Chapter Four: Design & Methodology 1. Introduction 2. Context and Research Design 3. Participants and Research Setting 4.

The Pilot Study 5. The Main Study 6. Challenges and Strategies 7. Data Coding and Scoring Procedures 8. Conclusion CHAPTER TWO: METHODS OF INVESTIGATION Introduction I started to explore the phenomenon of student-teacher relationship by talking to 8-year-old boys and girls in a Grade 3 class about their experiences. Through pilot interviewing, it became apparent that some 8-year-old children had difficulty communicating their ideas about relationships independently and some children needed to be prompted or taught concepts in order to formulate andlor verbally express their experiences. Without conducting additional assessments of language functioning and social perceptions it was not possible to determine whether the variability in their verbal expressions were related to their linguistic competence or social maturity or to actual differences in their perceptions of the experience. These observations led to the decision to work with a sample of children who were considered bright, gifted, and verbal. (This sample of children could be considered to have at least average competence in language functioning). Working with children high in verbal ability allowed for a focus on the children's perceptions of the relationships between students and teachers, and reduced the variability introduced by differences in the children's skills in expressing themselves verbally. In addition, during the pilot interviewing, it appeared that the children responded to questions about relationships that were contextualized within a story (i.e., where aspects of the studentteacher interactions were specified), better than they were able to answer open-ended verbal questions. These observations led to: (a) developing a structured interview protocol, which consisted of both open-ended questions and more directed questions; (b) creating a situated learning activity, by identifying meaningful settings, events and characters; and (c) designing an interactive method, probing for clarification and verification where needed. These preliminary interview fmdings shaped the method of the study in many ways including the sample selection, research design and activities. Each of these is described below.

Participants Participants were recruited either through a proposal to a research committee with an urban board of education or through a newsletter and presentation to the Association for Bright Children (ABC) of both Hamilton and Halton, two urban regions in Southern Ontario. The parents of participants fmt received a letter, to request their consent for the participation of their child in the study. Contact with parents was then made over the phone, at an ABC meeting or through an ABC newsletter. Both written parental consent and a student agreement to participate in the study were obtained (see Appendix A). The sample was unique with respect to several characteristics. The 15 children who participated were 8 or 9 years of age (mean age = 8.81 years, range = 8.01- 9.9). Two females were 8 years old and two were 9 years old. Seven males were 8 years old and four males were 9 years old. The sample size was adequate to engage in the proposed in-depth study. The children were considered to be intellectually bright or gifted, according to parental report. Parental perceptions were supported by school evidence, in that all participants were receiving additional educational resources within the school system, rangimg from special class programs for identified gifted children to withdrawal programs for enrichment opportunities. All the participants were born in Canada and English was their first language. Design The research design is based on a holistic-inductive view of children's perceptions of studentteacher relationships. According to Panon (1980), a holistic camework assumes that a description of the context of the phenomenon is essential to understanding the phenomenon itself, in this case the student-teacher relationship. Furthermore, Panon claimed that it is insufficient to study variables or dimensions in isolation. Thus, the present study used a qualitative methodology, providing a h e w o r k within which participants could respond in a way that represented accurately and thoroughly their perspective about student-teacher relationships. The design enabled the exploration of each child's perceptions of the relationship between teacher and student using multiple measures. Therefore complex, multiple uait, and bi-directional data were derived from the child's perspective. Interactive Situated Learning Model An interactive model was developed to explicitly introduce concepts of student-teacher relationship to the child. The children were initially given the opportunity to generate their own responses and to spontaneously express what they knew about student-teacher

relationships. The interactive procedure also allowed for in-depth probing when needed for clarification. Orientation Procedures Each child was interviewed individually, in a home setting. All of the children except for three were seen in their own homes. Rapport was established with parent(s) and children before initiating the procedures. Each child participated in the study individually, alone with the examiner in a quiet, private room. The child and the examiner were seated at a table. All interviews were audio-taped. Each child participated in one session lasting 2 112 to 3 hours, with a short snack break. All data were collected between the months May and August of the same school year. The children were given an introductory description of the research activities. The children were informed that the information they provided would not be shared with their parents, teacher, or school. The children were encouraged to take their time to reflect on what they knew before responding and to rephrase information to ensure understanding. For each participant, the following activities were administered in the same order, that is, the warm-up activity, the structured interview, and the interactive story completion task. The self-report scale (see Appendix B) was administered as a warm-up activity to orient the child to the topic of student-teacher relationships as well as to introduce some concepts and language for expressing emotional qualities and contextual resources of student-teacher relationships. The children's perceptions of their need for an emotional connection with the teacher and their experiences of the contextual resources available to meet these needs were measured using an adaptation (i.e., three items were added) of the Relatedness to Teacher Scale and the Contextual Resources Scale developed by Wellborn and Come11 (1 987). The self-report data were not used in the study because multiple measures were not used to evaluate the children's perceptions of their actual relationship with their teacher. A preliminary summary of the data was gathered (see Table C1 in Appendix C), but was not seen as relevant to the focus of the study as it took analytical form. Data Collection Procedures The study used two methods to gather data on the children's perceptions of students relationships with teachers. The procedures were the structured interview of the children, attending to their perceptions of how students and teachers get along together, and the story completion task of their perceptions of how hypothetical students and teachers interact. Structured Interview

The individual structured interview protocol (see Appendix D) was designed to allow the participants to identify the characteristics of a good student-teacher relationship. The children's representations of a good relationship may or may not have been a reflection of their current or an actual student-teacher relationship, and they had the potential to generate a more generalized representation of a "good" student-teacher relationship that may have been a reflection of their experiences. The children responded spontaneously with their selfgenerated ideas. After their ideas were exhausted, prompts were given and the children were allowed to endorse any additional items. The children responded verbally to three research questions: (a) "What do students do to get along with teachers?'., (b) "What do teachers do to get along with students?'., and (c) "What are signs that a student and a teacher are getting along well together?" All interviews were audio-taped. The children also created a pie chart to graphically describe the idea that these characteristics together comprised a good student-teacher relationship. Each child created three pie graphs to correspond to each question, depicting the components of a good studentteacher relationship and the importance of each component. The first pie gaph showed what a student does to get along with a teacher, the second illustrated what a teacher does to get along with a student and the thud represented the characteristics of a good student-teacher relationship. 'he children appeared to have some difficulty responding by p p h i i g the items on a pie chart. They had difficulty fitting their evaluation of each item onto a pie -ph. Spatial organization difficulties were apparent. At times children had extra space left in the chart, or they ran out of space. Some children thought of important items after they had already constructed the chart with other items. Other children appeared to fill space with redundant items, and some children had trouble ordering the items to reflect the importance of the item. Therefore, forther analysis of the size of each piece of the pie graph, as an indication of the importance of the item was abandoned. Story completion tasks The story completion tasks were the most interactive (see Appendix E). The story completion tasks were designed as the principle means of examining the child's perception of studentteacher relationships. Hypothetical characters were developed to control salient features of teacher and student behaviour. I decided against the use of actual classmates and actual classroom scenarios for three reasons: (a) to reduce the potential for breach of confidentiality; (b) to make critical features salient and proximal within the context, rather than embedded in an actual context of complex situational and personality features; and (c) to allow the children the opportunity to de-centre from their own needs and situation if they chose. The

