
J.1
is the radius of the circle values of
on
which
constant
Av
i.e.the distance of P
from
of the which
Point
has
a
Oval.
is
as
the
point "2
is taken
the centre
the
Ex. any
1.
Find
the
area
regard to
Here and Hence
the
n+^,
7ra2.
.
Ai=ica*+"
QUADRATURE,
Ex.
2.
ETC.
173
with regard ellipse
of the pedal of an to any point at distance c from the centre. of the pedalwith In this case II is the area Find the
area
-
regardto
the centre
/* Vcos2"9 + b%m*0)dO
+ (a2
"2)|.
Hence
Ex. 3.
^1=|(
The
area
of the
an
taken
c
with
respectto
pedalof the cardioide r=a(l "cos 0) internal pointon the axis at a distance
from
the poleis
|(5"s-2"c+2c'). [MATH.TBIpos"187a]
Let 0 the two
pole,P the given internal point; p OF2 and PTl on any tangent perpendiculars
be the and
cos
and pl from 0
and P
pl "p
OP"c
; then
c cos
"",and
^Al=2A
"
2clp
+ / cfc" ""
Fig. 36.
Now in order that p may limits sweep
=
out
the whole
pedalwe
Now
must
between integrate
the cardioide
""
0 and
""
=
-^and
double.
in
36) (Fig.
p=
OQ
sin
Y2QO
OQ
sin^xOQ.
[Dif.Calc., p. 190.]
174
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
For
r2"0
itf0"|
=
Hence
|-{*-("-W-|
|-*=f,
/3
or
J-J-J,
-
so
"
-.
23
,
A*cos
Hence
/p
"j" d"j" 2
=
/
'
2a cos3 2
cos
d(f" "/"
3,so?2
4a
/ cos%
o
fl
cos
12#
rf [4cos%
cos")"iz
6422
42
Also
^^^ fc2cos2d"cta=3.2c2i
J
Sir
222
Finally
24
24a2
6
642
mi
2
?rac
'
A Al
_?ra
--
8~
T"
148. When
Origin for
f2 is taken
2A
l
=
Pedal
as
of Minimum
Area.
that
it appears origin,
cos
211 +
(05 J
+ y sin
\Jsfd\ls.
Hence
as
the term
it is positive,
clear that
Al
can
never
be
less than
II.
QUADRATURE,
"2 is therefore the
a
ETC.
175
the
for origin
minimum
which
area.
corresponding
pedal curve
149. The
has
Pedal formula is
area
of
an
Evolute
area
of
Closed
Oval.
for the
of any
closed oval
proved
in Art. 138
of
Hence
) jp2*/' Jjft
=
oval +
plainlyexpresses that the area of any pedal of the oval itself is equal to the area of an oval curve togetherwith the area of the pedalof the evolute (for
which
-ry This is the
radius
vector
of the
pedalof
the
evolute).
also admits
of
proof. elementarygeometrical
pedalof
the evolute of
an
of the Find the area Ex. with regardto the centre. The
area
ellipse
above
that
area
of
pedalof
of
of
ellipse
-(a2+ b2)
irab
?(a b)2.
-
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
bounded
by
pair
Let
of
Tangents.
two
contiguouspoints on a given 7, F' the corresponding pointsof the pedal of curve, since (with the usual notation) Then any origin0.
bounded PF=-vjrthe elementarytriangle
P, Q be
by
YY'
two
and
the chord
is to
Fig.38.
Hence
curves
the and be
area a
bounded of any portion by the two curve pair of tangentsto the original
may
as expressed
and
area
is the of the
same
as
the
pedal of the
151. Let
Areas.
Its
area
0 be
any
closed
curve.
(A^)
QUADRATURE,
is the
ETC.
177
by expressed
\ydxtaken line-integral
round
of the current point (x,y) be with those of a second point(" rj) by the mg, y nrj, this second pointwill trace out is expressed /(w" nrj) 0 whose area (J.9)
=
= =
by
the
round
its contour.
And
have
l=
dx \y
\ nrjm
whence
y) f(xt
closed
=
curve
0.
152. Ex.
Apply
this method
to find the
1
area
of the
ellipse
**
,"*
~
=, a r
the
and
area
of
ellipse
=~
x area
of circle
Ex. Let
2.
Find
the
area
of the
mx
=
curve
(mV
=
n^f)2
=
Wif-
^
is
ny
ij,
then the
curve corresponding
or
in
polars pedal of
an
r2
^- cos2 0 +
m2
sin20, ri2
"--,
the central
E. i, c.
both
axes.
178
Hence the
area
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
area
of second
mn
EXAMPLES,
1. Find
the
area
of the
loopof
of the
=
the
curve
ay"L=x\a-x).
2. Find
the whole
area
curve
3. Trace
the
curve
that its
and
area
is
equalto
radius is
1890.]
area
that its
is
5. Find
the whole
area
of the
curve
By
means
of the
/y integral by
the the
dx
taken
round
the
contour
of the
formed triangle
lines intersecting
show
that
they enclose
area
the
area
between
y2
and
a
"
ty be
the
area
makes
show
that the
oval ds "fy
curve
is q:
/r
the
cos
or
/x
the
sin
^rds,
all round
perimeter.
180
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
line to a point P on the curve if A be the ; and by the curve, the initial line,and the radius vector 9,42
21.
=
area
bounded
to
P,
then
2rf.
Find
the
area
of the closed
3a sin
_
portionof
0
cos
the Folium
~sin^6"TcoW
In what ratio does the line x+y
=
divide
the
area
of the
loop?
22.
[OXFORD, 1889.]
Find the
area
of the and
curve
r=aOebe
enclosed
between of the
curve.
two
two
successive
branches
[TRINITY,1881.]
Find the
area
of the
loop of
the
curve
a0cos 0 between
24. Show
that
the
area
of
loop of
cases
the
n
curve
acosn0
is
^"
4?i
-,
and
state
the total of
area
in the the
odd, n
r
=
even.
25.
Find
the
area
loop of
curve
cos
3$ + b sin 3$.
contained
between
r=a
and of the
is
equal to three-fourths
of the sin 0
curve cos
area
[OXFORD, 1888.]
2ac r2(2c2cos2"9
-
9+
a2sin2#) aV
=
is
equal to
28.
irac.
Find
=
the
acos
of
the b
"
curve
representedby
the
two
the
equation r
29.
curve
0+
area
b,assuming
included
a.
Find
r
=
the
between
loops of
[OXFORD,
the
a(2cos 0 + ^3).
the
area
1889.
30.
Find
between
the
curve
r=a(sec $+cos 0)
of the
and
its
asymptote.
Prove r2 that
=
31.
the
area
of
one
loop
pedal
of
the
lemniscate Find
a2cos2$
with
respect to the
poleis a2.
[OXFORD, 1885.]
32.
the
area
of the
loop of
of the
the
=
curve
(x'\-y)(x^+y2) ^axy.
33.
[OXFORD,
curve
1890.]
Prove
that the
area
loop of
the
QUADRATURE,
34.
ETC.
181
Find
the whole
area
contained
between
the
curve
and
its
asymptotes.
that the the the
area
[OXFORD, 1888.]
of the the
35.
Show
in-
eluded
vector
between from
curve,
semi-major axis,and
radius the
centre, is
"
tan"1^/^^-, a,
between
at
being
semi-axes
36.
of the
ellipse.
area
[CLARE, etc.,1882.]
the
curve 5
=
Show
that the
at
in eluded its
atan^,
its
tangent
0 and
tangent
-
ig V*"" """
tan
-a2 tan
^ + a2 tan "/"
the
of
+ a2log(sec ""
c").
[TRINITY, 1892.]
that
area
the
Sty and
that
are areas
Show
whose
TT a2(f
a(^\/3 + cos^#) has three loops 2\/3), a2(f f\/3), spectively. a\ -far fV") reTT
-
[COLLEGES, 1892.]
39. Find the
area
of
[OXFORD, 1888.]
40.
Find
the
area
of the
pedal of
the
curve
d*)l, =*("**the
originbeing taken
Find the
area curve
at
*Ja2 62, y
"
0.
one
[OXFORD, 1888.]
of the branches of
41.
included
between its
the
3%2
and a2(#2+;?/2)
area
asymptotes.
curve
[a,1887.]
42.
Find
the whole
of the
=
43.
Find
the
area
[a,1887.]
[ST.JOHN'S, 1887. ]
and find their
44.
areas
Trace
:
"
the
shape
of the
followingcurves,
1887.]
Prove
that the 3?
'
area
'
of
V2
1 / X2
V2\2
"
7TC2/
182
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
46.
Prove
that
the
area
in
the
positive
is
quadrant
of
the
curve
(av+w^w
47. Prove that the of the
^(5+5).
[a;18900
area
curve
f")
is
-3""
(V2
a2)
[ST.
tan-1
-
JOHN'S,
1883.]
48.
Prove
that
the
area
of
the
curve
9,aV
h
62 where
49. is
less that
than the
both
and of the
5,
is
7r(ab
"
c2).
+
[OXFORD,
1890.]
Prove
area
curve
^4-3o^3
a2(2^2+y2)=0
TRIPOS,
curve
is
fTrtt2.
50.
[MATH.
that the
areas
1893.]
Prove
of
the
two
loops
of
the
are
(32^
24^3)
a2,
and
(167r-24\/3)a2,
[MATH.
TRIPOS,
1875.]
CHAPTER
XI.
SUKFACES
AND
VOLUMES KEVOLUTION.
OF
SOLIDS
OF
153. It
was
of Revolution
in
about if the
the
curve
a"axis.
Art.
that
x
y=f(x)
the the
the
axis
x
=
of
x2
the is to
x^ and
portionbetween be obtained by
*2
Tr2
.
dx.
