Understanding Life from single cells... to systems...

to whole humans

The

Physiological Society

What is Physiology?
What is Physiology? What does a Physiologist do? Physiology is the science of how the body works. You can think of anatomy as where it all is and physiology as how it all works. These two subjects together form the basis of medicine and veterinary science. Physiologists can be found in a great variety of working environments. In order to understand what has gone wrong with the body during disease, the normal functioning must first be understood. Therefore physiologists are often to be found at the forefront of biomedical research. Similarly the benefits of taking a drug to cure a disease or illness must be weighed against the potential side effects, and so the need for physiologists by drug companies is never ending. But not all physiologists are to be found in laboratories. Many work in the area of sports physiology, working alongside athletes and sportsmen to try and better their performance, or spend their lives globe-trotting, travelling around conferences reporting on the work of others for papers and journals. As scientists become more and more answerable to the public, many graduates are now engaged in digesting and communicating complex work either for government ministers or for the public themselves. Others

may be found in schools, inspiring the next generation, or in courts of law, arguing over complex patent cases. Whichever style of work you would like to have, there will be a career out there for you once you have your degree in Physiology!

Sports Physiology
Nutrition and nutritional supplements are of vital importance to top class athletes. Many football managers like Alex Ferguson monitor the diets of their players carefully, working with dieticians and physiologists to maintain correct nutrient intake. Ingesting complex carbohydrates such as pasta and rice allows players to maintain their energy levels, and not lose performance or pace towards the end of a gruelling 90 minutes game. Expert opinion is divided about the never-ending ability of athletes to break world records. Is this the result simply of hard slog and better training techniques, or the use of drugs? Drug abuse in sport began as early as the 1950s, when weightlifters began injecting themselves with testosterone. Since then, the synthetic anabolic steroid Dianabol, human growth hormone (HGH) and human chorionic gonadotrophin have all been abused. Use of these drugs is now illegal, for the very good reason that long-term use of these would be damaging to their health. However, sporting authorities have been slow to react to these chemical challenges. When completely legal dietary supplements are broken down in the body, they can produce the same substances as when drugs such as nandrolone are broken down, thus allowing for dispute over test results. The battle to maximise performance but avoid prosecution is tough and bloody. Every top athlete now has a team of scientists and coaches working alongside them, trying to find the balance between exploiting their potential to the full and not testing positive for a banned substance. If you are keen on both sports and science, this could be you!

picture courtesy of Susan Shireffs

Neurophysiology - Use of Ecstasy

Understanding the workings of the brain is one of the major challenges facing scientists this century. Physiologists working in this area are taking on a variety of approaches, from studying movements of ions in and out of single nerve cells to working with patients suffering with mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and Alzheimers. And the aim is not only to cure disease. The use of illegal drugs, such as Ecstasy (E), is rising dramatically. Ecstasy increases the natural release of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain, and also prevents it being inactivated. High levels of serotonin in the brain are thought to be responsible for the loved up feeling MDMA (the active component of E) produces. Overuse of this pathway causes desensitisation, meaning that less pleasure will be gained from normal activity. This can result in mood swings, the reported mid-week blues following a weekends indulgence. The long-term effects of Ecstasy on the brain are very contentious. Some physiological studies have shown neuronal damage in heavy users, but others have refuted these findings. The studies tend to have very small sample sizes, and many subjects who use E also use other substances thus confounding results. The poverty of the data in this area is alarming on the one hand lseots of young people may be permanently damaging their brains, and on the other our Government may be spending unnecessary money to police the use of the drug. The answer surely is for good scientific research, on which the public and police can rely. Wouldnt you like to be involved in solving this mystery?

However, if this were the only disadvantage of the drug, it would be unlikely to deter clubbers. The horrifying deaths of Lorna Spinks and Leah Betts brought the dangers of taking Ecstasy very much into the public eye. They died from different causes - Lorna from heatstroke and Leah from ingesting too much water which caused her brain to swell and now many more young people understand the need to regulate water intake when using the drug. However, even measures such as these cannot negate the effect that causes most worry long-term mental damage.

