Sorghum For Feed and Fodder Production

Sorghum for feed and fodder production
Presented in the Regional Workshop on Optimum Industrial utilization of Sorghum in Sudan. Organized by Industrial Research & Consultancy Centre (IRCC). 18-19 April 2010. Khartoum North. Sudan By Maarouf I. Mohammed Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) P.O.Box 30. Khartoum North. Sudan Email: ibrahimarof@yahoo.com Abstract Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) lends itself to a variety of uses. Its uses for feed and fodder are now overtaking that for food in many parts of the world. Recent developments in enhancing sorghum digestibility make it a strong competitor to maize in view of its relative advantage as low input demanding crop that can thrive better under harsh conditions. The present paper highlights the importance of sorghum as a forage and feed-grain crop. The forage stuff included grass, sweet and hybrid types and their production under green chop, grazing, hay or silage making systems. As feed stuff, we discussed the potential of utilizing sorghum grains in diary. beef and poultry nutrition. The paper also highlights some of the recent advances in quality enhancement of sorghum specifically brown midrib trait (BMR) and high digestible sorghum grain (HDS). The role of processing to improve the relative efficiency of sorghum as feed-grain has also been discussed. Introduction Sorghum has recently witnessed an increasing importance as feed crop in the semi arid tropics and drier parts of the world where livestock constitutes a major component of the production system. Such importance is further accentuated by global warming, increasing water shortages, and growing demand for high quality forage resources. Although the crop has great genetic diversity enabling selection for most economic traits, yet improvement efforts are mostly grain oriented with little attention being given to non-grain attributes. Kelley et al. (1991) questioned the current strategy of strictly adopting grain-yield criteria in evaluating sorghum genotypes, arguing that fodder's contribution to the total value of sorghum production has increased considerably. They reported that the grain/straw price ratio of sorghum has dropped from 6:1 in 1970 to 3:1 in 1990 and is likely to decline further. Uses of sorghum have been discussed by Dendy (1995). Much of the agricultural history of sorghum has been for food, beverage, feed and building material. It has been used as an industrial crop during the last 100 years. Mechanization of its cultivation and harvesting has occurred primarily in the last 60-70 years. Industrial uses of the crop have been for feed, some for food, starch, the chemical industry and for fuel alcohol. The use of grain as an animal feed
Mohammed, Maarouf I. Sorghum for feed and fodder production. Regional Workshop on Optimum Industrial utilization of Sorghum in Sudan. IRCC. 18-19 April 2010. Khartoum North. Sudan
has been an important stimulus to the global use of sorghum (Dendy, 1995). Feed use was relatively minor until the mid-1960's when there was a rapid expansion in this use, particularly in North America. Feed utilization overtook food use for the first time in 1966 after which feed use has risen from 15 to 40 million tomes. Currently, about 48% of world sorghum grain production is fed to livestock (Dowling et al, 2002). Up to 97% of this use has been in developed countries. Production of grain for feed which is already established in many industrialized countries is likely to become more common in developing countries in which sorghum is mainly produced for human consumption (Dowling et al, 2002). This specially true for some higher income developing countries, particularly in Latin America where it constitutes about 80% of sorghum utilization. Sorghum has great potential for fodder production under limited resource conditions. Compared to other cereals, especially maize, sorghum is more droughts tolerant, less input demanding and thrive better under harsh conditions. Sudangrass was first introduced to USA from Sudan in 1909 (by C.V. Piper) to replace the rhizomatous weedy type "Johnson Grass" (Maunder, 1983). In 1911, the first Sudangrass variety (Wheeler) was released in USA by Carl Wheeler (Peterson and Miller, 1950). The advent of hybrid sorghum in the l950's represents a turning point contributing to expanded use and higher yields of the crop. According to Maunder (1983), the release of the first forage sorghum hybrid took place in 1959. These were the unwanted crosses of grain hybrid program which later led to the forage hybrid Sudax. Another breakthrough in the history of sorghum took place with the identification of brown midrib (BMR) trait (Porter et al, 1978) which sparked interest for utilization of sorghum as high quality forage crop. Sorghum as feed grain Enhanced quality grain: The importance of sorghum grain as animal feed has been reviewed by many workers (Subramanium and Metta, 2000; Dowling