Physics73.1 Activity Manual

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The Lab Manual Authors 2004 Percival Almoro Alvin Baclig Johnrob Bantang Roland Caballar Marilou Cadatal Alberto Francia, Jr. Ma. Adoracion Manuel Sheila Marcos Maricor Soriano Junie Jhon Vequizo Edited by: Maricor Soriano Cover Design : CorleonTorralba
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Copynght @ Lab Manual Authors 2004

reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopy, without written penrrission from the Lab Manual Authors
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Prepared by Percival Almoro Sheila Marcos Jvlaricor Soriano Juni'e John Yequizo
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(Physics 73.lLab Manual Authors 2004)
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Tempetaflrre Measurement
Ltneat Expansion
........
..
Fusion....... .........r..
..1,3
Specific Heat and Heat of
:.Zl
Heat
Engine Fingeqprinting
........
.........41
Spectral
.......77
Name
Section
Date
Received by.
Prelab Quiz : Temperature Measurement

Read the manual and answer the following questions:
1. What is temperature?
2. Define thermal equilibrium.
3.
r07hat ate the quantities that
will be calculated in the
datasheet? What
will be measured?
4. If the time constant of a certain thermometet is found to be 10 seconds, how long must you wait in otder to get a reliable temperatue reading after it is put in contact with a bodyi
@ Lab Manual
Authors 2004
Physics 73.{
@ Lab Manual Authors 2004
Physics 73,1
Objectives
At the end of this activity, you shotrld be able to:
o Identi& the physical conditions needed fot

measufement.
temperature
.
a
a
Opetate diffetent temperature seflsors.

Measure the thetrnal time eonstant of different temperature sensors.
Know the minimum waiting time before reading measutements taken with temperature sensors.
lntroduction
The clinical thernometer is no doubt the first temperatufe sensor most of us have experienced using. After applying it under the tongue or the armpit we are asked to v/ait a few minutes before reading the tempe.rature. We associate the word tefipemtaft with the measure of warrnth or coldness of an object or a systern. But unlike mass, length and ".ne which can be measued by comparing with a standard mass, length and time unig temperature cannot be mea$uted as ditectly. Instead; we measlue some obsetvable reaction of matedals to heat or cold. These teactions ate called tbetrnometric pnpcrtieg, Thrs activity will introduce you to different temperatrre sensors iong with the therrnometric ptoperties they exploit and will show that thete is a mioimum waiting time before the reading of a temperature sensor becomes teliable.
Theo
When two objectS, olle warm and one cold, are placed in contact with one anotler, the warmer-one cools while the coolet one warms up. Specificalln we say they are tn themal nnua. Eventually, there comes a poini wheo no more changes occur and they will feel the same. The two rr. th* said to be rn tbcrrnal eq*ihbitaz.We 9an define tenprat*n thetefore as the quantity which is the same for both systems h themal cortect when they are in therm2l
O Lab Manual Arthors 2(XE
-3-
f
Temperature Measurement
equilibrium.
Physics 73.{
Figure 1. When two objects are
It takes time for thermal equiJibrium to be achieved. Heat fiom the hotter obiect will transfer to the cooler one such that their cofirmofl temperature is different ftom their original temperatures. If a thermometer is placed in thermal cofltact with a hot body what we actually read is the temperature of the thermometet itself'! By the act of putting a thermometer in touch with the body we have changed its temperature. It is thetefore necessary that heat dtawn or withdrawn by or from the thermal sensor is minimal such that it does not change the temperature of the obiect significantly
We have to wait until thermal equilibrium is established befote we carl reliably read the temperature. An indicator of how fast a thermal sensor can achieve thermal equilibdum with an object being measured is given by the thermal time constant of the seflsor, T.
Consider a temperature sensor initially at temperaflre T, which is placed in thermal contact at time t=0 rvith an object that is maintained at a constaflt temperature. Aftet sufficient time, the temperature seflsor will have a final teading Tr. At any time d the sensor has a reading T(t). The difference between TlandT(t) is gqvenby AT,r.e
placed in thermal contact and achieve thermal equilibrium, the two objects are said to have the same temperature.
of objects, A, B and B are put in contact and achieve thermal equilibdum, afld tf B and C are also put in contact and also setde to thermal equilibdum then A and C are in thermal equilibrium. This observation is called the ryrotb law of therruodlnamics. It follows that A, B and C have the same temperature.
Say now we have three types
and C.
If A
47=Tf-T(t).
(1)
As time progresses, the diffetence between the sensor reading and its final reading vanishes. If the seflsor is a first order, linear device, the rate of change of the difference can be assumed to be proporilonal Io the difference of initial and final temperatute, i.e.
d(Ln : _kLT
dt
Q)
There is a negative sign because AT decreases -in time. The left side of equation (2) has dimensions tenperaturef tima. To keep the dimensions the same as on the dght side, the constant , must have dimensions of / /time. Let k = / f t, where rhas units of time. Thus,
-4-
Physlcs 73.'l
Temperature MeaSurement
d(^r)
dt Solving fot T(t) we obt2in,
-1lr t
(3)
T(t)
Ti +
AT,(l- exp(a/Q)
(4)
where ATo is the difference between the final and initial temperatute readings. petails of the derivation are given in the Appendix.)
A plot of Fquation (4) is shown in Figure 2 below.
Temperature
T(t) = Ti+ (0.632)ATo
t:0
time
Figure 2. tf we set time t=0 as the time when the temperature sensor was placed in thermal ontact wit}l an object kept at constant temperature, then the ptot shows the temperature reading of the sensor in time. Ti is the initial temperature reading of the sensor, Tr is its final reading, T(t) is the temperature'at time t, ATo is the difference between the initiat and flnat reading, AT is the differenee between the final temperature and the temperature reading at time t; and r is the thermal time constant, or the time it takes for the lensor to reach 63.2% of its final temperature.
As / approaches infinity, the exponential term vanishes and we are left with
T(*)
Ti + AT" =
Ti* Tr-7, = T,
(s)
which is the final temperature.
!7hen t = t, Equation (4) becomes
T(r):Ti+
AT,(0.63).
(6)
we now have a physical intelpretation for the thermal time constant. After oJle tlTe coflstant, the sensor will have a reading equal to its initial reading plus 0.632 times the difference between irs inital and final readin{
-5-
we get temperature values as shown in Table 1'
Tabte 1, Temperature reading after every
Physics 73.{
(thermal time conttant) interval'
Time
T
Temperature
Tr+ (0.63)ATo
2r 3t
4t, 5r,
T,+ (0.86)ATo T, + (0.95)AT. T, + (0.98)AT. Tr+ (0.99)ATo
specify The time constant of a particular sensof, thetefore, can be used to on Depênding reading. how long one must *aitio get a reliable tempefatwe th" ,..rrir.y required, it is tmmon engineering_practice to wait ftom three a temperature (3) to n"" (s; time constants before recording the output of
SCNSOI.
Temperature Sensors
we obsetve Temperature can be felt but canflot be measuted directly. Instead of reacd'on' degree the tlaction of matedals to heat and cold and measure the much Fot example, metals expand when heated' We can then'measrre how other and These tempelatufe. it to a cettain the expan^sion is ,nd "qoat are they and measurable reactions to Leat are,called thermometic pruperties ."pf"l .a the tempetature sensors we will use in this activity'
Glass Thermometers
alcohol in the Most substaflces expafld when heated. Merc.ury or cslored increasing with lileady capillary of glass thermometers - expand ,"irp"rr*r". yo* can make your ownthermometer by evacuating a thin glass is toxic and hard to tube and fil1ng half of it rviih colored alcohol (mercury Seal procure). Calibration is done using the zetoth law of thermodynamics' d d'.' 'trr" tou" and dip the end in ice. Due to thermal expansion, the liquid wait for watet, in b9fug it dip Matk the tevel Lf fiquid and label it 0"C. Nex! the Since 100'c. the liquid to stop expandiog and mark the level of liquid as .rp#ioo of &e [d,id is lt.rr with temperatue,_livi{e the.space between made your the two matks irrto too equalty-spaced divisions. You have )ust o-1r c.tri* (centigrade)^r.rt".În accotdance with the zetoth law of tfr".-"ay"r-i.r, if tf," thermometer is placed in therrnal contact with a body level as that and the il"gtlr of the liqurd inside the capillary teaches the same matked fot 100"C, then that obiect is at 100"C'
Figure 3. Glass
thermometer
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Authon 2fi)4
Physics 73.{
Thermocouples
When two wires made from different metals are welded together and exposed to a hot ot cold teg'ion, electrical cuffent will flow through the wire. This is knorvn as the Seebeck ffcct. Sensors exploiting this phenomenon are known as thermocouples. When connected to a calibrated read-out device, the system becomes 2 .ligjtal thermometer.
Thermistors
Figure 4. Digital thermometer with a thermocouple as sensor.
. A semiconductor is a material with properties i b"t*""r, that of a conductor and an insulatot I but when it is heated, it becomes rnofe conducting. They. can be formed into various , ' '
Figure 5. stainless steel temperature probe
shapes such as beads or rods. Their resistance varies nonlineady with tbmperature such that
when a constant current is passed through them, voltage across the sensor will vary. If used in this manner, the semiconductor device is known as a thermistor. The stainless steel temperature probe to be used in this experiment has a thermistor inside it.
Materials
Thetmometer, digi12| thetmometer (thermocouple probe), dmer, stainless steel temperature probe and PC with interface> stove, large beaker or caldero, cold and tap water.
Procedure
CAUTION : Steam from boiling water reaches ,lO0"G. To protect your hand from scalding use mittens when holding
sensors near steam sources
.
1. 23.
I
Fill a beaker or caldero with water 3/o f,;ll and boil. I(eep the water
boiling throughout the activity.
Take the glass thermometer (take note if it has mercury or colored alcohol inSide it) and write down its curent temperature reading, T, .
\We assume that the water is at 100'C and that the final temperarwe reading will be apptoximately 100'C. Compute the following values and tabulate in the worksheet.
t
I : I I
t.
(
-7-
Temperature Measuremert
PhyclCs 73.:{
. o o
AT" = 100"C
(0.632) AT.
-Ti
T(t) = Ti +
(0.632) AT"
4. Dip the glass thetmornetef iust above the surface of the boiling watef (the steatn itself is around 100"C!) and measute the time it takes fot the reading to teach T(t). If the mouth of the beaker is small, it is
enough to place the sensor neat the water sutface.
5. Cool down the thetmometer by dipping it in tap water and then in cold watet. Repeat steps 2 to 4 sevetal times.
6. Repeat the same procedute usihg: (1) a ghss thetmometet made with a different liquid, and @ a stainless steel temPetature ptobe intedaced to a computer.
7.
Obserye how fast a digital thetmometet tegistets bdngirig a thetmocouple neat the steam sorrtce. Is rneasure its time cotstant with a timet?
it
teading by possible to
Suggested Extension ExPeriments

