Module 1: Atoms and Reactions

1.1.1 Atoms
Candidates should be able to: (a) describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of relative charge and relative mass; Particle Mass Charge Proton 1 +1 Neutron 1 0 Electron 1/2000 -1
(b) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom; The mass and positive charge of an atom is a concentrated in a tiny dense nucleus at the centre of atom and is surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged (but with a tiny mass) electrons in various electron shells, divided into sub-orbitals. (c) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to the nucleus of an atom, in terms of atomic (proton) number and mass (nucleon) number; _ Modern development of the structure of the atom; the changing accepted view of the structure of the atom; acceptance (and rejection) of different theories for the structure of the atom from the Greeks, Dalton, Thompson and Rutherford, Moseley, et al. (d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in: (i) an atom given its atomic and mass number, mass number atomic mass = No. of Neutrons atomic number = No. of Protons = No. of Electrons (ii) an ion given its atomic number, mass number and ionic charge; No. of Electrons= atomic numberionic charge No. of Protons=Atomic Number No. of Neutrons=Mass Number Atomic Number

(e) explain the term isotopes as atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons and different masses; An isotope is a different version of the same element with the same atomic number but different relative atomic mass. (f) state that 12C is used as the standard measurement of relative masses; A Mole is the amount of substance that has the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12g of Carbon 12. (g) define the terms relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass, based on the 12C scale; A Mole is the amount of substance that has the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12g of Carbon 12. Relative Isotopic mass is specific to one isotope of an element (ie. The tritium isotope of hydrogen) rather than relative atomic mass which is the average of all the relative isotopic masses of all the different isotopes of the elements, adjusted to the relative abundances of these istopes. Relative atomic mass:

Relative isotopic mass:

(h) calculate the relative atomic mass

(c) explain the terms:

of an element given the relative abundances of its isotopes; Use of spreadsheets in calculating relative atomic masses from data; Relative atomic mass = (((%Abundance1)x(Ar1)) + ((%Abundance2)x(Ar2)) +((%Abundance3)x(Ar3))) / 100 (i) use the terms relative molecular mass and relative formula mass and calculate value from relative atomic masses. For simple molecules, the term relative molecular mass will be used. For compounds with giant structures, the term relative formula mass will be used. Definitions of relative molecular mass and relative formula mass will not be required.

(i) empirical formula as the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound, The Empirical Formula is the smallest whole number ratio between the elements in a compound. (ii) molecular formula as the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule; The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a compound. (d) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using composition by mass and percentage compositions; % by mass= Mass/Mr x 100 (e) construct balanced chemical equations for reactions studied and for unfamiliar reactions given reactants and products;
(g) gaseous, (s) solid, (l) liquid, (aq) aqueous. (f) carry out calculations, using

Moles and Equations

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the terms: (i) amount of substance, Number of particles in a substance (ii) mole (symbol mol), as the unit for amount of substance, The mole is the SI unit of quantity in Chemistry. It is the Avagadros number of particles. The same number of particles as there are atoms in 12g of Carbon-12. (iii) the Avogadro constant, NA, as the number of particles per mole (6.02 1023 mol1); the Avogadro constant is = 6.02x1023 (b) define and use the term molar mass (units g mol1) as the mass per mole of a substance; Molar mass is the mass per mole of a substance, for an element it is its relative atomic mass in grams and for a molecule its its relative formula mass.

amount of substance in mol, involving: (i) mass, No. Moles= Mass/Mr (ii) gas volume, At room temperature and pressure (RTP-298K/25o C 100kPa) one mole of gas occupies 24 dm3. Mol=volume/24dm3. (iii) solution volume and concentration; Concentration=mass/volume (g) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations; (h) use the terms concentrated and dilute as qualitative descriptions for the concentration of a solution.

1.1.2 Acids and Salts

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain that an acid releases H+ ions in aqueous solution; An acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton acceptor. (b) state the formulae of the common acids: hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric acids;

HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, (c) state that common bases are metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia; Common bases are metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia. (d) state that an alkali is a soluble base that releases OH ions in aqueous solution; An alkali is a soluble base that releases OH- ions in an aqueous solution. It is also a proton acceptor. (e) state the formulae of the common alkalis: sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia; NaOH KOH NH4OH (f) explain that a salt is produced when the H+ ion of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or NH4 +; Candidates will not be expected to use oxidation numbers in peroxides or metal hydrides. Ionic equations will only be required in Group 7 chemistry. A salt is produce when the H+ ion of an acid is replaced by a metal ion of NH4+

(k) perform acidbase titrations, and

carry out structured titrations.

