QUESTIONING: AN EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHOD

By: Ramsey, Imogene, Gabbard, Carol, Clearing House, 00098655, May90, Vol. 63, Issue 9 Academic Search Premier

The value of using questions to teach has been recognized for centuries. As early as 200 Socrates used questions to provoke his students and make them listen carefully, analyze their thoughts, and think critically. In this country, questioning has a long history of use in education. In 1912 Stevens (see Dean 19863 reported that teachers used approximately 80 percent of the school day to ask questions and receive student answers. Clegg (19713 found that, on the average, today's high school teachers ask 395 questions each day (Dean 1986, 1843). Educators recognize that teachers need to have expertise in the skill of asking questions. As early as 1906, Hamilton was quoted as saying that questions are the core of effective teaching. Ornstein (1987) said that "the essence of good teaching is related to good questioning" (71). Questioning serves a number of essential functions in teaching. If students are to participate in the nation's social structure, they must learn to think and act independently (Dean 1986). Questioning can play an important role in this development. In general, questioning is closely related to the accomplishment of the school's educational goals (Frager 1986). This is true because questions are effective tools that teachers use to guide student thinking. Historically, teachers have focused their attention primarily on meeting the needs of the school. In recent years, however, teachers have been concerned with meeting student needs as well. Dean (1986) explained: "Questions must be used to stimulate student thinking and enhance class participation. The effective use of questions automatically causes a shift from teacher domination toward student involvement." As one author (Kloss 1988) said: "Asking questions, then, can help the teacher step back a little and allow those who should be most involved in learning--the students--to come forward as full and equal participants in the collaborative adventure of the mind" (248). Recent research to determine whether teachers are asking higher-level questions showed the answer to be an unqualified and resounding no. Kloss (1988, 245) quoted a 1986 study by Daines, which reported that 93 percent of the questions asked by elementary and secondary teachers were at the literal level of comprehension, and 88 percent of the students' answers--regardless of the teaching style and grade level--were also at the lowest level of cognitive skills. Clearly, attention should be given to preparing teachers to ask more higher-level questions that will elicit more thinking and analysis. Teachers should also be concerned with the questions their students ask. In many classrooms, students ask few questions. Limitations Asking and answering questions is a common human activity and one of the most frequently practiced teaching strategies. Yet teachers do not appear to be using this 1

 teaching strategy adequately. Skillful questioning must be constant and consistent so that it becomes an art. However, few teachers are willing to devote time and energy to cultivate this teaching strategy (Kloss 1988). Most of the questions asked in a typical classroom require only recitation of memorized material and are on the lowest cognitive level. Teachers appear to be unaware of the extent to which they are omitting meaningful, well-phrased, and higher-order questions from their teaching. Only "20% of the questions asked in the elementary and secondary classrooms require critical thinking skills" (Hamblen 1988, 200! An additional limitation of the question-and-answer strategy practiced by teachers is that teachers often answer their own questions. Dantonio (1987,48) stated that "answering your own questions also stifles thinking, not only by inhibiting the discussion but by cluing students that you will give them the answer if they are silent long enough. If you repeatedly rephrase your question, the students get confused and discussion drifts away from the focused thinking you are trying to foster." Ainley (1986) referred to the asking of questions to which one already knows the answers as a very odd linguistic activity that appears to be almost entirely restricted to classrooms. "lt is part of the 'school games,' and teachers and students both know its purpose: the teacher does not want to find out information, but rather to ascertain whether or not the students know the answers" (Ainley 1986, 24). Teachers very often ask multiple follow-up questions of students before a response can be given. Yet this "quantity of questions asked does not necessarily demand quality responses on the part of the learner" (Dean 1986, 184). Follow-up questions should be used by the teacher to move students through learning steps from lower-level to higherlevel thinking, and to "usher the habit of an intellectual pause in the discussion. refreshing both leaders and participants" (Will 1987, 34). "Asking questions is a slower means of teaching than lecturing" (Kloss 1988, 247). It should be emphasized that time and planning are needed in preparing questions for the classroom. "Teachers must develop and present proper questions in order to receive the appropriate response" (Dean 1986, 185). '"Teachers need to spend time coding and analyzing their own questions, student answers, and student questions" (Hamblen 1988, 199). "One must keep in mind that the nature of the question has a remarkable impact on the progression of thought in the class" (Dean 1986, 185). Sometimes teachers rely too heavily on questions. For example, rather than beginning each lesson with questions, "research shows that it is far more effective to wait until a knowledge base has been established before initiating questioning" (Henson 1988, 99). The Teacher's Role A well-known teaching principle suggests that the academic achievement of students is positively correlated with the number of clear academic questions posited by the teacher. Teachers' questions often follow a structured, repetitive pattern. The pattern consists of (a) establishing the framework, background, or context of the question; (b) asking the