154. More
About
any
axis.
the
if generally, if PN be
revolution
be about
any
line
a
AB,
and
any
perpendiculardrawn
from
184
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
point P on the curve upon the line the volume contiguous perpendicular,
or
AB is
and
P'N'
as expressed
if 0 be
givenpointon
the line AB
155. Ex.
1.
curve
Find
the volume
formed
by
the revolution
of the
loopof
Here
the
3) about
the tf-axis.
volume
I x*a~xdx. 7ry2dx=7r J
J
o
+ x
Puttinga +x=z,
this becomes
rf2a3 log
Ex. 2. of a Find the volume
5a2z
2az2
3 _J"
arc parabolic
formed tion of the spindle by the revoluthe vertex to one about the line joining
extremity of
Fig.
Let the Then and be parabola
40.
y2
is y P
4o
2^7,
"fi
VOLUME
OF
REVOLUTION.
185
Also
and
volume
=
.
dAN
4?r
75
156.
Surfaces
of Revolution.
the curved
Aain, if S be
out
y the revolution
of any
AB
about
the
^c-axis,
Fig. 41.
suppose
PN PN, QM two adjacent ordinates, being the of the smaller,3s the elementaryarc PQ, SS the area
zone elementary
traced
out
by
the revolution
of
PQ
186
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
about
the
#-axis, y and
it
y +
as
Sy
the
lengths of
that the
the
axiomatic is
at the
area
by PQ
in its revolution
greaterthan
distance PN
at
it
be if each
point of
it
were
the axis, and less than distance QM from the axis. Then therefore
if each 8s and
pointwere
SS lies between
in the limit r/^ -j=
^y
have 8
we
2-7T2/
as
or
"
This may
be written
as
may
happen
to
be of
convenient
-r-"
in any
particular
example,the
from
values
157. Ex.
formed Here
Find
the
surface of the
of
belt
=
of the about
paraboloid
the #-axis.
by
the revolution
curve
y2
"ax
dx
V x
dx "/"
y"dx /X"1
dx
2.
The
curve
a(l+
=
cos
6}
revolves
about
the
initial
Find
the volume
=
and
surface
TT
of the
formed. figure
volume
/try^dx
TT
/?'2sin20 d(rcos 0)
188
2. A
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
its chord.
Show
of radius a, revolves round quadrant of a circle, that the surface of the spindle generated
and
-^-(10 3?r).
-
3. The rectum
curved
part of the parabolayL "ax cut off by the latus revolves about the tangent at the vertex. Find the surface and the volume of the reel thus generated.
=
OF
PAPPUS closed
OR
curve
plane,which does not cut the curve, the volume of the ring formed is equal to that of whose height and a cylinderwhose base is the curve is the length of the path of the centroid of the area of the curve.
Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation.
area
Divide
the
(A)
with
elements up into infinitesimal rectangular sides parallel such as to the coordinate axes,
Fig. 43.
each PjPgPgP^,
of
area
SA.
Let rotation take placethrough an 89. Then the elementarysolid formed and
on
base
SA
its height to first order infinitesimals is ySO,and therefore to infinitesimals of the third order its volume is SA
.
THEOREMS
OF
PAPPUS.
189
If the
rotation
be
through
. .
any the
finite
whole
angle a
area
we
obtain by summation SA y If this be integrated over have for the volume curve we
a.
of the
a!i/cL4.
Now of
a
2/i" 2/2'""""
is y=
-^ then
y
"
we
seek
the value
of the curve, each the ordinate of centroid of the area element 8A is to be multiplied by its ordinate and the sum of all such productsformed, and divided by the
sum
of the elements,and
we
have
or
in the
language of
the
Calculus Integral
A (yd (yd A
J
i
-
\dA
Thus Therefore But is the
A
volume
is the
A(ciy). revolvingfigureand
ay
of the length
path
of its centroid.
This establishes the theorem. COR. If the curve perform have and form a solid ring, we
a
=
complete revolution,
=
2-7T and
volume
A(2jry).
closed curve revolves about a 159. II. When any line in its own plane which does not cut the curve, the curved surface of the ring formed is equalto that
190
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
and whose of the cylinderwhose base is the curve is the lengthof the path of the centroid of the height perimeter of the curve. Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation. Divide the such as PXP2 s up into infinitesimal elements perimeter each of lengthSs. Let the ordinate PlNl be called y. Let rotation take place throughan infinitesimal angle S9. Then the elementary formed is ultimately area a with rectangle of the second sides Ss and ySO,and to infinitesimals order its area is Ss y"9.
.
Fig. 44.
If the rotation be through any finite angle a we obtain by summation Ss ya. If this be integrated the whole of over perimeter the curve have for the curved surface of the solid we formed
.
an/cfe.
of the seek the value of the ordinate (rj) centroid of the perimeterof the curve, each element of Ss is to be multiplied by its ordinate,and the sum
we
If
THEOREMS
OF
PAPP
US.
191
all such
divided
by
the
sum
of
the elements,and
have
Lt
or
in the
languageof
the
Calculus Integral
\yds ^yds
n
\ds
Thus and the surface formed
s
=
\yd8=8tj,
s(afj).
is the
of the revolving and perimeter figure, arj is the length of the path of the centroid of the perimeter. But This establishes the theorem. Con. If the curve perform and form
a a
a
=
completerevolution
2?r and
solid
we ring,
have
=
surface
Ex. The volume of
2 -73-77). s(
and surface of an formed anchor-ring by radius about of line in circle the a a a plane of the circle at distance d from the centre are respectively the revolution volume surface
=
2:ra
Zird
4ir2ad.
EXAMPLES.
1. An
about
major
2. A
an
axis.
end
of the
extremity
3. A
other
volume
which
trianglerevolves about any line in its plane the cut triangle. Find expressionsfor the
of the solid thus formed.
surface and
volume
192
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
160. When
Revolution
any
we
of
Sectorial
area
sectorial
may
OAB
the
initial line
divide
area revolving
infinitesimal
area
such
as
may
be
to first order
infinitesimals
by
|r"2o0.Being ultimatelya
centroid is f of the way in a complete revolution from
the centroid
or
distance
r sin 6) 27r(f
f irr sin 9.
Fig. 45.
Thus
by
Guldin's
first theorem is
the volume
traced
by
the revolution
of this element
to first order
and infinitesimals,
therefore
area
traced
by
the revolution
of the whole
f
161. If
x we
=
we
put
y
=
rcos9,
rsin9,
=
and
"
~
have
=
r3sin 9 S9 r3sin 9
.
r3sin
lf) (9$(tan
=
r*cos*9t St
xH
St,
EXAMPLES.
193
as expressed
may
therefore be
(xHdt.
EXAMPLES.
and surface of the right the volume 1. Find by integration circular cone formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about a side which contains the right angle.
2. Determine
generatedby
3. Prove
the entire volume of the ellipsoid which is the revolution of an ellipse around its axis major.
[I.C. S.,1887.]
that the volume of the solid generated by the round revolution of an its minor is a mean axis, ellipse portional probetween of the those generatedby the revolution and of the auxiliary circle round the major axis. ellipse
area
of
ellipse
.
by
given
area, the
sphere has
5. Find
of the solid
producedby
the revolution
x.
the
loopof
y^"x^
about
the axis of
6. Find revolution
the surface and volume of the reel formed of the cycloid round a tangent at the vertex
by
the
of the solid formed tion by the revolu^)=x3 about its asymptote is equal
to 2?r2a3. 8. Find
1886.] [TRINITY,
the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of C. S. 1883. ] (a x)y2 a?x about its asymptote. [I.
-
the
curve
9. If the
curve
+ b
cos
0 revolve
about
the
initial
line,
be
show
[a,1884.]
N
194
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
10.
Find the
the
volume radius
of of
the the
solid
formed of the
by
curve
the r^
revolution
=
about between
prime
6
=
loop
and
0=|.
if the
area
[OxTOKD,
1890.]
11.
Show
that
lying
within
the
cardioide
and
without
the
initial
12.
line, the
The
revolves
about
the
[TRINITY,
1892.]
the
loop
line y=a.
of
the Find
curve
Zay2=x(x
volume of
"
straight
13.
area
the
[OXFORD,
Show of that the bounded coordinates of the centroid of the
1890.]
r=f(0)
by
the
vectors
0=a,
ft,has
coordinates
f
14.
Show initial
that line
the
at
centroid distance
of
the
cardioide the
a(l"
cos
$)
is
on
the
from
-
origin.
round
is
6 15.
If
the
"
cardioide
a(l
the
+
"
cos
#)
revolve
the
line
p=rcos(9
y\
prove
that
volume
generated
y.
3^7r%2
16.
f 7T2"3cos
[ST. JOHN'S,
1882.]
The
a
about volume
is very 0\ where small, r=a(l -ecos e the initial line. Prove to parallel tangent of the solid thus generated is approximately
curve
27r2a3(l+e2).
17. the The lemniscate Show that r2 the
=
a2cos2#
volume
revolves
tangent
at
pole.
generated
is
-
196
area
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
RSTU is Sx.Sy, and its mass rectangle be regarded (to the second order of smallness) may as 0(0,y)Sx Sy. Then the mass of the strip PNMV may be written
of the
or
in
conformitywith
the
notation
of the
Integral
Calculus
between
the limits y
we
0 and
as
constant, for
masses mass
the
i.e. the
of the limit of the sum finding of all elements in the elementary PM, strip of the strip PM.
are
we
search
for the
mass
of the
area
AJKB
as strips
be summed which the above must the ordinates AJ, BK, and the result may
which
may
be written
regard to
being
DOUBLE
INTEGRATION.
197
Thus
mass
of
area
A JKB
or
n
164. Notation. This is often written
ff "j"(x,y)dxdy,
order. the elements dx, dy being written in the reverse There is no uniformly convention as to the accepted order to be observed, but as the latter appears to be shall in the the more used notation, we frequently volume adopt it and write present
'x, y)dxdy
when with
we are
to be made to consider the first integration y and the second with to regard
x,
to regard
and
regardto
x.