1.1.3 Redox and Oxidation Number

Candidates should be able to: (a) apply rules for assigning oxidation number to atoms in elements, compounds and ions; Rules occur in this order of priority: 1. Elements in their standard state have an oxidation state of 0. 2. For monatomic ions the oxidation state is the same as the charge on the ion. 3. In compounds, the total oxidation numbers sum to zero. 4. The oxidation state of Hydrogen is almost always 0. 5. The oxidation state of oxygen is almost always -2. 6. In polyatomic ions oxidation states sum to the charge on the ion. (b) describe the terms oxidation and reduction in terms of: (i) electron transfer, Oxidation- is the loss of electrons. Reduction- is the gain in electrons. (ii) changes in oxidation number; Oxidation- is the increase in oxidation number. Reduction- is the decrease in oxidation number. (c) use a Roman numeral to indicate the magnitude of the oxidation state of an element, when a name may be ambiguous, eg nitrate(III) and nitrate(V); The numeral is the oxidation state. (d) write formulae using oxidation numbers; HClO H=+1 Cl=+1 O=-2 (e) explain that: (i) metals generally form ions by losing electrons with an increase in oxidation

(g) describe the reactions of an acid

with carbonates, bases and alkalis, to form a salt; acid+base salt+water+carbon dioxide (h) explain that a base readily accepts H+ ions from an acid: eg OH forming H2O; NH3 forming NH4 +; It is a proton acceptor. (i) explain the terms anhydrous, hydrated and water of crystallisation; Anhydrous- A substance that contains no water molecules. Hydrated- Crystalline and containing water molecules. Water of hydration- water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline structure of a compound. (j) calculate the formula of a hydrated salt from given percentage composition, mass composition or experimental data;

number to form positive ions, Metals form ions by losing electrons and so only form positive ions. (ii) non-metals generally react by gaining electrons with a decrease in oxidation number to form negative ions; Non metals generally react by gaining electrons, decreasing their oxidation number and forming negative ions. (f) describe the redox reactions of metals with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids; (g) interpret and make predictions from redox equations in terms of oxidation numbers and electron loss/gain.

1.1.4 Practical Things

Making up a standard solution. NaOH or Na2CO3/HCl titration. NaOH/H2SO4 to illustrate difference in stoichiometry. _ Titration involving a dilution citric acid in lime juice cordial. _ Determination of the percentage of water of crystallisation in a hydrated salt. _ Determination of the relative atomic mass of an unknown metal by gas collection. _ Determination of the concentration of lime water. _ Determination of the relative formula mass of washing soda by titration. _ Reactions of the bases, alkalis and carbonates with acids. _ Preparation of salts from an acid and a base, eg copper(II) sulfate, ammonium sulphate. _ Reactions of metals with acids.
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Module 2- Electrons, Bonding and Structure

1.2.1 Electron Structure

(a) Define the terms first ionisation energy and successive ionisation energy; First i.e= The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of neutral gaseous atoms, to form one mole of +1 positively charged ions. Successive ionisation energy= A measure of the energy required to remove each electron in turn, e.g. the second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron from each ion in one mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form one mole of gaseous 2+ ions. Evidence for the electron configuration of the atom from successive ionisation energies- the jumps in ionisation energy correspond to moving between electron shells of different distances from the nucleus and so different levels of attraction to the nucleus, so different amounts of energy require to remove them. (b) Explain that ionisation energies are influenced by nuclear charge, electron shielding and the distance of the outermost electron from the nucleus; Ionisation energy definitions are in terms of one mole of gaseous atoms or ions. The greater the nuclear charge the greater the nuclear attraction, so the higher the ionisation energies. The greater the electron shielding the lower the nuclear attraction so the lower the ionisation energies. The greater the atomic radius, the lower the nuclear attraction and so the lower the ionisation energies. Successive ionisation energies get larger as the proton:electron ratio increases. (c) predict from successive ionisation energies of an element: (i) the number of electrons in each shell of an atom, (ii) the group of the element; (d) state the number of electrons that can fill the first four shells;

For AS, the electron configurations of Cr and Cu, and their ions, will not be tested. Modern development of the structure of the atom (see also 1.1). (e) describe an orbital as a region that can hold up to two electrons, with opposite spins; An orbital is a region that can hold up to two electrons, with opposite spins.

