Materials Engineering

Materials Properties Review

Materials Processing Engineering

Properties are the way the material responds to the environment and external forces

Mechanical Properties
Response to mechanical forces, such as
Strength (.) Toughness Hardness Ductility Elasticity Fatigue, Creepetc

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Physical Properties Electrical & Magnetic Properties Thermal Properties Optical Properties Chemical Properties Density, melting point,, etc Response to electrical and magnetic fields such as conductivity, frequency etc Related to transmission of heat and heat capacity such as thermal expansion CTE..etc Include to absorption, transmission and scattering of light In contact with the environment eg : corrosion resistance such as oxidation, corrosion, materials compositionetc

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Basic Mechanical Properties Strength: Ability to support load tension, compression, shear Hardness: Resistance to penetration/ scratches Ductility: Ability to change shape. Opposed to brittleness. Stiffness: Ratio of load to elastic deformation Toughness: Ability to resist impact force

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MP are useful to estimate how parts will behave when they are subjected to mechanical loads
Type of loading

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Tensile test

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Engineering Stress : = F/Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to specimen cross section Ao is cross-sectional area (perpendicular to the force) before application of the load

Engineering Strain : = l/lo

l is change in length lo is the original length

F = t Ao
original area before loading

Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2

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Materials Engineering
Stress-Strain Behavior : Elastic deformation
In tensile test, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called Hookes Law
tensile stress,

engineering strain,

p = 0.002

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In tensile test, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called Hookes Law In some materials (many polymers, concrete..) elastic deformation is not linear, but it is still reversible E is Youngss Modulus or Modulus of elasticity has the same units as : N/m2 or Pa.

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Youngs Moduli : Comparison

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Tensile Strength Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS engineering stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
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Materials Engineering
Poisson Ratio
When pulled in tension (Z), a sample gets longer and thinner, i.e. a contraction in the width (X) and breadth (Y)

Poissons ratio defines how much strain occurs in the lateral directions (x & y ) when strained in the (z) direction

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Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture Define by % elongation : % EL= (lf-lo/lo) x 100 or % reduction in area : % RA = (Ao-Af/Ao) x 100 YS, TS, E decrease with increasing temp. Ductility increases with temp.

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% AR (area reduction) and % EL are often comparable

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Stress-Strain Curve

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The yield point corresponds to the point where the material begins to have permanent deformation

Well-defined yield region (A), others (B) do not. In the absence of a distinct yield point a 0.2% offset is used to obtain an approximately yield point

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Plastic Deformation
Strain and stress are not proportional The deformation is not reversible Deformation occurs by breaking and re arrangement of atomic bonds (in crystalline materials primarily motion by dislocations) Plastic means permanent! Yield stress is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation

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Yield Strength : Comparison

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True Stress and Strain
True stress = load divided by actual area, in contrast to the engineering stress Design stress, d = Nc, where c = maximum anticipated stress. N is the design factor > 1. Want to make sure than d < y Example Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in the carbon steel rod below. Use factor of safety of 4

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Toughness
Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture = the total area under the stress-strain curve up to fracture

Unit : the energy per unit volume eg : J/m3

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Typical Mechanical Properties of Metal
Metal Al Cu Brass Iron Ni Steel Ti Mo YS(MPa) 35 69 75 130 138 180 450 565 TS(MPa) 90 200 300 262 380 380 520 655 % EL 40 45 68 45 25 25 25 35

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Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means: --resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.

Commonly used hardness test ; Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, Knoop.

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A qualitative Mohs scale : the ability of a material to scratch another material 1 (softest) to 10 (hard = diamond)

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Charpy & Izod : Impact Strength
Impact Fracture testing Testing fracture characteristics under high strain rates Two standard tests : Charpy and Izod, measure the impact energy Impact energy : The energy required to fracture a test piece under an impact load

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Impact Fracture testing

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Fracture Toughness Fracture Toughness (KIC) is a measurement
of a materials ability to withstand an applied load while containing a flaw

KIC = Ya
KIC for Metals >> KIC ceramics

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Comparison of hardness scale

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Hardness vs Tensile Strength

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Metal Failure : Review

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Metal Fracture

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Fracture behavior: Very Ductile Moderately Ductile Brittle

Fracture

%AR or %EL : Large

Moderate
Ductile: warning before fracture

Small
Brittle: No warning
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Ductile fracture

(a) Necking (b) Cavity Formation (c) Cavity coalescence to form a crack (d) Crack Propagation (e) Fracture

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Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture

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Creep
Creep is a time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a constant load at a high temperature (>0.4Tm), Example : turbine blades, steam generators. If a material is kept under a constant load over a long period of time (for example , carry a load permanently), it undergoes permanent deformation. Creep rate increase with increase in temp.

