EN 647 - Distributed Generation and Microgrids

EN 647 - Distributed Generation and Microgrids
. Suryanarayana Doolla Department of Energy Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay suryad@iitb.ac.in
Prof. Doolla
EN 647 : DG and Grids
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Outline
Review
Topics Covered
Load Frequency / AGC of Power Systems Droop Control in Microgrids (Conventional and Opposite) Feeder Flow Control PQ- Capability Curves for Inverters Sizing of Inductor for Inverters Proportional power/current sharing principle Power Sharing in Distributed networks by various nodes
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Outline
Todays Lecture
Islanding Issues Detection Techniques
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Islanding - Introduction
Islanding-Denition
A system is said to be islanded when one or more DER continues to energize the network even after the connection to rest of the system is lost. This islanding can be can be either intentional or unintentional. IEEE Denition: An island is That part of a power system consisting of one ore more power sources and load that is, for some period of time, separated from the rest of the system.
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Denition
When a DG is connected to grid in parallel, there can be three modes of operation.
Exporting power Importing power Stand by
It is mandatory to have a grid islanding scheme for DGs (some utilities) to synchronize with main grid
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httpProf. : //Doolla www .larsentoubro .com /lntcorporate /ebg /html /gridi slanding .htm EN 647 : DG and Grids
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Advantages/Disadvantages of Grid islanding scheme

To the Utility
Utility would like to eliminate the possibility of the DG feeding the disturbance. In case of a fault in the main grid, the utility does not like to have another power source (not in their control) to add to the disturbance. It will be easier to locate the fault in the absence of DG. Utilities insist that the DG owner shall install Grid islanding scheme in the DG owners premises, before allowing the DG to be connected to grid.
To the DG owner
Due to disturbances in the grid, DG may get damaged due to grid disturbances resulting in heavy repair costs and shut downs. In some cases, the DG which is running may experience a severe jolt when the EB comes back. This may again damage the DG
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Surplus Power in an Island
If there is a surplus active power in an island: The speed of the generators will increase The dc link voltage of the inverter will rise If there is a surplus reactive power in an island: The voltage across the shunt capacitor increases Islands with large power imbalance may not survive for a longer period. Islands with proper power balance will survice for a longer period even in absence of voltage and frequency regulators.
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Grid disturbance
A grid is said to be disturbed when one or more of the following events occur. When there is an over voltage (OV) When there is an under voltage (UV) When there is an over frequency (OF) When there is an under frequency (UF) When there is a signicant rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) When there is a power failure in the grid When there is a fault on the grid.
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How to detect Grid Disturbances??
It is possible to detect the grid disturbances by using relays. UV, OV can be detected by using simple electro-mechanical relays Frequency changes can be detected using Numerical relays Numerical relays have capacity to perform mathematical algorithms and hence detection of df/dt is also possible Grid faults are detected using directional earth fault relay and directional over current relay.
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Supplements for Islanding scheme
It is possible to detect the grid disturbances by using relays. Load management system Re-Synchronization system
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Synonyms for Islanding
Some synonyms used for islanding detection around the world: Loss of mains protection Loss of grid protection Anti-islanding protection Islanding protection
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Islanding Detection
Why is it required Safety of maintenance personnel Protection of equipment from damage Load management What are its requirements Dependable - It should detect all islanding events Secure - It should not respond to other disturbances Fast - They should have good response time as per the local grid code
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Grid Code
Grid Code - India (Draft)

Aim: The aim of these regulations is to ensure the safe operation, integrity and reliability of the grid. Distributed Generation Resource means a generating station feeding electricity at voltage level of below 33 kV like but not limited to solar, wind, reciprocating engines, biomass gasier, micro turbines, gas turbines, fuel cells etc. The distributed generating resource shall not inject DC current greater than 0.5% of the full rated output at the interconnection point. Every distributed generating resource will be equipped with automatic synchronisation device.
Provided that induction generators, except self-excited induction generators, shall not require a synchronising device. Provided further that distributed generation resources using inverters shall not be required to have separate synchronising device, if the same is inherently built into the inverter.
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Grid Code
Grid Code - India (Draft) - Highlights