That
integration.
If the surface-density of a circular disc bounded by xP+y2 a2 be given to vary as the square of the distance from the y-axis, find the mass of the disc. "JL^ ^ Here we have [juv2 and its of the element 8x 6y, for the .mass is therefore /*#2"#6y, and the whole mass will be mass Ex.
=
//
The limits for y w411 be ;?/ 0 to y=*Jdl xL for the positive and for x from #=0 The result must then to x=a. quadrant,
=
"
198
be
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the
mass
being symmetrical in
is four times that of
Fig.47.
Putting x=asm0
and
dx=acosOdO,
we
have
165. The
Other
same
Uses theorem
of Double may be
Integrals.
used
purposes, of which we givea which may the field to indicate to the student serve of investigation But our now scope in open to him. the presentwork does not admit exhaustive treatment of the subjects introduced.
DO
UBLE
INTEGRA
TION.
199
the
Ex.
Find
of
4,2
=
quadrant of
ellipse
the surface-density beingsupposeduniform. y-axis, Here each element of area 8x8y is to be multiplied by its surface density in the constant is case cr (which by hypothesis and the the and its distance from sum x supposed) by y-axis, the whole of such elementary quantities is to be found over will from The be limits of the quadrant. integration y=0 to
7
_Va2
a
"
x* for ?/ ; and
from
#=0
to
x=a
for
x.
Thus
we
have
moment
/
00
Wa2 crxdxd'u=^"\
a
"
x2dx
J J
)
0
_"rbr _(a?-x2)%-\a_o-ba*
aL
3
Jo
166. The
at
Gentroids. formulae
Cartesians.
in statics for the coordinates
proved
a
of the centroid of
number
of
masses
mv
m2, m3,
"
_ ~
apply these to find the coordinates of the centroid of a given area. (See also Arts. 158, 159.) be the surface-density For if at a given point,
We
may
o-
then
or
Sx
Sy is the
mass
of the
element,and
_ "
or,
as
it may
be written
when dx
I dy \\"
arx
\ardxdy J
200
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS,
jja-ydxdy
Similarly
the limits of
summation
~
ff~
j J
\\a-dxdy
integration beingdetermined
will be effected for the
so
that the
area
whole
in
question.
Find
Art.
the
centroid
quadrant elliptic
the limit
of the
Example
of the
in
165.
was
It
proved
moments
there about
of the
sum
mentary ele-
was y-axis
?"
"
Also Hence
/ /"rdxdy=
*="
mass
of the
quadrant=^^-.
STT
3/4
"
=-"
Similarly
of Inertia.
the sum Inertia with regardto the line. Such quantities in of greatimportance are
Ex. Find
is multiplied by the every element of mass of its distance from a given line, the limit of of of such products is called the Moment
Dynamics.
the moment of the paraof inertia of the portion bola f/2 4a# bounded by the axis and the latus rectum, about the #-axis supposing the surface-density at each pointto vary the nth power of the abscissa. as Here the element of mass is
=
/x being a
constant,and the
Lt
moment
of inertia is
\ //,
V*"a? 8y 2/i#
are
or
dy, \y*xndx
for
x
where
from
0 to
2vW, and
from
0 to
a.
DOUBLE
INTEGRATION.
201
We
thus
get
In.
=
Mom.
"
3
o
" f*
oj
fo
the is givenby parabola
Ca\~
~~l
Again,the
mass
of this
of portion
ny\/ax
Thus
we
l*xndxdy p\ \y\
=
xndx
--
271 + 3
have
Mom.
In. about
0ff=3
EXAMPLES.
the the first quadrant of the circle ,272+^2=a2 Find varies at each pointas xy. density the mass of the quadrant, (i.) " its of gravity, centre (ii.) .("") its moment of inertia about the #-axis. (iii.)
1. In 2. Work out
surface
the
for the
of portion
the
varies centroid of a rod of which the line-density the distance from one end. as Find also the moments of inertia of this rod about each end and about the middle point. the centroid of the trianglebounded by the lines at each when the surface-density y mx, x a, and the #-axis, from varies the the of distance the as point origin. square Also the moment of inertia about the #-axis. the
= =
4. Find
168. For of
area
Polar
Curve.
Second-order
use
Element. for
our
polarcurves
a
it is desirable to
element
curve
r=/(0);
Ox
0, 9 + SO be
202
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
the
of P
centre
and
Q.
Draw
two
cular cir-
and
Then
sector OSTsector ORU
RSTU=
order,
be considered
and
a
to this order
RSTU
therefore rSO
of rectangle
sides Sr
(RS)
and
(arcRU\
Fig,48.
at each pointR(r,9) is surface-density of the element RSTU is (tosecondthe mass cr "f)(r, 9), order quantities the mass of the sector err S9 Sr, and
=
Thus
if the
is therefore
Ltdr==Q[2o-rSr]S9,
the summation
being for
all elements
from
to
r=f(9),i.e.
"rrdr\80, Q/(0)
-i
in which
and
to be the
sum
regardedas constant,
of the
any sectors
for
infinitesimal values
of S9 between
radii specified
204
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
0
or
(Art.164)
=2/
C~% rZacoaO
pr*dOdr
169. The
Centroid.
Polars.
a
the sum by finding any of the moments of the elementary masses about that line and dividing of the masses. by the sum Thus its
err
sectorial
area
from
SO Sr
beingthe
r cos
element the
of
mass
and
r cos
about
is y-axis
a-r
SO ST.
\o-rdOdr j
r
sin 0
o-rdOdr
dO dr
circle in
and
similarly
'~fl
a-r
the
half of the the centroid of the upper of Art. 168. example established the result for that semi-circle that We Ex.
1.
Find
Also
between
the
limits
r=0
and
2acos
to
/* frcos
Tfji 0R"
cos
"S
^^
53
15
'
DOUBLE
INTEGRATION.
205
and
/rsm6crrd6dr=
I jnsin0
dO
Jo
J J
JQ
L4
/~2
sin 0 cos40 dO
Ex.
2.
Find
the
centroid
of
the
area
bounded
by
the
cardioide
uniform.
Fig. 50.
centroid is The abscissa we have
on evidently
the
initial line.
To
find
its
/ Ir cos 0 rdOdr
"x"
'rdOdr
r=0 to
the from
limits for
0 to
TT
being
from
r=a(l+cos
0),and
for 0
(and
double, to take
=2
in the lower
'"
half).
The
numerator
fT-1
J L3J0
+ 3
cos0o?0
+ 3 cos30 +
cos*0)dO
206
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
cos2"9 | T(3
a3
cos46
;
'
'
1 ^4-'
'
'
2 4 o3;r 5
2
5
/TT
L2Jo
0
=
r~r2" Ia(l+cos 6)
dO
a2
T(l +2
0
cos
0+cos20)dO
rf r
Hence
-?ra3
/ -?ra2
-a.
varies as the nfh power Ex. 3. In a circle the surface-density 0 of the distance from a point on the circumference. Find the about an axis through 0 perpenof inertia of the area moment dicular to the planeof the circle. and the diameter for initial line, the Here, taking0 for origin radius. is the r=2acos a The density 6, being bounding curve
=p,r".
Hence
moment
Hence
of the element and its rSOSr is //,rn+1S$Sr, axis is //,rn+38$ of inertia about the specified 8r. of inertia of the disc is the moment the
mass
f ffj
where the limits for
r are
0 to 2a
cos
0, and
for
0, 0
to
(and
double).
Thus Mom. Inertia
rcos"+4(9 dO J?^L(2a)"+4 4
+
DOUBLE
INTEGRATION.
207
Again, the
mass
of the disc is
r"5"
=
/*2acos0
2|J ^o
frcosw+20d0. _?^L(2a)w+2
n
+ 2
Jn
Hence
Mom.
Inertia
EXAMPLES.
1. Find
of the sector
of
circle
the
distance
from
the centre. the centroid of a circle whose the nth power of the distance from a its moments of inertia the tangent at 0, the diameter through 0. varies surface-density
point 0
on
the circumference.
Also
of uniform of inertia of the triangle that the moment the a nd lines bounded the ?/-axis by surface-density mlx+cl^ y about is the #-axis, y=mtfc + c"ft
=
Ml
6
GI-%
\ml
"
m2J
'
where
is the the
mass
of the
triangle.
of triangle uniform
4. Find
moments
bounded surface-density
about the
the coordinate
axes
; and
same
show
as
that those
if M of
be the
mass
of
"
equal masses
uniform minor
axes
that
2
the
2
moments
ellipse
are
bounded
by
---
1 about and
major and
a 2
respectively
about
~,
line
I
through the
M
centre
mass
7)2
"
its
plane,M"
being the
208
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
6.
Find
a
the
area
between
the
circles
r=a,
r=2acos#;
as
and distance
assuming
from the
surface-density
find
varying
inversely
the
pole,
the the
(1) (2)
centroid,
moment
of
inertia
to
about
line
through
the
pole
perpendicular
7.
Find for the
area
the
plane.
between the
curves
included
(1)
the
coordinates
of
its
centroid
(assuming
#-axis,
area
uniform
of
inertia
about when
the this
volume
formed
revolves
about
the
8.
Find
a
moment
of the
inertia
of
the
lemniscate
to
r2
about
through
a
pole
perpendicular
its
plane
(1)
(2)
uniform
a
surface-density
from the
the
square
of
the
distance
9.
Find
(1)
the
coordinates
of
the
centroid
of
the
area
of
the
cycloid
#=a(0-hsin$),
(2)
the volume formed about about about the the the
y=a(l by
base axis its
"
cos0)
revolution
(a)
(y=2a), (#=0),
at
tangent
the
vertex.