hypothetical teachers and students were portrayed by Playmobii figures and classrooms were represented with Playmobil classroom b i t u r e . In the story, three hypothetical teachers (i.e., Ms. Wilson, Ms. Andrews, and Ms. Thomas) were presented. The three teacher profiles were female to control for gender and represented the contextual resource characteristics of: (a) structure -- the consistency of behaviour management; (b) involvement -- the devoting of time to students; and (c) autonomy support -the explicit planning and goal-setting. The story begins in each class with the teachers greeting the students and then giving instn~ctions to their classes about the morning's activities. For example, the introduction to Ms. Wilson's class follows. One day children, just about your age, arrived at school. The teachers, Ms. Wilson, Ms. Andrews, and Ms. Thomas, greeted the children at the door saying something to each student l i e "Hello" and "Good morning" and "How are you?" and "You look great." (Make students walk in. Have participant help.) We are going to look in on each classroom and see what is going on. Let's look in the fust classroom. After putting away their coats and bags, the class was seated (stand teacher in eont of class and seat the children, have child help), Ms. Wilson announced "Remember, yesterday I told you that we would be going to the surprise presentation in Mr. Jones' classroom. His class has invited us because they know that you would enjoy their surprise. [What do you think the surprise is? Get child respond.) It's a surprise so we won't tell the students, ok?] Ms. Wilson went on. "Well, I just changed my mind. It just dawned on me that all your language work needs to be done correctly before recess and then you can go. The assignments are difficult today so you will really have to work hard." Now, the children in this class usually had no trouble with reading or writing, all of them were good in language, but if students were not finished, Ms. Wilson told them that they would go to complete their work in the library. Ms. Wilson sat down to do some marking (seat the teacher). An opportunity to have a surprise later in the morning was offered by all three hypothetical teachers but the delivery dilTered for each. Two teachers were directive and presented the surprise as a reward that was contingent upon work completion but both of these differed in terms of: (a) consistency, and (b) seeking and involving student input. The students in the fust classroom were expected to obey the teacher's (Ms. Wilson) demands, which changed from one day to the next, for no apparent reason other than that the teacher

said she "changed her mind". The students in the next class were given an explicit rationale for the second teacher's (Ms. Andrews) instructions, which were grounded in a consistent, familiar classroom routine. Furthermore, the second teacher opened the discussion to input from students. Both classrooms had the potential to be productive working environments, but the fust teacher expected obedience and the second teacher explicitly encouraged involvement with students. The third teacher (Ms. Thomas) had a very different approach. She exemplified the two characteristics mentioned above, (i.e. consistency and openness to student input). In addition she encouraged student autonomy in decision making. She allowed and assisted the students to make their own choices about how and when they would get the morning assignments completed, and whether or not they wanted to attend the surprise activity. She offered students time to set their own goals, plan their own agenda and she discussed their planning, organization and work completion in regular individual conferences. The children's perceptions of the class and teacher interactions were probed at this point in the story, in each classroom setting. First, the children's predictions of what would happen next were revealed with an open-ended question: "Tell me what will happen next?" Then more direct and specific questions were used to inquire about the participant's perceptions of the thoughts and feelings involved: "What was the class thinking? -'What were they feeling?" "What was the teacher thinking? and "What was she feeling?" The children were encouraged to engag in role play with the Playmobil figures, to reflect before responding, and to use the words and the voices that they believed the children or teachenwould use. Interactions betwccn individual hypothetical studcnts and thc thrcc tcachcrs occurred next in the story. In each class there were hvo boys who were having problems completing the work due to difficulty attending to task or being stuck on a hard question. The hypothetical student prof les were developed because they were salient and familiar difficultcs that children typically cncountcr in classroom csperienccs. For csamplc, the following prompt was used to describe a student who was stuck on a difficult question. Now I'm going to tell you about Billy. Billy usually has no troublc with language assignments and concentrating on his work. Today however, he is stuck on a really difficult question. I-le keeps reading the question over and over but can't figure out an answer to write down. He wants to go to the surprise but he is really having troublc getting thc work done because it is very dificult. The factors which were explicitly controlled in the student-teacher interaction scenarios included: (a) the hypothetical students' language ability, (b) difficulty of the task, (c) desire to

receive the positive incentive, (d) gender of the student experiencing difficulty (Burgner & Hewstone, 1993), and (e) reasons for work completion difficulty. Using Weiner's ( l990b) attribution theory, these variables have the potential to be analyzed according to components of causality, stability and controllability by 8- to 9- year-old children. Due to the complexity of the story, the following features were included. Playmobil classroom furniture and figures of the teachers and the students were used. Comprehension probes were inserted at points in the story to check for understanding and to redirect if necessary. Reminders were added to reduce the memory and attentional demands. Thc intcractivc mcthod allowed for csploration of thc child's perceptions of thc hypothetical teachers' and students' thoughts and feelings during these scenarios. First, an open-ended question was asked to reveal the children's predictions, that is, "What will happen nextl" Then more direct, specific questions were used to elicit the child's thinking about thc thoughts and fcelings of the students and tcachcrs, that is, "What was the student thinking and feeling?" and "What was the teacher thinking and feeling?" Thc story concluded after rcccss, bcforc the surprise activity, in each of the hypothetical classrooms. The following is a description of the prompted story conclusion for Ms. Wilson's class. Let's see how the story ends in Ms. Wilson's room. Remember Ms. Wilson told the class that they had to get all their work done beforc they could go. Remember she changed her mind from the day before. She did not give the students a choice whether they wanted to go or not. Their language assignment was hard that day. Remember the two students who were having difficulty and wanted to go. George had a hard time concentrating and Billy had difficulty getting the hard work done (show the two boys). Nest the children were asked to provide the following information. The children were asked an open-ended question to predict how the story would end in each classroom: Now does the story end in this classroom? They were also asked what the students and the teacher were feeling and thinking. Second, upon completion of the stories in each classroom, children rated each of the hypothetical teachers on a rating scale designed to measure their perceptions of the teacher's provision for autonomy support, involvement, and structure. Third, the participants wcre also asked which of the three tcachers they prcfcrrcd and why. Fourth, the children described how the other teachers would have to change in order to be like the teacher they preferred. The data gathering redundancy was planned for verification and linking purposes.

