Digital Processes

Contents
Page Title Page Title

2) Contents Page
Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes
3) Header Page 3) Clocks

4) Learning Outcomes 4) A Simple Oscillator Circuit
5) How an Oscillator Circuit Works
6) Introducing Transistors 6) How an Oscillator Circuit Works (Alternative)
7) Transistor Terminals 7) How to Change a Clock’s Frequency
8) Transistor as a Switch
9) How Transistors Work 9) Counters
10) Transistor Switching Example 10) Counting in Decimal
11) Transistor Circuit #1: Temperature-Controlled Circuit 11) Devices Using Counters
12) Transistor Circuit #2: Light-Controlled Circuit
13) Transistor Circuit #3: Time-Controlled Circuit
14) Summary of Transistor Switching Circuits
16) Logic
17) Revision: Digital Signals
18) Introduction to Logic
19) Logic: Switches in Series
20) Logic: Switches in Parallel
21) Logic: Opposites!
22) Truth Tables
23) Logic Gates: AND
24) Logic Gates: OR
25) Logic Gates: NOT
26) Summary of Logic Gates and Truth Tables
28) Combinational Logic Circuits

29) Logic Circuit #1: Car’s Hot Engine
30) Logic Circuit #2: Central Heating Pump
31) Logic Circuit #3: Greenhouse Heater
32) Summary of Combinational Logic Circuits
Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes
Electronics Section 4.4

Digital Processes
4.4 Digital Processes: Learning Outcomes
Transistor as a Switch
• (G) State that a transistor can be used as a switch.
• (G) State that a transistor may be conducting or nonconducting, ie on or off.
Simple Switching Systems

• (G) Draw and identify the circuit symbol for an NPN transistor.
• (G) Identify from a circuit diagram the purpose of a simple transistor switching circuit.
• (C) Explain the operation of a simple transistor switching circuit.
Digital Logic Gates

• (G) Draw and identify the symbols for two-input AND, OR and NOT gates.
• (G) State that logic gates may have one or more inputs and that a truth table shows the
output for all possible input combinations.
• (G) State that high voltage = logic 1, low voltage = logic 0.
• (G) Draw the truth tables for AND OR and NOT gates.
• (C) Identify the following gates from truth tables: AND, OR, NOT.
Combinational Logic Circuits

• (G) Explain how to use combinations of digital logic gates for control in simple situations.
• (C) Complete a truth table for a simple combinational logic circuit.
Clock Signals
• (G) State that a digital circuit can produce a series of clock pulses.
• (C) Explain how a simple oscillator built from a Resistor, Capacitor and Inverter operates.
• (C) Describe how to change the frequency of a clock.
Counters
• (G) Give an example of a device containing a counter circuit.
• (G) State that there are circuits which can count digital pulses.
• (G) State that the output of the counter circuit is in binary.
• (G) State that the output of a binary counter can be converted to decimal.
Introducing Transistors
• Transistors are process devices.

• This is the symbol for an NPN transistor.3

Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes Transistor Terminals
• Transistors have three terminals:
Collector
Base
Emitter
Transistor as a Switch
• Transistors can be used as switches.1
Transistor Switch
• Transistors can either

conduct or not conduct current.2
• ie, transistors can either be on or off.
off 2
How Transistors Work
Collector
• Switching is
controlled by
the voltage
between the
Base Base and the
Emitter.
Emitter
• When VBE < 0.7V the transistor switches off and

no current flows between the Collector and the Emitter.
• When VBE ≥ 0.7V the transistor switches on and

current flows between the Collector and the Emitter.
Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes Transistor Switching Example15
X
12V
Variable
Voltage
Supply
• When VBE is less than 0.7V the transistor is off

and the lamp does not light.
• When VBE is greater than 0.7V the transistor is on

and the lamp lights.
Transistor Circuit #1: Temperature-Controlled Circuit
• This transistor circuit contains
a Thermistor.
• Because of the thermistor, this

circuit is dependent on
temperature.
• The purpose of this circuit is to

turn on the LED when the
temperature reaches . . .
• LED = Off.
• Heat the Thermistor.
• RThermistor ↓.
Input = Voltage Divider
• VThermistor ↓.
Process = Transistor
Output = LED • Voltage across 10kΩ resistor ↑.
• Transistor switches on.
• LED = On.
Transistor Circuit #2: Light-Controlled Circuit
a Light-Dependent Resistor.
• Because of the LDR, this circuit

is dependent on light.