ELEMENTARY
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
E.
I.
C,
212
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
for the of the
same curve
and
but
family.
in which it is necessary occur frequently to treat the whole family of curves as, for together, each instance,in findinganother family of curves,
member
set at
a
of which that
to be
of the former
givenangle, say
for such
not to
manifest letter
a
ought
constant
functions
one
operated upon,
curve
should
individual
of the
system
"
instead
whole
familycollectively. Now be got rid of thus : a may Solve for a ; we then put the equation into 0(",y)
=
the form
a,
........................
(2)
regard to x, a goes out, and an equation involving x, y and yv replaces equation(1). This is then the differential equation to the family of curves, of which equation equation (1)is the typical
upon of be
case a
and
differentiation with
equationit may
In this
constant.
differentiate the
equation
=
f(x,y,a)
with
to respect
x
'
........
.............
(1)
and
obtain
and
thus
then
eliminate
between
a obtaining
relation between
yv
which
family.
the the lines obtained by family of straight in the constant equation arbitrary
ORDER
OF
AN
EQ UA TION.
213
Solvingfor
and
or
w,
differentiating,
without Blether-wise, first solving for m, we have y= yi
=
m,
and
y=%yidifferential
This
equationof
expresses
all
straightlines
the obvious geometrical line is the same that fact that the direction of the straight as of the same line. of the vector from the origin at all points
representative equationof
=
b whose values two containing of the family. A the several members particularize differentiation with regard to x will result in single a relation connecting x, y, yv a, b ; say
(1)
If
we a
(2)
x we
shall
obtain
relation
connecting x,
2/2"a" V" 2/i"
y, yv y2, a, b ; say
\MX
and from
") ""
=
(3)
will
b may cally theoretia and equations appeared be eliminated (if they have not alreadydisand there by the process of differentiation), result a relation connecting x, y, yv y2 ; say these three
the
173. Order
Equation.
We define the order of a differential equation to be the order of the highest differential coefficientoccurring
in it ; and
we
have
seen
that
if
an
equationbetween
214 two
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
unknowns contains one arbitraryconstant the result of eliminating that constant is a differential equation of the firstorder; and if it contain two
constants arbitrary
differential equation
of the second
so
that
to
order. to eliminate
have
a
and the result is to n differentiations, proceed an(l differential equationconnecting x, y, yv ...,2/n" order.
c
Eliminate
and
from
the
=
equation x2+y2=2ax +
c.
x -f yy^ a. Differentiating, Differentiating again, l+^+y^^^ and the constants we having disappeared
have
obtained
as
their
differential equation of the second order (?/2 being differential w hich the highest coefficient involved), belongsto all
a
eliminant
centres
lie on
the #-axis.
the differential equationof all central conies Form whose coincide with the axes of coordinates. axes the typicalequation of a member of this family of Here
and and
we
have
irreversible process.
this process of elimination is not in general a reversible process, and when wish to discover the we of a family of curves equationof a member typical when the differential equation is given, are pelled comwe of integration, to fall back, as in the case upon
cases,
set of standard
are
and
many
equations may
arise
which We
to solve however, that in attempting may infer, differential equation of the nth order we to a are search for an algebraical relation between x, y, and n
VARIABLES
SEPARABLE.
215
these constants arbitraryconstants, such that when eliminated the given differential equation will are result. Such is regarded as the solution most a general solution obtainable. DIFFERENTIAL 175. CASE All all the There
are
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
FIRST
ORDER.
five standard
forms.
I. Variables
Separable.
which it is
equationsin
x's to
come one
other,
under
to get dx and possible side,and dy and all the y's to the this head, and solve immediately
by integration.
Ex.1, have Thus if
sec
y=
sec
x-",
dx y
we
cos
dx
x
"
cos
dy,
,
and
a
sin
sin y + A
constant arbitrary
x
=
A.
If
xy-^*
dx
+ y)dy, (y2
32
y+l
we
have
(x
\
+
2
dx )
J
and
therefore
"
logx"^
32
+y~+ A,
A.
2
one containing
constant arbitrary
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
y
I
"
1.
dy=x*+x+\
'
dy
'
y*+y+l
in Ex.
3
dx
*++l'
that member
every
dxx*+x+l
member of the of the set in Ex.
4. Show
cuts
every
2 at
216
7. Show
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
the square
vector
are
curves
equal
to
square
hyperbolae. rectangular
8. Show
that
makes
no
constant
for which the tangent at each point angle (a)with the radius vector can belong to
curve
r=Ae^
cot
a.
of the curves for which equations (1) the Cartesian subtangentis constant,
(2) the
Cartesian subnormal is constant, the Polar is (3) subtangent constant, the is constant. Polar subnormal (4)
10. Find
tangent
curve
for which
the
176. CASE
II. Linear
Equations.
the form
of [DEF. An equation
when
P, Q,
K, R
are
functions
of
or
constants
is
lies in the fact that said to be linear. Its peculiarity differential coefficient occurs raised to a power no higherthan the first.] of the first As we are now equations discussing
order,we
are
to present
the
case
If this be
seen
' *
throughoutby multiplied
may write it d
er
it will be
that
we
dPe
Thus
a
/Pefccv n
)="^fPdx
"
yefPdx=\Qe/Pdxdx+
between
x
relation
and
which
of the
an
LINEAR
EQUATIONS.
=
217
Ex. Here
mav
1
.
Integrateyi+xy e-**
fxd~
or
-
x.
e2 is
an
the
equation
be written
d
ax " *2
-
(ye*)=xe*,
or
ye*=e*+A,
+
i.e. Ex.
2.
l+Ae
2.
Integrate
^l +
dx
-y=x2.
x
Here may
the
factor integrating
is e
Jldx =elogx=x,and
x
the
equation
be written
*JH"-+
and
xy=--+A,
x*
177.
Equations reducible
if equations,
not
to
linear
Many
form
immediatelyof
to it
by change of
is that
the
important cases
of the
equation
Or
y-n
Putting
we
yl~n
z,
have
y-^dy=^
218
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
or
which
and is linear,
ze
its solution is
(l-ri)fpdx
,~
\fr\ Q-~n)fPdxJ
dx+A,
dx+A. A
l-n
(\-ri)fPdx
e
i.e.
We ri)
f^ (l-ri))
x-,
Ex.1,
Integrate-^ + ^=?/2.
1; ^-2^+^
=
Here
or
putting
-=0,
t7
dx and the
ej*
=e-loex
we
have
^(^=-1,
dx\x)
x
i.e.
?=logi
X X
i.e.
-=Ax y
"
Ex. 2.
we Dividingby cos2y
have
tan
ec2y-^ + 2#
dx
y"x^.
Putting
we
tany=2,
have
^
GW?
2^=^,
and
the
factor integrating
is
220
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
16.
Find
sum
the of the
polar
radius of the the square class whose
equation
vector
of and
vector.
the the
family polar
of
curves
for
which
as
the the
subnormal
varies
nth 17.
power Show
as
radius
that the
curves
for the
which
the
radius upon
of the
curvature
varies
of
perpendicular equation
A is
normal
belong
Jc
to
a
the
pedal
and
r2-p2=^
*
+ %*
"^
being
18.
given
constant
arbitrary.
Integrate
the
equations
CHAPTER
XIV.
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
FIRST
ORDER"
CONTINUED.
HOMOGENEOUS
EQUATIONS.
CLAIRAUT'S
ONE FORM.
LETTER
ABSENT.
178.
CASE
III
Homogeneous
in
x
Equations.
and y may
Equations
homogeneous
be
written
dx if for
(a)
obtain
In
this result
case
we
solve form
possible
-^, and
of
the
Putting
we
vxy
obtain
x^
"j"(v)"
dv
_dx
'
~"p(v)"v
and
comes
the
are
separated
as
and result
the
solution
thus
I., giving
log
Ax
"
r 1
222
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
or
(6) But
solve
we
if it be
inconvenient
"
to impracticable
p
for
-". we
dx
solve for
and
.
write
for
"-
and dx
.
have y
=
x"f"(p)
...............................
(1)
x,
or
dx="["'(p)dp
x
-"
this equation have x expressed as we a Integrating function of p and an arbitrary constant (2) Ax=F(p)(**y) Eliminatingp between equations(1) and (2) we obtain the solution required.
.........................
Ex.
1.
Solve
(x*+y*)ty-=xy.
dx
and
putting
y=v%,
^+v dx
dv
or x"
=
-
dx
or
og=-2
a;2
or
Ay^eW.
Ex.
2.
be
dx
\dx)
'
HOMOGENEO
US
EQ
UA
TIONS.
223
Then
(p +p2)
x(l
2p),
giving
log J,#+2logp
"
-=0,
P
i.e.
and
the
jo-eliminant
between
p2+p="
x
Axp*=" sought.
is
"
But
when of
it p,
is
or
elimination
perform
result
two
the
be
will
to leave manifestly unwieldy, it is customary to regard them containing p unaltered, and would equations whose jo-eliminant if found
equations
simultaneous the
be
required
solution.
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential
equations
.=.
dx
x+y
2.
224
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
179. A
The
Special Case.
~ "
-
equation
"f
^-
is readilyreduced
to
TVi
^
"
bk +
'
c)
dg-a'g+b''
Now choose h, k that
^e.
so
that
.1
"
r-/ oc
^"be
-"
"
,-
-^
ao
"
^
a
ca
"ca
Then This
^=
now
equation being homogeneous we may variables an(i ^ne are as separable put n~v^
shown. is 180. There cannot be chosen
before
one as
h, k
b 6'
c''
=m a
and
dy
Tx=
n
-~
so
that
--
"
dx
_
a "*
=
-
my
+ +
/)
drj (am
dec""
and
-,
-
+ ad b)rj
mrj +
c
+ 6c
+bc (am-\-o)r)-\-ac
".