Familiarity checks wcrc built into the data collection, asking the children whcther they were familiar with or knew students or teachers who were like the characters. Familiarity chccks were designed to help understand thc child's expcricnccs and whcther the characters were real to them. During the pilot interviewing, social perspective-taking sentence structures were attempted. However, the children's language seemed formal and not natural. Furthermore, the more formal sentence structures may not have been an indication of whether the children de-centred from their own perspective to describe another person's point of view. The children may have used the sentence structure to comply with the task. Therefore, the respondents used their own verbal expressions, and familiarity checks were incorporated to determine whether or not the respondents knew a student or a teacher with the described characteristics, from their own knowledge and experiences. Data Analysis Procedures Qualitative research aims to capture what actually takes place and to provide a great deal of careful description (Miles & Huberman, 1984; Panon, 1980; Rothe, 1993; Van Manen, 1990). The intent of collecting descriptive data is to describe fully and completely what the child's perspective is and not what the child's perspective should be. The data are primarily verbal, detailed descriptions of events, situations, characters, and interactions. The responses are not systematic or standardized. They are lengthy and capture the children's points of view without predetermining those points of view through prior selection of categories. The purpose of these descriptions is to take the reader into the setting. The holistic-inductive analysis begins with specific observations of the data, until the researcher comes to understand the patterns that exist in the data. Categories or general patterns emerge directly from the open-ended observation of the data. Content analysis procedures endeavour to make sense of the data without imposing pre-existing expectations on the participants' perceptions. The inductive approach to data analysis is in contrast to a deductive experimental approach which requires specification of main variables under investigation, and specification of hypotheses before data is collected. In a qualitative study, the important dimensions emerge from the study without presupposing what those important dimensions should be. Patton (1980) explained that the holistic-inductive approach should be considered as a model, and in applied research there are practical techniques and procedures that have an impact on a pure holistic-inductive approach. In this study, the data collection was a mixture of naturalistic inquily and verification techniques. Patton (1980) explained that it is possible to mix qualitative and quantitative analyses, and to convert detailed qualitative descriptions into

quantitative measures. Some descriptive quantitative methods were used to orpnize the patterns of responses that emerzed from the data. Analvsis of the Structured Interview The audiotapes of all intcrvicws wcrc transcribed, and then thc contcnts wcrc analyzed. The contents were evaluated separately for each structured interview question. For each question, all items wse listed verbatim. This procedure was performed in order for the researcher to become familiar with the language the participants used to describe the student-teacher relationships. Items wcrc groupcd according to rccurring action phrases, consisting of commc:, verbs and nouns. By working back and forth between the raw data and the lists of items, the rccurring pattcrns cmcrgcd. Recurring thcmcs wcrc then grouped accordingto common foci. Themes were then discussed with the thesis supervisor and committee members. The children's verbal responses were examined in three ways. First, the themes and foci that emerged from each of the stmcturcd interview questions wcrc cornparcd. Second, responses were classified either as "spontaneous" if they were self-generated by the participant, or "prompted," if they were endorsed by the participant after the prompts. Analysis of spontaneous versus prompted responses was planned prior to data collection, to obtain an indication of whether the children had their own ideas ofwhat constituted good student-teacher relationship, in comparison to what they would recognize or endorse after prompts were provided. Second, the children's responses were classified as either "generalized," if they consisted of impersonal and de-centred information, or "personalized," if they contained information suggesting that the child ~dentified experientially with it. The second dimension of generalized versus personalized was not planned a priori, but the distinction emerged directly from the data. Analvsis of the stow comaletion-task As with thc structured interview activity, the content of thc story coinplction task activity was transcribed verbatim for each participant, in order for the researcher to become familiar with the children's descriptions of the hypothetical student and teacher relationships. After reading the transcripts, recurring patterns were analyzed. A varicty of data analysis tcchniques wcre uscd to idcntif) the thcmcs and to answer the research questions concerning the children's perceptions of the studenttcachcr intcmctions. Comparative analyses and a process analysis were utilized to focus and organize the data. Qualitative vignettes were used to illustrate the children's perceptions of interactions and the

associated thoughts and feelings. Quantitative descriptions were also derived directly from the qualitative data to compare and contrast themes that cmergcd dircctly from the data. The comparative analyses aimed to identify similarities and differences in the children's perceptions of the relationships in each of the hypothetical classrooms. Comparisons were made of the following data: (a) the children's familiarity with the hypothetical teachers, (b) the children's preferences for the hypothetical teachers, and (c) the children's ratings of contextual resources available in each of the class settings. The process analysis aimed to elucidate the variations and adaptation of the students and teachers within each hypothetical classroom context. The process analysis was considered a useful strategy for investigating the dynamics of the student-teacher relationships in terms of interactions and the social-emotional aspects. The process evaluations required a detailed description of the operation of each of the student-teacher relationships, in order to unravel what happened in the relationship, and to search for major patterns. To conduct the process analysis descriptive data were gathered during three key scenarios in each classroom's story, and the transcripts were reviewed for recurring behavioural, emotional, and attributional themes. The fust point of data collection was the point at which the participants were asked for their predictions of what would happen next to the class in each classroom after the teacher had introduced the assignment, and what the class and the teacher were thinking and feeling. These class-teacher perceptions provided the background. They were considered important because they provided a full description of the situational and classroom contexts before examining the student-teacher interpersonal interactions that were embedded in each classroom. The second point of data collection was at the time the children were asked for their predictions of what would happen next in the individual studentteacher interactions, and what the student and teacher were thinking and feeling. The third point of data collection was when the children were asked for their predictions of the stoly conclusion in each classroom, and what the class and the teacher were thiig and feeling. The comparison and process data were systematically synthesized using process x comparison matrices. The matrices were created to identify the conditions that shaped the participants' perceptions of teacher familiarity and preference. The matiices emphasized how the perceptions were formulated fiom student-teacher interactions, emotions and attributions, rather than stressing the perceptions themselves. Research Questions The primary research question was: How do bright and gifted 8- and 9-year-olds experience the social and emotional aspects of student-teacher relationships? In order to examine this,