Will the thennal dme constant rcmaio the
same
if the initiat
tempetatute varies? Design an experiment to check your hypothesis.
The dedvation of the thermal time constant assumes that the seflsof teacts tineady with temperature. Howwet, some matedals do not One way to check if the matetial has a linrcar ot nonlineat thermometdc proPerty is to compare its tesporse to heating and cooling. Get the time constant of t thermometer ftom a hot temperahue (e.g. boilin$ to ambient temperatLue. Dip the sensot into boiling watef for a few minutes then lift it out of tle watet. How and heating time constants compare? If they are the do the "ooliog sersor behaves lineatly. If not, then the system is same, then the nonlineat.
Perfonn the above experiment using the stainless steel temperatue probe interfaced to a comPutet, fit an exponentid function and get the thermal time constant ftom the plot' Does the plot fot heating and cooliog agee with an exponential function? Ate the thetmal time coflst nts the same fot heating and cooliog?
-8-
O bbllanrdAdrors2(X}4
Plrysics 73.{
Appendix
Solution to the,differential equation given by
d(Lr)
dt Get
=*kLT
(41)
d(LD
LTr
_dt
$.(L\ 1 dt -J-; J Lr
h(Afl = -t-+
T
where C is a.coflstaflt. Taking the exponential of both sides of the equation we obtain
AI
= exp(-t I t + C) = e-"'
e'
(42)
The conotant eQ .*nbe foirnd from initial conditions. If we talie I = 0 to be the time iust before the sensor was placed in contact with the object, the temperature difference is equal to the iflitial temperatute diffetence between the body and the thennometet,
Af@=Tf-T(0):\-7,=ATo
Thus,
(43)
ATP)= AT"={sc
and
sc
(44)
,:
AT = AT"expe/ r)
Substituting Equation (1) for AT,we get
(As)
fr- f(0 :
AToexp(t/r).
(46)
E:ptessing Tlts ATu + fl'ftom Equation (5) we get

ATo +
n-
T(g
ATuexp(-t/r).
(47)
Solving forT(t) we obtzir,
:'Tr * AT,(1- exp(-t/
(A8)
@ Lab Manual
Autlus 2fi)4
-9-
Tem,perature Measurement
Physics 73.'l
Name
Section
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheeil Temperatu re Measu rements

Data Table 1. Thermal sensor:
Ti
'aTo =100oC - Ti
(0.632) ATo
T(c)
Time Constant,r
Best value
of T
Data Tabt 2. Thermal sensot:

Ti ATo =100oC . Ti
(0.632) aTo
T(")
Time Constant,r
Best value
of r
Data Tabt 3. Thermal sensor

Ti aTo =1000c -Ti
(0.632) aTo
rk)
Time Constant,t
Best
valie
of T :
@ Lab
lianual Authors 2fl)4
-lt-
Worksheetl Ternperature Measurement
Pftysics 73.{
Sample calculations:
1. Based on yoru obserwations, which amoflg the themrat sbnsors provide the fastest reading? Which is the slowest?
i*Ir4
- W-'*(r"/,
-
n,/uow+it
2. Is the final temperature reading of
a sensot egual
to the actual temperature of the obiect?
- AM ^,w&O', vhilbil ,*b ,Wy @ ry
3. If the tepperatute of a system changes in time (e.g oven, engine, body, foom, atmosphete) how
vzould you know which is the best temperatute scllsot to usc?
L*,r,5n
1> 37'sv
-12-
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Authon.2004
Name
Section
Date
Received by
Prelab Quiz : Linear Expansion

Read the manual and answer the following questions:
1. Give the definition of the linear expansion.coefficient.
2. Why is an ohmmeter needed to be connected actoss the linear expansion
sehrp?
3. nflhere will the temperature sensor be inseted?
4. What is the pqpose of the steam generator in the setup?
FrEn
i1
QuI=
UiiG[
altloll
Iffirtl
li
I
@ Lab Manuat Authors
20M
Physics 73.1
Objectives
At the end of this activity, you should be able to:
o o
Determine. the coefficient of expansion of various rnetals usmg micrometer screw type lineat expansion apparatus
Compare the coefficieot of linear expansion of metals.
lntroduction
Most solids especially metals expand when heated. The stuck lid of a iat of mayonnaise will open easily if the lid is soaked in hot water for several seconds. Bddges are usually constructed such that they have gaps to allow fot expansion during hot weather. If the material is fonned into a rod or bar, it will noticeably expand ot contmct along its tength proportional to the change in temperatue. If we are building structures or parts that will be exposed to heat it will certainly expand, so it is important to know the coefficient of Iinear expansion of the materials used to determine how much allowance should be given for expansion.
Theory
Different metals expand at different rates. The fractionzl rate of length change, Al/L"where /L is the change in length and L"is the initial length of the object, is proportional to the change io temperatute AT = Tr-T,where
7] is the initial temperature when the length was Loand [is the femperpture when the rod has expanded to the length L.+.AI-. That is,
Metal
d t_t
/r\
-s
-u=aLT
(1)
['c./
x l0
Aluminum Brass
2.30 1.90 1.70 2.80
The constant a is called the coeficient of linear expansion and is different for different solids. Table 1 shows values of a for different metals.
Copper
Lead
Table 1. Coefficient of [inear expansion of some metals.
-15-
Linear Expansion
Physics 73.1
Materials and Setup
Figure 1. Linear Expansion SetuP.
Shown in Figure 1 ate the labeled pafts of the Linear Expansion setup. (1) Linear expansion appatatus; (2) Stove; (3) Stearn generator; (4) Lab thermometer or drgrtal thermometer; (5) Copper and aluminum tods' The end of the appafatus labeled B has a mictometet scfew for length measurement.
In addition, you will
need
: Metetstick, ohmmetel to check fot
electrical
connectivity, Rags and Potholdets
Procedure
GAUTION I o STEAM REAGHES {OO"C. BE CAREFUL NOT TO SGALD YOUR HANDS. USE THE POTHOLDERS PROVIDED, o AVOID GETTING ELEGTRONIG EQUIPMENT WET'
1. Measure the length of the metal rod up to the flearest 0.1 mm and record in yout worksheet.
2. Insert a cork through one end of the rod' Avoid bending the tod by rotating the cork instead of pushing it in' Insert the rod in the end of the jacket' fackGt and plasg the othet cork on the othet Ensute that the rod ends protrude out of the corks as shown in
Figure 2.
-16-
@Lab Manual Authors 2004
Physics 73.{
Linear Expansion
Figure 2. Rod must protrude out of the cork stopper.
3. Notice that there ate three perpendicular pipes along the length of the jacket. Place the jacket in its frame holder with the middle, bigger pipe in the upright position. Insert the thermometer.into the middle pipe (glass tube if lab thermometer, thermocouple probe if digrtal thermometer) through a cotk stopper until the temperature probe tip is close to the rod but not touching it. Tighten the suppott screril's on each end of the frame just enough to hold the jacket in place.
4. Fill the steam generator t'wo-thirds firll of water. On one end of the jacket is a smaller tube pointing up. Connect a rubbei tube from this end to the steam generator. On the other end is another tube pointing down. This is for &aining water out of the jacket.
Place a beaket or cup below this pipe.
5. Attach an ohrnmeter across the screw ends A and B of the jacket. Screw B is the one with the mictometer scale. Turn and fix sctew A and tum screw B until electrical contact is established. This is seen as a deflection in the needle of the ohrnmeter or a beep if it is set to check for connectivity. Record the initial reading of the micrometer scfew. Then turn screw B a few turns back to allow for explrnsion. Take an initial readirtg of the temperature.
6. Place the steam generator ofl top of the stove. Turn on the stove and allow the watet to boil. If steam escapes from the steam generatot pl"g th" leaky regions with damp clothe. Wait around 5 to 10 minutes fot the steam to evenly heat the rod inside the jacket. Lightly feel the jacket to determine if it is heated up to its
end.
7. When the tod is sufficiently heated e90"C) turn the mictometer screw forward until electtical cortact is established and tecord the micrometer rcading. At the same time tecord the temperature.
8. Allow the setup to cool and repeat the procedure for another metql rod. Compute fot the linear expansion coefficient and znswef the questions in yout worksheet
@Lab Manual Authors
2fi)4
-17 -
Linear Expansion
Physlcs 73.1
Sug gestedr Extension Projects

Does the linear expansion coefficient depend on the initial tempetature? Find out by tepeating the expedment while the tod
is initially hottet than the ambient temPerature.
What happens when a tod shaped into a dng is heated? Will the hole in the middle shdnk or Srow latge? Find out by heating a dng and measudng the innet and outet diametet.
r Will the a. change u,ith different tod lengths? Find out, by

heating tods of diffetent lengths.
j
i
-18-
@Lab Manual Authors 20O4
lL
Name
Section
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheet: Linear Expansion

Data Table
Type of Rod
!nitial length
lnit.
Flnat
AL
lnit.
Temp.
Final
Temp.
AT
(I
measured
c
accepted
Microme- Mlcrome.
ter
Reading
ter
Readlng
trt
Sample
calculations:
(o
BeSt estimate of
I0
Esot
Petcent
tSMarntArrthm2004
Worksheet: Linear ExPansion
Dhyslcs 7!.1
Questions:
7.
Car, you conclude that the rod is no longet expanding when
it
reaches a coflstant tempetature?
$rhy?
[rt, *l-o
=,{oT 4
bT=O,' LL='o
&c
.k
b( ?<lb
erDf
\ l"
2. In step 3 of the procedute why is it NOT

the rod?
necessary
for the temperature sensor to be touching
tlotr623%
l4slw
lv+
adiw<l f',,'""1"
yL
Nlf -.
l/o
3. Compare the measured and accepted values of the eoefficient of linear expansion. Cite possible ,o*J". of error in the experiment. \)flhat imptovement$ can fg imPlemented to minimize the errofs in the experiment?
-1. I)iscuss thc irrrporrrrrrcc
of
knorviri.q thc cocfficicnt
of linear expansion. Give somc
cxamples
\0
besides those given in thc manual
.20 -
@ Lqb Manual Authors 2004
Name
SecUon
Date
Received by
PreLab:quiz : Specific Heat and Heat of Fusion

