HEAT CONDUCTION/CONVECTION (HT)

This experiment investigates heat transport within a solid and across a solid-gas interface. The first part of the experiment involves measurement of a steady-state temperature profile along a brass rod to determine the conductivity of brass and the rate of heat loss through the insulation to the surrounding air. The second part characterizes heat transfer from a hot brass face to a jet of cooling air blown perpendicularly at the face. We determine the heattransfer coefficient for this air-cooled brass surface and compare this value to that obtained from correlations. NOTE: PLEASE MAKE CERTAIN TO WAIT LONG ENOUGH TO ACHIEVE STEADY STATE. ESTIMATE WHAT THE NECESSARY TIME SCALE IS TO ACHIEVE STEADY STATE BASED ON THE THERMAL PROPERTIES FOR BRASS AND THE LENGTH OF THE BRASS ROD. Once the experiments have been performed and all the calculations completed, the computer program COMSOL is used to model the experimental setup. The program simulates the heat transport for the experimental geometry. Model output is used to compute parameters, such the heat transfer coefficient for the air-cooled brass surface. Comparisons are then made between the empirical results and the computer-generated ones. Analysis is applied to account for any differences. In the written report, you need only describe experimental results that are relevant to your modeling work. A suitable focus for your report is the agreement (or lack of agreement) between model and experiment. Generally, the model provides much more detailed information than the experiment because only limited measurements are taken. To compare modeling and experimental results you might have to spatially average model results because experimental measurements are averages. THEORY1 The engineering discipline of heat transfer is concerned with the methods of calculating rates of heat transfer. There are three modes of heat transfer: heat conduction, thermal radiation, and heat convection. Fundamental to the principle of heat conduction is Fouriers law that relates conductive heat flux to the temperature gradient:
q = k dT dx

(1)

where q is the heat flux, W/m2 k is the thermal conductivity, W/mK dT/dx is the temperature gradient, K/m Conduction describes heat transport across a stationary phase, whereas convective heat transfer describes heat transfer from a surface to a moving fluid, as shown below in Figure 1.

Refer to Chaps 9-16 of Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot [1] or Chap 1 and 2 of Mills [2] for coverage on heat transfer 1

Figure 1: Fluid flow across a heated solid surface The fluid flow across the surface may be forced, as in the case of cooling water running through heated pipes, or natural, driven by buoyancy forces arising from density differences. Flow can be either laminar or turbulent, depending on the value of the Reynolds number. Heat transfer is more effective in the turbulent regime due to effective fluid mixing. The rate of convective heat transfer is generally a complicated function of geometry and the fluid flow field, but is approximately proportional to the temperature difference between the surface temperature Ts and the temperature of the free stream fluid Te. The constant of proportionality is defined to be the convective heat-transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling/heating. Note that this expression is effectively a definition for the heat transfer coefficient hc, qs = hc T (2) 2 where qs is the heat flux, W/m hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K T is the temperature difference (Ts Te in the Fig.), K The Pin Fin2 The pin fin example is used later as part of the analysis of radial heat loss in the experiment. We begin by deriving the governing energy balance. After applying the appropriate boundary conditions, the temperature distribution along the length of the pin fin can be determined. Consider a cylinder with the geometry depicted below in Figure 2. Assume that the constant radius of the pin is R. The length of the pin L is much larger than the radius R, so we ignore temperature gradients in the radial direction. The cross-sectional area, Ac, is R2 and the perimeter P is 2R. Performing an energy balance on an elemental control volume, we find that

refer to section 2.4 of Mills [2] for complete coverage 2

qAc

qAc

x + x

hc P x (T Te ) = 0

(3) Upon insertion of Eq. (1) and evaluation of the appropriate limit, Eq (3) becomes
d 2T (4) hc P (T Te ) = 0 dx 2 where k is the conductivity of the rod hc is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the heat transfer between the rod outer surface and its surroundings at Te It is important to note the hc includes all radial heat-transfer resistances between the pin and the air environment. To solve for the temperature distribution along the fin using this 2nd order differential equation, we must specify two boundary conditions. One obvious condition would be the temperature at the base of the fin, TB, a measurable temperature. Think about where and how it would be best to apply the second boundary condition. Some choices may be to use either a known heat flux or temperature at another place along the fin. kAc

