Skeletal System

Functions of the Skeletal System 1. Support 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Storage 5. Blood cell production CARTILAGE Hyaline cartilage most associated with bone; most bones develop from it Fibrocartilage Elastic cartilage Hyaline Cartilage Chondroblast produce cartilage matrix Chondrocyte matrix surrounds a chondroblast; occupy a space called lacuna w/in the matrix Matrix contains collagen (for strength) and proteoglycans (resilient by trapping water) Perichondrium doublelayered connective tissue sheath covering most cartilage; outer layer dense irregular CT containing fibroblasts; inner layer few fibers and contains chondroblasts Articular Cartilage ends of bones where they come together to form joints has no perichondrium, blood vessels, or nerves Appositional Growth new cartilage matrix on the surface of cartilage Chrondroblasts in the inner layer of perichondrium lay down new matrix on the surface of the cartiage under the periosteum Chondroblast surrounded by matrix become chondrocytes in the new layer

Interstitial Growth new cartilage within cartilage Chondrocytes w/in tissue divide and add more matrix between cells Addition of new cells and matrix increase thickness of cartilage BONE HISTOLOGY Bone Matrix Bone Matrix 35% organic, 65% inorganic material Organic material consists of collagen and proteoglycans Inorganic material consist of calcium phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite Collagen and mineral components responsible for major functional characteristics of bones Collagen lends flexible strength to the matrix Mineral components give matrix compression strength Mineral is removed bone becomes overly flexible Collagen is removed bone is very brittle Bone Cells Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts Osteoblasts produce new bone matrix; have extensive endoplasmic reticulum, numerous ribosomes, golgi apparatus; produce collagen and proteoglycans; release matrix vesicles membrane-bound sacs formed when the membrane buds, or protrudes outward, and pinches off; ossification or osteogenesis formation of bone by osteoblasts, occurs by appositional growth Osteocytes mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix; osteoblast surrounded by matrix

Iz Alcausin | Faculty of Pharmacy | UST

becomes an osteocyte; lacunae spaces occupied by osteocyte cell bodies; canaliculi spaces occupied by osteocyte cell process Osteoclasts responsible for resorption, or breakdown, of bones; large cells with several nuclei; releases H+; release enymes that digest the protein components of the matrix Origin of Bone Cells mesenchymal cells become stem cells; osteochondral progenitor cells stem cells that become osteoblasts or chondroblasts, located in the inner layer of the perichondrium, inner layer of periosteum, and endosteum Woven and Lamellar Bone Woven bone collagen fibers are randomly oriented in many directions; first formed during fetal development or during the repair of a fracture o Remodeling removing old bone and adding new bone Lamellar bone mature bone that is organized into thin sheets or layers called lamellae Cancellous and Compact Bones Cancellous bone consists of thin rods or plates of interconnecting bine called trabeculae bear weight and help bones resist bending and stretching, thin and consists of several lamellae with osteocytes located in lacunae between lamellae; spongy bone porous appearance Compact bone denser and has fewer spaces; central or haversian canal vessels that run parallel to the long axis of the bone; concentric lamellae circular layers of bone matrix that surround central canal; osteon or haversian system -

single central canal; circumferential lamellae thin plates that extend around the bone; interstitial lamellae between osteons, remnants of concentric or circumferential lamellae that were partially removed during bone remodeling; perforating or Volkmanns canals perpendicular to the long axis BONE ANATOMY Bone Shapes Long Bones longer than they are wide; upper and lower limbs Short bones wide as they are long; nearly cube-shaped or round; bones of carpals and tarsals Flat bones relatively thin, flattened shape and usually curved; skull, ribs, sternum, and scapula Irregular bones vertebrae and facial bones Structure of a Long Bone Diaphysis shaft; composed of compact bone; medullary cavity large internal space, red bone marrow blood cell formation, yellow bone marrow adipose tissue Epiphysis cancellous with outer layer of compact bone Within joints, end of long bone articular cartilage Epiphyseal plate, growth plate long bone that is still growing; composed of cartilage, between diaphysis and epiphysis; site of growth in bone length Epiphyseal line bone growth stops Periosteum connective tissue membrane that covers the other surface of a bone; outer fibrous layer dense irregular collagenous CT containing blood vessels and nerves

Iz Alcausin | Faculty of Pharmacy | UST

Endosteum single layer of cells lining the internal surfaces of all cavities w/in bones Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones Flat bones contains interior framework of cancellous bone sandwiched between two layers of compact bone Short and irregular bones similar to ends of long bones; not elongated and have no diaphysis Some of flat and irregular bones of the skull sinuses air-filled spaces lined by mucous membrane BONE DEVELOPMENT Intramembranous Ossification Formation of bone within a connective tissue membrane Begins osteochondral progenitor cells specialize to become osteoblasts Osteoblasts lay down bone matrix on the collagen fibers of the CT membrane, forming many tiny trabeculae of woven bone Trabeculae enlarge as additional osteoblasts lay down bone matrix on their surfaces Cancellous bone forms as trabeculae join together; red bone marrow develops between spaces, and cells surrounding the developing bone specialize to form periosteu Centers of ossification locating in the membrane where ossification begins; expand to form a bone by gradually ossifying the membrane; centers of ossification oldest bone, expanding edges youngest bone Fontanels larger membranecovered spaces between the developing skull ones that have not yet been ossified