 question, and (c) reacting to the question by correcting, clarifying, expanding, and praising (Clark, Gage, Marx, Peterson, Staybrook, and Winne 1979). On the average, teachers ask 395 questions per day (Gall 1970). Woolfolk and McCuneNicolich (1984) said that these questions might be asked in accordance with one of six levels of Bloom's cognitive taxonomy of objectives. Questions might elicit responses that are convergent (only one correct answer) or divergent (many possible correct answers) (Woolfolk and McCune-Nicolich 1984). There are four types of questions that may help teachers assess students' understanding. These four types are (1) silent questions, (2) oral questions, (3) written questions, and (4) student questions (Lindquest 1988). The research is controversial as to which type of question fosters the greatest academic achievement among students. Woolfolk and McCune-Nicolich (1984) suggest that several types of questions can be effective. The types of questions asked by the teacher should depend on the instructional objectives and the student's age, socioeconomic background, and ability. For lower-ability students, simple knowledge or comprehension questions requiring more convergent responses are more successful. For these students, teachers should phrase questions that result in high frequency of correct responses followed by much praise and encouragement. For high-ability students, teachers should ask more difficult questions that elicit fewer correct responses. For these higher-ability students, teachers should also quicken the pace and limit encouragement, praise, and discussion. Discussion should be limited to clarifying, correcting, or criticizing students' responses. For those classes composed of mixed-ability students or students with fragile selfesteems. a mix of higher- and lower-level questions should be posed, followed by criticism or praise and encouragement as deemed appropriate considering the instructional goals and needs of the student (Medley 1977; Ward and Tikunoff 1976}. Questioning in the classroom can have many purposes. To begin a lesson, questions of evaluation may be asked. To end the lesson, teachers may ask knowledge-level questions. Teachers who are skilled at questioning may use questions to develop lesson structure (Kloss 1988). Questions may be used to probe the students' understanding of the lesson (Lindquist 1988). Given this framework, the following tips are offered to help teachers ask more successful questions in the classroom. 1. Ask knowledge-level questions when assessing students' ability to recall, recognize, or repeat information as it was learned. 2. When assessing students' higher-level thinking, use terms such as how, why. what, and if to encourage deeper thought. 3. Prepare questions in advance. 4. Ask questions in a logical sequence. 5. Ask specific questions that students can answer silently. 6. As direct questions are asked, sprinkle the questioning with direct statements. 7. Request that students repeal the teacher's question before answering.