Rbad the manual and answer the following questions:
.{r.
Specific heat l. Differentiate between heat capacity and,specific heat.
Descdbe a simple ptocedue to measure the specific heat of, an unknown metal. W'hat quantities must be determined to measure specifiChea-t?
50-g chunk of metal is,heated to 200oC and then &opped into'1 beaker containing 4009
of watet mltially at20oC: If dre final eq-uilitdum tq4pemtue of the.miied systern,ii,'22.4"C t ,. ', . j findthespecrfigleaqofthemetal,,, .,, ,
'
B. Heat of fusion 4. Why does ice melt?
5.
What do you call the energy needed to change the phase of a substance?
@ Lab
Manual Authors 20(M
-21 -
Heat arrd Heat of, Fusion
@ Lab Manuat Authors.20(X
Physics 73,{
Objectives
a a
Determine the specifi.c heats of aluminum, copPer and lead. Determine the heat of fusion of ice.
lntroduction
Molecules of various matedals have diffetent weights and sizes. Hence, the amount of energy tequired to speed up of slow down those molecules will depend on the type of material. This activity is important because mosd thermal devices are made up of diffetent materials and working substances. I(nowledge of how varj.ous matedals respond to heat will be critical in the design of thetmal systems and also fot the safety of the oPerators.
The energy transferred as a consequence of temPeratufe difference or phase change is called heat. When studying thermal systems involving different mrt.iiulr, it is useful to define quantities of heat in'tetms of a particular plocess. When it.involves temPefatute difference, the quantity called specift heat drs(ngushes one material from anothet. W.hen it involves phase change, ofle can make a distinction between matedals using the quantities called beat of fusion and heat of a@oirytion.Part A of this activity is about calculation of specific heats of pute metals (aluminum, coPPef and lead) and pat B is about calculation of heat of fusion of ice.
Theory
Part A. Specific heat
The quantity of heat tequked to taise the temPelatute of a g1vefl mass of a substanqe by some amount varieS from one substance to anothet. For example, the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g 9f water by -1 Celsius degree is 1 calode (definition of 1 cal). Fot 1 g of carbon it is only
lab Manual Authors 2004
-23 -
Specific Heat and Heat of Fusion
Physics 73.{
0.72 cal. T)he beat caPaci\ C of any substance is defined as the amount of heat needed to mise the tempetature of that substance by one Celsius degtee. In it, is often tnorytxeful to work with gecific heat c defined as heat capacity per unit mass:
c-
h,eat
capacitlt
C
tn
(1)
mass
Ftom the definition of heat cap:aCity, we can exptess the heat enetgy Q tmnsferted between a system of mass m and its surroundings fot a
temperature change AT
as
Q=CLT +mcLT
Q)
Specific heats of all matedals vary somewhat with temperatqte. If the temperature intervals are small, the temperature vatiation can be ignored and r can be treated as a corstaflt. For example, the specific heat of water (1 cal/g Co) varies by only one percent ftom 0o to 100oC at atrnospheric pressure. When specific heats are fneasured, one also finds that the amount of heat needed to taise the temperature of a substance depends on other conditions of the measurement. In general, measurements made at constant pressure (designated as c) are different from those measured at constant volume (designated as c). Table 1 gives the specific heat of some solid elements. Note that these values are given at room temperature and atrnospherii
pfessure:
Table
t. Specific
heat of some solids at 25"C and at atmospheric pressure
.Substance
Aluminum
Soecific heat. c^ (ca!/q G') o.215

0.0924 0.0305
c
Lead
For part A of this acdiity, the tec\nique that will be used to rneasure specific heat is to simply heat the substance to some reference temperatwe, place it in a vessel containiag watet of known rnas$.and temperature, and measure the final temperature after equilibrium is teached. For simplicity, the reference temperature will be the boiling,:teihp.etahrre o-f:,watet. Sihce'a hegligiSle amouflt of mechanical work is done in this process, the law of conservation of enetgy implies that the heat that leaves tlie warmer body (of unknown r) must equal the heat that entets the'watet. Assuming no heat is lost to surrounding air, the heat lost by the metal sample must equal the heat gained by the water:
fr,t*r*nr\r*-T**)=*;c*u,Q'iuia'-r*,)1.
Ftom equation (3) the specific heat of-the sa-Fle c*ocanbe determined.
(3)
Part B. Heat of fusion

A
substance usually undergoes a change
in tempentute when heat is
-u-
lab Manual Authss 2fi)4
Physlcs 73.1
lSpecific Heat and Heat of Fusion
transferted between the substance'and its surroundings. Thete ate situations, however, where the flow does not result in a change in temperatue. This occurs whenever the substance undergoes phase change. Some common phase changes are solid to liquid (metting) and liquid to gas @"ili"g).All such phase changes involve a change in intemal energy. The energy requited to change phase is called the heat of trantfomation. The heat tequire d p to change th-e phase of a given frrass n of a pute substance from solid to liquid (ot vise vetsa) is given by
O=mL,I
It ti t rfi fi t
Il
(4)
where I, is called latent heat of fusioa $ridden heat) ,of the substance. Fot watef, \= lg.l cal/5.
phase change is a result of the reaffangemeflt or molecules when heat is added or temoyed from a substarice. At the melting
n
I !r * : r
]B
On the molecular lwel,
point of a solid, the amplitude of vibrations of the atoms about theii

equilibtium position becomes latge enough to overcome the attractive fotces binding them together. The heat required to totally melt a $ven mass of solid is equal to the work requfued to break the intermolecular bonds and to transform the phase ftom the otdered solid structure to the disordered hquid
phase.
t,
For pafi B of this activity, warm water and ice will constitute the system of interest and will be isolated ftom its sonounding by the calodmetet. î, Assuming no heat is lost to surtoundings, energy is exchanged only between the wamr water and the ice. Sorhe of the energy absorbed by iCe will be used to change its phase ftom solid to liquid and somc to raise its tempetature. The amount of heat absorbed by ice as it melts and then as it reaches final equilibrium temperature must equal the quantity of heat released by thu wakn watet as it cools do"wn to final dquilibtium tempemture. Theotetical melting temperature of ice at OoC will be usedfor simplicity. Mathematically,
M*L r
*rlt#)t *- o"c) = *l#)e* "
- r o*,)
(s)
On the Ieft side of equatron (5),.th" firct term reptesents the heat tequired to change phase ftp4,"sfr{,i& to:liquid water and the second term represents the heat teqrrired to taise its tempemtue ftom zeto to final equilibrium terqxratute. The tight side of equation (5) tepresents the heat removed ftom the miiially vanD,lr&tr in the Styrofoam cup. Ftom equation (5) the Iatent heat of'fosioo I*of ice can be determined
Equipment and Materials

Glass th:rmometer
I I
I
or digital thetmometer with thetmocouple ptobe,
Stytofoa#
cups, stove aridboiler
I
(
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a
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@ Lab Manual Authors
2fi)4
I I
Physics 73,{
Part A: cold water, metal samples. (aluminum, copPer, lead), strings
Pat B: glass or digrtal thetmometer, ice chunks, warm water
Procedure
GAUTION: Steam from boiling water reaches {OO"G. To protect your hand from scalding use mittens when holding
sensors near steam sources.
Part A. Specific he4t
1.
Measure the combined mass of the Styrofoam .op, ,rrh the glass thermonretet. Record all. data in Data Table 1 of yout worksheet. Figure 1 shows the labeled expedmental setup.
Figure L Experimental setup for determination of specific heat. (a) Styr.9t9.ap cuips and glass thermometer, (b) metal samples, (c) stove and boiler, (d) digital thermometer and Probe, (e) strings
2.
Measure the masses of the aluminum, copper and lead samples. Record these masses in Data Table 1.
3. Attach a thread to each of the metal samples and suspend each of the sampies in boiling'water. Measute the actual boiling temperature of water. Allow few minutes fot the samples to heat thoroughly'
4. Fill the calorimetet approximat ely '/z fi.rll of cool watet water to easily cover afly one of the metal samples.
use enough
5. 6.
Measute
temperature of the cool water, and record yout measutement in Data Table 1.
T,,,,,,on
Immediately following youf tempefatufe measurement, temove the metal sample from the boiling water, quickly wipe it dry, and then
-25-
Physics 73.{
place
it in the cool water in the calorimeter. Use the second

1.
Styrofoam cup as a cover as shown in Figure
7, Stir the water with your thermometer and record Tpt, the highest temperature attained by the water as it comes into thermal equilibrium with the metal sample. 8. Immediately after the t kirg the temperature, measure and record M,o,o, the total mass of the calodmetet, water and metal sample. Determine mass of water.
9.
Use equation 3 and collected data to solve the specific heats of the
samples.
10. Compare
calculated value
with standard value.
Part B: Heat of fusion
1.
Measure the combined mass of the Styrofoam cups and the glass thetmometer. Recotd ail, data in Data Table 2. Figure 2 shows experimental setup and indicated are the equipment and materials.
2.
Fill one Styrofoam cup approximately t/z frrll with warm water. The temperatue of the water should be about 40-50'C. Use the second
Stytofoarrr: cup as a covef as shown in Figure 2.
3. Detetmine the mass of the warm watet.
4. Measute the initial tempetatue of the system right before the chunks of ice are added to the watet-styrofoam calorimetet system.
Figure 2. Experimental setup for determination of heat of fusion of ice. (a) Styrofoam cups and glass thermometer, (b) digita! thermometer and probe, (c) stove and boiler, (d) ice bucket
5. Add
small chunts.of ice, wiping the excess water right before adding.
-27 -
rysics 73.1
Stir continuously with the thermometet until each chunk of ice melts. 6. When the system has reached thermal equilibrium, i.e., tempetatute is almost coflstant, measure the final temPeratwe.
7. Measute the mass of the system to determine mass of ice.

8. Calculate heat of fusion of ice using equation 5.
9. Compare calculated value with standard value.
Suggested Extension ExPeriments

o o
Detenlle
the specific heats of sevetal water coolants.
Determine the specific heats of coins and other metal alloys. Compare with a pure metal.
Cdmpare heats
o o
of fdsion, of ice, ftozen mixtuqe of water and salt and frozet soft cola {dnk.
Measure heat of vapoization of watef and other substances, i.e., heat tequired pet unit mess to change phase from liquid
to gas (and vise versa).
-28I
't-\ri__,
worksheet: specific Heat and Heat of Fusion

Data Table 1. Specific heat
Aluminum
UL.PD
ailq glass tnermometgr
Copper
Lead
tttt,I;Cl lrsalnpls
rPrrta.ure gI SISI|TI Ii2X;21 Finat temperature of systemfl",

rrrrttttitt InaSS Of SlStGlTl
YrdalBt lltweter
M16131
ePrrt,ttlu ttEat
C,I
mglal
Percent error
Questions: Specific heat . 1. Describe the heat exchanges involved in prrt A of this activity
2. Based on
heat?
yout calculations, which metal has the greatest specific heat? The least specific
I rf et;fic hu4 + rw@ hd,.l t* +t* scot,L
fu *^r
3.
Compare the specific heat of the meals with that of water.
-29-
Worksheetu Specific Heat and Heat of Fusion
Physics 73.1
What ate the possible sources of error in the experiment? In which direction do they affect the measured values of specific heat? irr,H'l e,oca+t *
4.
(*. c rr
),*.-^ = t t'lt) 41. { A lo4,J

thr-o!
ut r,
ktaT),r. u n
tl.L %.vw'-A
bata Table 2. Hqat of fusion

Mass of cups and glass thermometer Mass of warm water (warm water, cups and thermometer) Finaltemperature of system (including the melted ice) Mass of ice Heat of fusion of ice Percent eiror
ffitem
Questions: Heat of fusion

l.
Descdbe the heat exchanges'involved,in Part B of this activity.
2. What are the possible sotrces of erot in the expedment?

minimized?
Ho*
can they be avoided ot
-:I0 -
@ Lab
Manual Authors 2()04
Name
Section
Date
Received by
PreLab Quiz : Gas Laws

Read the manual and answet the following questions:
1.
W.hat is an ideal gas?
Z.
What is the equation of state for an ideal gas? What ate some of its applications?
3.
In the Boyle,s law expetiment, how is tempetatute kept coastaflt?
4. In the Chadeq't w exp.tm.nt,ho;
is pressure kept constant?
(Continued at the back)
-31 -
Prelab Quiz: Gas Laws
Physics 73.{
of state?
5. lfhy is it necessary to use absolute tefnPefatue when using the equation
@ tab Mahmt tuthors 2004
Physics 73.1
Objectives
. '.
Expedmentally determine the relationship betrveen the ptesswe and volume of'a sample of at atconstant temperature. Experimentally detennine the relationship between the temperatute and volume of a sample of ai at constant pressufe.
lntroduction
An with tempetature sufficiendy hrgh that it does not condense into liquid. Most gases at roijm temPemture and atrnospheric pressure behave as ideal gases. The equation of state for an ideal gas relates the pressure P, volume Z, numbet of moles of gas n, and
ifual gas is a low-ptesslue (ow.densiry) gas
absolute temperatrue Tand is given by
PV=nRT.
where Ris the universal gas constant G=8.3t J/mol).
(1)
Thete ue many applications to the equation of state:
1.
2.
3.
Monitoring of a gas system that operates undet coflstant conditions, knowing three of the fout vadables allows you to detetmine the fourth vadable;
Determination of the density of gas;
Convetsion
of a volume of
gas under constaflt pressure and
temperature to number of moles;