-,
n.
HOMOGENEOUS
EQUATIONS.
225
the integration beingnow separated, be at once performed. may 181. One other case is worthy of notice, viz., ax + by+ c dy dx~ "bx + b'y + c" when the coefficient of y in the numerator is equalto that of x in the denominator with the opposite sign. For then we may write the equation thus + b(ydx+x dy) (b'y + c')dy (ax+ c)dx differential equation exact an being ; the integral ax2 + 2cx + 2bxy b'y2 + 2c'y + A A. beingthe arbitrary constant. variables
_
The
"
"
Ex.l. Put
Integrate =ydx
x+y-Z k, so
that
#="+
k, y
ri+
Choose
h and
Icso
that
=
l+v
v+1
'
"-
1)2-
where
E. I. c.
"=#"1
and
p
v=^~
.
x"\
226
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
*+*
Ex. 2.
Let
f Integrate
dx
x+y
"
.#+y=??, then
.=
..
dx
??
if] 1
"
'
and
where
?7=
EXAMPLES.
the equations : Integrate
dy
_
dx
bx+ay-b
"
1*
8 9. Show
that
particle #,
y which
moves
so
that
will
10. Show
solutions
must
generalhomogeneous
families of
tion equa-
fUL
'
\"
dx)
~)
always represent
similar
curves.
11. Show
that solutions
a a
of
/(-, -j-} J
are
homogeneous in
curves
x,
\X
CLX
if
family of
constant,the
be homogeneous differential
228
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
x, i.e.the absent
regard to
letter.
and
dx
is performedwe integration and this equationand 2/ "/"(p) between of the givenequation is obtained.
=
183. y B. which
Suppose y
equation,
Since
-^
ax
fj 1J
"
this may
be written
ax
dy
dx'
and Thus
therefore if y
variable the
if (i.)
solve
for
-^-, ^
and
obtain
dx
,
a5T*S
dx
then
7 dy
=
"7-^,
and the
is integral
dx
ONE
LETTER
ABSENT.
229
But (ii.)
if this solution
for
and
dy
solve for
x
-7-
be inconvenient
a
or
we impossible
obtain
yy
/v"
result of the
Then
form
where (j)(q)
q stands
for
-j-
tiating differen-
with
regardto
Thus
and After
we integration and equation and x "f)(q). equationis obtained.
=
the
eliminate the
this
given
absent
The
or
student
should
note
~
we absent,
solve for
if possible. by preference
ax
inconvenient solve we or impossible for the remainingletter and differentiate with regard the absent letter to the absent one\ thus considering in either case the independentvariable. as
Ex.
'
But
when
this is
1.
Integratethe equation
Here
dy
and is the solution. Ex.2. Solve dx Then #=
"
\dx)
x
where
q=.
dy
230
Then
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
absent lettery,
equation
and
the
original
equationx=q+~
required.
EXAMPLES.
Solve
1.
the
=
equations:
dy
y +
I.
5.
6.
-B
\dx)
dx
4.
(2a^ + ^2)=a2+2a^7.
dx
8.
=A+".
\dx)
dx
184. CASE
V.
Clairaut's
have
Form,
^=
Writing^9 for
-~-
we
with Differentiating
y=px+f(p) regardto x,
dp
........................
(1)
or
{x+f(p)}0,
either
....................
(2)
whence Now
-^-=0
CLOu
or
cc+//(p) 0.
=
-f
"
givesp
a,
constant.
CLAIRA
UTS
FORM.
231
is a solution of the given differential Cx-\-f(C) C. constant an equationcontaining arbitrary Again,if p be found as a function of x from the equation (3) "+/(,) 0, Thus
y
= =
........................
stillbe satisfied, and if this value of which is the same or p be substituted in equation(1), if p be eliminated between thing, equations (1)and (3) shall obtain a relation between we y and x which also satisfiesthe differential equation Now to eliminate p between
equation(2)will
y=px+f(p)}
0=
x+f(p)I
0 between
is the
same
as
to eliminate
x+f(0)J
i.e.the
same
=
the process of finding of the envelope Cx+f(C) for different values of 0. therefore two classes of solutions, viz. :
as
(1) The
linear
"
(2) The
solution or envelope singular containing and constant from derivable not no arbitrary the complete primitive by putting any numerical value for the constant particular
in that solution.
The
these
two
tions solu-
is that of a familyof lines and their envelope. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss fully the theory of singular and the student is solutions, referred to largertreatises for further information upon the
subject.
232
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
Ex.
Solve
y=jt
JP
By
is completeprimitive
and
m
the
is the result of
eliminating
between
equationand
o=*--2. m2
i.e. The student the will at
y*="ax.
once
a
recognizein
and parabola,
y2- 4a#
=
equation to
the well
y=mx+"
known
equation of
tangent
to
the
parabola.
EXAMPLES.
and the complete primitive, down Write cases : solution in each of the following
"
find the
envelope
4. y" 5. y
=
(x
"
a)p
"
p^.
6.
(y"
185. The
equation y=x"P(p)+*Kp),
.....................
(i)
may and
with regard to x, by differentiating variable. then considering p as the independent have For differentiating, we
be solved
whence
"
-=
--
dp
which is the solution being linear,
+ tW-Pdp
.......
(2)
EXAMPLES.
233
If
now
p be eliminated
between
2px+p2.
(2) p^x" %p3 A giving be found from these two equationsmay The jo-eliminant now in equation (2). (1)for p, and substituting by solving equation But if it be an object to present the result in rational form, we may proceedthus : + SA 0,\ (2) 2p3+ 3p2# By equation from (1) 0. / + Ip^x-py j93
" "
..............................
"
Hen
ce
p*x Zpy
-
3A
0.
And
between by cross-multiplication
this
equationand
givingas
the eliminant
+ 3Ax)(x* +y) 4(y2
=
(xy
3 A)2.
algebraic p being process of eliminating the equations difficultor impossible, in many (1) cases and (2)are often regardedas simultaneous equations but the is the solution in question whose ""-eliminant actual elimination not performed.
186. The
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
equations:
=
1. y=
,
2. y
3. y= 4. y=
234
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
8.
tangent
is axis the
at
any
point
to
P the
curve.
of
curve
meets
the the
axis
Oy
in of
T,
PTto
and
proportional
Ox. Find
tangent
of
inclination
the
[OXFOKD,
of all
curves
1888.]
possess
9.
equation
of is of the
constant.
which
the
on
property
the
intercepts
Obtain and
made
as
by
the
tangent
coordinate the
curves
the
complete
tion solu-
primitive
the
10.
equation
in
the
tangent,
as
the
singular
question.
curves
Obtain
for
a
which is
the
area
of
the
triangle
bounded
11.
by
Form of
and
tangent
constant.
differential
equation
the
of
curves
for
which between
the,
the
length
coordinate
portion
is the
of
tangent
Obtain and
intercepted interpret
constant.
the
complete
primitive
12.
and
singular
the
solution. differential
;
curve
satisfies when
equation
its
y=p\x"p))
and
also
that^"=0
x=\
determine
equation.
[OXFOKD, 1889.]
of the
IS.
Find
the
complete
primitive
and
singular
solution
equation
dx Show
\
x2"s and
V^yj
y2
=
'
[OXFORD,
", the
1890.]
14.
that
by
putting
equation
is
reduced
Hence
to
one
of down
form.
write
complete
result.
primitive
and
find
its
singular
solution.
Interpret
236 Then
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
yi
2/2
zj(x)+zf(x); zj(x)+^'(x)+zf"(x).
we
Thus
on
substitution
get
But
by hypothesis.Hence
an
for zv
be at
once
obtained
dx
y=x
-r^
Hence
and
the
factor integrating
is
e^
/K" 4- 3^
x
**
or
x*e
4
.
SECOND
ORDER
EQUATIONS.
237
x*
Thus
~(zlx^)=x^
a*
5
and
z1x2e*=~+A
_*
z=-\e
+ A
J a?
\ "-e
is required
-=
189. CASE A. If
x
II
One
letter absent.
be
and
the
equation
"f"(y, yv y2)
= =
"f"(y, Q, p, p-S-\
\
dy/
B. If y be the letter
absent,let
yl =p,
*-"
and
and
again is of
Solve
x
the firstorder.
Ex.1. Here
the
equationyy2+#i2=2#2.
So
is absent.
puttingy"=p
and
y2=p^?, have
we
The
factor integrating
is e^
vAy or
y2,
or
p2y2 "y* +
constant
=?/4+ a4,say.
238
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
Hence
or
+ A). y* a2sinh(2#
=
l+#i2=#y2#i"
So
y is absent.
putting y-^"p^
dx
or
"
-"--"5,
pdp
1+jtr
=
i. e.
^.e.
logx
logVl+p2
+ constant.
or
ady" ^Jx*
"
a?
dx,
giving
a
oy=i?^2_"
constants. being arbitrary
and
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
1. ^2 2. 3. 4.
=
: following equations
"
1.
6.
1+3^=^2. i+y!2-^29y22=4iyi=
7.
1
_L2
2-
8a
y2+"/i-y=-e
^"/
y#2=#i3-#i-
[OXFORD, 1889.]
5. "3/2
(l+.yM
the
10. Solve
equation (1
y
=
that
^
ow?
0 when
0.
11. Given
that #2 is
value
of y which
satisfies the
equation
find the
completesolution.
[L 0. S., 1894.]
REMOVAL
OF
TERM.
239
General
Linear
Equation.
more
Removal
of
us
next
consider the
equation general
of
x.
where
are
given functions
have
y2
whence
vz2 + n(n"
2V"
1)
+ v2z, etc.,
,
--
dv
v
P
"
"
or
the term
been
to
the satisfy
will have
been
removed.
and
if
value this
of
can
be found
or
will make
vanish,we expression
=
zl the
=
rj,
therefore z2 and zn rjn-i, reduce rjly etc., degree of the equationby unity. The student
and
should
notice
that
this
is expression
the
same
in
240
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
member
y
"
as
the if any
can
the given equation when omitted, we by writing y can, vz, reduce the degree of the equation.