For three-phase Generators, the circuit breakers shall be three-phase devices with electronic or electromechanical control. Distributed generation resource operating in parallel with electricity system shall be equipped with the following protective functions to sense abnormal conditions on electricity system and cause the distributed generation resource to be automatically disconnected from electricity system or to prevent the distributed generation resource from being connected to electricity system inappropriately:
Over and under voltage trip functions if voltage reaches above 110 % or below 80% respectively with a clearing time of 2 seconds Over and under frequency trip functions, if frequency reaches 50.5 Hz and below 47.5 Hz with a clearing time of 0.2 seconds
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2 Draft Technical Standards for Connectivity of the Distributed Generation Resources, CEA, 2012 Prof. Doolla EN 647 : DG and Grids 14 / 53
Grid Code
Distributed generation resource........electricity system inappropriately:

The distributed generation resource shall cease to energise the circuit to which it is connected in case of any fault in this circuit. A voltage and frequency sensing and time-delay function to prevent the distributed generation resource from energising a de-energised circuit and to prevent the distributed generation resource from reconnecting with electricity system unless voltage and frequency is within the prescribed limits and are stable for at least 60 seconds; and A function to prevent the distributed generation resource from contributing to the formation of an unintended island, and cease to energise the electricity system within two seconds of the formation of an unintended Island.
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Grid Code

The equipment of the generating station shall meet following requirements. Circuit breakers or other interrupting equipment must be suitable for their intended application with the capability of interrupting the maximum available fault current expected at their location. Distributed generation resource and associated equipment shall be designed so that the failure of any single device or component shall not potentially compromise the safety and reliability of the electricity system. Paralleling-device of distributed generation resource shall be capable of withstanding 220% of the nominal voltage at the interconnection point Every time the generating station is synchronised to the electricity system, it shall not cause voltage uctuation greater than 5% at the point of connection.
Islanding Detection
Island Detection Techniques
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Islanding Detection
Passive Techniques for Islanding Detection
These techniques are based on monitoring of grid parameters such as voltage, current, frequency and/or their characteristics. Over/under-voltage and over/under-frequency Phase jump detection, Vector Surge detection Voltage and current harmonics based detection State estimators based detection Rate of change of frequency Rate of change of output power
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Islanding Detection
Over/under-voltage and over/under-frequency

Synonyms and Similar methodologies: Standard Protective Relays; Abnormal Voltage Detection All grid-connected DGs require OV/OV and OF/UF protection schemes. These DGs stop supplying power to the grid, if the frequency or voltage falls outside the prescribed limits at the PCC. In some cases, these need not be relays. They can be simple software implemented in the control.
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Islanding Detection
PPV + P = Pload QPV + Q = Qload If the inverter is operating at UPF, the QPV = 0 = Q = Qload The behaviour of the system during islanding depends on the values of P and Q at the instant of opening of the recloser.
Prof. Doolla EN 647 : DG and Grids
(1) (2)
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Islanding Detection
If P = 0, then OVP/UVP will detect the change If Q = 0, then load voltage will show a sudden shift in phase. This change can be detected by OFP/UFP. Strength Low cost option Comes with most of the DGs. Weakness Does not work when P = 0 and Q = 0 Presence of non-detection Zone (large).
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Islanding Detection
Phase Jump Detection
Strength Easily implemented as PLL is required, in general. Does not eect output power quality. Weakness A load with non-zero phase angle at utility frequency does not produce a phase error when utility is disconnected. The starting of certain loads, particularly motors, often causes transient phase jumps of signicant size, and these will cause nuisance trips of the PV inverter if the thresholds are set too low.
Islanding Detection
Harmonic based Detection