4.
Determination of partial pressrrre of a known amoust of gas io mixtue; and
gm
5.
Derivations of the idividual gas hws: Boyle's law (relates P md V), Clrarle5'5 law (telates V md.T), Gay-Lussac's law (dates P nd 1) and Avogadro's Iaw (telates V md n).
@ Lab Manual
Authors 2(X)4
-33-
Gas Laws Part
Physics 73.1
A of the activity is about Boyleis lavr where the relationship between pressure and volume of a confined gas will be investigated. Gas ptessute will be monitored using a seflsor intetfaced to a computer as the volurne of gas is decteased. Patt B is about Chatles's law where the volume of a gas will be monitoted as the tempetature is deceased
Principles
Part A. Boyle's law
Boyle's law states that for a fixed tempetature the product of the pressure and volume of an ideal gas is a coflstant:
PV = mnttant Q) In this experiment, the pressute inside a sytinge is measuted using a gas pressure sensor that is intetfaced to a computet wbjle volume of the syringe is being decreased at constant temperature. The temperatute can be assumed consant if the vdlume change is not abrupt and the system is allowed to
equilibrate which takes about a few seconds.
Part B. Charles's law

Chatles's law states that at constant pressrue, the temperatue of an ideal gas is proportional to its volume:
V =iT
p)
where r is the constarit of ptopottionality and T is exptessed in lQbin. Absolute temperatute is used in the equation of state because it is always positive. In.this expedment, the volume of air confined in the gas law apparatl,ts is monitored a s its tempetature is decreased and pressure held constant. The gas ptesslue is kept constarit by positioning the gas law appafatus hotizontallar. In this position, the ptessure on the apPafatus piston is the atrnospheric pressure which can be assumed constant at equilibrium
conditions.
Materials
Patt A: syringe, gas pressure-sensor, Vemier Labproru intetface module and computer with I .oggerPtoru software
Part B: Pascoru Heat engine/gas law apparatus (see Appendix A), air chamber can and rubbet tubing, cold watet bath ahd crushed ice, glass
thermometer or digital thermometet with thermocouple probe
-34-
Physics 73.{
Gas Laws
Procedure
Part A. Boyle's law
Figure 1 shows the components of the Boyle's law expedment.
Figure'1. Boyle's law experiment: (A) syringe, (B) gas pressure sensor,
and (C) computer interface module.
Do not use force when connecting the syringe to the gas pressure sensor. Any excessive
GAUTIONT
force can cause air leakage.

1. !7ith the sydnge piston raised to its uppermost position, connect the syringe to the gas pressrue sensor.
2. Connect the gas pressure sensor to the Vernier interface module and, lr"dy, the module to the computer.
3. Setup the LoggetPro software in the computer to record pressrrre as a function volume. A shortcut of LoggerPro is foirnd at computel desktop. Once the gas pressure ,*ror is deteited LoggirPro automatically launches the .Boyle's law ptogtam.
4. You ate now teady to collect data fot volume and pressute. Click the "'Collect" button" Then click the "Keep" button to enter the syringe piston position. Tlpe in the actual piston position of your syringe. You will obsewe data points appeadng on Table window and Gr@h { 5. Vary ,the syringe position by regular intervals Gry OtI-). Tha indicated unit in the spinge is in cubic centimeter (1ml,=1cc). Run serretal trials to fimiliaize with the operation before 1ss61ding your final data.
window.
6. Gathet about 8-10 data points. 7. Copy ptessute and volume data from
wotksheeL Shut dourn fig somputer
Table
uhdayto Table
in your
@ Lab Manual Authors 2(X}4

I
-35-
I I
Gas Laws
Physics 73.1
8. 9.
Calculate reciptocal of volume.
Ptot pressure versus volume in Graph
1.
10.Ptot pressute versus reciptocal of volume in Graph
2.
Patt B. Chades's law

Figure 2 shows the configuration of the setup for Chatles's law experiment.
- l,i
ill
*{l}
itl
Figure 2. Gonfiguration for Charles's law experiment. (A) Gas law apparatus, (B) air chimber can, (C) water bath, (D) thermometer and probe' (E) crushed ice bucket.
r;il
'" lll
r ttl .ilt -dl
CAUTION : Do not use force when connecting the rubber tubing to the gas law apparatus' Any excessive force can cause air leakage.
1. Connect the gas law apparatus to the rubber tubing and ak chamber cafl.
2. Turn the gas law apparatus on its side. In this configutation presswe on the piston at equilibrium can be assumed constaflt. 3.
Place the air chamber in a containet of hot water, near boiling point.
4.
Aftet the
worksheet.
chamber equilibtates to the temPerature, record the temperature and the height of the piston in Table 2 in your
5.
Add small chunks of ice to the containet and record the piston hetght fot a given temperatue reading. Gathet 8-10 data points for a teguiar
temperature interval.
-35-
Physlcs 73.1
Gas Laws
(FIint:
6. 7.
Calculate the gas volumes for various piston diameter of piston is 32.5mm).
PIot volume versus temperature in Graph 3 in yout worksheet.
Suggested Extension Experiments

Veri$r relationship of gas pressule and temperature. Investigate for ethyl alcohol and acetone. Verify conditions whete ideal gas law does not hold.
Appendix : The Gas Law Apparatus

o The Gas Law
Apparatus is used for quantitative expedments involving the ideal gas law and investigations of a working heat englne. Figure A1 shows a photo of the zppara;tus and the ait chamber with their pats indicated.
The Gas Law appryatus is designed with two pressure ports with quick-connect fittings for connecting to the air chamber tubing and
to the pressure sensor.
Do not use force when connecting to the pressure ports and when
regulating the. shut-off valves.
Loosen the piston-holding thumb screw when not in use.
Figure Al. Gas Law Apparatus. A) pnessure ports; B) air chamber can; C) rubber tubing with clamp; D) shuf-off valves; and E) piston-trolding
thumbscrew
-37 -
r
Gas Laws
i
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l
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Name
Section
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheet: Gas Laws

Table 1. Boyle's law
Pressure
Volume
iTotume
Graph
1.P- Vplot
Graph 2. P -
l/V plot
Questions: Boyle's law

7.
What is the shape of the resulting curve in Gtaph
1?
2.
what is the shape of the resulting curve in Gtaph z? canyou fit a trend line?
can you say that the system obeys Boyle's law? Exprain your answer.
-i',
3.
From the P versus t /
grryhwhat o'ther information can you obtain?
-39.
Worksheet! Gas Laws Table 2. Charles's law

Temperature (K)
HeiEht (mm)
Physlcs 73.t1
Volume (mm")
Graph
3;.V-
plot
Questions: Charles's law 1. What is the shape of the tesulting cuwe in GaPh 3? Cao you fit a tend line?
2. Canyou
say that the system obeys Chads's fugr?
EsPhin yoru anslret.
3.
Frcm &reVlT gFaph
wt t otherinfomretbn
gaqyou'obtaio?
g lib liianud tuthors
2fi14
,dl
pr'
nj,
Name
Section
Date
Received by
PreLab Qu,iz : Heat Engine

Re"ith"
mautalafld answer the following questions:
a heat eagine? Wh,et are sotne
!7hat is
important applications of heat eagi4esP
2.
What is the difference betureen:a stearn eogae and an intemal combrrstion engine?
3.
V/hat is an isobadc ptocess?
4.
Wbat is an adiatrlralicptocess?
Prelah Quiz: Heal Engfne
Phyoics 73,1
(Contiaued at the back) ltrUhat is the
work done in li{ting an obiect of mass rzz through
a vertir,al herght }?
How is the thermodynamic work done obtained ftom a pressute-volume diaqfan of an engine
cycle?
lfhat
ate possible reasons
fot loss of ertergy in real heat engines?
- 42.
Physics 73.1
Objectives
a
Describe qualitatively the cyclical operation of a heat engine.
Determine the net thermodynamic wotk for an engine cycle by fiodirg the enclosed arca. of a ptessure-volume (P-V) dtagam. Vedfy experimentally that the usefirl rnechanical wotk done in [fting a mass is equal to the net thermodynamic wotk done during a cycle.
lntroduction
A
heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy into other useful forms of enetgy, such as mechanical or electrical erergjr. Internal combustion engines, which ptopel automobiles and airctaft, extract heat ftom e burnin8 fuel and coovetr a ftaction-of this enetgy ioto mechanical eoergy. Powe( plaots geoerate dectticity by converting the potential energy stored in nucleat fuels into thetmal eflergy. This thermal eoergy is, in tum, converted into the mechanicel energjr used to ddve a4 electtical generator. AII heat engines operate in the same pdnciple. In effecg a heat engine catdes a wotking substance through a cydic ptocess involving hot aqd cold teservoirs. Figwe 1 shgws a schematic representation of a heat engine. In the operation of any heat enging a quantity of hatQrris extracted ftom the hot teservoir, some mechaaical wotkZis done, and some heat;Q.is tej,ected to a cold resetvoir.
FigtrE l. Schsnffc represerilafion of a heat engine-
tab Manual Authors 2fi)4
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i
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Heat engine
Physlcs 73.{
I
t t
ffi n
In the case of a steam engine, the working substance is water. The water is caried through a cycle in which it evapotates into steam in a boiler, the steam expands against a piston, and then it condenses and tetums to its Of * intemal combustion engine, the working initial state. In th"
""."
h
ti
;:'H::;fffi:::'#i[n,,,*, in an the different
l
fl
I
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$
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i
t t f
pfocesses investigate baths will constitute the heat tesewoirs and mechanical wotk is obsewed as up and down motions of the aPParatus piston. The heat engine appamtus will .orr,r"rt the thermal enetgy ftom a hot watet bath into usefrrl mechanical enefgy in lifting a test obi""t. The pressures and volumes of the wotking substance (confined ait) dudng specific stages of the cycle will be recorded and used to calculate the thermodynamic wotk duting ooe cycle, Thermodynamic work will then compated to mechanical work done duting the opetation.
wi], be used,o simu,a,e and engine cyc1e. Hot and cold water
I
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Principles of operation
Heat Engine Apparatus
t
I
{xi
$u
tr+I
Etrtl
hrr,'
i
Figure 2. Experimental setup. (a) Heat engine apparatus, (l) gas.prgssu.re sensor, (c) air ch-amber can, 1d1 Vernier t-ilpr6 Interface module, (e) cold and hot water baths, (f) test object.
I
i
rl
I
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Figue 2 shows the experimental setup. The heat engine appafatus is attached to two flexible ru\ber tubings. One is connected to a gas Pfessrile sensor and an interface module and thi othet to an ak chamber can. The ait chamber can be alternately placed in the cold and hot water baths. The apparatus has a piston with platfonn attached to it for lifting a test object'
t
I
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i
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' '--=_
,",.;;il
Physlcs 73,{
lleat englne
If the ait chamber is placed in the hot bath, tlre temperatuie of ait trapped inside will inctease and consequentty its volume will also inctease. This effect will be observed as a tise io tt. position of the object resting on the platform. If the object is temoved, the platform will rise a bit more as the pressrre inside the appatatus decreases a bit. Finally, if the air chambet is placed in the cold bath, the temperah:rre and volume of ait will decrease. This causes the piston to descend to its otiginal position completing one cycle.
The pressure in the confined air is consant when the mass on the'platform is not changed. Any process that akes place while the mass is not changed caf, be considered ircbaric (constant pressure). There is no heat flow when mass is being added ot being removed ftom the platfo;rm. The ptocess of -ete1y adding ot removing masses can be considered an adiabatic (no heat flow)
Pfocess.
l
Equipment and Materials