Figure 2: Geometry and differential axial element, x, of a circular pin. PRE-LAB EXERCISES 1. 2. 3. 4. Derive Eq. (4) from Eq. (3). Explain how the pin-fin analysis can be used to estimate radial heat loss. Find values or estimates of brass thermal conductivity from handbooks or textbooks. It is critical that you wait long enough for steady state to be achieved before collecting a temperature profile for data analysis. How is it possible to determine experimentally whether steady state has been achieved?

PART 1: DETERMINATION OF THE HEAT CONDUCTIVITY OF A BRASS ROD AND

OF AN AIR GAP BETWEEN TWO RODS Using the experimental setup, we can estimate the conductivity of brass by taking temperature readings at steady state along the length of the rod and plotting them against the distance from the heated end. The assumptions to be made are that the brass rod is perfectly insulated, i.e. there is no radial heat loss along the length of the rod, and that its conductivity is constant and independent of temperature. These assumptions may not hold for our experimental conditions but they simplify the analysis considerably and permit an initial estimate of the conductivity. If the heat flux q is independent of position, we can apply Fouriers Law of Eq. (1) in finite difference form: T T1 q = k 2 x (5) where k is the conductivity we want to measure T1 and T2 are temperatures at 2 suitable points on the rod, and x is the distance between the chosen points Consider also two rods in end-to-end contact with each other as illustrated in Figure 3. Depending on factors such as material surface roughness and the contact pressure applied, the temperature drop between T2 and T3 can be substantial. To analyze the thermal contact resistance offered by the gap between the two rods we can write: T T2 T2 T3 T T4 q =k 1 = =k 3 1 x x (6) hgap where 1/hgap represents the resistance to heat flow of the thermal-contact gap, and hgap is the corresponding heat transfer coefficient. Note that x/k is the corresponding thermal resistance within bulk materials 1 and 2.

Figure 3: Two radially insulated materials in contact.

4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES (most of the equipment, such as wirings and connections has been assembled. Refer to the manual for the Thermal Conduction Trainer for further details) 1. Connect the water rotameter outlet hose to the linear cooling-water input couplings (See, Pictures, Heat Transfer I and II for details) on the radial/linear panel. Plug the radial coupling to prevent leakage. 2. Ensure that the drain hose is directed to the drainage pipe. 3. Bring the two ends of the Nylon blocks containing the 1 diameter brass rod together. 4. Install the thermistors into the appropriate wells on the assemblies. The thermistors are numbered from 1 through 6. Insert them consecutively into the conduction blocks, numbers 1 to 3 in the left block and numbers 4 to 6 in the right block. Record the location of each thermistor along the x axis. 5. Turn on the water flow and adjust flow-control valve to allow a cooling water flow rate of about 4 GPH. 6. Ensure that the control panel is connected to a power source before switching ON the main A/C circuit breaker on the front of the control panel. 7. Set the temperature controller to the desired test temperature of 170C. Allow at least 1 hour for steady-state conditions to develop. At steady state the wattmeter stabilizes as well as the sample temperatures. 8. Use the thermistor-selector switch to switch between the various temperatures. Record the temperatures for use in your analysis. Dont forget to record the temperature of the heater, as well as the power input. 9. Also record the temperatures of the inlet water (thermistor 12) and the exit water (thermistor 13) for the cooled end. Record the water-rotameter reading.