=
of the
Y\,
191.
Canonical
case
Form.
In the
of the
equation
of the
second
degree
the will
e~l ^dxz
above stated reduce the
by what equation to
the
been
given
sometimes
simpler form
of this
But
at
equation
has
not
been
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION.
is
an
192. and
can
When be
is
"
q.
xp-r~
^
exact
differential.
integratedwhatever by
yq,
y may
be.
For
denoting
=
\xPyqdx
etc.,
Thus
EXACT
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION.
q =p
or
241
It will be noticed
cannot
"
the integrati
By aid of quicklywhether
193.
given
lemma
if all terms of the form xpyq in which p is first removed, we tell at once can frequently whether the remainder coefficient or not.
Ex.
"
q be spectio by in-
is a
differential perfect
#2
x?y" are
differential perfect
obviously
=-
cos
x+A.
194. A A
more
more
General
Test.
for
an
generaltest
"exact"
differential
equation may
whatever
.
be established in the
case general
forms
...
Pn, V may
have
n-
=PnBysdx
32/2
-
Pn
8^1 +
P"n
zV
I P"'n
-
etc.
Hence
upon
addition it is obvious
that if
p. i. c.
242
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
the
given equation
is
is
exact; and
that
Ex.
Is the
sin
exact
Applying
and Thus the
-
the test,we
have
24^
0,
is integral
or
This
again will
is satisfied.
be
differential perfect
if
which
Hence
-
second
=
-
be
(8#3 43%
or
-f ^4yx
+ Ax
+ +
B, J?,
that the
4^73y+^4y1= sin^+^^
"
which
But
it is
now
obvious
cos.*?+
IB
EXAMPLES.
1. Show
that
the
equation
exact, and
2. Solve + ^7/3 3. Write
solve it the
completely.
.
equation
%i
first
6^/2 +
down
+ sin
x(y* %i) +
~
cos
X33/2 !/}
-
sin
of integrals
the
that
if the
integratingfactor
F admits
of
differential
equation
244
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
Hence
n equation(1) containing arbitrary and therefore is the solution most general to constants, be expected. No more solution has been found. general The portion f(x) is termed the Particular Integral the n arbitrary and the remaining (P.I.), partcontaining constants,which is the solution when the right-hand member of the equation is replaced by zero, is called the Complementary Function (C.F.).If these two partscan be found the whole solution can be at once a
is
solution of
written
down
as
their
sum.
remarkable
two
cases
Cases.
these solutions
can
be all
(1) When
constants.
the the
Pv P2, quantities
takes equation
Jn-l
...,
Pn
are
(2) When
ri
the form
r7n-2n/
'
2+-'-+^=
F"
av a2, ..., an beingconstants and V any function of x. is readily The solution of the second case reducible, as will be shown, to the solution of an equation coming under the firsthead.
EQUATION
WITH
CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS
FUNCTION.
"
MENTARY COMPLE-
the solution of
^n2/
0,
.........
(1)
of the
; i.e.for the
we present
confine
"
our
to
the
"
determination
ComplementaryFunction
COMPLEMENTAR
FUNCTION.
245
As
trial solution
mn
(2)
be equation
...,
mn,
are
therefore also
......
+...+A (3) nem*x, A^x + A2e^x+ A3em*x is a solution containing constants n arbitrary Av A2, to be expected. An, and is the most general A3,
...,
Roots
roots
equal,say the of first the solution (3)become two terms mx m2, be regardedas a and since A^ + A^ may (A!+ J.2)e"11*,
constant, there single unity in the number (3) is no longer the expected.
Let
Put
us
of
is of
examine
this
more
=
closely.
Then
=
m1+A. ^x + A 2e(TOi+*X"
97i2 r
h?x2 +
...
~~\
AJi
I. xem^x+Azhem^~^
+
. ..
rhy?
~\
Now
are
two
independentarbitrary
express them in
may
therefore
quantities independentarbitrary by two relations chosen at our pleasure. First we will choose A2 so largethat ultimately small may be written "2, A2h when h is indefinitely finite constant. an arbitrary
of two
other
246
DIFFERENTIAL
EQ
UA
TIONS.
will choose A1 so large and of opposite we Secondly, signto A2 that A^+A2 may be regardedas an arbitrary finite constant Bv Then the terms
vanish with h since Aji has been considered ultimately is confinite and the expression in square brackets vergent and Thus be
contains
as
factor.
=
A^^+A^e11^ may, when m2 mv and therefore ultimately by B1emiX+B2xemiX" replaced in the whole of arbitrary constants the number
therefore
case.
the terms
have
obtained
Equal Roots.
the become
case
Consider
next
Let
Then
ms
mx + h
/
fcZftZ
1 + kx +
we
A^x
AjPtifc A^x(
=
-^-
+...)"
Thus
for A+Aw
+ Ae'W
have
and
we
may
so
choose
AB,52,and Bv
that
COMPLEMENTARY
FUNCTION.
247 But
may
be, providedit be
finite
not
absolute
zero.
AJc2
series within being chosen a the square brackets beingconvergent, it is clear that when k is indefinitely diminished, the ultimately,
and quantity, the
form limiting
of this
is expression
200. In
a
Several similar
Roots
manner
Equal.
it will be
obvious
that
if p
roots of the
equation(2)become
m^ m2 loss of
= =
. . .
viz., equal,
=
mp,
there
we
for the
in our solution if generality expression + KjxP *)"*", (%!+ K^x + Kfl?+ portionof the complementary corresponding
-
function, viz.,
A^x
More
be the
ential complementaryfunction of any linear differequationwith or without constant coefficients, what is to replace this expression to re-tain the so as when generality mx m2 ?
=
Let Then
m2
Now
two
248
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
in
when we ultimately disappear approachthe limit diminished. which h is indefinitely Thus Al"f)(ml)+ be replaced J.20(m2) by may
number the same (n) of arbitrary retaining constants An B1952,A2, A^ in the complementary function as it originally possessed. And as in Art. 200 we proceedto show that if may viz. ^i1 m2= p roots become equal, =mp, the terms + 420(m2)+ +Ap"j"(mp) J.10(ra1) be replaced by may thus
...,
=
... " . .
when The
the
of generality
results of Arts. 198, 199, 200 are of course ticular parof this, emix. the form of "p(/m^) cases being
202. When
Imaginary Roots.
a
root of
of (2) equation
it is to be remembered that for equationswith coefficients imaginaryroots occur in pairs. for instance, we Suppose, have
where Then
\/
"
1.
the terms
A^+A^e"**
may
or a
A^
thus
:
"
be thrown
into
real form
( Al +
sin
"
sin
bx)
sm
bx,
COMPLEMENTARY
FUNCTION.
249
where
the two
JB*
"22
and
=
tan
ijgF.
Then
bx "2sin p cos(bx a). We may thus further replace bx by CLeaa!cos(6aj jB^cos bx + B2eaxsin constants. where C^ and 02 are arbitrary
^cos
fr#+
"
203. For
Repeated Imaginary
Roots.
repeatedimaginary roots we may proceedas that when before,for it has been shown 7772 ??i1, by (J^+J?^***, and Alem^x+A^x may be replaced if m4 by m3, A^X+A^X may be replaced
= =
If then mx
m2
+ ib and
m3
"
m4
"
6,we
may
replace by
that is
by
-
sin te] bx + (Bl- B3)i + 53)cos eax[(Bl 60?+ (B2 "4)^ sin 6 + xeax[(B2 + ^4)cos and therefore by 6^+ (72sin 6x+ (74sin +cceaaj((73cos e^CC^cos 6aj) that is by 6aj+ ^ + cc(73)cos tf*(Ci which is the same or thingby
Any
forms
contain thus
four
constants constants
four original
arbitrary arbitrary
the
retain intact
250
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
constants (n) of arbitrary requisite proper number to make the whole solution the most generalto be be extended expected. And this rule may obviously to the case when of the imaginaryroots any number
are
equal.
204. Ex.
Here
our
1.
Solve
the
dx
we
trial solution
obtain
whose
roots
are
1 and
"
2.
Accordingly y
and
is the
A^e*and
are A2e2x
both
solutions, particular
y=A1e*+A2e2x
solution containing constants. two arbitrary general Solve
Ex.2.
-*V-a?y=0.
aOC
"
a2
0 with
roots
m"
"a,
or
as
it may
be written y
=
(if desired)
ax .Z^cosh
^sinh
ax
by replacing Al by
Ex.3. Here Hence Solve
Bi+B*
2
and
A2 by
B^~B
2
with
roots
m"
+ai.
AjCosax
^t2si
or, which
is its
equivalent,
y
=
Bl
+
Ex.4
Solve
?-4|
ax?
ax
5-2y
ax
or
(D- l)2("-2)y 0,
=
where
stands
for
"
ax
252
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
3-
4-
5.
6.
9.
10.
("-
PARTICULAR
INTEGRAL.
function Having considered the complementary V where F(D) stands for an as F(D)y equation
=
av
we a
a2,
...,
an
beingconstants,and Fany
our
function of
of x,
next most
turn
attention
to the mode
and We
may
equation as
an
^7^
is such
operatorthat
206. "Z""
satisfies
the
fundamental
laws
of
Algebra.
It is shown
in
the
Differential
Calculus
that
the
operatorD
Commutative
Law
=
as
far
as
i.e.
D(cu)
c(Du}.
PARTICULAR
INTEGRAL.
253
(3) The
m
Index
Law, i.e.
integers. beingpositive Thus the symbol D satisfiesall the elementaryrules the with of algebraical of combination quantities with regard to that it is not commutative exception
n
and
follows
rational
7? l
(T)
"""
\ JL
.