Pascom{ Heat engine apparatus, rubber tubings, air chamber can, Verniet LabProrM intetface module and computer, Logger Ptoru software. (Figure 2 shows labeled setup.)
Hot and cold water baths, test object and weighing
scale.
Procedure
A. PREDTCTIONS, OBSERVATIONS & ANIALYSES
1. 2.
Fill the cold bath with watet and crushed ice and the hot bath with
preheated watet at about 60-70'C.
Set the initial height of the piston by mising it a few centimeters above tlre bottom of the cylinder before fitti"g in the rubber tubing into the apparatus. For the test obiect, limit the mass to about 1002009 to avoid air leakage. Record in Table 1.
Fami]7anze first with the operation of the heat engine. Place the can altemrtely in the hot and cold baths. Place and then remove the test object on the platfomr. Make some initial observations.
3.
4.
The following table is a summary of the various stages of the engine cycle..Iodicated ate the positions of the test object on the platform and locations of the air chamber can in the water baths for the four stages of the cycle A, B, C and D. Figue 3 shorus the photogtaphs of the vadous sages of the engine cycle.
-45-
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Heat engine
Physics 73.{
i,
Table 1. Four stages of the engine cyclel A - D. lndicated are the status of test object on platform and location of air chamber can during the various stages,
P
Test object on platform Location of air chamber can
A
Removed Cold bath
B Added Cold bath
c
Added Hot bath
Removed Hot bath
A4o cia.Wc inaic lb-o

ca9
,"1^"fu'fi'c
0-a A iW*vq
tri
"l,tr
tt
s,
[tr
Br
t,
t,
I, 5
Figure 3. Photographs ofttrc various
stags ofthe
engine cycle-
5. Start the engfile cycle at stage A with the can placed m the cold bath and with the test object removed ftom the platfom. Prcdict and observe what happens dudng transitions between vad.ous stages of the cycle. Determine which ftaasitioos are approximately isobadc aad which are approximately rdiabaic processes.
i i
-46-
@ Lab Manual Authors 2{B4
Physics 73.{
Heat engine
actual
In this activity, wdte all predictions with shot explanations,

obsenrations and identified process involved dudng ftansitions
,
in Table 2. (It is all tight if yout predictions and observations diffet. No point deductions.)
TransitionA+B
6. '
Predict: What should happen to the height of the platform when you add a test object? Should the height inctease or dectease? Explain the
basis of your predictiion.s..
Observe: Add the test object on the pladorm. What happens to the height when y6u ackled tlre imiss to the platform?.
Identif the
Ttwtsition
pnocess: Approximately
what thermodynarnic process'
Bx
7.
Predict: What should happen'to fhe heigft of ph*orm urhen.tle aii chember is placed',iri thg hot ;bath? ,E{plr- the basis of your 'ptedlctipirs. bbr.lrr", viitn tle *"dr ;dil on ttie plaifo"ni, ptr"L the irn in thi hot bath. !(hit happens to tbe heigt* of the platform when you placed it in the hot bath? (fhis is the engine power stokb.) Identifr the process: Approxirnately what thermodynamic process happens dqflng this transition?
Transition C-+D
8.
Ptedict: While the can is still in the hot bath, what should happen to the height of the platform if the test object is removed? Explain your predictions. Observe: !7hile the can is still in the hot bath, remove the test object. What happens to the height of the platform? Identi!, the process: Approximately what therrnodynamic process h^ppens during this transition?
Transition
D+A
9.
Predict \What will happeh to the height of the platform when the can is placed back to the cold bath? Explain yoru ptedictions. Observe: This ttansition s6mFletes the cycle. Place the can back to the cold bath. What happens to the height of platform? Is it the same as the initial height at point A or has some ait leaked out? Identify the process: Apptoximately what thermod;mamic process happens during this transition?
20M
-47-
l{eat engine
I I I
Physics
7al
B. MEASUREMENTS OF VOLUME AND PRESSURE In this activity, the engine cycle will be studied quantitatively. Fot all tbc
of the engine cycle, the volume of air will be determined based oo rhe height of the platform. The pressure of the confined air will be obtained using a gas pressure sensor connected to the apparatus and intedaced to a
stages
computef.
GAUTION
! Do not use force when connecting the rubber tubing to the gas pressure sensor. Any
1. Calculate the volurne of ak using the piston height h *re specified
value of the inner diameter d of the apparatus, and the equation V = rdb for each stage of the cycle. Record in Table 3.
excessive force can cause air leakage.
2. Connect the gas pressure sensor to the Vernier LabPtom computet intetface -odrrl..-S"ttrp the LoggerPtoru software to record ptos*. as a finnction volume. A shortcut of LoggerPro is found at computer desktop. Once the gas pressute sensor is detected LoggetPto automatically launches the Boyle's law progtam: 3. For each of the stages of the engine cycle, click on the "Collect'' button. Then click the "Keep" button to enter the calculated volume. You will observe data points appeating on Table uindou ard, GrEb
windov.
4.
Obtaifl the values of the pressrue fot each stage of the cycle. Copy the generated pressue data from the softrxrate to Table 3
C. P.V DIAGRAM
AI{D CALCULATTONS OF WORK
1. Plot a P-V diagtam in Gmph 1 ptovided in the lTotksheet.
2. Calcu]ate the net thetmodynamic wotk done ftom the atea enclosed by the P-V curse. Device yorr own ways to measure the eaclosed uer of the cycle. Recotd calculations in Table 4. 3. Compare the thetmodynamic work with the mechanical wotk done obtained ',sing the equation V/ = mgh where m ts the combined mass of the obiect and the piston (specified on the apparatus), g is the accderadon due to gta"ity and / is change in the piston height
-/A -
20M
Physics 73.1
Heat engine

o o
Construct and test an engine protoq?e.
Investigate reftigerator cycle.
@ Lab Manual
Author 2004
-49-
Heat engine
Physics 73.1
-50-
Name
Seclion
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheet: HeaNngine
Table 1.
lnitialheight
Mass of test object + platform Diameter of engine apparatus
Table 2.
Engine cycle
Predictions and short exolanations
Observations
Procesi involved
Transition
At B
Transition
B) C
Transition
C)D
Transition
D)A
Table 3. A
Height Volume
Pressure B
Worksheet: Heat Engine
Physics 73.{
Graph 1. P-V diagram
Table 4. Net thermodynamic work

Thermodynamic work (area enclosed by curve)
Mechanicalwork (total mass x gravity x height)

Percentage error
Questions: 1. Explain why tansitions
from,Z
B and ftom
C+
D xe approximatgly adiabatic.
2.
Explain why tansitions from B -+ C and ftom D
+ A are apptoximately_isobanc.
3. Theoretically, the pressure
of the confined air should be the same after the system cools back to its original tefnperature. Why?
4.
\ilhat are the possible soruces of eror in the calculations of thermodynamic and mechanical
work?
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Name
5ection
Date
Received by
Prelab Quiz : Photoelectric Effect

Read die manual and answer the following questions:
1. Describe the photoelecric effect phenomenon.
2. Descdbe the
na11se
6f light
as a
paticle.
3. ltr(hat will be the maximum kinetic energJr of the electtons ejected in a photoelectric effect setup for a meal (work function = 2.0 eY) illuminated by a monochtomatic Iight of wavelength 450
nm?
4.
tU7hat are the
pdn.rprl emission lines in the speitrum of metcury?
@ Lab Manual
Authors 2004
Prelab Quiz: Photoelectric Effect
Physics 73.{
-54-
@,Lab Manual Authon
2fi)4
Physics 73.{
Objectives
a a a
Obsewe the particle property of light. Detetmine the work fi,rnction of a material Determine Planck's constant
lntroduction
The photoelectric'effect is a phenomenon that ptovides ofle of the sftoflgest experimental dernoastrations of the particle nature of light. When light impinges upon a metal surface, electtons ate liberated ftom the surface to ptoduce a photoelecttic cutent The dual wave-particle nature of light has been a plzzle for scientists in the 1800s. When photoelectdc effect was observed around 1900, it forced scientists to fotmulate the physics of quantum mechanics versus classical physics that could not cleady explain this phenomenon.
Theory
The classical vrave model of light predicts that as the intensity of the incident light is increased, the arnplitude and thus the energy of the wave would increase. Ftom this .point of view, more eoergetic photoelecttons should be emitted when light stdkes a metal sutf,ace in photoelectric effect. Also time lag should be olsewed as electtons are emitted condnuously. But these predictions ftom the classical model were absolutely contrary with actual observations in photoelectric emission.
Ahert Einstein attempted to explain the photoelectric effect. He first

assumed that light, according to Max Planck's published Law of Radiation, occrrrs in discrete quantities called photons having eoergy dependent on the
Photoelectric Effect
ftequency, i.e.
Physics 73.1
E=bu
(1)
wh91e "E is eneggy, vis the ftequency of radiation, and lt is a fundamental constant of nature. The cdnstaot D is known as Planck's constant.
When light energy reaches the metal in photoelectdc effecg this energy may be enough to eject an electton out of its orbit around the patent atom, and move it towxds tl'te sutface. If this elecfton is ftom an atom at the surface of the metd, t cettain amount of energy is still tequited to liberate the electron from the metal surface. T'his energy, known as the wotk function IYo, is a measute of the minimum amount of *ork needed to escape electrons ftom the metal sutface. The escaped electrons in tutn gain a maximum kinetic
elrergy
RE*,
Each metal have a chatacteristic wotk function that does not change fot diffetent ftequencies of light. The alkali meals (ithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, etc.) have the smallest work functions which ate in the tange of visible light. Fot other metals, such as those used in the early expetiments (coppet, nickel, zinc) the work functions are in the uluaviolet. -Any ftequency of lisht with insufficient enerw to overcome the work function of a metal camot ffil-uce cutrent to flow throush the exoerimental cfucuit. Work function values of some metals ate listed in the appendix. The photoelectric phenomenon can be cleady uoderstood from the point of of light with sufficient view of the neuz quantum model Wh* strike a
The kinetic
."@
ciepencient on
the wavelength or ftequency of the light but
independent of its intensity. The increased intensity would only 'inctease the
photoelectric curtent -- the numbet of electrons emitted ftom the metal surface.
Reverse Bias Voltage
Figure 1. Experimental circuit of tfie
ffitlr
photoelectric e,trect erpedmenl
Finstein applied Planck's theory and ."pl"ifl.d the photoelectdc effect in tetms of the quantum modd using the law of
consetvadon ofenergy:
photons on ttre photoctr&ode b overEonre its wort function, an
enough ene_rgt/ imparEd .by
electnon
opposing Yoltage is sufficient to stop lfte photoelectrcns frorn

photoelectric current ls mecurcd.
is liberabd. lf
OE
E:
where
bu =
I(E*
+W,
a)
reaching Ote inode, rp
KE*is the maximum kinetic eretgy of the emittedphotoelectrons, and V"isthe the work firnction of the metal. E is the
erergy supplied by the photoo
The kinetic erergy KE*of the electrons emitted ftom the metal surface can be detetmined by apptying a minimutn reyerse potential to stop the
-55-
2&X
Physics 73.1
photoelectrons, thus teducing the photoelectric cufient to zero (Figure 1). Relating kinetic eflergy to stopping potential V gpves the equation:
KE*
where e is the chatge of the electron. Therefore usrng Eiostern's equaton,
=Ve
(3)
Ve +Wo
Solving for V, the. eguation becomes:
, =(L\,-(%\
\e)
\' )
(s)
d ,E
Plotting v vs. V for different ftequencies of light, we will get a graph similar to Figue 2. By putting a linear fiq we obain a, V intercept equal ,to -lYo/e arrd a slope of lt/e. ,ln'experimental value for the work functioa of the metal of the photocathode, as well as Planck's gbnstant 4 with the accepted value of 4.735 x 10-1s eV.s, can be obtained from the slope and y-intetcept of the ploL
o q .s
bD
or o{ o
Flgure 2. A typical graph of the

stopping potential in photoelectric
effect experiment
rclationshlp
of
frcquency
qnd
The Photoelectric Setup