turn on the LED when the light
reaches a certain intensity.
• LED = Off.
• Cover LDR.
• RLDR ↑.
• VLDR ↑.
Input = Voltage Divider
• Transistor switches on.
Process = Transistor
• LED = On.
Output = LED
1
Transistor Circuit #3: Time-Controlled Circuit
a Capacitor.
• Because of the capacitor, this

circuit is dependent on the time
taken to charge and discharge
of the capacitor.

turn on the LED a short time
after the switch is opened.
Input = Voltage Divider • Where would this circuit be
Process = Transistor found in a car?
Output = LED
• Switch closed. • Open Switch.

• VC = 0V. • VC ↑.
• Transistor switches off. • Transistor switches on after
• LED = Off. a short delay.
5) LED = On. 1
Summary of Transistor Switching Circuits
• You are expected to know the purpose of a transistor switching
circuit: the last three pages should help.4
• In each of the three circuits the input device is:
• A Voltage Divider using a
Thermistor
LDR
Capacitor
• In each of the three circuits the output device is: an LED
1
Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes Logic
1
Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes Revision: Digital Signals
• From Section 4.2 Output Devices, remember

that digital signals have only two values,7
• “1” and “_”, or
• “High Voltage” and “___ _______”, or
• “On” and “___”, or
• “True” and “_____”.
High Voltage
On 1
Off 0 Low Voltage

1
Introduction to Logic
• Many digital electronic processes are

designed around “logic” circuits.
• The Inputs and Outputs in logic have only two values:

• 0 & 1;
• High & Low;
• On & Off;
• True and False.
• Logic is ideally suited to help design

digital electronic circuits because of its binary nature.
• We will look at some fundamental logic circuits.
1
Logic: Switches in Series
S1 S2 Lit
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
S1 S2
• The bulb will light only under certain conditions: what?
Complete the following:

• The bulb will turn on only when switches S1 ___ S2 are
closed, for all other combinations the bulb is off.
1
Logic: Switches in Parallel
S1 S2 Lit
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
S1
S2
• The bulb will light under certain conditions: what?

• The bulb will turn on when switches S1 ___ S2 are
closed, for all other combinations the bulb is off.
1
Logic: Opposites!
S Lit
S 0 1
1 0
• The bulb will light under certain conditions: what?

• The bulb will turn on when switch S is ____, and turn
off when switch S is ______.
• This circuit is for illustration only!

• If this was a real circuit, what would happen to the battery
when switch S was closed?
1
Truth Tables
• The tables on the previous pages are truth tables.

Truth Tables list:

• All combinations of all possible inputs,
• Every Output for each combination of inputs.
• There are special circuits called logic gates which

can be used in control situations.
S1 S2 Lit S1 S2 Lit S1 Lit
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
Logic Gates: AND
AND
Truth Table8,16
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
Two-Input AND Gate5 1 0 0
1 1 1
The output of an AND gate is 1 only when all inputs are 1.
Only when Input A AND Input B are 1, the output is 1.

• See page “Logic: Switches in Series”.
2
Logic Gates: OR
OR
Truth Table8,16
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
Two-Input OR Gate5 1 0 1
1 1 1
The output of an OR gate is 1 when any input is 1.
When Input A OR Input B is 1, the output is 1.

• See page “Logic: Switches in Parallel”.
2
Logic Gates: NOT
NOT
Truth Table8,16
A Q
0 1
1 0
NOT Gate5
Note that NOT gates have only one input.
The output of a NOT gate is the opposite of the input.
When Input A is 0, the output is 1.