Heat Transfer I

Heat Transfer II

DATA ANALYSIS 1. Estimate the conductivity of brass from a plot of the experimental data. Be careful to think about what temperatures to use in this analysis. Compare your measured thermal conductivity to values from handbooks or textbooks. 2. Estimate the resistance to heat flow at the thermal contact and the corresponding contact coefficient. Compare this value to resistance in the two rods. 3. Estimate the rate of heat transfer through the rods to the cooling water. Compare this to the power of the heating element and comment on where the heat is going. 4. Discuss, quantitatively and qualitatively, the main sources of error and how they might affect your results. For questions 5-7, see additional information below. 5. Derive an expression for the temperature profile, i.e. T-Te/ TB-Te as a function of xposition. 6. Estimate the overall heat-transfer coefficient for heat loss to the radial surroundings using the above analysis. Think carefully about how best to apply the pin-fin analysis to this problem and apply the best boundary conditions, without resorting to a canned equation for the temperature profile. 7. Compare the value of the heat transfer coefficient you obtain with values from textbooks or handbooks. Comment on your results. Additional information for 5-7: Accounting for Heat Transfer along the Length of the Rod In the previous part of the experiment we have neglected radial heat loss from the brass rod to the surroundings. In estimating the conductivity of brass we assumed the temperature profile to be linear. When we account for radial heat loss, the dependency of the temperature on x-position is no longer linear. We shall now attempt a more realistic analysis by taking into account this heat loss, based on our pin fin analysis. Eq. (4) can be transformed into the following by a change of variable: d 2 (7) 2 = 0 dx 2 where = T-Te, is external temperature, and 2=hc P/ (k Ac). Eq. (7) has the following solution: = B1 sinh x + B2 cosh x (8) We can determine the unknown interaction constants B1 and B2 by using the two boundary conditions of temperatures near the ends of the rod. Let TB represent the temperature at the hot side. To consider: Which place is it best to apply this analysis and why: the first
8

segment, the second segment, or the whole rod? What are the best boundary conditions to use?? Equipment specifications: Max power output of electric heater: 100W Diameter of brass rod: 25.4 mm

PART 2: MEASURING HEAT TRANSFER FOR AIR COOLING ACROSS FACE OF

BRASS ROD In this second part of the experiment, we consider a single brass rod heated at one end by an electrical element and cooled at the other by air flow. The concept is essentially the same as the previous part of the experiment except that the boundary conditions are different. Instead of holding the temperature constant at the cooled end, we recognize that the cooled end of the brass rod loses heat in obedience to Newtons law of cooling
Ac k dT dx = Ac hcf T
x =L

x= L

Te

(9)

where hcf is the convective heat transfer coefficient for the heat loss from the face of the brass rod (Note that hcf is different from the overall heat-transfer coefficient hc for the heat loss along the sides of the rod as discussed in the additional analysis section in part 1 of the experiment) If we know both the temperature and the gradient of temperature at the end of the rod (x = L), Eq. (9) can be used to determine the convective heat transfer coefficient hcf. Note that the last thermistor does not measure the surface temperature. Extrapolation by inch is needed because the last thermistor is inch in from the face of the rod. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 1. Retain all settings from the first part of the experiment. 2. Slide the left block along the grooves all the way to the left. Lift the block and insert a supporting block underneath. 3. Direct the cooling-air nozzle towards the exposed face of the brass rod. Maintain a distance of 10 mm between the nozzle and the face (the spacers set this gap). Line up the nozzle with the brass rod by watching the assembly both from the top and from the side. 4. Install the thermistors into the appropriate wells on the assembly. Use only thermistors 1, 2, and 3.