The setup illusftated in Figuqe 3 is composed of a mercury light source wheqe a,difftaction grating is attached io ftont of it to sptead the light into a discrete spectrum. Anh/e apparatus'attached to the base of the light source can be adfusted at the spectal color undet investigation. Tmosmission filtets ate ptovided to tegulatq intensity of light that passes through the opening of the
h/e apparetus
Materials
Metcury liglt soutcg diftaction gratin& h/e appatatus, tansmission greeo and yellow filters, digital muhimeter and alligator clips.
filtes;
O lab Manual Ar$ors 2fl)4
Figure
Physics.73.1
Setup. The diffraction grating spreads the light from the
3. The
Photoelectric
spectra. The h/e apparatus can be adjusted such that onlY one color from the spectra imPinges
mercury lamp into its discrete
on the opening. The reverse bias voltage can be measured using the voltmeter. Different filters are
provided to modulate.the light striking the opening of the h/e apparatus. These filters can be attached on the white reflective
mask of the h/e apparatus.
Procedure
NOTE :
- Avoid touching the suilaces of the diffraction grating and
filters.
Perform
this activiQl in a darkened
environment to
minimize ambient tight on photoserisitive equipment.

Part
1. Block the mercury light and measrue the voltage reading. Recotd as "dark voltage" in yout wotk sheet. In succeqding voltage ls2dings always subttact the dark voltage value.
ffi
fA:l
!E
2. Adiust the h/e r1pplrtzrws zuch that only the fitst ordet yellow spectml line falls on the opening. Place the yellow filte1 o1. the white reflective mask. The.output voltage is sensitive to the alignment of the h/e .apparatus with the incident light. Slowly t'uist the appafatus about its base until maximum voltage teading is obseived.
Transmission F-,ti""I
Figure 4. Filters. The transmission filter is used to regulate the intensity of light striking the opening of the h/e appafiltus. To
3.
.
Position the transmission filter over the colored filtet so that the light *70uo/i': passes thrdugh tfg section marked
4. Recotd the voltage teading in Table 1 of yout wotksheet.
filter only green and
5.
yellow light green and yellow filters are used.
Press and release the discharge button on the side of the h/i apparatus and obserrre apptoximalely hour much time is tequired to techatge the:instrument to the maximum volage.
.Repeat steps 3 to 4 fot 80, 60, 40 afld 207o uansmissions.
6.
-58-
Physics 7&{
7
Repeat the procedute,usirg the gteen band of the spectrum.
Part B
1.
apparatus so that only that color falls ,rpon the opening

appafatus.
choose one color in the first order spectrum and adiust the h/e of the h/e
2. Recotd the volt4ge re.lding in Table 2 of your worksheet.

'
3. Repeat the ptocess fot atleast five colors in the spectrum.
4, Move to the second order and repeat thc process.
@Lab Manual Authon 2fi)4
-59-
,,qgflffiii
,t.:': , i
,
':
Photoelectrlc Efiect
Physics 73.i
Appendix
Table l. Wavelengths of the spGtral llnes of Mercury
Color
Waoele*gh (nm)
578
546
Yellot
rGrcen
Blue
436
405
Violet
Ulttaviolet
365
Table 2. Wor* Functions for Some tletals
Metal
Aluminum
Carhou
WorkFunaba (eV)
4.08 4.81 4.7
5.1
Coppet
Gcrld
lton
I-ead
4.5 4.14
5.01
Nic&et
Silvs
4.73
*Hondbr)ok of Chemistry ond Physics
-50"
O Lab Manual Authors 20(X
Name
Seclion
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheet: Photoelectric Effect

Data Table 1. Part A DarkVoltage:
Color #1
%Transmission
100
Best Estimate of Stopping
Best Estimate of Charge Time

(s)
Potential(V)
80 Yellow 40 60 20
Golor #2
%Transmission
100 80
Best Estimate of Stopping
Potential(V)
Best Estimate of Charge Time (s)
Green
40 60 20
How did you arrive at the best estimated values of the stopping potential and chatge time? Defend by reporing the uncertainties of the values.
What can be deduced from the tesults of Part A?
-61 -
Workshee* Photoelectrac Effect

Data Tabl 2. Pat B
Physics 73.{
'
First Order Colors
Wavelength (nm)
Frequency (xl0r4 Hz)
Stopping Potential(V)
Second Order
Colors
Wavelength (nm)
Frequency (xlol'Hz1
Stopping Potential(V)
by tepotting the arive at the best estimated values of the stoPping potential? Defend uncertainties of the values.
Ho.ur did you
!7hat can be dpduced ftom the tesults of Part B?
Physics 73.1
Worksheet: Photoelectric Effect
Questions:
1' Plot the.stopping potentia! versus ftequency for the fust and second order specftal lines
and derive a hneat relationship. Detetmine the slope and y-intercept. \)7hat can be implied from the plot?
2.
Get the actual values
of.
b arrd lZo. Determine what metal is used in the photocathode.
3. What is the implication of having
higher or lower value for the wotk function?
a'
11 thg SaPh,
significance of this value?
intelpolate the value of the frequency when stopping potential is zero. What is the
@ Lab
Manual Authors 2004
-63-
Workshee$ Photoeleotrlc Effect
Physies 73.1
5. P.redict tle range of wavelengths of light that will induce photoelectdc emission in the mqtal
sutface of the setup. Defend yout prediction.
light 6. Describe the effect on the stoppmg potentid of passing different arnounts o6 "o1o1sd thgugh the vadabie transmission filter. Relate this to the maximum energy of the
photoelectrons.
7. Does
the intensity of the colored light have an effect on the chatging time? Explain.
8. Does thig experiment support L wuye or a qrufltum model of light based on your lab results?
Explain.
-64-
@ Lab Manual'Authors 20(X
Name
Section
Date
Received by
PreLab Quiz : The Spectrometer

Read the manual and answer the questions below:
1. Nflhat are the indications that the diffraction gtating is pelpendicular with the berm of light,from the collimatot slit?
2.
Based on the image below what is the angular reading?
3. How
are pamllel beams ensured
in aligning the spectrometer?
(Continued at the back)
-55-
Prelab Quiz: The Spectrometer
Physics 73.1
4. In the image below identify the parts found in the student spectrometet and speci$ what they are
for.
66..r
@ Lab
Manual Authors 2004
Physics 73.1
Objectives
Identi& the basic parts of a spectrometef. Align a student spectrometer.

Determine the numbet of lines per millimeter in a ruled transmission grating. Compute the Jight wavelength fiom angle in a specftometer.
Relate observed color to electromagnetic radiation wavelength
i' a I
li,
Nt
,t
I
I
lntroduction
is one of the most vitar apparatus in optics and modem .snec{ometer physics. Through this device many signifrcani theodes ,bort the structure and behavior of atoms wele conceived and varidated. To this day the specftometer remains_an important tool for diverse fields such as asttonomy (e.g. for detertnining the composition of objects in outet space), industry (e.j. for-materials testing), remote sensing (e.g. for classi$ring ,"a .ro-ru"* ilrr? and sea cover), and biology (e.g. for classi$,ing ma{nant versus h"ealthy cells). In this expedment, we'shall learn the proper ,rr^g. of a student version of the spectrometer as well as the -rr.".rrtoi. oltight.-
lr
tl
tl I
lhe
Light Diffraction
I
Take a compact disc (cD), turn the readabre side up to a source of light and one sees a spectrum of color reflected from the disc. The colors"always occur in a certain sequeflce red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet _ that an acronym helps to remember trr.* Roy G BIV. This cornmofl observation is one of the strongest evidence that light has wave properties. The cD behaves like an optical element known dfirrrtion grating-and its ^riDJrbl. Sliioxp"eriment. action is the same as that of a double slit in young's Iike water waves passing tkough two smal opening, in a dpple tank,
O Lab Manual Authors 2004
-67-
The Spectrometer
Physics 73.{
monochromatic light (single-colored light) passing thtough sevetal equallyspaced slits will diffrort ot sptead out from each s]it and, because of constructive and destructive intetfetence of light waves, will fotm patterns of datk and bright bands when viewed on a screen placed a short distance ftom the slits. rWhen white light is passed thtough the slits it breaks up into its constituent colors, each colot intedering constructively at diffetent positions.
Consider trxzo light tays emerging ftom a pair of grooves A and B in the difftaction Satiflg as shown in Figure 1. 0, actual observation, the ray of fuht will fan out tn r rardril dfuection. Hete we considet one emergent ray among the many.) The gtooves ate sepatated by a distance d.
Figure 1. Two rays emerging from two grooves in a diffraction grating.
Sirppose the path of light with wavelerlgth X difftacts or bends by an angle 0
from A. Light emerging ftom B vrill interfere constructively with A if the path diffetence PD between the two rays is an integer numbet of
wavelengths. That is, the condition for constructive intetference is
PD=dsinO=m).
(1)
where m is the order of tbe difraction and is integet-valued (m =0, t1, t2,...). The case when m=0 is when the light is undifftacted, ot the emergent light is staight through. Positive and negative values of m refer to diffracted light at opposite sides of the zetoth-order ot dirssl image. Equation (1) is vital in that the wavelength of the difftacted Iight can be determined if we know the slit or gtoove separation d and the angle of diffraction 0.
The Spectrometer
The specttometer is a device for obsen ing and quantifying specua. The student spectrometet has thtee main parts: (1) a collimator, (2) a lightdispersing element, and (3) a telescope which can rotate about a base that has angle matkings. Shown in Figute 2 is a student spectrometer.
O Lab Manual Authors 2004
Physics 73.1
The Spectrometer
tersinq element
Gollimator
Figure 2. Student spectrometer.
The collimator is a tube with an adjustable slit and lens. The slit is pointed at the light souce and is used to ptoduce a naflow beam of light. The lens is used to shape the beam such that it will emefge as patallel rays zt
the exit end of the collimatot tube.
The disperstng eiement is used to cliffract light into its constituent colors. In this activity, we will be using a ffansmission difftaction Satiflg. A difftaction Sating (Figute 3) is a ftansparent optical element whose surface is etched with very fine, equally-spaced glooves numbedng
from 60 to 600 lines pet millimeter. The diffraction gating Figure 3. is held in place by an adiustable holdet on a black circulat Transmission plate which can be rotated and locked in place. The grating. number of grooves or lines pet millimeter is called the grating constant D. The inverse of the Satiflg coristant gres the,sepatation between grooves which is the distance d tn Equation (1). Thus
1
Q)
The plate is attached to a platforrn base that has two viewing windows actoss each other which allows the reading of a main angulat scale ftom 0 to 360". Adiacent to the main scale is a Verniet scale which allows for finet angular reading. Attached to the main scale is a telescope that can rotate about the axis of the platform. Light dispersed by the gating i.s scanned thtough the telescope eyepiece which has a ctosshait such that the slit image can be aligned with it. Since the main angular scale rnoves with the telescope the angle of diffraction of light can be measuted from its position.
The Spectrometer
Physics 73.{
Diffraction Angle Measurement