Theory of Operation Similar methodologies: Detection of Impedance at a Specic Frequency. Under normal operating conditions, the utility being sti source, forces sinusoidal voltage across the load. When DG is connected to the grid, the harmonics produced by inverter shall ow in the low impedance path oered by the grid. These harmonic currents (which are small) produce a very small distortion in the voltage. When utility is disconnected, the harmonic currents of the inverter produce harmonic voltage (large impedance) which can be used for islanding detection.
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Islanding Detection
Harmonic based Detection
Strength Considered to be highly successful (theoretically) Does not eect output power quality. Weakness Possibility of unwanted tripping of circuit breakers in some cases. Parallel RLC load can exhibit low pass characteristics and hence reduce overall THD Transient over voltages caused by switching of capacitor banks can increase THD may lead to false tripping of CB. It is very dicult to select a THD which meets our requirement.
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Active Islanding Detection
Active Techniques for Islanding Detection

In these techniques, a disturbance is introduced into the system (at the output of DG) to determine if they eect grid voltage, frequency and impedance parameters. Impedance method Harmonic injection/detection of impedance Sliding mode frequency shift (SMS) or active phase shift (APS) Active frequency drift (AFD) Frequency jump Sandia frequency shift (SFS) Sandia voltage shift (SVS) Mains monitoring units with allocated all-pole switching devices connected in series (MSD) Variation of active power and reactive power General electric frequency schemes GEFS
Impedance Method
Theorey Impedance oered by electric distribution grid is very low This technique is based on measurement of impedance to detect impedance changes at the output of DG when isolated from main grid. The PV inverter appears as a current source to the utility. iDG = IDG sin(DG t + DG ) (3)
A disturbance added at the output of the inverter lead to change in voltage at PCC, if grid is not available. Variation is monitored by calculating dv/di which represents grid impedance as seen by the inverter.
Impedance Method
Ideally there is no non detection zone in this method and hence appears to be very attractive. Valid for system whose impedance is higher than grid impedance. Weakness Necessary to establish an impedance threshold to identify when the grid is connected. Exact value of the grid impedance is required which is a parameter initially unknown. Multiple inverters may decrese the eectiveness if not synchronized properly.
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Impedance Method
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Harmonic injection/detection of impedance at specic frequency

Theorey: Injecting a specic current harmonic at the point of common coupling, intentionally. If grid is available, the injected harmonic current will ow into the grid. The disturbance (magnitude) in voltage depends on the nominal values of the grid impedance. If grid is not available, the harmonic current owing through the load produce harmonic voltage (specic). Multiple inverters injecting the same harmonics may experience false trips as the amplitude of the voltage at that harmonic increases even with the low impedance grid connection
Slide mode frequency Shift (SMS)

Theorey: A positive feedback is used in the control to destabilize the PV inverter in absence of Grid. This prevents long run-on after islanding. VDG = VDG sin(DG t + DG ) (4)
It is possible to apply positive feedback to magnitude, frequency and phase. All three options are explored in literature. In SMS method, positive feedback is applied to the phase of voltage as a method to shift the phase Shift in phase indirectly change the short-term frequency.
Theorey: Normally operation: PV inverters operate at UPF. PLL is tracked to maintain the phase between voltage and current to be zero. SMS: The current/voltage phase angle of the inverter, is made to be a function of the frequency of the PCC voltage. The phase-frequency curve of the inverter is designed to ensure that inverter increases its phase faster than load. When grid is available, the stable operating point is at the line frequency.
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Slide/Slip mode frequency Shift (SMS)
If there is any perturbation of the frequency from nominal, the S-shaped phase response curve (of inverter) increases the phase error instead of decreasing the same.
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M. E. Ropp, M. Begovic, A. Rohatgi, Prevention of islanding in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Volume 7, Issue 1, pages 3959, January/February 1999
This method also uses positive feedback mechanism to cause instability Due to disturbance, inverter operates at new operating point A or C depending on direction of perturbation.