When Input A is 1, the output is 0
• See page “Logic: Opposites!”.
2
Summary of Logic Gates and Truth Tables
• Logic gates may have one or more inputs.6
AND Gate OR Gate NOT Gate

A B Q A B Q A Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Truth Tables list:6

• Every Output for every combination of inputs.
2
Combinational Logic Circuits9,17
• Combinational Logic Circuits are simply circuits using a
combination of AND, OR and NOT gates.
• You are expected to design Logic Circuits and

Truth Tables of simple combinational logic circuits.
2
Logic Circuit #1: Car’s Hot Engine
• When a car’s engine becomes too hot an LED should light
but only when the ignition is switched on.
Ignition
Switch 1
LED
Temperature 1
Sensor
Truth Table • Here, the truth table is simply

Ignition Temperature Output that for an AND Gate.
Switch Sensor LED
• For the LED to light, the
Off Cold Off Ignition Switch must be on and
Off Hot Off the Temperature Sensor must
On Cold Off be “hot”.
On Hot On
2
Logic Circuit #2: Central Heating Pump
• Derive a logic circuit that will turn on a Central Heating System’s
pump when the house is cold and the Central Heating System is
turned on.
This time let’s find the truth table first: Truth Table
• House is Cold = 0 ; House is Hot = 1 House CHS Pump
• CHS is Off = 0; CHS is On = 1
Cold Off Off
Cold On On
Hot Off Off
Central Hot On Off
Heating
1
House CHS Pump
Pump
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1
Temperature 1 0 0
Sensor
1 1 0
2
Logic Circuit #3: Greenhouse Heater
• Derive a logic circuit that will turn on a heater in a greenhouse only
when it gets cold at night.
Truth Table: Truth Table

• Greenhouse Cold = 0 ; Hot = 1 Green Day/ Heater
• Dark = 0; Light = 1 house Night
Cold Night On
Cold Day Off
Hot Night Off
Light Hot Day Off
Sensor
0 1
Green D/N Heater
0 1 Heater 0 0 1
0 1 0
Temperature 1 0 0
Sensor
1 1 0
2
Summary of Combinational Logic Circuits
• Combinational Logic Circuits are simply combinations
of AND, OR and NOT gates.
Constructing Logic Circuits

2) Make a Truth Table.
3) Get the logic circuit from the Truth Table.
• Tip: If the circuit has only one “high” output

then the circuit will probably use an AND Gate.
• Tip: If the circuit has more than one “high” output

then the circuit will probably use an OR Gate.
• Tip: Note how useful NOT gates are!

2
Clocks
• Clocks are regular waves of pulses,
just like the ticking of a conventional clock:
• Digital circuits can be used to produce

a series of clock pulses.10
• Clocks are normally square waves.
• The circuits which produce clock pulses are sometimes

called oscillators because they constantly oscillate
between “on” and “off”.
2
A Simple Oscillator Circuit
• Oscillator Circuits change between two values
in a regular cyclical pattern: a clock output.
• Supply Voltage VS = V1 +V2
• When the NOT-Gate outputs a 0, • When the NOT-Gate outputs a 1,

V2=0V and V1=5V: V2=5V and V1=0V:
the LED lights. the LED does not light.
3
How an Oscillator Circuit Works18
• Capacitor C charges and discharges through Resistor R.
•Start:
ASSUME THE
CAPACITOR IS
FULLY CHARGED.
• The Invertor’s Input is 1, so its Output = 0:

the Capacitor starts to discharge through the Resistor.
• As the Capacitor discharges the Invertor’s Input eventually falls to
0, so its Output becomes 1:
the Capacitor starts to charge through the Resistor.
• As the Capacitor charges the Invertor’s Input eventually rises to 1,
so its output becomes 0: the Capacitor discharges again.
1) This sequence of charging and discharging continues ad infinitum
to produce a series of clock pulses.
3
Electronics 4.4: Digital Processes How an Oscillator Circuit Works (Alternative)
Capacitor NOT NOT V2 V1 LED