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tr = time to rupture or rupture lifetime

Creep rate increase with temp and stress

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Fatigue Tools, dies, gears, cam shaft,
springs.etc

Components failure because of rapidly fluctuating (cyclic or periodic) loads in addition to static loads
Cyclic stress may be caused by fluctuating mechanical loads (such as in gear teeth or thermal stress (such as on tool, die..)

Parts fails at stress level below that at which failure would occur under static loading

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Fatigue
Fatigue testing apparatus

S-N curve for Ferrous Metal and non Ferrous Metal

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Fatigue Failure under cyclic stress.
Cracks that cause fatigue failure almost always initiate/nucleate at component surface at some stress concentration (scratches, dents, fillets, keyways, threads, weld beads/spatter..)

On very smooth surfaces, SLIP steps can act as stress raisers.

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Beachmarks may represent an 8hr daily shift : For a shaft operating at 3000 rpm, total number of cycles per day is. Beach marks DO NOT indicate the crack growth per stress cycle

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Improving Fatigue Life

1.

Impose a compressive surface stress

shot C-rich gas

(to suppress surface cracks from growing)

put surface into compression

--Method 1: shot peening

--Method 2: carburizing

2.

Remove stress concentrators.

bad bad

better better

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Corrosion Destructive of a material due to electrochemical attack from the environment.

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Strengthening Mechanism

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Strength is linked to dislocation mobility If dislocation mobility is easy, low forces will lead to easy movement

If dislocations are pinned, higher stresses are required

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Plastic deformation is due to the motion of a large number of dislocations. The motion is called slip. Thus, the strength (resistance to deformation) can be improved by putting obstacles to slip. The number of dislocations per unit volume is the dislocation density, in a plane they are measured per unit area.

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1. 1. Solid Solid Solution Solution Strengthening Strengthening

The impurity atoms cause lattice strain which can "anchor" dislocations. Pure metals are almost always softer than their alloys.

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Tensile strength & yield strength increase wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

400 300 200

Yield strength (MPa)

18 0

12 0 60

0 10 20 30 40 50

0 10 20 30 40 50
wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)

wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation:

y ~ C 1/ 2

Alloying increases y and TS.

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2. Strain Hardening

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Plastically deforming the crystal (at room temp) will rapidly raise the number of dislocations The measure of strain hardening is the percent of cold work (%CW), given by the relative reduction of the original area, A0 to the final value Ad :

%CW = 100 (A0Ad)/A0

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Dislocation Multiplication Frank-Read Source
B-C ialah garisan kehelan yang terikat spt pd sempadan bijian Tegasan dikenakan, garisan kehelan akan melengkung

Garisan kehelan baru terbentuk pda B-C

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Cold Work (CW)
Room temperature deformation. Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:

-Forging
die Ao blank

force

-Rolling
Ad force

roll roll

Ao

Ad

-Drawing
die Ao die Ad

-Extrusion
Ao
tensile force
container

force

die holder
extrusion

ram

billet

Ad

Ao Ad %CW = x100 Ao

container

die

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Materials Engineering

Materials Engineering
3.
Grain Size Reduction

Materials with finer grain size are stronger than materials with coarse grains Grain boundaries are barriers to slip. Barrier "strength increases with misorientation. Smaller grain size:more barriers to slip.

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The Hall-Petch Equation Ys = Ys0 + kyd-1/2 Relating the yield strength to the diameter of the average grain. Smaller grain size also can increase toughness

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4.

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Age hardening or Precipitation Hardening Produces a uniform dispersion of Fine & Hard in a softer, more ductile matrix i. Solution Treatment Reheat the alloy up to a temperature where only one solid phase exists (above the solvus) This dissolves the second solid phase (b for example) into the primary phase Dont exceed the eutectic temperature

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ii. Quench Rapidly cool to room temperature or below This results in a supersaturated nonequilibrium structure The second phase does not form, because diffusion is so slow!!

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iii . Aging Reheat to a temperature Diffusion a short distance Results in a fine precipitate There is an optimum aging time
Artificial aging elevated temp Natural aging room temperature

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Before treatment

After treatment

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After cold working

After annealing

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Effect of annealing temperature on tensile strength and ductility of brass alloy

Grain structure development

Grain size as function of annealing temperature is also indicated