Strengths: Is relatively easy to implement as only slight modication of a component that is already available It is highly eective in islanding prevention (small NDZ) when compared to other active methods. Weakness: There is a decrease in the output power quality of the PV inverter, although a small one. At high penetration levels and high gains in the feedback loop, SMS may potentially cause system-level power quality and transient response problems.
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SMS- Non Detection Zone
Some loads have response curve have high slope than that of inverter characteristics (S shape).
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4 M. E. Ropp, M. Begovic, A. Rohatgi, Prevention of islanding in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications Prof. Doolla EN 647 : DG and Grids 35 / 53
SMS- Non Detection Zone
SMS works for the top two loads only. For bottom three loads, the nominal line frequency is a stable operating point and renders SMS ineective These loads have high Q and resonant frequency near the line frequency.
Active Frequency Drift (AFD) method

Theorey: Vary the frequency of the output current by means of a positive feedback. Injection of distorted current in frequency at PCC
M. Begovic, et. al , Determining the relative eectiveness of islanding detection methods using phase criteria and nondetection zones IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Volume: 15 , Issue: 3, 2000
If grid is not available, a phase error appears between the inverter current and the voltage at the PCC. The inverter detects this error and tries to compensate it by increasing the frequency of the generated current. This process continues until the frequency exceeds the limits and is detected by the OFR/UFR
Strength: This method is relatively easy to implement in inverters. Weakness: A small degradation of the PV inverter output power quality. There would have to be agreement between all manufacturers of inverters in the direction of the frequency bias. Discontinuous current waveforms may cause radiated and conducted radio frequency interference (RFI).
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Sandia Frequency Shift (SFS) method

Theorey: Accelerated version of AFD Utilizes positive feedback applied to frequency to prevent islanding. Chopping fraction is made as the function of the error in the line frequency. Chopping fraction (cf) is dened as the ratio of zero time (tz ) to half the period of voltage waveform cf = 2tz TV ,Util (5) (6)
cf = cf0 + K (fa fline )
Where, K is an accelerating gain that does not change direction, fa is the measured frequency of VPCC , and fline is the line frequency

Theorey: When minor frequency changes are detected and the method attempts to increase the change in frequency but the stability of the grid prevents any change. When grid is not available, as fa increases the frequency error increases, the chopping fraction increases and hence the PV inverter increases its frequency. The inverter thus acts to reinforce the frequency deviation and this process continues until the frequency reaches the threshold of the OFR. The process is similar if fa decreases
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Strengths: This method is not dicult to implement and has one of the smallest NDZs It appears to provide a good compromise between islanding detection eectiveness, output power quality, and system transient response eects. SFS has been implemented in combination with the Sandia Voltage Shift (SVS) islanding prevention method. This combination has been found to be extremely eective.
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Weakness: Output power quality of the PV inverter be reduced slightly. Instability in the PV inverters power output can cause undesirable transient behavior in the system when a weak utility is connected More severe as the penetration level of PV inverters into the network increased. Have a NDZ for loads with very high value of quality factor Q.
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Sandia Voltage Shift (SVS) method

Theorey: Positive feedback is applied to the amplitude of Va at PCC. A decrease in the amplitude of Va , reduces the PV inverter current output and hence its power output. If grid is connected, there is little or no eect when the power is reduced. When the grid is not available, a reduction in Va , reduces Va further in response to the reduced current This additional reduction in the amplitude of Va leads to a further reduction in PV inverter output current, leading to an eventual reduction in voltage that can be detected by the UVP. It is advised to only decrease the power output of the inverter instead of increasing to avoid overloading.
Sandia Voltage Shift (SFS) method

Strengths: This method is easy implement like other active drift techniques SVS has been implemented in combination with the SFS islanding prevention method. This combination has been found to be extremely eective. Weakness: Output power quality of the PV inverter be reduced slightly Instability in the PV inverters power output can cause undesirable transient behavior in the system when a weak utility is connected This problem would grow more severe as the penetration level of PV inverters into the network increased.
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Remote Islanding Detection Techniques
Remote Detection Techniques
These detection techniques are based on some kind of communication between the grid and the DG. Impedance insertion Power line carrier communications Signal produced by disconnect Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) They are more reliable than the local techniques, but they are more expensive to implement.
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Impedance Insertion
This method involves the insertion of a low impedance load (bank of capacitors) which is connected to the PCC when the utility breaker opens. The power balance between generation and load is modied A phase change and a sudden variation of the resonance frequency that can be detected by the OUF limits
Impedance Insertion
Low response time. The banks of capacitors can be used also for reactive compensation. It is expensive to implement and the time needed to insert the capacitor bank after the grid disconnection could not meet certain standards. The impedance value should be sized according to the minimum variation of phase (and therefore the frequency) that can be detected.
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Power line carrier communications
Transmit a continuous low-energy signal between the transmitter (T) located on the side of the grid and receiver (R) located on the side of the DG. When this communication is disrupted, the receiver send a stopping signal to the inverter and/or a switch (included in the receiver) should be opened in order to isolate the load from the DG.
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Power line carrier communications