et al, 2002; Reddy et al, 2005; Kriegshauser et al, 2006). Sorghum grain is a significant component of animal feed in the United States, South America, Australia and China, and is becoming important in chicken feed in India. In the Unites States it represents the second most important feed grain following maize. Compared to corn, sorghum grain has similar feed characteristics, provides about as much metabolizable energy, has higher crude protein content, but less digestibility. In the past, increase of tannin content in sorghum-based animal feed has been blamed for depressed growth and feed conversion. Nowadays, low-tannin high digestible sorghum (HDS) varieties have been developed. HDS grain can be used as a complete replacement for maize in poultry feed without sacrificing body weight or egg production performance of layer birds (Reddy et al, 2005; Kriegshauser et al, 2006). Improved lines of high-lysine mutant of grain sorghum have been shown to have substantially greater digestibility of protein than normal cultivars (Dowling et al, 2002). Variations in feed quality of sorghum have been attributed to differences in physical and chemical seed characteristics and processing methods used before feeding. Increased seed size
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and high fat content appear to be beneficial to sorghum-based poultry diets, resulting in improved animal performance that is comparable to that of maize (Kriegshauser et al, 2006) Processed grain: Stock and Madery (1987) studied the feeding value of grain sorghum relative to corn using various grain processing methods. It has been widely recognized that grain sorghum must be processed to be efficiently used by finishing cattle. Unlike corn, whole grain sorghum kernels will not be broken down and digested by the animal. The starch which represents 70% of the dry matter in grain sorghum is digested at much slower rate in the rumen of cattle compared to corn. On the other hand, proteins also appear to be less digestible in grain sorghum than in other grains. Processing of grain ruptures the seed coat, reduces particle size and increases surface area so digestion can occur more rapidly and extensively. Thus, processing increases rate and extent of starch digestion resulting in large improvements in its feeding value. Dry ground or rolled grain sorghum has a relative feeding value of 90% of dry rolled corn. Processing by more sophisticated methods (early harvesting, steam-flaking, popping, etc.) greatly enhance the feeding value of sorghum grain. Sorghum for fodder Fodder sorghums are usually classified into three major categories: forage sorghums, sudangrasses and sorghum- sudangrass hybrids. These sorghums have little value as directly marketable seed crops, but their value becomes apparent as they are marketed through livestock and industrial utilization e.g. milk, meat and ethanol (Pedersen and Fritz, 2000). Forage sorghums: These include sweet sorghum varieties and hybrids. They are tall plants (2 to 4 m) with sweet thick stems. Unlike sudangrass, forage sorghum has poor regrowth ability following harvest, so is best adapted to a single-cut system. It is best utilized as a silage crop, although it can be grazed or cut for hay if managed appropriately. Its silage is usually slightly lower in energy than that of corn but similar in protein Sudangrass: Characterized by small, fine stems and leafy growth. Sudangrasses regrow rapidly after cutting or grazing. It can be harvested as pasture, green chop, or hay. The thinner stems give it better drying characteristics than other sorghums for hay making. Sudangrasses are used less extensively than in the past and have been largely replaced by sorghum-sudangrass hybrids in grazing and haying operations for which they are well suited. Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids: These are crosses between Sudangrass and other forms of sorghums. They are taller, have thicker stems and can be higher yielding than sudangrass. They are usually harvested for green chop or silage but may be pastured or hayed if sown at a high seeding rate and harvested at immature stages (0.5 m tall). Systems of production Sorghum may be utilized in a number of ways: as green chop, grazed, made into hay or silage. It can meet the requirements of the stock farmer the whole year if a combination of these systems has been adopted. The major production systems are:
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Green chop and grazing: The feed produced under these systems permit utilization of forage at its full feeding value. The crop is grazed or cut when plants reach a height of 60 to 90 cm and onwards. At this stage the plants have established themselves, are very palatable and have a high nutritive value, which ensures a good feed intake. The plants must not be allowed to flower. To stimulate rapid growth after harvest, plants must not be grazed down or cut too short (15 20 cm) as this will deplete the plant reserves necessary for regrowth. Forage sorghum recovers rapidly after utilization and a growth of 30 cm or more per week may be obtained, depending on the variety and environment. Hay: Haymaking is the process in which the green forage turns into dry, safely stored and easily transported product with minimum losses of dry matter and nutrients, hence, playing an important role in fodder availability all through the year and help greatly in bridging the accidental gaps in forage production. Haymaking involves reduction of the moisture content in the green matter from 70 90% to 20 25% or less. Under humid temperate conditions hay production from sorghum types having thick stems is subjected to spoilage due to slowness of drying. Under tropical conditions, hay made from coarse cereals such as sorghum represents a good choice since finer grasses are usually subjected to shattering of leaves, bleaching and loss of carotene and vitamins due to rapid drying. High seed rates are usually recommended for sorghum specifically grown for hay production as high plant population induces thinner stems that dry easier. Harvesting for hay is recommended before head emergence or at booting stage. Rapid, uniform drying is critical for sorghum-sudangrass hay. Silage: Sorghum is an important silage crop for beef and dairy producers. The general shortcomings of sorghum silage in comparison to that of corn included lower nutritive value and threats of prussic acid and nitrate poisoning. Forage and grain sorghums types are the best suited for silage production. Sudangrass and sorghum- sudangrass hybrids are better suited for hay making or grazing. Grain sorghum compares very favorably to corn as whole-plant silage. Grain sorghum should be harvested at the mid- to late-dough stage of kernel maturity. It usually has a higher crude protein (CP) content than corn silage, but slightly lower net energy values for beef and dairy cattle. If silage is made perfectly, anaerobic bacteria (lactic acid bacteria) will convert carbohydrates to lactic acid, the pH is rapidly lowered and the silage is preserved. Yet, some DM is lost during lactic acid production in even the best of circumstances. Whenever oxygen is present, carbohydrates are converted to carbon dioxide and water, accompanied by the generation of considerable heat resulting in serious losses in DM ranging from 5% - 15% in very good silage to 25% - 50% in very bad one. Losses are quantified as the amount of forage DM fed-in minus that fed-out of a silo. These losses are the result of effluent, respiration, primary and secondary fermentation, and aerobic activity during the storage and feed-out process. Ashbell and Weinberg (2000) discussed silage making in the tropics. The use of silage has long been an integral component of temperate feeding systems worldwide, as a means to ensure year4
round feed supply for high production animals. However, its use in the tropics has been restricted to isolated cases, usually involving higher-return enterprises, and particularly the dairy industry. This technology requires high investment in facilities, accurate timing in the several stages of the ensiling process, and better understanding of the whole process than hay making demands. In addition to these demands, silage making and management in tropical conditions needs special attention and care with regard to three key points: In warm areas, it is more difficult to control the correct stage for harvesting due to very rabid phasing of growth stages. This is especially crucial with cereal crops in the last stages of maturity. The correct dry matter (DM) content in the plant before ensiling is an important factor for the fermentation success. Unexpected weather (dry, wet or hot) can damage the crop and increase losses. Aerobic stability: Rapid deterioration of silage, especially during the feeding-out process is a real problem in a hot climate. It reduces quality and results in losses. Aerobic stability should become a routine test in hot areas (Ashbell et al., 1991). Stem (lignin) ratio to the whole plant: Reducing the proportion of stem in the plant will increase its digestibility, so, in practice, shorter hybrids are preferable. Some of the important properties determining the value of sorghum silage. Include: High energy: Structural carbohydrates and starch are the main energy resources in cereal crops. Starch is mainly accumulated in the grain, the amount of which greatly affects the total energy content. The higher the proportion of grain in the plant, the more the total energy. The positive effect of the presence of starch is especially important for dairy cows. Therefore, we are looking for a high-grain sorghum hybrid. DM content: Ensiling technology requires at least 30% of DM in the forage. With less than 30% DM, undesirable fermentation takes place and increases losses. To increase the DM content, the recommended stage for harvesting should be between milk and dough stages. Harvesting