Curing disease
osmotic potential of cells and interstitial fluid. Next, a maintenance solution is given. This solution contains the same salts, but at lower concentration. This means that the patient is able to reabsorb more water from the maintenance solution, and in addition will not lose the absorbed electrolytes. Where properly administered, this therapy can provide a complete cure for cholera and other diseases whose major symptom is diarrhoea. The key to the development of successful rehydration therapy lay in understanding the transporters that take glucose into cells. These cannot work without sodium hence the need for both sugar and salt in the mixture. Huge numbers of physiologists work on the movement of substances in and out of cells, as problems with ion channels are responsible for a range of diseases. Laura Cowell (pictured, left) looks like any normal teenager. However, she suffers from cystic brosis and must take over 50 tablets a day and 4 injections to combat the disabling symptoms. Her life expectancy at the moment is only around 30 years. Only a new treatment can save her. Wouldnt you like to be responsible for nding one? Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common channelopathies, and many potential therapies are based around correcting the faulty chloride channel responsible for this deadly disease. So far, although some avenues look promising, a cure still remains elusive. Would you like to be responsible for developing a successful treatment?

picture courtesy of UNICEF India

Cholera kills more than 150,000 people in developing countries each year. The majority of these deaths occur among young children. The dehydration produced by acute diarrhoea results in a high fever, which if not treated can lead to death. Often the cost of treatment for disease in developing countries is prohibitive, however, in this case understanding the physiology of fluid regulation within the body provides a cheap and effective method of dealing with this deadly disease. Oral rehydration therapy is based on administering cocktails of household sugars and salts. First, the patient receives a rehydrating solution containing salt, sugar, baking soda and potassium chloride. This replaces lost electrolytes, and lowers the

Multiple sclerosis and cannabinoids

Over 80,000 people in the UK have multiple sclerosis and an estimated 2,500 people are diagnosed with MS every year. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, debilitating disease that affects your central and peripheral nervous system. It is thought to be an autoimmune disease. Antibodies and white blood cells attack the myelin sheaths surrounding nerves, leading to inflammation and injury to the sheath and finally to the nerves themselves. The damage slows or blocks muscle coordination, visual sensation and other nerve signals. Symptoms may include weakness or paralysis in one or more limbs, impaired vision, fatigue, muscle spasms and slurred speech. The majority of sufferers experience muscular pain, tingling and electric shock sensations. A cure or vaccine for MS is still eluding researchers. Current treatments combat individual symptoms, and of these dealing with chronic and acute pain is a priority. The pain relieving qualities of cannabis have been exploited for centuries. However, as an illegal drug in this country, research into its properties is controversial and funding difficult to secure. Opponents would say that it is possibly addictive and leads to

other drug use, but patient groups are campaigning for its widespread prescription. Do you think we should be researching in this area?

Post-genomic physiology
Sequencing the human genome has been compared with splitting the atom, going to the moon and even the works of Shakespeare. It is certainly long over 750,000 pages would be filled if it was typed on A4 paper. Gene technology holds the key to science and medicine in the 21st century, with predictions of designer drugs, designer babies and even immortality! So wheres the catch? Well, much as we have a fairly good idea of the sequence of the 30,000 or so genes, we have little idea what proteins the majority of these produce or how these interact with each other in the body. In order to understand a disease such as Alzheimers, we will not only need to know which genes and therefore proteins are involved, but also how their healthy counterparts work. And not all of the work will be targeted towards understanding disease. In Japan, a research group is sequencing the entire genome of humankinds nearest relative, the chimpanzee, in the hope of shedding light on the origins of language, logic and thinking. Once again, understanding the interactions of proteins will be crucial.

Most scientists agree that this next step trying to use all the information gathered, will be much harder than the last. Which discipline will have the correct knowledge of how the whole body works, and be able to put together the work of biochemists, geneticists and molecular biologists? Which group of scientists will be at the forefront of this new era for science, and will you be a part of it?

Liver physiology and alcohol abuse

Alcohol is the worlds favourite recreational drug. In the UK an average man drinks over 550 pints of beer a year, a figure that has been rising steadily over the last decade. However, in one way or another alcohol is responsible for 2050,000 deaths a year. We are all familiar with the risks of attempting to drive while drunk, but what about simply enjoying a few glasses of wine a day? Can that really be a problem? of functions from neutralising poisons (such as the breakdown products of alcohol) to making proteins that regulate blood clotting. You cannot live without a functioning liver. For years, the only complete cure was to have a transplant. Owing to a better understanding of the immune system, and improved drugs and surgical techniques, many more people survive transplants than they used to. However, a liver transplant is a major operation and even if the patient is fit enough to survive there are never enough donor organs to go around. Stem cell research offers new hope in this area. A stem cell is a cell that can give rise to many others that is its pluripotent. The most obvious source of these cells is from embryos, but parts of the body such as the bone marrow are also a possibility. Some lines of research are looking at applying cloning technology, and transferring a nucleus of a patients liver cell into a de-nucleated embryo, in the hope that this will divide and make more liver cells. These would be identical to the persons own liver, and could therefore be transplanted back in with no fear of rejection. Other researchers have found that some stem cells are effectively hidden from the immune system, and could therefore be transplanted between people with ease. Either way, this hope of growing new organs has the potential to help all those in need of a new liver, heart or any other organ. Research like this requires clinicians, physiologists, immunologists and many other scientists working side by side in the fight against disease. If you like working in a team, and want to work at the cutting edge of medical science, why not consider a career in physiology!