(ii) ions, given the atomic number and ionic charge, limited to s and p blocks up to Z= 36;
(j) classify the elements into s, p and

d blocks. These are thus on the periodic table:

(f) describe the shapes of s and p

orbitals; S is spherical. There are 3 p orbitals: px py and pz. These have a dumbbell shape and each is on one axis; x y and z. (g) state the number of: (i) orbitals making up s-, p- and dsubshells, There is one orbital in the s subshell, three in the p subshell and 5 in the d subshell. (ii) electrons that occupy s-, p- and dsubshells; There are 2 electrons in the s subshell, 6 in the p, and 10 in the d. (h) describe the relative energies of s-, p- and d-orbitals for the shells 1, 2, 3 and the 4s and 4p orbitals; Candidates should use sub-shell notation, ie for oxygen: 1s 2s 2p .
2 2 4

1.2.2 Bonding and Structure

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the term ionic bonding as electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions; Ionic Bonding is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

(b) construct dot-and-cross

They have this order of energies, from low to high: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 ect. Called the AufBau principle.
(i) deduce the electron configurations

diagrams, to describe ionic bonding;

of: (i) atoms, given the atomic number, up to Z = 36, Ie. up to Rb (Rubidium)

(c) predict ionic charge from the

position of an element in the Periodic Table; (d) state the formulae for the following ions: NO3,

CO32-, SO42- and NH4+; (e) describe the term covalent bond as a shared pair of electrons; A bond formed by a shared pair of electrons. (f) construct dot-and-cross diagrams to describe: (i) single covalent bonding, eg as in H2, Cl2, HCl, H2O, NH3, CH4, BF3 and SF6,

(ii) multiple covalent bonding, eg as in O2, N2 and CO2, (iii) dative covalent (coordinate) bonding, eg as in NH4+, Done with an arrow in a line diagram but not in a dot and cross. (iv) molecules and ions analogous to those specified in (i), (ii) and (iii); (g) explain that the shape of a simple molecule is determined by repulsion between electron pairs surrounding a central atom; The electron pairs move as far apart from each other as possible. (h) state that lone pairs of electrons repel more than bonded pairs; Lone pairs of electrons repel more than bonded pairs (i) explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules and ions with up to six electron pairs (including lone pairs) surrounding a central atom, eg as in: Three dimensional molecular shapes. (i) BF3 (trigonal planar), (ii) CH4 and NH4+ (tetrahedral), 109.5 (iii) SF6 (octahedral), 90 (iv) NH3 (pyramidal), 107 (v) H2O (non-linear)/(angular) 104.5 (vi) CO2 (linear); 180 (j) predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules and ions analogous to those

specified in (i); (k) describe the term electronegativity as the ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond; Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond. (l) explain that a permanent dipole may arise when covalently-bonded atoms have different electronegativities, resulting in a polar bond; A polar bond arises when covalently bonded atoms have different electronegativities. This creates a permanent dipole. If these dipoles do not cancel out across the whole molecule then a dipole moment is formed, leaving a polar molecule. If there is a net dipole then the molecule is polar. (m) describe intermolecular forces based on permanent dipoles, as in hydrogen chloride, and induced dipoles (van der Waals forces), as in the noble gases; Forces based on dipole-dipole interactions occur (in addition to Van der Waals forces) between polar molecules. Intermolecular forces based on permanent dipoles are the electrostatic attraction between permanent dipoles on polar molecules. This extra attraction between dipoles means that more energy must be put in to separate the molecules and so they have a higher boiling point. Induced dipoles are weaker because they are not permanent, but merely temporary. These are instantaneous dipoleinduced dipole interactions that are Van der Waals forces occur because electrons in atoms a are moving at high speeds in orbitals and so it is possible for more electrons to be on one side of the molecule than the other, forming a slightly positive dipole at one end which is electron deficient and a slightly negative dipole where the electrons happen to be. The dipole on one molecule can

induce a dipole in neighbouring one. These Van der Waals forces attract atoms/molecules together. This makes them harder to separate and so the stronger these forces the high the melting and boiling points. The bigger the atom/molecule the more electrons it has so the more temporary dipoles are formed so the stronger the intermolecular forces. (n) describe hydrogen bonding, including the role of a lone pair, between molecules containing OH and NH groups, ie as in H2O, NH3 and analogous molecules; Hydrogen bonding is a special case of dipole-dipole forces giving even higher boiling points. They occur because bonds between H and the three most electronegative elements (NOF) are very polar. The small sizes of HNOF concentrates the partial charges in a small volume thus leading to a high charge density.