5. Open the valve to the left of the regulator leading to the air rotameter. Set the pressure-regulator knob to 20 psig. Then set the flow rate on the rotameter to about 4 SCFM. 6. Ensure that the control panel is connected to a power source before switching ON the main A/C circuit breaker at front of the control panel. 7. Set the temperature controller to the desired test temperature of 170C. Allow about 1 h for steady-state conditions to develop. At steady state, the wattmeter must stabilize as well as the sample temperatures. 8. Use the thermistor-selector switch to switch between the various thermistors. Record the temperatures for use in your analysis. Dont forget to record the temperature of the heater, as well as the power input. 9. Repeat the experiment with a much lower air flow rate, 1 SCFM on the rotameter, for example. After changing the flow rate, wait long enough to ensure that a new steady state is established. 10. Repeat the experiment at more air flow rates, such as 2 and 3 SCFM on the rotameter. DATA ANALYSIS 1. From an appropriate plot of your data, obtain the convective heat-transfer coefficient at the end of the rod, hcf, for all gas flow rates. By plotting graphically or using Excel to fit an exponential function to the curves, one can display the equations of the trend lines and find the gradient and the temperature at the end of the rod analytically. 2. Compare the values of the heat-transfer coefficient to values from texts or handbooks. 3. Find an appropriate heat-transfer correlation, describe the terms (i.e. the dimensionless quantities), and use the correlation to predict the heat transfer coefficient under the experimental conditions. 4. Comment on how the heat-transfer coefficient depends on gas velocity from your experimental measurement and from the correlation. Discuss the result in terms of the boundary-layer thickness. References 1. R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart and Edwin N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2nd edition, 2002. 2. Anthony F. Mills, Basic Heat and Mass Transfer, Prentice Hall Inc., 1999
10

COMSOL MODELING
The objective of this assignment is to simulate the air-cooling-over-a-brass-rod part of the Heat Transfer Lab using the Multiphysics software package COMSOL. You are given a partially completed COMSOL file that already contains the equations, geometry, and material properties for the heat-transfer-experiment simulation. All information is contained in the graphical user interface (or 'GUI'). Note that the protocol for inserting expressions into the boxes in the GUI follows the MATLAB form. For example, the square root of y is written 'y^0.5'; the number 100,000 is written as '1.e5;' multiplication of x and y is 'x*y', and so on. Your tasks are to complete the model by incorporating the appropriate boundary conditions, to make various runs, and most importantly, to analyze the results. Result analysis includes comparisons to correlations for heat transfer and to your experimental results. To complete your tasks, you also need to understand of how COMSOL works, what the equations are, and how to conduct 'postprocessing' (e.g., plotting temperature profiles, heat fluxes, etc.,). A schematic of the heat-transfer apparatus is presented in Figure 4. Although the rod geometry is cylindrical, the COMSOL package approximates the system as two-dimensional and rectilinear with coordinate x directed vertically from the axis of symmetry and coordinate y directed perpendicular to the rod face and into the oncoming flow stream as illustrated in the figure (note that the coordinate x in Figure 4 is no longer the axial coordinate adopted in the previous figures). The coordinate z, directed out of the plane of the paper, is considered infinite and is not shown. That is, the heat-transfer system is treated as a slit that behaves identical at all z values. (This geometry is called translationally invariant). Adoption of this particular system permits better focus on the thermal boundary layer adjacent to the rod face. Because of symmetry, only the top half of the system (i.e. x >0) need be modeled.

11

Figure 4. A schematic diagram of air-cooling-over-a-brass-rod. The z direction is out of the plane of the paper and is not shown. PRE-LAB EXERCISES You can use COMSOL in the computing facility in 175 Tan Hall. You may also install COMSOL in your laptop computer. We will provide the installation CD and license information. With this license, you will be able to run COMSOL whenever you are connected to the Internet via a Berkeley IP, including Airbears. MODELING GUIDE This guide assumes that you are reasonably familiar with the basic operations of COMSOL: (a) setting up the coordinate system and the boundaries of simulation domain, (b) generating the mesh, (c) specifying governing equations, and (d) assigning boundary conditions. It is primarily the latter that has not been done already, but you need to understand the former as well. Remember: although both you and your partner(s) do the experimental work together and will use the same experimental data for the written report, each of you must perform all calculations, analysis, and report writing completely independently no sharing is allowed. However, you may work together to implement COMSOL.