at late-dough maturity or later will increase the undigested amount of the grains and reduce the nutritional value. Tannins: As pointed earlier, tannins have a negative effect on the digestibility rate of the protein in the diet. The brown mid-rib (BMR) trait in sorghum The name brown midrib (BMR) refers to the reddish-brown pigmentation of the midrib of leaves. The bmr trait is recessive. When present in the homozygous state, will effect reduced lignin content and higher forage digestibility (Porter et al., 1978; Cherney et al., 1986; Pedersen, 1996; Casler et al., 2003). The genetic control of the lignifications process through manipulation of the bmr trait has offered the most direct and productive approach to reducing lignin content and increasing digestibility of forage sorghums (Gerhardt et al., 1994). Lignin concentration of
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brown midrib lines has been reduced by 5 to 50%. A decrease of 10 g kg-1 in lignin generally resulted in an increase of 40 g kg-1 in digestibility (Cherney et al., 1991). As a result, voluntary intake and animal performance may increase by up to 30% (Cherney et al., 1991). Despite these advantages, some concerns regarding BMR mutations should not be overlooked, i.e. it can lead to reduced dry matter yield and increased lodging. However, these problems are often time and variety specific. Some cultivars perform better than others. Future cultivars resulting from breeding efforts will likely eliminate some of the concerns associated with BMR sorghums. Joshua et al (2005) studied the effect of harvest stage and regrowth on yield, composition and digestibility of some bmr genotypes. They found that the genotype BMR-101 was resistant to lodging at early heading. However, it suffered from high lodging at the soft dough stage of the summer harvest. Brent and Ted (2005) reported that bmr varieties yielded 10 to 11 percent less in most years than non- bmr varieties, and in one year where weather conditions were hotter and dryer than normal, yield was 26% less. Lodging on average has not been worse with the bmr varieties, however, a higher percentage of the bmr varieties were observed to have at least some observable lodging compared to the non- bmrs. Lodging potential was reduced by lowering seeding and nitrogen fertilizer rates. Average in-vitro digestibility of bmr varieties was higher than non- bmr varieties and was similar to that of corn. Sorghum for feed in the Sudan In the Sudan, where the second largest animal wealth in Africa exists, forage sorghum constitutes the bulk of the animal feed in the country. The traditional sorghum cultivar Abu Sabin is the most important variety grown for forage in the Sudan. In Khartoum State, for example, it represents more than 75% of the total area cultivated (Statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture of Khartoum State, 2008). Sudan is known to have a wealth of genetic variability in sorghum (AbuEl-Gasim and Kambal, 1975; Yasin, 1978). The Sudan genetic resources have been reviewed by Mahmoud et al (1996). The sorghum germplasm of Sudan has been utilized extensively in the USA and other parts of the world. Apart from kafirs of southern Africa, no sorghum contributed to the crop's current high international status as did Sudan's feterita, milo, hegari, mugud, ziraizeera and Sudan grass types. In contrast, local efforts to exploit such variability to develop improved sorghum feed types have been very limited and mostly directed towards improving food grain types. The first fully devoted forage improvement program in the country started in 2000 (Mohammed et al. 2008). One of the program objectives was to develop improved fodder types from the local stocks of forage sorghum. Under this program, the first improved forage sorghum cultivars Kambal (improved Abu Sabin) and Sudan-1 (improved Garawi) have been released in the years 2004 and 2009, respectively (Mohammed, et al. 2008; Mohammed, 2010a). On the first of March 2010, the program has succeeded in releasing the Sudan first forage sorghum hybrid under the name Hagin Garawi (Mohammed, 2010b) In the Sudan, fodder sorghums are traditionally produced under green chopping system. Grazing, hay or silage making systems are not practiced. The traditional system favors high yields at the