 8. When a specific student is asked a question, have another student repeat the question before allowing a response. 9. Allow students to converse with each other in a directed manner after a question is asked or answered. 10. Request that students express their own questions fully and specifically. 11. Name specific students in a random order to respond to questions. 12. Provide adequate waiting time after naming a respondent. Rowe (1974) found that waiting approximately three to five seconds after naming a respondent before eliciting a response brought better responses from more students. Asking successful questions in the classroom is a skill that requires knowledge of questioning techniques, planning, and creativity. The art of successful questioning in the classroom can be cultivated through practice. The Student's Role Much has been said about the teacher's role in using questions effectively. But what of the role of students? Generally students are thought of as responders--teachers ask questions and students respond. Accordingly, the student may benefit from a systematic approach to answering, which includes attending to the question, deciphering its meaning, generating a silent answer, and answering overtly. Answers can be revised as needed (Kloss 1988, 247). The process described here involves time--time to listen to or read questions, time to analyze questions, time to consider possibilities and select answers, and, finally, time to share answers through spoken or written language. There is evidence that "low ability students need more time" (Ornstein 1988, 75). The process described here suggests other roles for students: thinker, speaker, writer. And if the question to which students are responding cannot be answered from their reservoirs of information, then they may become researchers. In assuming the latter role, the student becomes a questioner. "There is a popular belief that children learn from asking questions" {Comber 1988, 147). Students who ask thoughtful, focused questions may secure valuable information and, at the same time, help others gain new insights and knowledge. Such questions reflect the thinking ability of the students who ask them, and also reveal something about their self-confidence. Because asking questions can leave students vulnerable, able thinkers sometimes hesitate to raise questions, Dillon (1982) has pointed out that the social rules of the classroom may make students' questions inappropriate. In a secure atmosphere, questions can become powerful catalysts for learning and provide excellent models for other students. The potential of questions to unveil students' confusions and understandings is barely tapped in many classrooms. Students must first trust that they can ask questions without being criticized. It is important that teachers listen to students' questions, so that students who might be ignored, or who are at risk of failure, do not escape their attention.

 REFERENCES Ainley, J. 1987. Telling questions. Mathematics Teaching 118: 24-26. Clark, C. M., N. L. Gage. R. W. Marx, P. L. Petterson, N. G. Staybrook, and P. H. Winne. 1979. A factorial experiment on teacher structuring, soliciting, and reacting. Journal of Educational Psychology 71: 534-50. Clegg, A. A. 1971. Classroom questions. In The encyclopedia of education, ed. L. C. Deighton. New York: Macmillan. Dantonio, M. 1987. Develop concepts, question by question. The Science leacher 54: 4649. Dean, D. 1986. Questioning techniques for teachers: A closer look at the process. Contemporary Education 57: 184-85. Dillon, J. T. 1982. Cognitive correspondent between question/statement and response. Educational Research Journal 19: 540-51. Frager, A.M. 1986. How can we improve teacher questioning?--A good question. Reading Improvement 23: 145-51. Gall, N. D. 1970. The use of questions in teaching. Review of Educational Research 40:707-21. Hamblen, K. A. 1977. A golden source: Armstrong and Armstrong Studies in an education 29: 198-202. Henson, K. T. 1988. Methods and strategies for reaching in secondary and middle schools. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman. Kloss. R. J. 1988. Toward asking the right questions: The beautiful, the pretty, and the messy ones. The Clearing House 61: 245-48. Lindquist, M. M. 1988. Assessing through questioning. Arithmetic Teacher 35:16-18 Medley, D. M. 1977. Teacher competence and teacher effectiveness: A review of process-product research. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educators. NASSP Bulletin 1988. Pp. 72-80. Ornstein. A. C. 1987. Questioning: The essence of good teaching. NASSP Bulletin 71: 71-79.

 Rowe, M. 1974 Wait time and rewards as instructional variables, their influence on language, logic and fate control: Part 1: Wall time. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 11: 81-99. Ward, B., and W. Tikunoff, 1976. The effective teacher education problem: Application of selected research results and methodology to teaching, Journal of Teacher Education 27: 48-52. Will, H. C. 1987 Asking good follow-up questions (Junior Great Books program). Gifted Child Today 10: 32-34. Woolfolk, A. E., and L. McCune-Nicolich 1984. Educational psychology for teachers. 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ~~~~~~~~ By IMOGENE RAMSEY, CAROL GABBARD, KENNETH CLAWSON, LYNDA LEE, and KENNETH T. HENSON Imogene Ramsey is a professor. Carol Gabbard is an associate professor, Kenneth Clawson is a professor, Lynda Lee is an associate professor, and Kenneth Henson is a professor and death, all at the College of Education, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond. Kentucky.