~Li
2i
we
have
by
an
analogoustheorem
further
may
be inferred without
for
JL
"
"
207.
Operationf(D)eax.
a
It has been if r be
Let
us
to be such that
u.
and we shall an integration, represents D~lu no constants arbitrary suppose that in the operation added (forour is to obtain a are objectnow and not the most general particular integral integral). Now since Dra~reax eax DrD-reax,it follows that
= =
Then
D~l
D~reax
a-reax.
=
for all
integral
254
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
208. Let
pansion f(z) be any function of z capableof exof z, positive in integral or negative powers ^Arzr say, Ar beinga constant,independentof z).
Then
The
result of the
be obtained
Ex. 1.
therefore
"
"
-e
Obviously by
or
g.
E,
2,
Obtain
the value
of
By
e3a/'=-^-e
EXAMPLES.
1. Perform
the
indicated by operations
'
3.
Apply
Art. 208
to show
that
=/(
=/(
"
"
m2)si m2)c
209. Next
Operation f(D)eaxX.
let y
=
eaxY,where
Fis
any
function
of
x.
PARTICULAR
INTEGRAL.
255
Then
we
since
Dreax
areax,
have
yn
=
by
Leibnitz's Theorem
-
F),
(Art,
F, + a)n eax(D
X
may
so
that
write
Then
from
above
DneaxY=eax(D+a)nY
or
Dneax(D+ a)
therefore
in all
nX
eaxX,
and
D
cases
Hence
for DneaxX
values integral
=
of
or positive
negative
+ a)nX. eax(D shall have
=
210. As
in Art. 208
we
f(D)eaxX
be
Ex. 2.
"
"
"
e2xsinx
e2x~
D
*
sin
x"
"
e~xsin x.
D2
"
4D + 4
256
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
EXAMPLES.
1. Perform
1
the
operations
o
1
'
1
h
(D
2. Show
If*
(D-I)*6
X'
D-l
that
211. We
and
Operation/(7"2)
have D2
sn wwu cos
=
m2) y
sin
mx,
cos
therefore
Hence,
a^
as
before,Arts.
j;/ r"9\
208
/v
"
and
o\
sin
)
'
mx cos
f( m2)
y
=
Ex.
eaxsin bx dx f
Z)-1eaxsin 6^7
"
f"x/ X/^iSJlll
7)Wri
hv
sin ".#
"
cos
bx
-_
62) ea*(a?+
tan-1- Y ^sin^.r
-
EXAMPLES.
1. Find
2.
by
this method
the
-sin
3. Obtain
2^,
-_
_"I L_cos,r,
by
means
of the
PARTICULAR
INTEGRAL.
257
212. Let
Operation
us
next
consider the
operation
in of expansion F(z)is a function of z capable integral positive powers of z. then if no odd in powers of Z), Let F(D) be arranged the result may be written down occur by the powers rule of Art. 211. foregoing
where
Thus
""
^ sin S1T1 2#
sin %x"
"
"
~
"
sin 2#.
L-4
+ 16-64
51
occur we
But and
the
if both
as
even
and
:
"
odd
powers
the
even
may
proceed
follows powers
the odd
operation
sm mx
= ./T^ox
.
/TV,V
sin
mx
^
"
mx m2)sin
"
mx(
"
mx m2)cos
Upon
we
may
that in practice it will be seen examination write m2 for Z)2 immediatelyafter the step
"
writingimmediately
1
"
"\
"
f)~7
R
sin
mx"
E. I. C.
258
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
or'
r-y^
"
mi
"
"
SYT^ fjsrS
"
in/
"
"
J-'Xv
in
4^0 sin
ma;, etc.
Ex.
1.
Obtain
the value
of
"
"
"
="
sin 2#.
Thisis
sin D
2#, 2^,
"sin
J.O
or
^
Ex.
2.
cos
2^
"
^
"
sin 2^7.
Obtain
the value
of
-^e2*cos
^p. cos x
This
expression
e2*-^
" "
each [replacing
Z"2 by
"
1]
e2*
____
"
"(cos
4
"
sin
x).
EXAMPLES.
1. Perform
:-
the
operationsindicated
Z"3
in
the
pressions followingex-
-e*sin
260
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
EXAMPLES.
Perform the
operations
2)
CD+l)(Z"
2-
3.
J?
COsh
37
COS
07.
214. In
Cases
of
Failure.
methods of
to
of
are
failure illustrate
cases.
obtaining a frequently
course
with.
to
We be
propose
the
of
procedure
215.
The To Ex.
adopted
the
in such
1.
Solve
equation
(^L-y=ex.
dx
'
Complementary
obtain the
Function
is Ae*.
we
Particular
Integral
have
If
we
apply
Art.
208, the
result
becomes
i^i
We
may
or
""-
evade
this
obtain
we
the
result
of
the
operation by applying
when
have
which
let
us
examine
the
operation
"
-"
more
carefully.
of #,
we
Writing
x(\ +
h)
instead
have
263
CASES
OF
FAILURE.
Of may
this be
infinite,
; and
we arbitrary
regard A
A
as
new
constan arbitrary
/i
for
we
may
suppose
to contain
infinite negatively
por
to cancel
The The
remainingterms indefinitely.
The whole solution
contain h and is
Ex.2.
Solve
the
equation
^ Ct/X
is
The
complementary function
y
=
clearly
cos
A sin Zx + B
2#.
integralconsists particular
sin 2#. In this second
oo
,
of two
parts "i
we
"
e*
part, if
so
apply the
ri
211, we
now
get
2HL",i.e.
the
and
fail.
We This
consider
when limit,
Q, of
--
"
sin2.i'(l-
expression
1
=
_1
i_(i+A)a
1
9A
4
1
^X JT2^U
COS
^^ S^n
^^J?)
1 sin 2.2?
"
"
1
-x cos
fi
"
2.27 + powers
r of A
(a
term
which
may
x
-
be included
^
in the
complemvanish
v
function)
Thus the whole
c^s +
(terms which
solution
of the. differential
equation
JOS
g
"
"
260
3.
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
:.
Solve
'ere the
the
e~x + sin
4- x1.
is
plainly
parts,viz.,
=
of four
"?
*_ JL
'I?''
iy*6 ~(D-I*'
4~4
the
complementary function)
vanish with
(termswhich
h)].
,^-PP,
10
1
-
3-Z)
sin x=
"/
6 + 2Z)
=
2(9
-
(3 sin
cos
^)/20.
jjinally
open
44
ie
the whole
=
solution
is
+ (A3 Al + A2e~3x
e2x
+
3 sin
~~
"
cos
.3?
.
5#2
,
44
+'+""l"
ILL
USTRA
TIVE
EXAMPLES.
263
Ex. The
4.
Solve is
the
equation"^-?/ ^sin^.
=
C.F.
P.I.
we
have
."-a
is the coefficient of
in
1
"?". in
#*,
l.
" "*"
plX
rp
-4^-6/^Tr.
l
**
'
~^l-^D..\^
Thus and y
=
the
P.I.
is solution is
COSJP
_
3^ gin ^
8
the whole A
^inh ^
^2coshx
A3sm
x+A
4cos
c^s^' ^
-
sin
^p.
EXAMPLES.
1. Obtain
indicated by Integrals
0)
7TTT
(5" /n (6)
_
w^ovn-Q-x*'# (sinh
+ sin
^?).
+ cosh
nT-T8*1111*'
(7) /na
^/
^o,(^
COS
-
6^).
COS
o
264
Solve the
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
2.
differential
equations
(3)
Cfc#
+y
(5) (Z)I)y
=
e-x
(8) (Z"2
216.
A
The
Operator
""-.
CvQC
transformation
which
renders
peculiarservice
in
reducing an
equation of
the class
where the
Av A2,
...,
are
coefficients
are
in which
all
putting
et.
In
this
case
-TT
and e*,
therefore
at
x~ax
-^at
x-j-
therefore Let
that D
the
operators
d for -j-.
and
we
dx
equivalent.
stand
Then
dx\
n nf\n
_
-*-
)X
Z.
" "
(x
\
__
11
-I-1 ]X
/
.
~
1
___
dxn
dx
dxn~l
EXAMPLES.
265
Now
putting11
in succession
2, 3, 4, ...,
we
have
etc.
,
Hence
generally
or
Ex.
Solve
the differential
equation
Putting x
or
3%
3#
(
(D
=
-
i.e.
giving y
Ae* + B
cos
-"
~+;rIog
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential
1.
s
2
equations
dx
a?
2.
x-
+ --^
-^ + (^
+ x [log ^-]2
sin
log^
sin q
loga?.
3.
cfc1
4. "i
3^++2/=^
ote2 rfa?
'
dx?
5.
dx*
dx
CHAPTER
XVII.
ORTHOGONAL
TEAJECTOEIES.
MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
217. Cartesians. of a equationf(x,y, a) 0 is representative The to family of curves. problem we now propose is that of finding the equation of another investigate of which each each member cuts family of curves in of the former family at rightangles. And member such a problem as this it has been alreadypointedout The
=
that
it is necessary
to
treat
all members
of the
first
It has
may
been
shown
be eliminated
constant particularizing the equation of the family. in Art. 17 1, that the quantitya between the equations
the
*dx
'dy dx
be
This
is the
differential
equation of
the
first
family.
268
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
Here
x+yJL=a,
cLx
and, eliminating #,
Hence
the
new
differential
equationmust
be
or
^2+ 2^-^2
ay is
a
o,
...........................
(3)
become the be
homogeneous equation, and the variables by the assumptiony vx. separable as However, this being the same equation (2) with that x and y are interchanged, must its integral
which
=
ception ex-
another
set of
each circles,
of which
touches
the
#-axis
at
the
origin.