more specific research questions were developed to guide the administration of the research activities and the analyses of the data. Research questions were designed for both data collection procedures. For the structured interview these were: How do the children perceive students and teachers getting along together, and what do the children describe as characteristics of a good student-teacher relationship? For the hypothetical story completion tasks these were: What are the salient features of the children's descriptions of the student-teacher relationships? What emotions were ascribed to the teacher and what emotions were ascribed to the students? Did emotions change during interactions? Are emotions linked with thinking about outcomes and/or attributions? Are there repeating patterns of events, thoughts, and feelings? A verification process was planned as part of the data collection. Redundancy was explicitly built into the interactive model to address internal validity. Searching for links, comparisons, and contrasts in the children's perceptions, using multiple sources and multiple methods, was explicitly planned to address whether there was consistency in the data. The verification of the findings was essential in determining if the research questions provided an adequate exploration of the children's perceptions of the social and emotional aspects of student and teacher relationships. In summary, this research is designed to explore the child's perceptions of the social and emotional aspects of student-teacher relationships. The goal is to provide rich descriptions of children's expressed thoughts and feelings. The analysis of the children's perceptions identifies elements of the children's perceptions, in order to understand the nature of the student-teacher relationship as they see it. The characteristics of the children's perceptions need to be clarified and from this the linkages, connections or areas of overlap can be observed. Chapter Three Design and Methodology of the Study The purpose of the study is to investigate how students and teachers feel about the English teaching implemented id present day China so that weak areas can be clarified and suggestions for improvement can be reached. A teacher w e y and a student survey were conducted to Ml this purpose. In this chapter, the methodoIogy and rationale used in the s w e y s are presented. The survey site, subjects, data collection and data analysis are described in detail. In this study, interactive methods (LeCompte and Preissle, 1993; D e w and Lincoln, 1994; Paiys, 1997) were used for data collection To be more exact, the data were collected through

'cperson-to-person exchange of informationyy( Palys 1997, p. 144) between the researcher and the participants through ccquestioningp articipants and eliciting data fiom them" (Go- and LeCompte, 1984 p.109). The two specific techniques adopted were mail-out questionnaires (see appendices B and C) and followup discussion letters (see appendices D and E). While the former technique was common within the literature, the latter, a letter addressed to individuafs for extended responses, was my own idea encouraged by my thesis supervisor and based on necessity and feasibility. The questionnaires were used for the purpose of gathering baseline information, and the follow-up discussion letters contained focussed questions on the issues that appeared with high frequency and seemed to be common experiences among the sunrey subjects. The purpose of sending follow-up discussion letters was to initiate extended and focussed reflections on the saIient issues that had been synthesized from the baseline information- The questionnaires and follow-up discussion letters were composed for students and teachers respectively. These two techniques were chosen for this study because they enabled us to hear the respondents' opinions in their own words and allowed better representation of the authentic, original voices captured in the setting. Moreover, they were most feasible with the overseas distance and limited b d s . Forty-two students and seventeen teachers were chosen as survey participants. For various reasons, four teachers could not take part in the m e y The teacher survey and student survey were conducted separately. The data &om the student sources and the teacher sources were first analyzed separately, and then integrated. Data analysis'was conducted through two procedures: preliminary analysis and interpretation of data. In the Erst procedure, the data are objectively presented with the purpose of telling %what it is." In addition, data from other existing studies are sometimes used for more illustration, and my own comments are inserted every now and then to provide necessary background information for the benefit of readers. The main techniques used in the initial anaiysis are: n o ~pgatt erns-the assembly or recwstruction of the data in a meaningfbl or comprehensible fashion (Ifuberman and Miles, 1994; Palys, 1997), enumerating-frequency counting (L,eCompte and Preissle, 1993; Palys, 1997), comparing and contrasting-identification of similarities and differences either within the same data unit or between different data units (Jorgensen, 1989; LeCompte and Preissle, 1993; Palys, 1997). The second process, interpretation of the data, provides a focussed discussion on certain issues synthesized from the preceding data analysis process. The purpose is to telt 'khat it all means" and to address the research questions formulated in the introduction chapter. Comparable data fiom other studies are used for comparison and contrast The discussion of the issues is integrated with the theoretical framework presented in

the literature review. In short, this is the section of analytic induction-a dialectic of theory and data (Jorgensen, 1989; Palys, 1997) that leads to tentative suggestions for m e practice. The rationale underlying the choice of the methodology for this study are as follows: First, examination of learning and teaching experiences needs an in-depth inquiry, which is hard to achieve with quantitative methods - alone. Open-ended questions and elaborative 'talks" in the form of follow-up letters allow space for informmts to tell their thoughts and explain themselves in ways that would not be possible in a quantitative study consisting of negative or positive categories, classifications, or numerical scales. Second, as part of curriculum decision-making components, learning experience and teaching experience should both be considered among other components when we promote a change or improvement (Goodlad, 1979; Schubert and Schubert, 1981; Barrow, 1985; Erickson and Schultz, 1992; Brown, 1995). Third, classroom contexts vary, and so do teachers' and Ieamers' expectations and experiences in any specific circumstances. Thus, inquiries of learning experience and teaching experience of any particufar group. are perceived as beneficial to the establishment ofa comprehensive understanding ofthe curridurn in general. Fourth, the design of the study allows triangulation through multiple-source data collection: students of different years, teachers teaching different English courses and students, openended questionnaires, and follow-up talks. Finally, the study is conducted from outside China The distance makes the methodology most feasible. As introduced in the preceding chapters, the purpose of this study is to examine learning and teaching experiences in English language classes in China and to provide tentative suggestions bared on the study for fiiture improvement. The focus is on classroom instruction. To ttffiu this purpose, the study looks at: 1) how the participating t-eachers and students feel about the English teaching, 2) whether or not - the teaching approaches in general need change or innovation, 3) how the swey subjects think the instruction can be made more effective. The survey quedons (see appendices, B, C, D, and E) were designed to elicit responses to the research questions desctlied above. The general guidelines for formulating these questions are as follows: First, the questiom should be brief and concise so as to avoid ambiguity. This seems extremeIy important for this study because my absence f?om the survey field prevented personal explanation Second, the questions should be interesting and relevant to the informants' own concerns so as to stimulate satis&ctory cooperation Third, the questions