Angle measurement is a crucial part of spectrometer usage. From Equation (1) knowing the angle of diftraction and the slit separation allows us to calculate the wavelength of the difftactid light. The circular main scale on the spectrometer platform is graduated ftom 0 to 360o in steps of th degree. Against the movable main angle scale is a fixed vernier scale with 30 divisions. To read the angle, fust locate the angle the zero point of the vemier scale aligns with. If the zero point is benvelen two lines, ore the lbwer oire. Record this'angle. Then find the mark on the Vernier scale that aligns vlth any line on the main scale. Add this to the eadiet angle marking. Each notch on the Vernier scale corresponds to a minute of arc. Fot example, the readiug in Figure 4 below.is 90o 14'.
100
100
95
90o on Main Scale
Figure 4. Example of angular main and vernier scale showing a reading of 90o l4'.
the apertures are parallel to the slit, diffracted light may be viewed on eithet side of the normal image. The specra lying flearest the direct image on either side are called the first (1st) order while those successively more distant are called second order, third order, and so on.
If
Materials
Student spectromete\ arty 3 <if the following diffraction gratings: 80, 100,
300
or
600 lines/frrln, mercury lamp, magnifying lens, desk lamp ot
flashlight. crayons, gas discharge. tubes, high voltage power supplies for gas discharge tubes, SUNGLASSES ftughly recommended).
-70-
Physics.73.l
The Spectrometer
Procedure
CAUTION: 'Never stare
directly at the high power mercury lamp. Prolonged exposure of the eye to ultraviolet light can cause retinat damage. Use
sunglasses to shield your eyes.
A. Alignment
1. Peer through the telescope and slide the eyepiece crosshairs are cleady seen.
in or out until the
2. Focus the telescop e tt far objects such as those outside the window to bdng the telescope focus at approximately infinity. For the PASCO SP-9268 Student Spectrometer, the focusing knob is at the right side of the telescope barrel while for older models the barrel may be pushed in ot out.
3. Open the collimatot slit to a small a width is possible and align the teGscope and collimatot directly opposite each other.
4. Peer through the telescope and adjust th. collimator focusing knob (not the telescope's!)' ,otil the slit image appears sharp. You may need to rotate the slit mechanism if it appears skewed.
5. Tighten the telescope rotation lock screw and use the fine-adiust knob to align the crosshair to one of the edges of the slit image. 6. Thertelescope and collimator are now aligned such that rays reaching the telescope from the collimator are parallel.
7. Insert a gndngon the central platform with its ruled lines vertical and its face perpendicular to the beam of light from the iollimatot. Make sute that light ftom the slit impinges in the middle of the glating. To do so adjust the platform height by loosening the locking screw on its side. 8. Waming: For this procedure wear sunglasses if the light is too intense. B.irg the MetcurT light source about one centimetet from the slit and direct the telescope to find its ditect image. Read the angle on both windows and tabulate in the worksheet under "Direct Image" angle. Sweep the telescope clockwise until you obsewe the first ordet bright gteen line of Metcury. Measute and tabulate the
I Tel"s"op" -urt be focused at infinity. Focusing the slit image using the collimator focusing knob ensures that rays reaching the telescope are nearly parallel.
@ Lab Manuel
Authorr 2004
-77 -
The Spectrometer
Physics 73.1
angle.
Sweep the telescope counterclockwise and find the green.line to the right of the direct image. Measure the angle.
9.
Subtract the ditect angle measuremeflts ftom the green line angles. If the angular displacements between clockwise and counterclockwise teadings are different, re-align the grating and repeat steps 8 to 9.
10,
Once the angular displacements between clockwise
and
counterclockwise are neady equal, tighten the screw of the grating platform to lock it in place. The plane of the gtating is now peqpendicular to the incident light and the specftometer is atigned.
Record the aligned direct image aflgle.
B. Measurement of Grating Constant D and Observation of Discrete Spectra
1.
With the Mercury [ght source still on, locate a#d record in Table 2 the angular displacements of each visible bright line in the first order on each side of the direct image. Remember to subtract the ditect image angle. In the space provided io yogt worksheet, reproduce as
accutately as possible the observe spectra of mercurT.
2. .
PIot the sine of the average angulat position versus the standard wavelength of ihe disctete lines. Compute D from the slope of the g^ph. Compare with the declared value of D.of the gratings. Do steps 1 and 2 for 2 more gtatings. Each time you change gratings pedorm the alignmeirt procedures in Part A.
side.
NOTE: For some gratings, light is allowed to pass thtough in only one If no image seems to appear, try reversing the gating.

o
Determine the range of wavelength
soufces:
of any of the following light
t. 2. 3.
your cellphone's backlight different coloted light emitting diodes (LEDr). Fluorescent lamp
Research the different specftometer designs. pedotmed for those designs?
How is calibtation
-72 -
Physies 73.{
The Spectrometer
Appendix
Sandard wavelengths of the emission lines of Mercuf Golor
Violet Violet Blue-violet
lntensity
Faint Faint Bright Faint Bright Bright Bright Very faint Very faint
Wavelengtth (nm)
404.66 407.78 435.83 491.60 546.07 576.96 579.06 671.64 690.54
Bluegreen
Green
Yellow Yellow
Red Red
@ Lab Manua[ Authors 2004

I
The Spectrometer
Physics 73.1
Name
secrirn
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheet: The Spectrometer

A. Alignment
Table
1. Green Line CW
Direct lmage
Angle (CW)
Difference
Direct lmage Angle (CCW)
Green Line
ccw
Difference
Aligned Condition: Final Value of Ditect Image Angle: C!7:
CCW:
B. Grating Constant
Theoretical Grati.g Constant
1:
2:
3:
Table 2. (Subtract the direct image angle from the teadings fot angular displacemeat).
Grating Golor
1
Standard Wavelenqth
Angular'
Disolacement GW
Angular
DisplacementGGW
Ave. Angular Disolacement
Grating 2 Color
Standard Wavelenoth
Angular
Disolacement GW
Angular
DisolacementCCW
Ave. Angular Disolacement
@ Lab
Manual Authors 2004
-75 -
Phystcs 73.{
Grating 3 Golor Standard Wavelenoth Angular
Displacement GW
Worksheet The Spectrometer

Angular
DisolacementCCW Ave. Angular Displacement
Gfaphl . Qveday the plot of sin g vs. wavelength for the 3 diffraction gratings on the graph below. Estimate the grating constant ftom the slope of each gtaph.
I.t"'d"rd (mm)
Computed Gtating Constant
1:
Worksheet: Tha Spectrometer
Physics 73.{
In the space below, reptoduce in colot the observed specttum of Mercuy as accwately
ra
as possible.
ll
420
480
s20 slm 560

wavelength (nm)
580
620
580
Sample Calculatioris
Questions: 1. If the gating is not propedy
aligned what ate the consequences displacement and ultimat"ly th" wavelength teading? Explain.
on the avetage
angulat
2. How do the Sating constants affect the obsetved spectml lines?
@ Lab
Manual Authors 2004
Physics 73.{
Worksheet: The Spectrometer
3. IThy must the spectrometd 6s aligned each tirne a grating is teplaced?
-79 -
lab:Manual Authors 2004
Nam
Section
Date
Received by
Prelab Quiz : Spectral Fingerprinting

Read the manual and answet the follouring quesdons:
X. What causes light?
2. How
can elernents be identified ftom
fieir qp6tte?
PREI-AB ACTIVITY
Do one of the following:

Chlorophyll 1. Collect leaves of any plant and chop finely2. Soak the chopped leaves in alcohol overnight. 3. Collect the juice in a test tube and seal with a cotk. Bring the solution to class. Neon matkers 1. Bring to class different colored neon markets.
Gemstones
1.
Bring a ruby to class.
- 7!),-
Prelab Quiz: Spectral Fingerprinting
PlryrE
h,,
il
It,
Physics 73.{
Objectives
o o o o
Differentiate betq/een condnuous and line sPecfta of light sources. Identi$, elements ftom their line spectra. Obsewe and quanti$ absoqption sPecta in liquids.
Observe fluotesceace in solutions aod solids.
lntroduction
The human fingerprint is a pattem so unique to an individual that if there is a database of fingelptints of all persons it an. zreq the identity of an individual may be ascettained ftom his ot her fingelpdnts alone. Atoms have a similat "finge1pdnt" in the colot of light they emit. This is why atoms or molecules ifl the s-un, plan.ts, minetal ote, .., or atnbsphere rnay be deduced from the spectra or Iight they erriit, absotb or teflect. This expedment explotes how mattef in different phases emits ot absotbs light and how we can determine the presence of an element ot molecule based on "spectral fingeqprinting".
Theory
Surrounding us afe various Iight sources both natural and man-made. Thete is sunlight, stadight, flame, lightning and bioluminescence ftom terrestriai and aquatic cteatutes. Man-made light souces include gas discharge tubes such as fluorescent lamps and neon light, incandescent lamps and flashlights, lasets and light-emitting diodes pED's). Whether natuial of mafl-made, Iight is produced when.a valence electton of an excited atom returns to a state of lower enefgy. From quartum mechanics we know that the energy levels occupied by an atom are quantized, meaning they are limited to specific vhlues. For diiferent enefgy levels its electrons occupy some specific otbital configuration. If undistubed, an atom exists in the gtound state with its electrons in a stable otbital of lowest energy.
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Speetral Fingerprinting
Physics 73.{
Atoms can absorb enet$y only in specifir ahour-rts. If the disturbance is ftom an elecftomagnetic wave, the absotbed energy E is exptessed as
=hf
(1)
Hete, h is Planck's constaot kL = 6.626 x tO-*J'9 and f is the frequency of the electtomagnetic wave. Recall that given the wavelength 1, of light, one can calculate its ftequency ftom c = ,2,f ,whete c is the speed of light (c = 3
108m/s).
An atom reacts to enbrgy in several ways. It may bounce atound like a billiard ball, vibrate, bteak up, heat up of emit light. If the imp.arted enefgy is exactly equal to the difference between two atomic enefgy levels it quickly absotbs thib energy and jumps to an excited state, its elecftons tapidly moving to the orbital configwation of the higher enetgy-level This condition is very unstable ,t d t"*pomry, lasting oflly around 10-8s, and the . electrons instantaneously retlrn to a lowet state otbital. As they deceletate they emit electtomagneLic radiation: Depending on the levels where they wete excited to and the states they land in, some of the tadiation may tum out as ulUaviolet mdiation, visible light, inftated ot heat. The amount of enetgy absorbed by the atom is quantized since it is equal to the enefgy diffetence between the initial and final states of the atom. Therefote, if the conditions
ate right, the atom can reemit light.
But something else affects the emitted light and it depends on the amount of
atoms there are.in a given sPace.
When the spacing between atgms is large, such as gas undet low pressrue, atom-to-atom collisions ate infrequent. Consider a glass tube, evacuated and sealed with conductors at both end. If a gas made of a Prrre element such as hydrogen or vapoiz.ed metcury is introduced into the tube attd a, high voltage is placed across it, the gas will glow. The Iatge potential diffetence will cause elecffons ftom one end of the tube (cathode) to acceletate to the mote positive electtode (anode). As electtons ttavel actoss the tube they collide with the atoms of the gas thereby exciting them. The emission of the atoms as they sPontafleously return to lowet energy levels is seen as an atc ot glow of lightl. Since they ate condnuously excited they cycle back and fotth ftom excited to gtound state afld thus emit light as long as the high voltage supply is on. Figure 1 shows an example of a gas dischatge tube.
Figurc t. Gas
discharge tube
If the atc of light of a pute element in gaseous phase undet low