Input Output
Charged 1 0 0V 5V On
Discharged 0 1 5V 0V Off
Charged 1 0 0V 5V On
Discharged 0 1 5V 0V Off
3
How to Change a Clock’s Frequency19
• The frequency of clock pulses can be altered:
High Frequency Low Frequency
• If the value of the Capacitor is increased,

charging and discharging takes longer so C↑ then f↓
the clock frequency is decreased.
• If the value of the Resistor is increased,

charging and discharging takes longer so R↑ then f↓
the clock frequency is decreased.
3
Counters
• Counters are electronic circuits which
can count digital pulses from a clock.12
1 2 3 4
• Counters count the clock pulses in binary.13
3
Counting in Decimal
• Circuits called Binary-to-Decimal Convertors
convert a counter’s binary output into decimal.14
Binary Decimal
0000
0001
0010
etc etc
0111
1000
1001
3
Devices using Counters
• You will be expected to name a device
which uses a counter.
• The most common device to use

a counting circuit is an electronic clock or watch.11
• Electronic timing devices work

with great accuracy.
• An electronic watch’s “clock circuit”
generates regular pulses and a
Counter simply counts these.
• The watch’s microprocessor is programmed to know how

many clock pulses correspond to a second (and minute,
hour etc) and will update the 7-segment display
accordingly: thus displaying the time!
3
Future Improvements
• Clip Art
• Imagination
• Summarise

Digital Processes

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Contents

Page Title Page Title

3) Header Page 3) Clocks

28) Combinational Logic Circuits

Electronics Section 4.4

• (G) State that a transistor may be conducting or nonconducting, ie on or off.

Simple Switching Systems

Digital Logic Gates

Combinational Logic Circuits

• Transistors are process devices.

• This is the symbol for an NPN transistor.3

• Transistors have three terminals:

• Transistors can either

• When VBE < 0.7V the transistor switches off and

• When VBE ≥ 0.7V the transistor switches on and

• When VBE is less than 0.7V the transistor is off

• When VBE is greater than 0.7V the transistor is on

• Because of the thermistor, this

• The purpose of this circuit is to

• Because of the LDR, this circuit

• The purpose of this circuit is to

• Because of the capacitor, this

• The purpose of this circuit is to

• Switch closed. • Open Switch.

circuit: the last three pages should help.4

• In each of the three circuits the input device is:

• A Voltage Divider using a

• In each of the three circuits the output device is: an LED

• From Section 4.2 Output Devices, remember

Off 0 Low Voltage

• Many digital electronic processes are

designed around “logic” circuits.

• The Inputs and Outputs in logic have only two values:

• Logic is ideally suited to help design

• We will look at some fundamental logic circuits.

• The bulb will light only under certain conditions: what?

Complete the following:

Complete the following:

• The bulb will light under certain conditions: what?

Complete the following:

• This circuit is for illustration only!

• The tables on the previous pages are truth tables.

Truth Tables list:

• There are special circuits called logic gates which

S1 S2 Lit S1 S2 Lit S1 Lit

The output of an AND gate is 1 only when all inputs are 1.

Only when Input A AND Input B are 1, the output is 1.

The output of an OR gate is 1 when any input is 1.

When Input A OR Input B is 1, the output is 1.

The output of a NOT gate is the opposite of the input.

When Input A is 0, the output is 1.

AND Gate OR Gate NOT Gate

Truth Tables list:6

combination of AND, OR and NOT gates.

• You are expected to design Logic Circuits and

but only when the ignition is switched on.

Truth Table • Here, the truth table is simply

when it gets cold at night.

Truth Table: Truth Table

of AND, OR and NOT gates.

Constructing Logic Circuits

• Tip: If the circuit has only one “high” output

• Tip: If the circuit has more than one “high” output

• Tip: Note how useful NOT gates are!