(o) describe and explain the

anomalous properties of H2O resulting from hydrogen bonding, eg:

(i) the density of ice compared with water, (ii) its relatively high freezing point and boiling point; (p) describe metallic bonding as the attraction of positive ions to delocalised electrons; A sea of delocalised electrons holds the positive nuclei of the metal atoms in place. No details of cubic or hexagonal packing required. Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positively charged ions and their delocalised outer shell electrons. (q) describe structures as: (i) giant ionic lattices, with strong ionic bonding, ie as in NaCl, Ions pack together in such a way as to minimise repulsive forces and maximise attractive forces. They have very high melting points because a large amount of energy to overcome the electrostatic attractions and to separate the ions. They are very brittle because any dislocation leads to the layers moving and similarly charged ions being next to each other. The repulsion that ensues splits the crystal. These structures do not conduct electricity when solid because the ions are held strongly in the lattice and so are not free to move so there are no mobile charge carriers. When molten or in solution however, the ions are able to move as they are no

longer held rigidly in the lattice and so they act as the mobile charge carriers that conduct electricity. These are insoluble in non-polar solvents, but soluble in polar solvents because they are made up of charged particles and they need to dissolve in a polar solvent (ie. water) to stabilise the separated ions, and this stability is achieved by polar water molecules surrounding the ions. An ionic substance dissolving is an endothermic process because energy is needed to overcome the electrostatic attraction and separate the ions. (ii) giant covalent lattices, ie as in diamond and graphite, These have very melting and boiling point as there are many covalent bonds, all of which need to be broken to separate the atoms to melt/boil the substance. In diamond/ SiO2: Each carbon atom is joined to four others, so there are no delocalised electrons. These substances exist within a rigid tetrahedral structure, this means that because each carbon atom is bonded to many other atoms, holding them in place very strongly, so the shape cannot change easy so it is hard. Does not conduct electricity because it does not have delocalised electrons or mobile ions, so there are no mobile charge carriers to conduct electricity. In Graphite: It is very soft because while within the layers there are strong covalent bonds, between the layers there are only weak Van der Waals, so the layers can slide over each other easily. It is used as a lubricant and in pencils. Graphite can conduct electricity because each atom only uses three of its outer shell electrons for bonding to other atoms, and so the remaining electron moves through the layers allowing the conduction of

electricity. There is one delocalised electron per carbon atom, which act as the mobile charge carriers required to conduct electricity, whereas in diamond ect. all the electrons are used for bonding so they have no non-bonding electrons that can move and so it cant conduct electricity. (iii) giant metallic lattices, These are formed by metal atoms losing their outer shell electrons to become isoelectronic to the nearest noble gas that has fewer electrons. These delocalised electrons form a mobile cloud that holds the newly formed positive metal ions together with their mutual electrostatic attraction. Metallic bond strength depends on: 1. The number of outer electrons donated. 2. The charges on the metal ions. The melting point acts as a measure of the attractive forces within the metal. Metals conduct electricity because they have delocalised electrons that are free to move and act as mobile charge carriers. Because it is a delocalised electron cloud, it is malleable and ductile, because the layers of positive metal ions can slide over each other. They have high melting points because there is a strong electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and the sea of delocalised electrons. As you go across the period the melting/boiling point increases, because the density of the electron cloud increases and the ionic charge also increases. Down the group the melting/boiling point decreases because the ions increase in size and so there is a lower charge density and so there is less attraction between the positive ions and the sea of delocalised electrons. (iv) simple molecular lattices, ie as in I2 and ice; The forces between Simple Covalent molecules and only weak Van der

Waals forces which require very little energy to overcome, which gives these substances low melting/boiling points. These dont conduct electricity because they have no mobile charge carriers to conduct electricity. Solubility of these substances tends to be higher in organic solvents than in water. They have low boiling points because they have low intermolecular forces (Van der Waals forces), which require little to overcome. (r) describe, interpret and/or predict physical properties, including melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity and solubility in terms of: (i) different structures of particles (atoms, molecules, ions and electrons) and the forces between them, (ii) different types of bonding (ionic bonding, covalent bonding, metallic bonding, hydrogen bonding, other intermolecular interactions); (s) deduce the type of structure and bonding present from given information.