I
pressute is
This is the same mechanism as lightning.
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Physics 73.'l
observed
Speitral Fingerprinting
with a spectrometer, the light will be seen to break up not into a condnuous tainbow but into discrete colots. One sees "specftal lhres" of light of very definite wavelengths only. dic table has a specific numbet of electrons, protofls end neutrons its enefsy Lre and therG so ate its spectral lines. As a tesulg each t can be identified based on tlese spectral lioes, their spectral fingerprint.
toms are mote than in Frequent atomic collisions ceuse energy levels to vary slightly ftom atom to atom. If the liquid is made up of molecules, the bonds between atoms cause the erergy levels to shift. isht is oassed a colored solution the atoms and molecules will absorb the emit verv little -@k. This is because most of the tnergl woillfave dGE4tSAEorgh ,collisions. Thus, the specttum of a colored solution will have doiL 5-6r io wavelengths which wete absorbed.
In splids. the atoms are much denser and collisions are'far more frequent. Each time a" rt"m ir excited Uy ir.ia" go back to might itself be shifted. d 'rft.d. lighrg hasiqg_a btoadet of values so much so that the soectrum of an
Materials
,i
Gas discharge tubes (I\dercury, Hydtogen, Helitrm, Xenoo, Neon). High voltage power supply fot discharge tubes. student spectrometer. Desk lamp or flashlight, colored solutions in sealed test tubes (chlotophyll, potassiu:n permangarate ((MrrO), coppet sulfate (CuSOJ), violetlass filtet..
Procedure
: The gas tubb power supply delivers high voltage. Switch it off before changing tubes. DO NOT
TOUGH ITS TERM!ilALS.
Mercury is TOXIG. lf there is breakage in the mercury discharge tube, ayoid contact. Ask assistance your instructor
A. Line Spectra of Gises in Low Pressure
Fot your guidance, Figure 2 shows the setup.
@ Maricor Soriano 2004
Spectral Fi4gerprinting
Physics 73.{
1. 2. 3.
Carefrrlly insert the Mercury discharge tube into the high voltage power supply and switch it on.
Align the spectrometet as specified in the pteviogs expedment using

the Mercury atc as calibration source.
Replace the metcury tube with another tube of a different gas. Remember to tutn off the po-wer supply befote changing tubes.
4. Tutn on the gas tube and scan its spectrum. Tabulate the colots, brightness and wavelengths of prominent spectral lines.
5. From your measutements and the specttal fingerpdnt data provided, identify the gas. 6. Repeat fot a totalbf thtee unknown gas tubFs.
Figure 2. Setup for Part A"
B. Continuous specta of heated solids
1. 2.
Replace the arc light by'an incandescent lamp.
Reptoduce in color the obsewed spectra in your activity sheet AS accutately'as possible. Note the btightness and wavelength range of each color pfesent.
C. Absorption spectra of liquids

Fot your guidance, Figue 3 shows the setup forPartC.
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1. \Ufith the iOcandesceu-t lamp 5till 6n, insert e test tube filled with colored solution between the incandescent lemF and the collimatot slit as shoqrn in the figute below.
2. Observe what happens to the lamp sPectfa and note down the range of wavelengths where light was absotled. To verit if the solution indeed absorbed part of the light kcep your eye on the spectf,um while pushing the test tube iO and out of the light petb- You should see alternately the cotnplete spectr-,um and &e absotbed sPectrum' 3. As accurately as possiblg reptoduce ia colot the observed abSolption spectrumrin yout activity sheet.
4., compare yorr absorption specfta with knowq absorption

the solutions used.
peaks
of
Figure 3. SetuP for Part G.
D, Fluorescence specffa in various materids

,1. Tutn on the PASCO r-nercurY IrmF' 2. Place
a
violet filter in ftont of the lamp openiag
3. Bflng the following objecs in ftont ofthe filteted liSht:
a. chlorophyll in solution b. neon market c. ruby

4.
Obsere and tecord the colots emitted by each sample'
Maricor Soriano 2004
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Spectral Fingerprinting
Physics 73.{

Deterrnine the spectrum of the pnrnary phosphors (red, green and blue) of a color monitor.
o
Determine the absoqption spectrum of color printet inks.

Repeat Part Fluorescence on other parts of a prant such as the flower, fruit, stem of root to see if they fluoresce.
c,
a a
Measure the absolption of sunglass coatings.
Detetgents such as Tide contain a colorless dy. that absorbs ultraviolet light and emits blue fluorescent light. This causes white clothes to look bluish wlrite which to most observers appear bdghter and thus cleaner. Examine the fluotescence of , d"t"rg"rri solution.
Appendix
Emission Spectra of Some Elements
Hydrogen
Color
Red
Wavelength (nm)
656.3
486.1
434.O
Blue,green Blue Violet
410.2
Violet
397.0
OfuJY?
Color
Red Red
Helium
Wavelength (nm)
706.5 667.8 587.6 501.6
492.2
Yellow
Green Blue-green Blue
Blue
471.3
447.1
Blue Violet Violet
438.7
412.1 402"6
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Physics 73.{
Spectral Fingerprinting
Xenon
Color
Blue BIue
Wavelength (nm)
473.4 491.7 502.8 539.3 569.6 582.4 619.8
647.O
Green Green Green Green

Red Red
@ Maricor Soriano 2004
Spcclril Fingerprill$Hg
Pfumics 73,1
'q
Name
Seclbn
Date
Score
Groupmates
Worksheet Spectral Fingerprinti ng

A. Line spectra of elements in gaseous phase
1For intensity illues, you may use desctiptors (e.g. faint, btigbt, sttong) ot a nur{retical scale (". gwavelengths. 10). Fot waoelengthr, or. th" space provided to show taw data (-gL$ and calculated
Element
Color
lntensity
Wavelength
E;ffi*tta
Element 2 Golor
fi"g.tp.iog what is the element?
lntensity
Wavelength
Based on its spectral
fingelprht, what is the element?
Lab Manual Authors
2fi)4
l
? 1
Worksheet: Spectral Fingerprlnting

Element 3 Color
Physlcs 73.{
lntensity
Wavelength
Based on its specftal fingerprint, what is the elernent?
B. Continuous spectra of heated solids

In the space below, teproduce in color the observed spectrum as accurately as possible.
420
480
500
520 540 560

wavelength (nm)
580
660
bluc' At F"t&lu
C. Absorption spectra of liquids
Solution
1:
In the spaces below, reproduce in color *ie observed absolptiofl spectra as accurately
Kr%
as possible.
-r--------t-------
-r--_--_--L-_---_:
420
480
500
520 540 560

wavelength (nm)
580
520
640
660
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Physics 73.{
Solution 2
:
UUortsheetu Spectral Fingerprlnting
420
500
s20 540 560

wavelength (nm)
s80
620
560
Solution 3 : ChloroPhYll
420
440
500
520 540 560

wavetength (nm)
580
520
560
what type is it, Chlorophyll Based on the measured absorption spectfa of your chlotophyll sample, or B?
D. Fluorescence spectra in various materials

ultraviolet light? How can IThat color do you observe from the substance ot matedal brought neat
you be sure that this is fluorescent light?
Questions:
1.
ordet lines? How should yout wavelength calculation change if you are looking at the second
Lab Manual Authoi'i 2004
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Workshee* gpectral Fingerprinting
Physics 73.{
2' Suppose a discharge tube contains a combination of these elemental vapors. Is identi$, individual elements in this case?
it
possible to
3. Compare your reptesentations ,,f the line spectta for each elemental discharge tube. Explain what you observe.
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@ Lab
Manual Authors 2004
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Copynght @ Lab Manual Authors 2004

(Physics 73.lLab Manual Authors 2004)

ilrfl 0A|AL rilr.s_rqqlE

e0LlEfG0rscF[E ut{trEnsry orrgr iiln im[es DILMN, OtEZ0rrt rffy t rOi

Specific Heat and Heat of

Prelab Quiz : Temperature Measurement

2. Define thermal equilibrium.

r07hat ate the quantities that

will be calculated in the

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

o Identi& the physical conditions needed fot

Opetate diffetent temperature seflsors.

O Lab Manual Arthors 2(XE

Figure 1. When two objects are

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

T(t) = Ti+ (0.632)ATo

which is the final temperature.

!7hen t = t, Equation (4) becomes

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

(thermal time conttant) interval'

T,+ (0.86)ATo T, + (0.95)AT. T, + (0.98)AT. Tr+ (0.99)ATo

Figure 4. Digital thermometer with a thermocouple as sensor.

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

Suggested Extension ExPeriments

tempetatute varies? Design an experiment to check your hypothesis.

E:ptessing Tlts ATu + fl'ftom Equation (5) we get

Solving forT(t) we obtzir,

:'Tr * AT,(1- exp(-t/

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

Worksheeil Temperatu re Measu rements

Data Tabt 2. Thermal sensot:

Data Tabt 3. Thermal sensor

lianual Authors 2fl)4

Worksheetl Ternperature Measurement

2. Is the final temperature reading of

to the actual temperature of the obiect?

- AM ^,w&O', vhilbil ,*b ,Wy @ ry

Prelab Quiz : Linear Expansion

1. Give the definition of the linear expansion.coefficient.

2. Why is an ohmmeter needed to be connected actoss the linear expansion

3. nflhere will the temperature sensor be inseted?

4. What is the pqpose of the steam generator in the setup?

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

@ Lab Manuat Authors

2.30 1.90 1.70 2.80

Table 1. Coefficient of [inear expansion of some metals.

@ Lab Manual Authors 2004

Materials and Setup

Figure 1. Linear Expansion SetuP.

In addition, you will

: Metetstick, ohmmetel to check fot

connectivity, Rags and Potholdets

@Lab Manual Authors 2004

Figure 2. Rod must protrude out of the cork stopper.

@Lab Manual Authors

Sug gestedr Extension Projects

r Will the a. change u,ith different tod lengths? Find out, by

@Lab Manual Authors 20O4

Worksheet: Linear Expansion

Worksheet: Linear ExPansion

reaches a coflstant tempetature?

2. In step 3 of the procedute why is it NOT

rlt#)t - o"c) = l#)e "