Acoustic Confusions in the Short-Term Memory

Student Name: Heman Lutchmun Student Number: Subject: Psychology Level: Standard Level Date: Word Count:

Introduction Memory encoding is the process in which raw and external data is converted to information that can be readily stored in memory.1 Encoding involves numerous cognitive processes namely attention, information processing elaboration as well as imagery. Memory can be classified in different categories; each category has a specific encoding type. According to Craik and Lockhart (1972) encoding is separated into three levels; acoustic encoding which is defined as encoding done through sounds (auditory input), semantic encoding which is encoding through the meaning of the words and visual encoding which is through visual sensory input. Conrad was a researcher who investigated into the type of encoding done in the ShortTerm Memory. The aim of Conrad (1964) Acoustic Confusions study was to investigate the nature of coding in the Short-Term Memory. According to Conrad, digits and words are encoded in the short-term memory in an acoustic form according to their specific sounds.

My study addresses the Cognitive level of analysis as it deals with the cognitive process, memory. The study was criticised/supported by Wickelgren (1965) Procedure Letters were shown at a fast rate to encode the information in the short-term memory and to prevent rehearsal.2 Letters with similar pronunciations are linked by the same vowel sound. For example when the letters starts with E (F, M, N, S, X) or ends with e (B, C, P, T, V). 387 participants took part in the original experiment. They were all trainee telephonists of both genders aged between 16-50. The participants were separated in groups of 10, then carried out the experiment. The sequences were presentd through a fram by frame 16mm projection and controlled electronically though an electronic timer. One second after the ready signal, a sequence of 6 single letters were visually presented at a rate of 0.75 sec/letter. A ten letter vocabulary was given (B, C, F, M, N, P, S, T, V, X) to refer to when recall is difficult. The substitution of letters was a result of acoustic confusion. The participants were given a letter vocabulary to refer to if they did not know a letter. It was required that they write down 6 letters and not leave any blank spaces. The participants were then told to write down the letters that they recalled in the same order. Conrad (1964) showed that the intrusions produced in the letters had a vowel or consonant phoneme in common.2
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http://general-psychology.weebly.com/how-do-we-encode-information-to-memory.html http://www.columbia.edu/~nvg1/Wickelgren/papers/1965eWAW.pdf

Findings Conclusion A significant correlation was drawn between the errors and the similar acoustic letters. Other Research This research is worth replicating as the human mind has evolved and dissimilar results can be obtained since the original experiment in 1964. In R. Conrads findings, it was showed that less acoustically similar letters were recalled compared to acoustically dissimilar letters. R. Conrad analysed the type of letters. Letters with similar sounds caused acoustic confusion resulting in errors during encoding. Conrad concluded that the recall of words was done phonologically as there were errors occurring due to acoustically similar letters, even if the letters were presented visually. Baddeley (1966) gave support to Conrads study by replicating the study with the use of words. As a result more acoustically distinct words were recalled. He also made use of semantically similar words. Even if the letters were presented visually the encoding was done acoustically.

Method: Design
Design: Independent and Dependent Variables: The independent variable is the sequence of letters shown to the participant and the dependent variable is the number of errors the participant makes when recalling the letters in the sequence. Design: Type and Justification for Design Help. Design: Controls: Design: Ethical Considerations Participants The sampling technique used was opportunity sampling, as it is the less time consuming type of sampling. A participant sample of 15 IB students at Le Bocage International High School .All of the participants could fluently speak English. Their ages ranged from 18-19 years old. The sample consisted of participants of both genders; nine of them were males and six females. As the experiment was conducted in English, a basic understanding of English was required.

Materials: Consent Form 3 Standardised Instruction Form4 Raw Data Table 5 Debrief Sheet 6 Projector (Laptop) Procedure

Appendix Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix

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Results