Advantages: Ability to operate in areas with high density of DG. It does not have an NDZ. The inverter output power quality is not degraded. Its transient response depending on the type of signal to transmit, it is possible to use only one transmitter to cover a part of the grid. Disadvantages: The cost of the receiver and transmitter can be too high. Moreover certain charges under certain conditions highly abnormal, might replicate the emitted signal by the PLCC which would result in non-islanding detection.
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Signal Produce by Disconnect

This method is similar to the PLCC-based method. The SPD method is based on communication between the network and the inverters to avoid islanding. SPD diers from the PLCC-based method in the type of transmission used (microwave link, telephone link or others). The state of the switch is continuously known by the inverter. The advantage of additional supervision and control of both the DG and the grid Unfortunately, this method presents the great disadvantage of its high cost, which increases with every DG connected to the network. When the communication is via telephone, the communication wiring should be increased and communication protocols should be set up.
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Supervisory control and data acquisition
SCADA systems use a wide communications network and sensors to control and monitor the grid connected equipment, allowing a fast response to contingencies that may arise in the grid, easing islanding detection. When the grid is disconnected, a series of alarms are activated for disconnection of the DGs. This method is highly eective to detect islanding, eliminating the NDZ. Too expensive and requiring a large number of sensors and additional features. It is not feasible in small installations.
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References
1
M. Begovic, et. al , Determining the relative eectiveness of islanding detection methods using phase criteria and nondetection zones IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Volume: 15 , Issue: 3, 2000 M. E. Ropp, M. Begovic, A. Rohatgi, Prevention of islanding in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Volume 7, Issue 1, pages 3959, January/February 1999 Kern, G., Bonn, R., Ginn, J., Gonzalez, S., Results of SNL Grid-Tied Inverter Testing, Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference and Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion, Vienna, Austria, Jul 1998 IEEE Std. 929-2000, IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, Sponsored by IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21 on Photovoltaics, IEEE Std. 929-2000, Published by the IEEE, New York, NY, Apr 2000.

EN 647 - Distributed Generation and Microgrids

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EN 647 - Distributed Generation and Microgrids

EN 647 : DG and Grids

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Islanding Issues Detection Techniques

EN 647 : DG and Grids

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Advantages/Disadvantages of Grid islanding scheme

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Surplus Power in an Island

EN 647 : DG and Grids

EN 647 : DG and Grids

How to detect Grid Disturbances??

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Supplements for Islanding scheme

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Synonyms for Islanding

EN 647 : DG and Grids

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Grid Code - India (Draft)

Grid Code - India (Draft) - Highlights

Grid Code - India (Draft) - Highlights

Distributed generation resource........electricity system inappropriately:

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Grid Code - India (Draft) - Highlights

Island Detection Techniques

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Passive Techniques for Islanding Detection

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Over/under-voltage and over/under-frequency

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Over/under-voltage and over/under-frequency

Over/under-voltage and over/under-frequency

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Phase Jump Detection

Harmonic based Detection

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Harmonic based Detection

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Active Islanding Detection

Active Techniques for Islanding Detection

Active Islanding Detection

Active Islanding Detection

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Active Islanding Detection

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Active Islanding Detection

Harmonic injection/detection of impedance at specic frequency

Active Islanding Detection

Slide mode frequency Shift (SMS)

Active Islanding Detection

Slide mode frequency Shift (SMS)

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Active Islanding Detection

Slide/Slip mode frequency Shift (SMS)

Active Islanding Detection

Slide mode frequency Shift (SMS)

Active Islanding Detection

Slide mode frequency Shift (SMS)

EN 647 : DG and Grids

Active Islanding Detection

SMS- Non Detection Zone

Active Islanding Detection