12

Note: The COMSOL file model is set up with SI units - be sure you take this into account. 1. Physics models. Two physics models are loaded in this simulation: 1) Heat Transfer in Fluids and 2) Laminar Flow. Locate these models under the Model Builder menu on the left side of the screen and click the triangle next to them to show the properties associated with each model. Each of the listed properties applies either to a domain or to a boundary. a. Those properties that apply to a domain have an icon next to them that is an empty oval ( ) there are slight variations on this icon depending on specific properties of the domain. b. Those properties that apply to a boundary have an icon next to them that looks like an oval with a cross inside ( ) there are slight variations on this icon depending on specific properties of the boundary. 2. Domain properties. We will now take a closer look at the domain properties: a. The Heat Transfer in Fluids model applies to all domains of the system whereas the Laminar Flow model applies only to the domains which contain gas flow. Verify that each model is applied to the appropriate domains by clicking through the domain properties and observing which domains are selected. b. When applying any computational model, it is important to fully understand the governing equations implemented in the model. Verify that the equations are appropriate for the system we are trying to model by clicking through the domain properties and looking under the Equation section. c. The model contains numerical values for the various material properties. For simplicity we ignore the temperature dependence of the properties. Click through the various domain properties and verify that the materials properties are correct. 3. Boundary properties. Now, we will complete the boundary properties: a. Specifying the necessary boundary conditions for all boundaries is the main task that has not been done already. Click on each of the boundary properties. Verify that boundary properties that have already been entered are accurate. Enter any boundary properties that are missing. b. We must also specify the inlet gas velocity. Under Laminar Flow -> Inlet 1, the y component of the velocity has been specified as a parameter Vin. The value of the gas velocity Vin is changed by clicking the triangle next to the Global Definitions heading under the Model Builder menu and then selecting Parameters. Change the value of 'Vin' from run to run, in order to simulate the experiment in which different inlet velocities were used. 1 m/s, 2 m/s, 3.1 m/s, and 4.1 m/s velocities correspond approximately to the inlet flowrates in the experiment (1-4 scfm). 4. Mesh. The mesh is specified by clicking on Mesh under the model builder menu. You may start with a physics controlled mesh and change the element size observe the effect of changing the element size on the computational time required to
13

solve the model and the quality of the resulting model. You may also use a usercontrolled mesh to see if you can develop an alternative meshing scheme which produces a more accurate result while making more efficient use of computational resources. Remember that if the mesh is too 'coarse,' the solution may be inaccurate, but a mesh that is too 'fine,' may take a long time to run. Ideally, one increases the mesh refinement (uses more and, therefore, smaller mesh elements) until the solution no longer depends on mesh size. 5. Study. Under the Model Builder menu, a study called Study 1 has been defined which looks for the stationary solution. Right click on study 1 and click Compute to solve the model. If you set the inlet velocity to zero, you should see the heat-conduction-only solution. NOTE ON SOLUTION MANAGEMENT One of the most important aspects of achieving a valid solution is choosing the right initial guess since the equations are non-linear. To find out what initial guess COMSOL uses, you can right click on Step 1: Stationary under Study 1 in Model Builder Menu, and then select Get Initial Value for Step.

POST-PROCESSING ANALYSIS In COMSOL, you can analyze the numerical solution of field variables as well as quantities that are derived from them in almost any way you want. There a series of post-processing tutorials for Comsol available online that you can view by searching for comsol post processing tutorial. As an example, you can generate 1D plots of quantities of interest, such as temperature and heat flux as a function of position along a boundary. Right click Results under the Model Builder menu and select 1D Plot Group. Right click the new 1D Plot Group # that appears and select Line Graph. In the Line Graph window, select the appropriate solution under the Data Set menu. Under Selection, choose the boundary along which you would like to generate a 1D plot. Then, next to the y-Axis Data heading, click on and select a quantity of interest, which will be inputed into the Expression field. The Expression field accepts any expression with Matlab syntax, which may be useful for calculating quantities such as the heat transfer coefficient directly. Click Plot at the top of the Line Graph window to generate a plot. Contour plots, vector plots, and X-Y plots at cross-sections are all available. It is up to you to decide how to analyze the results to (a) develop your own understanding of the transport phenomena in the system and (b) to represent the results in your report in a concise, clear, and get-to-the-point manner. Results may be exported for further manipulation outside of Comsol. For instance, right click on a solution listed under Data Sets under Results in the Model Builder menu, and then select Add Data to Export. Right click the new Data # that appears under Export and choose the data you would like to export.
14