Unfortunately, it can. Cirrhosis, a deadly disease of the liver, has been linked with drinking as few as 2 units a day for a woman and 3-4 for a man (a unit is equivalent to a half pint of normal strength beer). The liver, the largest organ in the body, is essential in keeping the body functioning properly. It performs a host

Real stories of real physiologists...

Tim Davis, Research Assistant, Drug Discovery, Pfizer Ltd Tim graduated from Newcastle University in July 2000 with a BSc (Hons) in Physiological Sciences. After that he spent a year doing temporary jobs including working as a lab technician and an admin job at Pfizer. The application and interview process for Pfizer is pretty tough. Was it worth it? Pfizer is currently the worlds leading Pharmaceutical company and is now the 4th biggest company in the world! As such, they do look after you and it is a very exciting place to work. I wanted a job where I could use my science degree and also a job where my work was going to be meaningful. Each day I have to think for myself, plan experiments and present my results to the project team. Ultimately my findings could lead to discovering a drug which could enhance the lives of thousands of people. Im really enjoying it so far and would recommend a career in the industry. Its an excellent starting point for anyone considering a career in science. Tims advice students? for prospective John Reid, Senior House Officer, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary Being a senior house officer is hard work. John is on call overnight one night a week, and has to work a lot of weekends. So why does he do it? I enjoy getting to know the patients, and working in a challenging environment where Im always learning new things. What advice would you give someone considering their career options? Follow your interests! Physiology can lead to many different careers, and even if you are just fascinated by biology thats a good enough reason.

Rather than go straight to medical school, John chose to do a first degree in Biological Sciences specialising in neuroscience at Edinburgh University. Fascinated by diseases of the brain, he then went on to do a PhD at Oxford looking at the role of potassium channels in the brain in Parkinsons disease. Having obtained his PhD, he then studied for a further 3 years at Southampton to become a doctor of medicine. My science background made exams easier during the training. I want to specialise in neurology and my degrees in neuroscience definitely help when applying for jobs. In the end, I want to combine research and medicine and the doctorate will be invaluable then.

What does he do? I am currently working on an AIDS project. I am responsible for screening the library of potential drugs (compounds) here at Pfizer to see if we have any that are effective against the AIDS virus. I work with leading-edge technology and have learned so much since I started. A good scientific background is important but you dont have to be a genius. Most of my everyday understanding of my work, I have picked up since I joined the company enthusiasm and flexibility are very important.

Always choose a degree that truly interests you. Dont be put off by careers that you think will be too hard to get into. You dont know unless you try and enthusiasm gets you a long way!

Real stories of real physiologists...

John Macgill John Macgill is the Director of a Scottish firm of political consultants, a role he moved to at the beginning of 2002 after seventeen years as a journalist. John graduated from Dundee University in 1985 with a BSc (Hons.; 2.1) in Physiology. Although he enjoyed his degree, John was clear that he wanted to follow a career as a broadcast journalist. Having gained voluntary work experience on local radio stations, John was accepted onto the BBCs Local Radio Journalist Training Scheme. My physiology degree helped, says John, not least because it made me different from the hundreds of graduates with degrees in English or Media Studies. The skills I developed studying for a BSc were almost identical to those required of a journalist: time management, research, presenting and summarising facts and being able to defend your work under scrutiny. Journalists have to be able to communicate in a way that is appropriate for their particular audience. They need to have enquiring minds, and must not be afraid to ask questions or disagree with accepted wisdom. These are skills which should be second nature to any scientist. John has worked across radio and television including posts as a reporter and correspondent, and later as a magazine editor before being lured away to political consultancy. I suspect my time in the Physiology Department at Dundee is to blame for the many arguments over science and medicine stories that I had with editors while I was a reporter. It certainly influenced my approach, as an editor, to consumer scares and apparent medical breakthroughs. Even in my present job, which is all about research and the presentation of facts on behalf of clients, the skills and disciplines acquired as a science undergraduate continue to play an important part. Zai Ahmad, MPhil student and research assistant, University of Leeds me a greater understanding and handson experience which I will need to develop my own research project. Although my supervisor is normally on hand to discuss ideas, you are encouraged to drive your own research, which makes the project feel like your own. Travelling to conferences is excellent, as you get to present and discuss your research with a broad spectrum of people, some of whom may present you with ideas you hadnt considered before. Is it all a bed of roses? I wish! Its easy to become disillusioned when the project isnt progressing as a result of failed experiments. Sometimes lab work can be a little repetitive, and hours can be long. However, your time is your own, so you can work when and how you want. If you had your time over again, would you do anything different? I think getting good careers advice is really important! A degree in physiology will definitely open up a lot of possibilities.