Endochondral Ossification formation of bone within cartilage 1. Osteochondral progenitor cells specialize to become chondroblasts that produce a hyaline cartilage model surrounded by perichondriu 2. Osteochondral progenitor cells within the perichondrium become osteoblasts that produce a bone collar around the outer surface of the diaphysis. Perichondrium becomes periosteum. Chondrocytes within cartilage model hypertrophy (enlarge). Calcified cartilage formed as chondrocytes release matrix vesicles, initiate formation of hydroxyapatite crystals 3. Blood vessels grow into the calcified cartilage, bringing osteoblasts and osteoclasts from the periosteum. Primary ossification center - osteoblasts lay down bone matrix on the surface of calcified cartilage. Cancellous bone is formed and remodeled. RBM forms w/in spaces of cancellous bone. 4. Cartilage model continues to grow and the bone collar and are of calcified cartilage enlarge. Osteoclasts remove bone from center of diaphysis to form medullary cavity. Epiphysis calcified cartilage is formed 5. Blood vessels grow into the calcified cartilage of each epiphysis, secondary ossification center osteoblasts lay down bone matrix on the surface of calcified cartilage, spaces in epiphysis do not enlarge to form medullary cavity as in the diaphysis 6. Replacement of cartilage by bone continues in the cartilage model until all the cartilage,

Iz Alcausin | Faculty of Pharmacy | UST

except that in the epiphyseal has been replaced by bone 7. In mature bone, cancellous and compact bones are fully developed and epiphyseal plate has become the epiphyseal line. Articular cartilage only cartilage present. BONE GROWTH Growth in Bone Length Epiphyseal plate o Zone of resting cartilage nearest the epiphysis and contains chondrocytes that do not divide rapidl o Zone of proliferation chondrocytes produce new cartilage through interstitial growth o Zone of hypertrophy chondrocytes produced in the zone of proliferation mature and enlarge o Zone of calcification very thin and contains hypertrophied chondrocytes and calcified cartilage matrix Closure of epiphyseal plate bones achieve normal adult size Growth at Articular Cartilage Also increases the size of the bones Similar as epiphyseal plate, except chondrocyte columns are not as obvious Persists throughout life and does not become ossified as does the epiphyseal plate Growth in Bone Width Long bones increase in width and other bones increase in size or thickness through appositional bone growth beneath the periosteum Bone growth in width is rapid osteoblasts from the periosteum

lay down bone to for a series of ridges with grooves between them Bone growth in width is slow surface of the bone becomes smooth as osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down even layers of bone to for circumferential lamellae Factors Affecting Bone Growth Nutrition- Vitamin D for normal absorption of calcium from the intestines; body synthesize or ingest vitamin D; rickets insufficient vitamin in children, reduced mineralization of the bone matrix; osteomalacia adult rickets, softening of the bones as a result of calcium depletion Hormones Growth Hormone from pituitary gland, increase general tissue growth, stimulates interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone growth; Giantism excessive cartilage and bone formation at the epiphyseal plates of long bones; pituitary giantism excess secretion of pituitary growth hormone; Acromegaly growth of connective tissue, including bones, after epiphyseal plates have ossified; Dwarfism decreased height; pituitary dwarfism abnormally low levels of pituitary growth hormone affect the whole body; Sex hormones estrogen and testosterone stimulate bone growth, stimulate ossification of epiphyseal plate and cessation of growth BONE REMODELING When bones become old it is replaced with new bone Converts woven bone into lamellar bone Involve in bone growth, changes in bone shape, adjustment of bone to the stress, bone repair, and calcium ion regulation in the body Basic multicellular unit (BMU) temporary assembly of osteoclasts and osteoblasts that travels through and across the surface of bone, removing old bone matrix and replacing it with new bone matrix

Iz Alcausin | Faculty of Pharmacy | UST

BONE REPAIR 1. Hematoma Formation Hematoma localized mass of blood released from blood vessels but confined within an organ or a space; forms a clot consisting of fibrous proteins 2. Callus Formation Callus mass of tissue that forms at a fracture site, connecting the broken ends of the bone; forms as clot dissolves and is removed by macrophages Internal callus forms between the ends of broken bone; consists of dense fibrous network in which cartilage and woven bone forms External callus forms a collar of cartilage and woven bone around the opposing ends of bone fragments; stabilize ends of broken bone 3. Callus Ossification fibers and cartilage of the internal and external calluses are ossified to produce woven, cancellous bone 4. Bone Remodeling filling the gap between bone fragments with an internal callus of woven bone is not the end; repair is not complete until woven bone of the internal callus and the dead bone adjacent to the fracture site are replaced by compact bone CALCIUM HEMEOSTASIS Parathyroid hormone (PTH) from parathyroid glands, major regulator of blood Ca2+ levels Calcitonin secreted from thyroid gland, decreases osteoclast activity and thus decreases blood calcium levels

Iz Alcausin | Faculty of Pharmacy | UST