Ex.
2.
Find
the
of trajectory orthogonal
2
the
curves n\
--
of the
family.
and
A must
be eliminated
between
these
=
two
equations.
(2)gives
+ A) 0, + A)+yyl(a? x(b*
so
that
a2 + A
equationof
the
family is
(at-b^yy
or
x*-y*+xyyi-
=a2-52
................
(3)
ORTHOGONAL
TRAJECTORY.
269
Hence familv
changing y^
of
into
"
the
,
differential
equation
of the
#1 is trajectories
2
(4)
the
same
But
this
being
:
the
same
as
have
primitive,viz.
^
*
_-.
~
i.e.a set of conic sections confocal Ex. 3. cardioides Here Find the
cos
with
the former
set.
of orthogonal trajectories
the
a.
family
of
r=a(l"
0) for
different
values
of
^
r^
dr
l~
= =
and, eliminating a,
Hence for the
sm
2 must
have
1 dr
"
or
log
"
log
cos
"
+
2t
constant,
or
r=b(l+cosO),
coaxial cardioides whose cusps
another
point in
the
EXAMPLES.
1. Find
the
#2
2.
Show
that
the a2 b2
of orthogonal trajectories
the
m
family
of
.
similar
is s?
=Ayb
3. Find
r
=
the
equiangular spirals
confocal and coaxial
the
=1
parabolas
of
a.
270
5. Show
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
of
curves
that
the families
are
orthogonal.
6. Show
r
that
=
the
"
curves cos
sin2a
a(cos 0
that
a)
=
and
sinh2/? a(coshft
=
"
cos
0)
are
orthogonal.
7. Show
if f(x+iy)
iv
the
curves
form
orthogonalsystems.
that for any cosh
x x
8. Prove
constant
cosec
value
p cot y
x
=
of /z the
constant constant
family of
curves
"
cut at
"
cosech
cos
[LONDON, 1890.]
SOME
IMPORTANT
DYNAMICAL
EQUATIONS.
220.
The
equation
of
a
general form of the equation of motion the action of a central force. under particle
is the
Multiplying by
2-^and
dO
we integrating
have
which
we
may
write
as
and
the solution
is therefore
effected.
221.
Equations
of the form
SOME
SPECIAL
FORMS.
271
with
stant con-
have The
alreadybeen
coefficients. solution may
sin
discussed however
as
beinglinear
be conducted
to be
an
thus
:
"
Multiplyby
factor.
n9, which
will be found
integrating
Integrating,
sin
nO^. d6
-
nu
cos
nO=
+ A.
Jo
an
factor integrating
and
the
ing correspond-
n(" +
d\j du
nu
sin nO=
f'f(ff) nO'dO'+B.
cos
J
o
-^L Eliminating
nu
=
O')d0f + Bsmn6-A
cos
n6.
222. The
mass
equationof
some
motion form
of
body
of
changing
often takes
such
as
d! dt
^
and
for this
will equation"f"(x)-rr
be found
to be
an
factor. integrating
leads at
once
to
1
J
^Xto
and
the variables
are
separated.
272
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
FURTHER 223.
one or
ILLUSTRATIVE
EXAMPLES.
be solved forms
^=f(ax+by).
'
ax
ax+by=z.
=
Then
dx
dx
Thus
dx
dz
or
x+A=l
d*..
J
a
bf(z)
y+a
dx xy=z.
Then
y+^^=-y-,
.
dy
dz dx
dx
dz
Z or
=
, X-j- +-5-
dx
dz
dx which is of Clairaut's
form, and
the
is completeprimitive
.
Ex.3. Let
Solve
e^
dx)
6^ =
\dx
77,
ex
=
s-
Then,
since this
equation may
dx
he
arrangedas \e*dx
ILL
USTRA
Tl VE
SOL
UTIONS.
273
we
may
write it as
?7
which written
being of
Clairaut's form
the
completeprimitive may
be
or
Ex.
4.
--
Solid
=
Geometry).
,v=*Js equationbecomes
and
"Jt.
ds
giving
t=
ds
as
which
is of Clairaut's form
and t-sG
has the BC
~
completeprimitive
1+2(7'
and
solution singular
the four
lines straight
9"J-Jy
Ex. 5, Solve the
equation
dx
E. I. C.
274
Let
DIFFERENTIAL
the transformation be such
EQUATIONS.
that
then
is known
by
direct
as integration
function
of
t.
dy
Now dx
d^dL_
*
'
and dx*
givenequationthus
reduces
to
whose and is
cos
"^,
x
of
is
the substituted,
solution
,.
"
-[=.
""~j= sinh^Wa)
If
a
t.
be
we negative
have dx
,=dt"
V-a
are
equations(which
276
whence
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
D2 + 9 and
by
3D
and
15
Z)2" 0,
= =
+ 40Z)2 + (Z"4
1 44"
0,
i.e. whence
x
=
A sin
~2t +
cos
cos
6*.
to eliminate
dt whence viz.
:
"
*"
we
obtain
the
value
of y
without
any
new
constants,
y=-%B
sin 2t + 2 A
cos
2t + i"D
sin 6"
^-
EXAMPLES.
Solve
i.
the
equations
2. 2^-(i-*)y"=**. 'cte
3.
4.
5.
(1-
2 8. Obtain
:
"
cosy the
the
integralsof
following differential
tions equa-
9y
25
cos
[I.C. S, 1804.]
EXAMPLES.
277
9.
Integrate
the
simultaneous
system
4=0.
_
10. inclination
to
Find
the of the
form
of
current
the
curve
in
to
the #-axis
tangent
is
of
the
tangent
of for
proportional
the
11.
product
Find cube the of
of form the
the
coordinates of the of
point.
the of the
curvature
curve
varies
to
as
the
cosine
the
inclination
tangent
the
12.
Show of
that
curvature
in
on
the the
curve
for is
which of
constant
the
projection
of
the
radius
7/-axis
length
(l)Soclogtan(?+|),
(2)
y
oc
log
sec
~.
ANSWEES.
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
12.
1.
Area
e6-ea.
3.
Area=ia2tan
0,
4.
Vol.^.
5
2.
Vol.
=-(e*b-e2n).
Vol.
-a3tan2"9.
5.
Vol.=f7ra3.
6.
(a)
Vol.
=|
Vol.
1
TT
VoL
1
=
(8)
JL25
Vol.
=JL
t)
7,
"7Tfia3.
8.
Mass
of
half
the
spheroid
J?r/xa262.
ANSWERS.
279
II.
2.
^Y.
6. 1.
10.
3.
?^1.
Ioge|.
7.
x/2-1.
4.
8.
|.
PAGE
23.
"2
X
"'
*'
ft C"
r!00
Ht;
r!000
"
r!001
_c.o
10'
_^
100'
_^
98
PAGE
25.
"
, 2J
2.
logx,
~j
log^ +#,
PAGE
26.
2.
3.
logtan"1^,logsin'1^, log(log^).
280
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
PAGE
28.
9
"
log2J
""
4+
aT
log3'
_?
log 6
+I
logo2'
4.
log tan
^,
log sin
cosec
^.
5.
sin-1*,1 tan-,
l86^! an-^,
7.
8.
-log^
CHAPTER PAGE
1. 32.
III.
3.
asin^+-tan-1^4,
4
-a
cose*
+6
log cosh
8.
#.
4.
J_ tan-x-JL-.
V2
_-,
6.
~.
sin-V^-
^2
"
V*
'
PAGE
/-
41.
g
-1?,
"
-H-.-fJain-1*,
2.
cosh^+l),
si
ANSWERS.
281
3.
-Vl=F, x/^,
4.
+1)4, i(^2
6.
2\/l +
#2 +
7.
xyJ\^3?,4 cosh-12
^"?x/5?^
2
8.
^logtan^,
-logtana"r+", ^logtan(-+.A
CL
\4
/
\
),J logtan
13.
CHAPTER
PAGE
IV. 47.
^7
sinh
"
cosh #,
x (2+ #2)sinh
"
Zx cosh 2^
,
x.
sm
2"r
CQS
in 3a? + 9 sin
3. 2a? J(sin 2^
+ cos a?)
3^ + 27
cos^].
cos
2^),
sin 4.f
~""
sin 6^7
~""^~~
_
/cos 2^7
cos
~~
4^
_
cos
~~
6^7
282
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
5.
--^sin^-tan-^),
2
v
^sin^
tan-a4).
of n, -p-q-r.
6.
^2(a2
^2)~sin^-tan-1-,
\
ct /
p + q-r, 7T2
I.
r+p-q,
7T,
_,
A 7T2-4.
9.
sin-1*?+
339
x/f^;2
(1 ^2).
-
PAGE
+ (rf
20^"3+ 1 20#)cosh x
6)sin x,
_
84\V
-
2/
-
\ 2
2^ J{2(2^3 3^)sin
-
(2^4
-
6^2 +
3)cos
5?r4+ 607T2
240, 265e-720.
52.
PAGE
1.
gsmg
\
cos^-sn-g,
3 3
/
where ^74
"
" -"
A-
Si .tT3 3^7
"
(c)^
tan
log cos
"
x.
(e)
tan
_i
lx
"
"
"
Jlog(l+^2).
(/)
sec"1^
cosli"1^.
\/l" ^sin"1^.
+
where
sin(9.
(c)
2
^=
284
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS.
CHAPTEK PAGE
58.
V.
2.
"
3. 4. 5.
+ 4# \ log(^'2
+ 2). 5) taii"1^
-
-log(3-.r). #-2log(#2 +
-
2.r +
2)+ 3tan-1(."
11
6. 2#
tan-1^ H- 3).
PAGE
62.
^ (iii.)
-
ct
"
x (ix.)
7 a^T
-
giZ^
e
1
(^Tiy
+ 8
(^-l)2 8(^-l)
16
j B
27