should sound conversational so that the subjects feel like talking because they are talking to someone caring and willing to listen Fourth, the questions should be open-ended to allow enough room for elaboration. Site The Foreign Languages Department of a medid university in southwest China was chosen as the setting for the study. The university to which the Foreign Languages Department belongs is f ~ r l yw ell known in the country with a long history of more than eighty years and several prestigious medical specialties- It is widely recognized in southwest China as the leading medical university. The quality of ~ngiishla nguage teaching on campus here is socially acknowledged and statistically proven by the annual official examinations of English language as one of the two top universities in southwest China. The Foreign Languages Department has a faculty of sixty-five staff members working in eight department administrative offices and four teaching sections respectively- The four teaching sections are English Major Teaching Section, Non- English Major Teaching Section, Shortterm Training Section, and Second Foreign Language and Postgraduate of Non-English Major Teaching Sectio11- The department deals with four types of students: English students, medical students, potential candidates for overseas studies, and university faculty and staff in short-term foreign Language training programs. This department was selected for the proposed surveys because of its accessibility and my familiarity with the programs after I had worked there as an English teacher for five years. The surveys were conducted in the spring semester of 1998. The whole process took three months. Subjects Forty-two English major students and seventeen English teachers were chosen as the survey subjects. The reason for having these students rather than English students of other disciplines as survey participants was that classes of English majors were usually smd, containing about twenty students in each class. Compared with English classes of non-English majors, which usually had fifty to simy students in ow classroom, the administration would be less complicated if the survey was conducted in small sized classes. Additionally, students majoring in English were assumed to have more interest in the discussion of English pedagogy. There were three groups of student subjects. All the students in Class 96, twentytwo altogether, formed Student Group One. They were second year students. Student Group Two and Student Group Three each comprised ten English majors randomly chosen from the junior class and the senior class respectively. Among the student subjects, ten were males and thirty-

two were females. They came ftom fifteen cities and regions of China with an average age of twenty-two. The student subjects wen all registered in a four-year program leading to a Bachelor of Arts degree. They would work as English teachers or translators in medical institutions, hospitals, or administrations after their wmpletion of the program The response rate f?om the students was 200 percent. Thirteen teachers working in the EngIish Uajor Taching Section and four section heads were invited for the teacher sumey.. Four of them couldn't participate due to absence or illness at the time of the survey The participation rate was 76.5 percent. These teachers were chosen because most of them were experienced teachers teaching diverse English courses from year one to year four. According to the personal information provided, their average teaching experience was sixteen years and a half ranging from five years to thirty-one years. The courses these teachers taught were: advanced interpretation and speech, intensive reading, extensive reading, listening comprehension, English for trade and commerce, English and American literature, teaching methodology, advanced English, English composition, college English, translation, English newspaper reading, US survey, TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) training and so on. Four of them h d a master's degree in either education or English literature, and nine of them bad a Bachelor of Arts degree. Eight of them had experience studying or doing research in an overseas university on governrnent-sponsored programs. A consent Letter (see appendix A) was sent to the subjects first to obtain their agreement to participate in the surveys. The letter also informed them of the research topic, purpose and methods. They were told that my interest was in English teaching and learning in g e n d In other words, the study was not about any particular course or teacher. Rather, they would be asked to discuss their general experiences of English teaching in schools and universities as a whole. Thus, the teachers wouldn't have an uneasy feeling of being evaIuiited, and the students wouldn't worry about hurting the teachers' feelings if some responses were negative. Moreover, a broader range of English programs could be covered in this way. For this reason, there was no need to conduct the surveys anonymously. Instead, respondents were asked to provide some general information about themselves. The personal information provided reference information, enabled the follow-up dialogues, and facilitated some meaningful data interpretation afterwards. Due to possible overlaps, the respondents didn't have to answer each question They could skip some questions, and focus on those where they had more to say. They were also given permission to Chinese if they wished to do so in order to express their meaning

more explicitly and to avoid misunderstanding. The data provided in Chinese were translated by myself and this was indicated wherever they were quoted. With the generous cooperation of the class teacher, half an hour in class was scheduled for Student Group One to do the open-ended questions. Another half an hour in class was arranged for the same group to allow group discussion on the topics raised in the follow-up letter. After the discussion, the students wrote their responses to the questions and the class teacher forwarded them to me. The data collection was distinctively divided into two processes: questionnaires for basic information, and fo~ussed discussion for extended exploration, The data &om the students and the data firom the teachers were collected at different times albeit within the same semester Immediately &er consent of voluntary participation was obtained, two sets of questionnaires comprising fifteen open-ended questions each were issued to the three sample groups of students and one sample group of teachers. Student Group One was the core group for student data collection which took part in both processes of data collection while the other two student groups were only involved in the baseline data collection activity, namely the questionnaire survey. The reason for chooshg Student Group One only to participate in the follow-up discussion was the availability of class time for this group, which could guarantee a high response rate, and discussions of quality. After the baseline data were collected from the three student groups and the teacher group, topics that demonstrated shared experiences among many respondents were identified. Then the follow-up Letters, which were designed to initiate -&rther explanations and elaboration on the identified issues, were sent to Student Group One and the -Teacher ~ r o uT~he. s tudents who had demonstrated similar concerns in the questionnaire m y were called together to form mini groups for focussed discussion. Each mini group worked collaboratively on a couple of designated topics, and then wrote one paragraph for each topic as a report of their discussion. For the Teacher Group, each teacher was required to elaborate in detail one or two perceptions they had expressed in their responses to the questionnaire. Data fkom the student groups and the teacher group were collected separately and kept in separate files. This study was based on qualitative research methodology Techniques such as noting pattern, emmeratin& comparing, contrasting, and analytic induction were implemented in the data analysis. The analysis was divided into two processes: manipulating data and interpreting data This part of the data analysis forms the first two sections of chapter four. The analysis started with the student survey, and then focussed on the teacher survey. First of all, the answers to

the same question or related questions were pulled together and dealt with as one unit. Then the data were read and reread untiI a pattern emerged. The most striking thinds observed in each unit wadwere presented objectively as survey finding/s. Techniques like counting, noting patterns were used. Other techniques such as comparing &d contrasting were also used every now and then within or across units whenever an association or linkage had been noticed or - hypothesized in the process of analysis- The data obtained fiom the follow-up letters were mainly used for the purpose of illustration and elaboration. Some pubIished results of related studies were used for confirmation. Comments based on my own knowledge or experience were inserted to provide readers with necessary background Hornation to facilitate understanding of Chinese culture for non-Chinese readers. Slightly different fiom the way of dealing with the student data, the teachers' answers were categorized into four major themes and handled accordingly: hstration and ~oncernsp, rofessional development, teaching methodology, and learning outcomes. Again, comparison and contrast were used for possible sidarities and differences between the data &om the student source and the teacher source. This part of the data analysis was basically an objective description ofwhat was seen from the data LeCompte and Preissle (1993) emphasize that data analysis based on qualitative research methodology involves more than simple reporting of facts. The purpose of qualitative researchers, for example, is to tell what the results mean by reassembling and integrating them with existing knowledge (p.263, p.266, p. 267 and p.278). This is also the purpose of this study. Although the initial analysis presented in chapter four helps us see what the data were, it is never the end product of this study. Chapter five gives a fkther discussion on five key issues synthesized fiom the preliminary data - analysis. It compares and contrasts the survey findings with comparable data fiom other studies, integrates the results with the theoretical framework chosen for this study, specifies what the data really mean, and points out implications for teaching practice. In the next chapter, we will see data presentations. CHAPTER FOUR DEVELOPING A WORKABLE PERSPECTIVE: GAINING ENTRY INTO THE STUDENTS' WORLDS In what contexts can my questions best be ansrvered? ... Researchers who see children as active participants in the construction of their own contexts view the question very differently fiom those who see research settings as places where, insofar as possible, everything should be held constant except the manipulation of key independent variables. (Hatch, 1995, p. 124, orrginal emphasis)