1.2.3 Practical
Bonding, structure and physical properties of substances (polarity, electrical conductivity, boiling points, solubility in polar and non-polar solvents).

(ii) in periods showing repeating trends in physical and chemical properties, (iii) in groups having similar physical and chemical properties; (b) describe periodicity in terms of a repeating pattern across different periods; Periodic trends in ionisation energies will consider s and p blocks only. No consideration of the periodic decreases between Groups 2 and 3, and 5 and 6, will be tested. Periodicity= The regular periodic variation of the properties of elements with atomic number and position in the periodic table. (c) explain that atoms of elements in a group have similar outer shell electron configurations, resulting in similar properties; Atoms of elements in a group have similar outer shell electron configurations, resulting in similar chemical properties. (d) describe and explain the variation of the first ionisation energies of elements shown by: (i) a general increase across a period, in terms of increasing nuclear charge, They show a general increase because:

Module 3- The Periodic Table

1.3.1 Periodicity
(a) describe the Periodic Table in

terms of the arrangement of elements: Development of the Periodic Table from Dbereiner, Newlands, Mendeleev, Moseley, Seaborg, et al. (i) by increasing atomic (proton) number,

The increase in effective nuclear charge causes the nuclear attraction on the outer shell electrons to increase, thus increasing the amount of energy required to remove them, thus increasing the first ionisation energy.

(ii) a decrease down a group in terms of increasing atomic radius and increasing electron shielding outweighing increasing nuclear charge; [See also unit F321: 1.2.1(a)(c)] They show a general decrease because:

This outweighs the increasing nuclear charge. (e) for the elements of Periods 2 and

3: (i) describe the variation in electron configurations, atomic radii, melting points and boiling points, Atomic radii decrease as you go across the period because:

bonding; The stronger the forces that need to be overcome, the higher the melting/boiling points. If the forces to be overcome are metallic bonds then the further to the left the stronger they are because they have more positively charged ions and there are more electrons to hold the lattice together so the forces are stronger. If the forces are covalent in a giant covalent structure then to melt/boil then all the many covalent bonds need to be broken and this takes a lot of energy and so those boiling points are high. If it is a simple covalent structure then the intermolecular forces that need to be overcome are Van der Waals, and so the more electrons there are in the particles, the more temporary dipoles are formed and so these forces are stronger and so take more energy to overcome and so have a higher melting/boiling point. (f) interpret data on electron configurations, atomic radii, first ionisation energies, points and boiling points to demonstrate periodicity.

1.3.2 Group 2
Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the redox reactions of the Group 2 elements Mg _ Ba: (i) with oxygen, 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) (ii) with water; Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) (b) explain the trend in reactivity of Group 2 elements down the group due to the increasing ease of forming cations, in terms of atomic size, shielding and nuclear attraction; Reactivity increases down Group 2 increases because the atomic radius increases down the group, because there are more electrons shells and so there is also a greater shielding effect so the nuclear attraction on electrons at the outer shell is

So this greater nuclear attraction pulls the outer shell towards the nucleus, thus reducing the atomic radius. (ii) explain variations in melting and boiling points in terms of structure and

reduced so the ionisation energies get lower so the electrons are removed more easily so ions are formed more easily and so these metals react more easily so they are more reactive. (c) describe the action of water on oxides of elements in Group 2 and state the approximate pH of any resulting solution; CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) The Calcium Hydroxide is mainly solid as its only sparingly soluble in water. The pH of the solution however would be 9-10. (d) describe the thermal decomposition of the carbonates of elements in Group 2 and the trend in their ease of decomposition; No explanation of thermal decomposition required. SrCO3(s) SrO(s) + CO2(g) The stability of the carbonates increases as you go down the group, so SrCO3 takes more energy to decompose and so a higher temperature to decompose than CaCO3. In limewater when it has gone cloudy and then when even more CO2 has been added: Ca(OH)2(aq)+CO2(g)CaCO3(s)+H2O(l) CaCO3(s)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)Ca(HCO3)2(aq) and Ca(HCO3)2(aq) is soluble in water and so the solution becomes clear. (e) interpret and make predictions from the chemical and physical properties of Group 2 elements and compounds; (f) explain the use of Ca(OH)2 in agriculture to neutralise acid soils; the use of Mg(OH)2 in some indigestion tablets as an antacid. Mg(OH)2 is used as an antacid in some indigestion tablets to neutralise excess stomach acid. Ca(OH)2 is used in farming to neutralise acidic soils and hence increase crop yields. This is Ca(OH)2 reacting with the acidic H+ ions in the soil: Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) +2H2O(l)