TASKS FOR WRITTEN REPORT 1. Report the boundary conditions you chose and justify those choices. Write the explicit mathematical expression for each boundary condition. Remember to define your variables. 2. Show how energy flows through the system and attempt to close an energy balance. 3. Plot the axial temperatures T(0, y<0) in the rod and compare them to your experimental values. Comment on any differences. Can you explain the differences? 4. Heat transfer between the air and the brass rod takes place through the thermal boundary layer. In this region the gas temperature varies sharply it is the major region for resistance to heat transfer in the gas phase. Plot temperature vs axial distance, along the central axis, from the surface of the brass into the gas boundary layer. Generate a plot for each inlet velocity and show how the temperature boundary layer varies with Vin. 5. First, determine the heat flux vs.the radial distance along the face of the rod for each value of the inlet velocity. Then, compute and plot the heat transfer coefficient h vs.the radial distance along the face of the rod for each value of the inlet velocity. You must use the definition of h in terms of the heat flux at the interface between the brass surface and the air in order to do this. 6. Now compute the spatially-averaged value of h over the rod face and plot it verses the inlet velocity. 7. Find an appropriate correlation for the Nusselt number dependence on Reynolds and Prandtl numbers for this laminar impinging jet flow - probably something like Nu=C 1 . ReC2.PrC3. Compare the simulation predictions to the correlation values and comment. 8. Stagnant-film theory estimates h as the ratio of gas thermal conductivity to boundary layer thickness. Compare h from the simulation to this estimate for each value of inlet velocity and comment. 9. Heat flux from the rod surface to the air can be calculated from the product of gas thermal conductivity and the air temperature gradient at the surface (Fourier's law of heat conduction). Heat flux can also be calculated by the product of h and the temperature difference between the rod surface and the air temperature far from the boundary layer (bulk air temperature). What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach? 10. Another way to ask the previous question is to ask what is the relationship between the gas thermal conductivity and the heat transfer coefficient?

15

REFERENCES
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Garden, R.; Cobonpue, J. Heat Transfer Between a Flat Plate and Jets of Impinging on It. Int. Dev. Heat. Trans. 1963, 454-460. Chamberlain, J. E. Heat Transfer Between a Turbulent Round Jet and a Segmented Plate Perpendicular to It. M.S. Thesis, Newark College of Engineering. 1966. Donaldson, C.; Snedeker, R. S.; Margolis, D. P. A Study of Free Jet Impingement. Part 2. Free Jet Turbulent Structure and Impingement Heat Transfer. J. Fluid Mech. 1971, 45, 477-512. Callister, W. D.; Rethwisch, D.G. Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering; Wiley & Sons: New York, 2008; p 819. Brdlik, P.M; Savin, V.K. Heat Transfer Between an Axisymmetric Jet and a Plate Normal to the Flow. Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhurnal. 1965, 8, 146-155. Hyrcak, P. Heat Transfer from Round Impinging Jets to a Flat Plate. Int. J Heat Mass Transfer. 1983, 26, 1857-1865. Li, C.Y.; Garimella, S.V. Prandtl-number effects and generalized correlations for confined and submerged and submerged jet impingement. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 2001, 41, 3471-3480. Behnia, M.; Parneix, S.; Shabany, Y.; Durbin, P.A. Numerical study of turbulent heat transfer in confined and unconfined impinging jets. Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow. 1999, 20, 1-9. Brdlik, P.M.; Savin, V.K. Turbulent Transition of a Laminar Boundary Layer in the Axisymmetric Flow of a Jet over Plane Surfaces Normal to the Stream. Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhurnal. 1966, 11, 432-437. Jambunathan, K.; Lai, E.; Moss, A.; Button B.L. A review of heat transfer data for single circular jet impingement. Int. J Heat and Fluid Flow. 1992, 13, 106-115. Hoogendoorn, C.J. The effect of turbulence on heat transfer at a stagnation point. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 1977, 20, 1333-1338. R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart and Edwin N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960 Anthony F. Mills, Basic Heat and Mass Transfer, Prentice Hall Inc., 1999

(10) (11) (12) (13)

16