MATERIALS

Material is something that consists of matter. something is made. Material is the stuff of which

Materials comprise a wide rage of metals and non-metals which must be operated upon to form the end product. In the modern complex society of today, which is producing more technically qualified people, complex products and more information than ever before a constant challenge is being possed by the ever-increasing demands for materials of greater strength, lightness, safety, reliability, electrical conductivity, electromagnetism, hardness, hardenability, cutting power, softness, cheapness, resistance to corrosion and radiation, and resistance to heat.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
The understanding of the properties of material is highly essential because without this information and knowledge, the manufacturing process may be an expensive and complex task which negates, the profit and utility of the end product. Different material properties are, Mechanical properties Thermal properties Physical properties & Technological properties

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Elasticity: A liquid or gas adapts itself to the shape of its container, but a solid has a shape of its own, which it tends to preserve. Loading a solid will change its dimensions, but the resulting deformation will disappear upon unloading. This tendency of a deformed solid to seek its original dimensions upon unloading is ascribed to a property called elasticity. Plasticity: Plasticity is that of a material by virtue of which it may be permanently deformed when it has been subjected to an externally applied force great enough to exceed the elastic limit. Toughness: (i) Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb energy during deformation up tofracture. (ii) Toughness refers to the ability of a material to withstand bending or the application of shear stresses without fracture. Tensile strength: In a tensile test, the ratio of the maximum load to original cross sectional area is called tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength.

Yield strength: When metals are subjected to a tensile force, they stretch or elongate as the stress increases. The point where the stretch suddenly increases, is known as yield strength of the material. Impact strength: Impact strength is a complex characteristic which takes into account both toughness and strength of a material. The capacity of a material to resist or absorb shock energy before is fractures is called its impact strength. Ductility: Ductility refers to the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture. Malleability: Malleability is the capacity of a material to withstand deformation under compression without rupture as for example in forging and rolling operations. The ability of a metal to be formed by hammering or rolling is called malleability. Brittleness: Brittleness is defined as a tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation and is therefore the opposite of ductility or malleability. Hardness: Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic deformation usually by indentation. However, the term may refer to stiffness or temper or to resistance to scratching, abrasion or cutting. Test such Brinell, Rockness, Vickers, etc., are generally employed to measure hardness. Creep: Creep is the time-dependent deformation that occurs under stress; for most materials, it is important only at elevated temperature. Wear resistance: Wear is the unintentional removal of solid material from rubbing surfaces. Wear resistance is defined as the ability to resist wear and abrasion.

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Heat capacity: Heat property that is indicative of a material is ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings; it represents the amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature raise. Heat capacity (C) = dQ/dt Where, dQ is the energy to produce a dt temperature change.

Specific heat: It is the quantity of heat that must be added to a unit mass of the solid to raise its temperature by one degree. Specific heat = 1/M*dE/dt Where, M=mass, E=Total energy content, T=Time Thermal expansion: When thermal energy is added to a material, a change in its dimensions occurs. This phenomenon is thermal expansion and the property of a material responsible for this is known as co-efficient of thermal expansion. Co-efficient of thermal expansion () = 1/l*dl/dt = d/dt Where, L = length, = strain ( =dl/l) Thermal conductivity: The rate at which heat can flow through a material under the influence of a given temperature gradient is determined by the thermal conductivity. Thermal shock resistance: Thermal shock defines the conditions of a body when it is subjected to sudden and severe changes in temperature caused either by a change in external environment or by internal heat generation. The ability of a body withstand such temperature changes without failure is called thermal shock resistance.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Dimensions: Dimensions of a material implies its size (ie) breadth, width, length, diameter, etc., and shape ie) section, square, circular, beam, channel, angle, etc. Colour: The colour of the material is very helpful in identification of a metal. Eg) Aluminium White Copper Reddish Iron Grey Zinc bluish white Tin Silvery white Lead Soft grey Silver lustrous white Melting point: Melting point of a metal is that temperature at which the solid metal changes into the molten state. Porosity: Material is said to be porous if it has pores within it pores can absorb lubricant as in a sintered self-lubricating bearing. True porosity = Total pure volume Bulk (total) volume

TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Castability: Castability is that complex property of a metal or alloy which allows it, when molten, to fill a mould so as to give a flawless casting. Machinability: Machninability is a complex property. A material is considered as easy to machine if it can be machined by a given tool with little energy, and at high speed, without unduly reducing the life of the tool, and the result is a finished surface, smooth and within the required tolerance. Weldability: Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed into a specific suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service. This implies that a metal with good weldability can be welded readily so as to perform satisfactorily in the fabricated structure. Solderability: Solderability of a material is determined by the purity of its surface and by the choice of solder and flux of greater importance in this connection is wheter the flux can be completely removed after soldering, and if not, whether the residual flux can promote corrosion. If the flux is to clean the surface of the metal properly it must chemically very active which means that there is always a risk that the remaining traces of flux will cause corrosion.

METERIALS IN STEELS Ni steels:

Ni is grain refiner. It increases tensile strength without loss of ductility hardness is also imparted. Ni is soluble in ferrite (S.S.Ni.ferrite) and toughens ferrite and pearlite. Machinery and engineering steels us Ni 0.5-1.5 %. Heat resisting steels will contain 35-45%. Ni steel is heat treatable, used for axles, shafts, structural steel, automobile and also engine parts, gears upto 3.5 %. That disadvantages is its high cost.

Si steels:
0.5-4.5%. The chef deoxidiser added to steel is Si. It is stronger than C steels. For every 1% increases in Si it increases tensile strength by (1000 Kg/sq.cm). 980 Mpa. Higher percentages 10-13% give good corrosion resistance hence, used in chemical industries. It has also good magnetic permeability and low hysteresis loss and hence used for dynamo poles, transformer cores (3%Si, 0.1%C) Mn: 0.4%-1.75%. It has tensile strength and good ductility for every 1% Mn (upto 3%) Tensile strength increases by 294 Mpa (300 Kg/sq.cm) beyond 8% it drops off. Hardness and toughness are increased. It is cheaper than Ni steel for same properties. Hence used for rails, rail road crossings, safes and vaults (cannot be drilled easily by ordinary tools) rock crushing machinery, gears, armour plates, shafts. High Mn used for tools, bullet proof, helmets, rifle barrels Had field 114

14% Mn, 1-1.3%C has 550 BHN. It forms a strong carbide (FeMn) 3C combined Fe & Mn carbide, has good impact resistance. Also used for of excavators. Si-Mn: Steels are heat treatable, with improved strength and toughness. Used for springs-coil and leaf springs of automobiles 0.7-1%Mn, 1.8-2%Si, 0.5-0.6%C also highly stressed structural members. S & P 0.03 max.