Research that is conducted within a hsrmeneutic perspective, that seeks an interpretation of the "lived experiences" of students (Hutchison & Wilson, 1994) and expects that they will be active participants in the development of the account, presents challenges that may not occur in research that is conducted wthin more quantitative research paradigms (Hart, 1998; Smith, 1997). As 07Kane (2000) points out ". . . in seeking to involve participants in the research project participation does not simply imply the mechanical application of 'technique' or method, but is instead part of a process of dialogue, action, analysis and change" (p. 138). Thus, in order to develop a workable perspective, the interpretive researcher needs to consider: the contexts and situations which best lend themselves to fumishing the data related to the researcher's practical concern (Hatch, 1995) the extent to which the researcher can gain entry into the children's world. Commonly called the "adult-chilcl" problem (Hatch, 198 81, this usually entails the degree to which the studentdinterviewees accept the researcher as an empathetic conversationalist, as well as the ability of the researcher to build the rapport necessary for a frank exchange of ideas (Corsaro, 2 997) the extent to which the interviews/interactions between the researcher and the children as participants can be situated in as natural a setting as possible (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) the extent to which children as participants can both recall and reflect upon their Iearning (or the extent to which the students are able to"teach" the researcher) (Hatch, 1988; Spradley, 1979). The foIlowing section details how 1 used a "familiarization" phase to investigate the most efficacious ways to respond to the challenges outlined above. Exp1ox-k~ Contexts: The Farniliarization Phase of the Inquirv The pilot ... is used more formatively, assisting an investigator to deveIop relevant lines of questions-possibly providing some conceptual ~Iarification of the research design as well. (Yin, 1994, p. 74) Corsaro (cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985) strongly recornrnends "the use of 'prior ethnography': becoming a participant observer in a situation for a lengthy period of time before the study is actually undertaken" (p. 251). In the context of the proposed research, this "familiarization phase" was designed to serve four major purposes: To re-orient the researcher to the 'reality' of life in classrooms; To develop the role or persona that the researcher would assume in the data gathering (Fine & Sandstrom, 1988); To provide opportunity for the researcher to explore data gathering possibilities @incoin & Guba, 1985); and

To develop the important questions related to the topic of the inquiry (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). (In the discussion that follows and the subsequent account, the school, teacher and the students are identified by pseudonyrns.) Orientation to the site. The site for the familiarization phase of the inquiry was a Grade Y6 classroom located in an "inner city" school situated in a large urban school district in the province of Alberta. There were 16 Grade 6 and seven Grade 5 students in the class, whkh was taught by a white male, Mr. T., who had three years of teaching experience. There were seven girls and 16 boys and Mr. T. commented that this was quite a large group for this particular school. The class was composed of students from Aboriginal, Asian and European backgrounds, reflecting the cultural and ethnic diversity of the community. There were 175 students in the school, al1 of whom fitted cornfortably into the school's library for the Friday moming assembly and ccaccolade" sharing. The library contained a half class set of fully equipped cornputer leaming stations that were frequently accessed by Mr. T. and his class. In the classrooin, blackboards lined two of the wails and Mr. T. had an overhead projector that he fiequently used to introduce, illustrate, and explain in his lessons. The class timetable was set out in ccconventional" subject area blocks, and the fifth graders from this class joined the fifi graders in another classroom for Art and Health. For approximately 12 weeks fkom March to June, 1998,I spent three mornings each week observing, helping and interacting with the students. Mr. T. introduced me to the class as a "researcher and a teacher," and he indicated that 1 would be helping him and them with their learning. During this period, 1 assurned a number of tasks, most of them on an informal basis. Sometimes 1 would help student groups define a task and provide encouragement for them. Sometimes 1 would help individual students, mostly clarieing what was required of them on their in-class assignmenis. On one occasion, I helped a small group of students to develop a reading "strategy" which we later shared with the whole class. At the teacher's invitation, 1 also introduced and guided a "Paired Reading" activity for the class. The class, with my guidance, continued to do this activity for 10 minutes each day and the record keeping and feedback component of the activity provided me with an opportunity to respond to each student on an individual basis. 1 accompanied the class on a number of field trips. We went to a Junior-High orientation and soccer tournament and to a music festival at which they performed as a appeared to accept me in group in the "beginner recordery' class. Overall, the

students the class and the teacher felt that it would help them as leamers if they could become more aware of their leaming and how they went about it. In addition to my observations and interactions in the classroom, 1 had opportunities to interact with the students both individually and in groups. In my researcher role, 1 asked the students if any of them would be interested in meeting with me as a group to talk about learning and how students went about it. Mr. T. encouraged them and pointed out to them that it would be helpful for them to tak about the ways they thought about learning. In a sense, our talk was cast as part of their regular school learning, a form of reflection on their own learning. Six students volunteered to meet with me and we met informally on two occasions. During these meetings, the students actively contributed many of the ideas that eventually fonned the loose fiamework for the individual discussions 1 had with the students. Although I was not actively engaged in data gathering per se, 1 was developing insights into how best to proceed with the next phase of the inquiry. As Hatch (1988) points out ". . . because researcher-informant relationships are so important, the researcher should be willing to sacrifice initial data, if necessary to facilitate the development of harmonious relationships. For children especially, time to become familiar with the researcher is essential" (p. 13). Nevertheless, the students did share some interesting perspectives that we were later able to expand upon in our individual conversations. My goal during this time was to "attempt to gain entry into the conceptual world . . . [of the students] . . ." (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 37), and this time proved to be productive. As a researcher who had been absent fiom the "lived world" of elementary students in classrooms for some time, 1 was able to see classroom life from several different perspectives, and these often contrasted sharply with the preconceptions 1 brought wth me (Hart, 1998). This contrast is best captured within some of the challenges 1 faced in deciding the role(s) I was to assume in the actual inquiry. Definino My Role as a Researcher A critical aspect of an interpretive inquiry is die role, stance, or persona that the researcher adopts in the research context (Boostrom, 1994; Fine & Sandstrom, 1988). In the familiarization phase, Mr. T., the teacher, introduced me as "a teacher and a researcher who is interested in fmding out how students leam in classrooms." At the time, this was me, as 1 had promised to work with the teacher, helping him to implement some teaching strategies in the classroom. However, my primary purpose was to explore the possibilities for my inquiry. Later I found that my introduction as "teacher and researcher" would sornetimes