Zai has a variety of qualifications, including an HNC in applied biology and a BSc in Marine studies. However, she now knows she wants to pursue an academic career in neuroscience. She is currently taking an MPhil using immunohistochemistry to determine how the brain regulates blood pressure, which will form an excellent basis for a PhD and academic career. Why has Zai chosen to stay in academia? Research in academia allows you to work independently. I have always been interested in medical research, but was not sure which field to pursue until I started studying neuroscience. Im enjoying taking the MPhil and it will give

Careers in Physiology
The case studies will have given you a taste of what some of the career possibilities are if you choose to do a degree in physiology. There is a wealth of different possibilities for students interested in studying in research, from the commercially driven, cutting edge world of industry to the blue skies creativity of a university laboratory. Working for a pharmaceutical company often opens up possibilities of moving into management, marketing or sales rather than staying on the bench. Good with words and science? Why not consider a career in scientific journalism or publishing, going around the world to report on discoveries and ensuring the correct and effective communication of ideas. The leisure industry is one of the fastest growing areas, employing many sports physiologists. You could even be working alongside one of our top athletes. Many A level or Higher students are interested in medicine or veterinary science but are intimidated by entrance grades and long periods of study. Graduate entry into these courses is becoming more and more common, and allows you to both keep your options open and increase your chances of securing a place. Physiology is a perfect grounding for either of these careers. In fact many physiology graduates go on to do a postgraduate course in other subjects allied to medicine, such as radiotherapy, optometry or speech science. There are many other possible career choices available to you, such as patent law, science communication, teaching and technology transfer. A percentage of physiology graduates do not stay in science but choose careers instead in other areas such as finance, marketing or the media. Employers know that science degrees are rigorous and that science graduates will have excellent transferable skills. A degree in business studies will only prepare you for careers in business, whereas a physiology degree will keep all doors open to you. Which would you rather choose? Only you will know what is the best career for you, and make sure you make an informed a choice as possible. The Life Science Careers Fairs organised by a group of societies including the Physiological Society are the only careers fairs targeted at biological science students. They run each year in November at Universities around the country. Be sure to attend one in your 2nd or 3rd year, and also to check out some of the sources of further information given below. Remember there are loads of possible careers out there waiting for you, it is up to you to make it happen! Getting there OK, so you have decided you want to do a degree in physiology or a related science, so what next? Where should you go? Almost every university offers a degree of some kind in a physiological science. Most will want post sixteen qualifications in biology and chemistry. Exactly what grades are required varies hugely and it is best to check individual universities on the UCAS website for details. Make sure that whichever course you go for you get lots of choice for which modules to take every year, and that there is a large practical component. Also if you have a burning interest in the brain, sports science or bio-informatics look at University websites for groups of scientists specialising in these areas. Dont be scared of contacting a department you are interested in and asking for graduate recruitment statistics or third year project topics. The choices you are about to make will affect the rest of your life. Make your own decisions and make sure they are the right ones for you! For further information please contact: Education Officer The Physiological Society PO Box 11319 London WC1X 8WQ Email admin@physoc.org Tel 020 7269 5710 Website www.physoc.org Other useful websites include: www.biology4all.com www.ucas.ac.uk www.biocareers.org.uk www.nextwave.org www.pfizer.co.uk

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The

Physiological Society

The Physiological Society, PO Box 11319, London WC1X 8WQ Website www.physoc.org The Physiological Society is a registered charity, no 211585. This booklet was produced by The Physiological Society, with the help of Dr David Pepper and Year 12 students Cassandra Cooke, Susie Flexer and James Hunt from Newcastle Under Lyme School. The Physiological Society gratefully acknowledges the support of Pzer Ltd. Graphic Design by Terry Bambrook - terry@bambrook.com