Vanadium: Scavenger in steels to remove O 2 & N2 . O2 that cannot be removed by Si is removed by V. which is powerful de-oxidiser in steels also it improves the grain size. About 0.3%V is added of which about 0.15% is left behind in the steel. If also increases creep and endurance resistance, V is a strong carbide former, V 4C3 which increases hardness and hardenability and resists tempering. It is used for automobile and loco forgings, torsion bars, etc. W: Another strong carbide former in steels, it is added from 0.5-20%O, 0.05-1.3%C combined with C and Fe to form WC and Fe 2W (Fe tungside). These compounds have high melting point and solubility at elevated temperatures is very small. Also reduces the tendency for recaaburisation during working, alloying with V and Cr usually. Most important alloy steel is High speed steel 18%W, 4%Cr, 1%V (18-4-1) steel. Possesses red hardness ie) retains its hardness even at 540C (1000F). The tool, will not dull even at high machining speeds. This has revolutionised all machining operations. Machines using HSS tools can work at high speeds, 2-3 time speeds of ordinary C tool steel. It is used for drills, taps, saws, dies for forging and wire drawing. Cr: A very common alloying element (0.5-30%). It is a hardner in steels as it is a stable carbide former. Cr carbides and Cr cementite (FeCr 3)C. It is also increases corrosion at high temperature 0.5-1.5%Cr used for tools springs and compressor parts and machinery steels. Higher percentage Cr 18-28% used for heat resistance parts like hot dies, boiler parts, furnace stays, exhaust valves of I.C. and aeroengines 12-18%Cr is employed for stainless type of steels used for cutlery, table ware, valve and pump parts, surgical instruments and parts of parts of food processing equipment, ball and roller bearings and in chemical industry. Ni-Cr steels: 1-3.5%Ni, 0.5-1.5%Cr, 0.2-0.55%C. Best ratio Ni/Cr=2 1/2. This is one of the best heat treatable steels as rate of cooling is slow. It incorporates advantages of both Ni and Cr. ie) Hardness(Cr) and ductility (Ni) and hence used for machinery parts. For good hardenability and toughness like crankshaft, connecting rod, armour plates, auto parts, gun barrels and tank parts. Cr-V: 0.8-1.1%Cr, 0.25-0.3%V, deoxidises steel. V improves carbide and ferrite. Gives very good toughness and resist to fatigue used for axles of locos and aero engines and for I.C. engine valve springs.

Mo steels: It is generally used along with Cr, Ni, Mn as it has very little effect if added by itself. It will enhance the properties of these elements. It increases strength without loss of ductility reduce temper brittleness. It is stable carbide former and has good toughness and hence used for deep hardening (complex carbides) steels. It will enhance corrosion resist of stainless steels. Another advantages is that it promotes endurance strength, fatigue resistance at high temperature. Cr0.5-0.8% opposes secondary hardness during tempering Ni 1.5-2%, Mn 0.250.75% used for machinery steels used for automobile and aero engines structural parts and shafts and axles, turbine rotor, steering knuckles, landing gear and structural parts of aero engines.

Cobalt: In addition to its use for magnets as it promotes retentivity of magnetism in steels, it is also a weak carbide former, but decreases hardenability. It hardens ferrite at high temperature and hence contributes towards red hardness. Co can replace W in high speed steels. Ti: It is the most important of all carbides, the strongest carbide is of Ti, next to columbium. TiC will not be affected so easily as other carbides. Intragrangular corrosion is not found if Ti added to stainless steels as a stabilizer. It is added upto a max. 2%, carbide effects reduce hardeneability. It prevents formation of austenite in high Cr steels. High strength steels: For highly stressed parts like gas turbines, turbo jet engines and missilies, temperatures of operation may be as high as 800 C. Fatigue resist, creep resist, corrosion resist are added qualties required. 16%Cr, 25%Ni, 6%Mo, 0.8%Si, 1.5%Mn and 0.08%C. T.S. (2700 Kg/sq.cm) 265 Mpa at 650C for 1000 hrs (1% creep test) Heat resisting steels: Parts like aero engines valves, conveyors in furnaces gas turbine parts require creep resistant steels. They require, 1. Resistance to scaling and oxidation 2. Strength at elevated temperature. 3. Structural stability. i) O7Cr90Mo 55 0.7-1.0Cr, Mo 0.45-0.65, 0.1-0.68%Si, 0.1 C max boiler superheatertubes, pressure vessels, exhaust valves of aero engines, str. At 450C is 314 Mpa (32 Kg/sq.cm) 15Cr3Mo55 Cr 2.9-3.4, Mo 0.45-0.65 C = 0.1-0.2, Si 0.1-0.35 Components requiring high tensile properties, crankshafts cylinder liner, aero autogears, machine parts.

ii)

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35 Cr1Mo66V 25; Cr 1-1.5 Mo 0.5-0.8; 0.2-0.3V, 0.25-0.45C high temperature boltsand nuts parts of annealing furnace, gas turbine rotors.