inhibit the way the students responded to me in conversations and interactions that we had (Hatch, 1988). Deciding on the role to be assumed is one that presents some challenges, particularly if the informants in the research are children (Fine & Sandsrom, 1988). Fine and Sandstrom provide some advice and guidelines as to the stances that a researcher may assume when seeking information from children. They begin with a caveat hat in any fom of interaction with children, we, as adults, are always constrained by the "adultcentric" nature of our understandings, the assumption that we must know children because we were once like them. Similarly, although we may be physically close, we are usually socially distant. Thus, ail interactions are premised on the idea that children move and have their being in discourses that are to a large extent inaccessible, and often a sustained mystery to adults (Paley, 1979, 1996). Two of the major challenges that Fine and Sandstrom (1988) identi& are the extent to which the adult has positive contact with the children and the extent to which the adult has authority over them. They suggest that the most productive role that cm be assurned by the qualitative researcher is one that stresses "positive affect and low authority" @. 14). In my initial inquiry, both the terms, teacher and researcher presented me in an authority role that made it difficult at times for me to bring down the already extensive buriers that existed because of the childadult dimension. In addition, 1 became aware how the establishment of a tmsting relationship was complicated by the obvious distance betwsen the chiidren's discourses and my own (Gee, 1989; Pianta & Walsh, 1996). In addition to establishing with the students the way in which 1 wanted to be perceived by them, 1 had to decide on the perspective 1 would take when observing in the classroom. 1 was aware that the way 1 viewed classroom life rested on preconceptions and assumptions formed from experience, and this perspective that shaped my view of how teaching and learning were supposed to proceed in the classroom (Boostrom, 1994). Boostrom identifies the follouing possible perspectives that may be assumed by the qualitative researcher. The videocamera. Boostrom suggests that in this role, the observer "acts as a sponge," taking in data without any pre-conceived notions or framework. The attention of the observer moves randomly without seeking anything of depth or meaning. Although significant events may be recorded, they are merged with a "grocery list" of observations. In the initial stages of the familiarization phase, because of the preconceptions 1 brought to the classroom, 1 found this role almost impossible to assume. From the outset, 1 was always looking for ways that I could help the teacher or the

students. 1 did fmd, however, that 1 had great difficulty observing anything specific as there were so many things occuning simultaneously in the classroom. In a videocamera role, 1 had no particular focus as 1 was guided only by my general sense that 1 wanted to find out what ccIeaming" entailed for the students. The playgoer. According to Boostrom, instead of observing and recording "mere objects", the observer begins to see well-rounded characters, individuals caught up in stories of emotion and codlict. As 1 spent more t h e in the class, 1 found myself coming to know the students and feeling, at times, a little fhstrated on their behalf. In retrospect, I sometimes became overly empathetic with hem, often having to pull back and retum to the context and the reality that the teacher faced in dealing with this particular group of children. It was only when 1 reminded myself that the teacher knew these students and their situation rnuch more deeply and empathetically than I did, that 1 was I able to readjust my thinking and to see the students as engaged in the natural unfolding life of the classroom. At this point, 1 was able to observe them as leamers and 1 began to record some of the apparent influences on their learning. The evaluator. In this role the observer, as a teacher who "knows", begins to compare and judge the occurrences in the classroom, inevitably seeing them as productive or not. At times during the familiarization phase, 1 found myself being quite uncornfortable by the ccmethods'y being used in the classroom, particularly when 1 felt ihat I knew much more effective ways of achieving the same outcorne. It took me some tirne to corne to the realization that the teacher was presenting the learning in a larger context. His instruction was based on his knowledge of his students, not on the somewhat cursory judgements 1 was making based on the short time that 1 had spent in the classroom. Once I was able to curtail my evaluative tendencies, 1 was able to direct my attention toward the students in particular, and to their specific responses to the situations they faced. The subjective kquirer In this role, the researcher begins an active inquiry into the "meaning" of what is taking place in the classroom. The inquiry is not only into the activities of the teacher and the students, but is broadened to include the observer and his or her construction of the events that are occurring. As 1 spent more time in the classroom and began to hone my observation and field note recording skills, 1 began to realize that the stance 1 chose to take directly influenced my perceptions, and 1 began to re-focus on what 1 thought about when 1 was observing. 1 a!so began to realize diat my presence was somewhat puzzling and even, at times, disconcerting

for the students and their teacher, and that, when the novelty of my presence wore off, they did not see me as an essential part of their daily routine. Although it made a critical difference to me, they were not overly concemed with the interpretive stance 1 was assuming. Gaininp Entrv into the Students' Worlds In addition to the challenges faced by interpretive researchers in deciding on the "role" they will assume, Ann Meis Knupfer (1996) identifies two more difficulties or constraints that are faced by researchers when doing qualitative research with children. The first deals with the challenge of "entering" into the children's worlds. She points out why this may be problematic, "Not only do we come with our own cultural biases, but we also bring our adult-centered views of what constitutes childhood" (1996, p. 136). In addition, Hatch (1988) reminds us that al1 adult-child interactions are asymrnetrical, meaning that within such relations the adult is assumed to be in a position of authority and the child's responses are govemed accordingly. Hatch M e r points out that when the researcher is working within a hermeneutic perspective, trying to access the meanings and understandings of the informants, it is important to develop an "optimum researcher-informant relationship". Thus, one of the challenges 1 faced was to relinquish my preconceptions of what it "means" to be a student, in effect, to attempt to view the world from their perspective. Essentially, this meant adopting a persona that was the ccleast-adult" as possible (Fine & Sandstrom, 1988). A least-adult role however, may be pualing for students, leading them to even doubt the sincerity of the adult. Thus, for most of the students in the famiiiarization phase of my inquiry, my concem with their views on learning was viewed as rather strange and musual. Apparently no one had asked them before what they thought about their learning and what helped them to l e m in school (Janesick, 1994). In addition, 1 found that my initial introduction as a "teacher and researchery' created a somewhat stereotypical response fiom the students when 1 talked with them, as they could not see me as anything other than a teacher. A partial explanation for this may rest in Hatch's observation that "young children may equate the interview context with patterns of instruction organized around recitation; i.e., the teacher asks questions to which there is only one correct answer and students respond until the correct answer is given" (1988,p. 8). This in fact often proved to be the case. In one instance after an interesting conversation with a student in which she described some of the problems she had with math, she asked, "Did 1 get the answers right?" In addition, such responses may have arisen fiom the fact that my presence as a "researcher" did not define my role nor my intentions clearly enough. For these students, 1 remained a teacher, and, in addition to being an adult 1 was also an Anglo- Canadian, middle-class,