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expense of high feeding value. A very common practice adopted by Abu Sabin growers is to delay cutting until grain formation. The grains being produced were eaten by sparrows and the farmers usually end up with a straw of a lowered feeding value. Moreover, fodder crops are generally viewed as low input- cash crops. Such system requires fast growing, highly productive cultivars (i.e. cv Abu Sab'in) to minimize costs of production. Livestock in the Sudan are traditionally fed on sorghum grain of feterita types produced under rain fed conditions; however, under intensive production system they are fed on concentrates composed of sorghum grain(as energy source) cake of groundnut and wheat barn (as protein source). Khair and Krause (2003) investigated the grain feeding value of some Sudanese sorghum varieties. Highly significant differences were encountered between cultivars for crude protein. The feterita types showed the highest CP levels (12 %-13.7%), whereas the high yielding types like Tabat and Wad Ahmed showed CP levels as low as 8.8 %. Anti- quality factors Prussic acid poisoning: Most Sorghums contain varying amounts of cyanogenic glucosides, which depend on the variety, growth stage, and environmental conditions (Wheeler et al, 1990). When eaten by stock, cyanogenic glucosides are converted to prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid HCN) in the rumen and may cause fatal poisoning of cattle and discourages farmers from using the forage while it is still young and digestible. If sorghum is cut for hay and sundried the HCN is rapidly volatilized, and can be fed to livestock. If conditions are unfavorable, plants can be analyzed at a certified lab if HCN > 500 ppm (DM basis) then the plants should not be grazed or fed. More over, the negative impact of prussic acid in forage sorghum is not confined only to the infrequent fatal poisoning of stock, but also the less obvious or hidden consequences of induction of sulfur deficiency. As stated by Gibson (1995), the sulfur deficiency is increased when the forage has a high prussic acid level. This is because sulfur is utilized in detoxification reaction within animal body. Animals have this ability to breakdown prussic acid as long as there is enough reserve of sulfur in their body tissues; however if depleted, sulfur deficiency causes a reduction in appetite which in turn leads to a decline in average daily weight gains or milk production. Kyabram (1995) mentioned some measures that can significantly reduce the risk of prussic acid poisoning: 1. Do not graze the crop when it is showing signs of severe stress caused by factors such as low soil moisture. Initial growth after stress is also high in prussic acid. 2. Do not introduce hungry stock to forage sorghum -feed them first. 3. Do not graze the crop until it reaches about 0.6 m high. 4. Introduce only a few animals initially rather than the whole herd and observe their reaction. If animals refuse to graze, remove them promptly. 5. Provide sulphur salt licks to stock. This helps animals to detoxify the prussic acid. 6. Use lower-risk varieties as there are differences in prussic acid levels between cultivars.
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Nitrate poisoning: Sorghums can accumulate nitrates (NO3) during any weather condition that interferes with normal plant growth; however drought is the most common cause. This NO3 is converted to nitrite (NO2) in the rumen, which diffuses out into the bloodstream and binds to hemoglobin. This prevents the transport of oxygen (O2) causing the animal to die from oxygen depravation. Most NO3 accumulate in the stem or lower portion of the plant. If NO3 in the feed exceeds 0.35% it should either be discarded or diluted with safe feed (preferably grain). Unlike HCN, NO3 will not leach out by the sun, however ensiling the forage can lower the NO3 by approximately 50%. References: Abu-El-Gasim, E.H. and Kambal, A.E. (1975). Variability and interrelations among characters in indigenous grain sorghum of the Sudan. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal. 41: 125-133. Ashbell, G. and Weinberg, Z.G. (2000). Silage from tropical cereals and forage crops. In; Silage making in the tropics with particular emphasis on smallholders. Proceedings of electronic conference. FAO. November 2000 Ashbell, G., Weinberg, Z.G., Azrieli, A., Hen, Y., and Horev, B. (1991). A simple system to determine the aerobic determination of silages. Can. Agric. Engin., 33: 391-395. Brent, B. and Ted, F. M. (2005). BMR Forage sorghum - whats all the fuss about??. In: The Agricultural Program. The Texas A&M University System. Pp 6 Casler, M.D., Pederson, J.F. and Undersander, D.J. (2003). Forage yield and economic losses associated with the brown midrib trait in Sudangrass. Crop Sci. 43:782-789. Cherney, J. H., Cherney, D. J. R. Akin, D. E. and Axtell, J. D. (1991). Potential of brown-midrib, low-lignin mutants for improving forage quality. Adv. Agron. 46:157198. Cherney, J.H., Moore, K.J. Volenec, J.J. and Axtell. J.D. (1986). Rate and extent of digestion of cell wall components of brown midrib sorghum species. Crop Sci. 26:1055-1059. Dendy, D.A.V. (1995). Sorghum and the Millets: Production and importance. Evolution 4: 787802. Dowling, L. F., Arndt, C. and Hamaker, B. R. (2002). Economic viability of high digestibility sorghum as feed for market broilers. Agron. J. 94:10501058 Gerhardt, R. L., Fritz, J. O. Moore, K. J. and Jaster, E. H. (1994). Digestion kinetics and composition of normal and brown midrib sorghum morphological components. Crop Sci. 34:13531361.