1.3.3 Group 7
Candidates should be able to: (a) explain, in terms of van der Waals forces, the trend in the boiling points of Cl2, Br2 and I2; The boiling points increase as you go down group 7 because there are more electrons and so more temporary dipoles are formed and so the intermolecular forces are stronger so they require more energy to overcome and so have higher boiling points. (b) describe the redox reactions, including ionic equations, of the Group 7 elements Cl2, Br2 and I2 with other halide ions, in the presence of an organic solvent, to illustrate the relative reactivity of Group 7 elements; In solution the halide ions are colourless but halogens do have colour. While in water, this colour is difficult to distinguish, in a solution with the organic solvent cyclohexane these colours are more distinctive. Table of observations of the colour of a layer of the organic solvent cyclohexane when a halogen is added to a solution of halide ions:
Chlorid e Chlorin e No change, Still a green, yellow from the Chlorine Turns red orange from the Br produce d when Br is oxidised by Cl. Turns pink purple from the I produce d when I Bromin e No change, Still a red orange from the Bromine No change, Still a red orange from the Bromine Iodine No change, Still a pink purple from the Iodine No change, Still a pink purple from the Iodine

Bromid e

Iodide

Turns pink purple from the I produce d when I

No change, Still a pink purple from the Iodine

 is is oxidised oxidised by Cl. by Br . Therefore because Cl can oxidise both Br and I -, Br can only oxidise I- and I cant oxidise any Group 7 element, in terms of oxidising power their abilities a oxidising agents are thus: Cl>Br>I This is their trend because despite the increased nuclear charge which should attract electrons more as you go down the group, the is offset by the increasing nuclear shielding and increasing atomic radius. This trend in their oxidising power is also their trend in reactivity because to react, they must form anions which involves them oxidising another atom to reduce themselves to a -1 negative ion to react. (c) explain the trend in reactivity of

Group 7 elements down the group from the decreasing ease of forming negative ions, in terms of atomic size, shielding and nuclear attraction;
As you go down the group the reactivity decreases. This is their trend because despite the increased nuclear charge which should attract electrons more as you go down the group, the is offset by the increasing nuclear shielding and increasing atomic radius, which gives them a lower electron affinity. They need to gain an electron to form anions to react and so the lower their electron affinity the less reactive they are. (d) describe the term

disproportionation as a reaction in which an element is simultaneously oxidised and reduced, illustrated by: The oxidation and reduction of the same element in a redox reaction. (i) the reaction of chlorine with water as used in water purification, Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO (In water purification the pathogens (ie. bacteria) are killed by the Oxygen radical produced by the slow decomposition of HClO HCl + O.) (ii) the reaction of chlorine with cold, dilute

aqueous sodium hydroxide, as used to form bleach, Cl2 + NaOH NaCl + NaClO + H2O Cl2 + 2OH - Cl - + ClO - + H2O 3Cl2+6NaOHNaClO3+5NaCl+3H2O (iii) reactions analogous to those specified in (i) and (ii); (e) interpret and make predictions from the chemical and physical properties of the Group 7 elements and their compounds; (f) contrast the benefits of chlorine use in water treatment (killing bacteria) with associated risks (hazards of toxic chlorine gas and possible risks from formation of chlorinated hydrocarbons); Health benefits of chlorine use in water and Ethical implications of adding chlorine to public water supplies (also fluorine in drinking water). People dont get a choice, and there are some possible risks associated with these added ions but people arent able to make their own judgements over these risks. (g) describe the precipitation reactions, including ionic equations, of the aqueous anions Cl- Br and I with aqueous silver ions, followed by aqueous ammonia; Complexes with ammonia are not required. Ag+ + Cl - AgCl Ag+ + Br - AgBr Ag+ + I- AgI (h) describe the use of the precipitation reactions in (g) as a test for different halide ions. AgCl- white- dissolves in ammonia. AgBr- cream- dissolves in excess ammonia. Also precipitate dissolves if left in light. AgI- yellow- insoluble in ammonia.

1.3.3 Practical
Reactions of some Group 2 metals with oxygen and water.
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Action of water on Group 2 oxides and testing pH of resulting solutions. _ Thermal decomposition of Group 2 carbonates. _ Halogen displacement reactions. _ Testing for the presence of halide ions in solution using silver nitrate.
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