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Gibson, S. (1995). Safe grazing management of forage sorghums. In : Forage Agronomy Notes. PACIFIC SEEDS Co. Australia. Joshua, M., Ran, S., Gabriel, A., Uri, N., Moses, N., Edith, Y., Avner, C., Zwi, G. W., Tal, K., Ephraim, Z., and Daniel, B. (2005). Effects of harvest stage and re-growth on yield, composition, ensilage and in vitro digestibility of new forage sorghum varieties. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 86 : 140 147 Kelley, T. G., Rao, P. P. and Walker, T. S. (1991). The relative value of cereal-straw fodder in the semi-arid tropics of India: Implications for cereal breeding programs at ICRISAT. Progress Report No. 105, ICRISAT, India, 33pp. Khair, M. A. M and Krause, R. (2003). A note on the proximate analysis of nine Sudanese grain sorghum varieties. J. Agric. Sci. 11: 293-297 Kriegshauser, T.D., Tuinstra, M.R. and Hancock, J.D. (2006). Variation in nutritional value of sorghum hybrids with contrasting seed weight characteristics and comparisons with maize in broiler chicks. Crop Sci. 46: 695699 Kyabram, K. P. (1995) Irrigated summer fodder crops 3: Fodder sorghum. Agriculture Notes. State of Victoria, Department of Primary Industries. ISSN 1329-8062 Mahmoud M. A., Khidir, M. O., Khalifa, M. A., ElAhmadi, A. B., Musnad, H. A. and Mohamed, E. I, (1996). Sudan country report to the FAO International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources. Leipzig. P. 39-40 Maunder, B. A. (1983). Development and perspectives of the hybrid seed industry in the Americas. In : G. Ejeta Ed., Hybrid Sorghum Seed for Sudan. Proceedings. Purdue University. Pp. 39-48. Mohammed, Maarouf I., Gamal, E. Khalifa, Ghada H. Abdulrahman and Mohammed I. Elmahi. (2008). Improvement of the traditional forage sorghum cultivar 'Abu Sab'in'. Sudan J. Agric. Res. 11: 25-33. Mohammed, Maarouf I. (2010a). New Sudangrass forage cultivars selected from the original population (Sorghum sudanense var. Garawi). African Journal of Range and Forage Science. 27: 51-55 Mohammed, Maarouf I. (2010b). Proposal for the release of a new local by local (Abu Sab'in X Garawi) forage Sorghum Hybrid. A paper submitted for the Variety Release Committee. Khartoum. Sudan.
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Pedersen, J.F. (1996). Annual forages: New approaches for C-4 forages. In: J. Janick (eds) Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. p. 246-251. Pedersen, J.F. and Fritz, J.O. (2000). Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production. In: C.W. Smith (ed.) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Peterson, M.L. and Miller, M.D. (1950). Sudangrass in California, Calif. Agric. Ext. Circ. 165, California Porter, K.S., Axtell, J.D. Lechtenberg, V.L. and Colenbrander,V.F. (1978). Phenotype, fiber composition, and in vitro dry matter disappearance of chemically induced brown midrib (bmr) mutants of sorghum. Crop Sci.18:205-208. Reddy, A R., Reddy, V. R., Rao, P. P., Reddy, K. G., Reddy, B. V.S., D Ramachandraiah 1. and Rao, C.L.N. (2005). Performance of layers on sorghum-based poultry feed rations ISMN 46: 7579 Stock, R. and Madery, T. L. (1987). Grain sorghum processing for beef cattle. In: Extension publications. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. G74-136-A. Subramanium ,V. and Metta V.C., (2000). Sorghum grain for poultry feed. In: Technical and institutional options for sorghum grain mold management (eds.) Chandrashekar, A., Bandyopadhyay, R., and Hall, A.J. Proceedings of an international consultation, 18-19 May 2000, ICRISAT India Pp 242-247. Wheeler, J. L., Mulcahy, A C., Walcott, B, J. J. and Rapp, A. G. G. (1990) Factors affecting the hydrogen cyanide potential of forage sorghum. Aust. J. Agric. Rex, , 41, 1093-1 100 Yasin, T. E. (1978). Phenotypic variations in local sorghums in the Sudan Nuba Mountains. Expl. Agric. 14: 181-188.
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