"older' male. Although 1 did not explore this in detail, age was an important consideration for them. One of the students remarked to me one day that 1 was "old." When 1 didn't reply directly, he informed me with a certain vigour, that 1 was "really old." When 1 didn't respond again, he shook his head and tumed away in apparent bewilderment. 1 suspect that the bottom line was that, in their eyes, 1 had connections to their teacher and was apparently in the class to check out their learning behaviour in the name of something called research. They appeared to govem their responses accordingly. Clearly "research" for them had a particular connotation and my activities with them did not fit it. It became obvious to me that 1 needed to be much clearer in explaining to them what 1 was doing with them in the second phase of the inquiry. responses accordingly. Clearly "research" for them had a particular connotation and my activities with them did not fit it. It became obvious to me that 1 needed to be much clearer in explaining to them what 1 was doing with them in the second phase of the inquj.. One of the least-adult roles suggested by Fine and Sandstrom (1988) is that of "fiend", a role that enables the researcher '?O interact with children in the most m t e d way possible without having an explicit authority role" (p. 17). This may be so, although there were times when my attempts to assume the "friend role" in the classroom created a certain ambiguity, as this note from my reflective journal illustrates: May, 1998 Today the students were working on a math problem. They had to work with their partners on interpreting some statistical data they had been given about tree growth. As one of the students did not have a partner, 1 sat down with him (uninvited, an "adult" privilege), and declared rnyself to be his partner for this activity, 1 had done this on one occasion before with him and things had worked well. Today 1 listened as he talked about what we were to do and how we were to go about it. As we looked at the data, I asked, "What do you think this tells us?" From this point on 1 continued to challenge him (in what 1 thought was a friendly way) to think about how the data we had developed could be applied rather than reproduced, At one point in our discussion he became quite indignant with me as he believed that he was following the teacher's directions appropriately, and, as his partner, 1 was suggesting he wasn't. EventualIy we attracted Mr. T.'s attention, who came over and made the student apoIogize to me for raising his voice. As 1 reflected upon this incident, I was very much aware that 1 could (or, perhaps, should) have said something at the time, but my problem was rooted in the fact that 1 had not clearly defined my role in the classroom for both the students and myself.

On the one hand, 1 had assumed a role somewhere between teacher and fiend with this student, on the other, 1 had overlooked that fact that Mr. T. had spent a great deal of time developing the boundaries for acceptable adult-student interactions in the class. One of the rules seemed to be: ';No matter what an adult says to you, you are not allowed to raise your voice." This student had apparently failed to follow this and, even though 1 did not totally agree with it, 1 was bound by this understanding. A second related challenge for the qualitative researcher that Knupfer (1996) posits relates to the extent to which the researcher can participate in the chi1drenYs world once "entry" has been gained. More specifically, she points out, "In some cultures, particular forms of social interaction and literacy events between children and adults rnay not be appropriate, thus, we may violate a culture-specific adult role" (1996, p.136). By being cognizant of this, the researcher cm bnng a certain sensitivity to the situation and be aware of situations where bridges have to be constmcted (Seidman,1998). Thus, in addition to trying to "learn everything there is to know about the setting, the culture, and the study topic" (Morse, 1994), an additional purpose of the familiarization phase was to develop a sense of the possible in terms of what students would share with me and how the obvious gaps between their worlds and mine could be bridged. 1 was seeking to develop a relationship with the students that was both '9rusting and interconnected" (Manning, 1 997), while looking into the rnost effective ways and means of gathering data within this trust. An additional challenge relates to how a researcher refers to the children-as-participants in the inquiry, both in face-to-face interactions and in setting out the interpretive account. Thorne (1994) points out that children seldom refer to themselves as "children", regarding it as a form of putdown. Similarly, "kids . . . sounds diminishing, with the semantic whiff of goats" @. 9). "Students", to my thinking placed an ernphasis on me as a teacher, which is what 1 wanted to avoid if possible. Like Thome, 1 found that, given the somewhat limited choices, they generally preferred c%dsyy, and used the term when they were talking with me about themselves; so, 1 usually adopted this convention. In Thorne's view "The term also evokes generational solidarity, a kind of bonding in opposition to adults" (p. 9). In writing up the account, however, 1 found that 1 subconsciously chose to use "students" when 1 was discussing their activities as beings-within-the-classroom, "childrenYy or "peers" when 1 was discussing them as a research focus, and "kids" when 1 wanted to stress them as persons in their own right. During the familiarization phase, 1 did have occasion to taik with individual students and to assess the feasibility of using a semi-structured "interview" format as a means of gathering

data. 1 discovered that any conversations 1 had with the students that were structured around direct "questions" were not overly productive in terms of having them develop and share their persona1 perspectives. Siegert (1986) suggests that this is to be expected as Data from interviews, which are conducted by an adult interviewer, give us more insight into cornpetencies disp!ayed by children in interactions with adults, where they must cope with the adult's definition of the situation. (p. 373) Given Siegert's caveat, Weber (1986) suggests that in order for interviews to be effective in a qualitative research setting, they must "in a sense (extend) an invitation to conversation" (p. 65). She points out that "In Our society, interviewing is often associated with intrusive joumalism, job-hunting, or with the manipulative paradigm of experimental psychology" (p. 67). For children in an "inner city" school, one may suspect that interviews with adults are most Likely to be associated with a procedure that occurs in the Principal's office, usually, although not always, with unpleasant consequences for the student. Thus, 1 concluded that the challenge I faced in establishing rapport with the students rested on my ability to recast this interview process as conversations. It appeared that this could constitute the first step in establishing a relationship that is both "tmsting and interconnected" (Manning, 1997). As the interview process is central to gathering qualitative data (Hutchison & Wilson, 1994; Seidman, 1998; Weber, 1986)' it is apparent that the way the students perceive "interviews" is critical to the extent and depth of the information that they will be willing to share. Overall, 1 assumed that we needed to engage in discussions that were more didogic and conversational, what Sumara and Davis (1997) cail "complicit research." To this end, Ellis (1998) suggests that often indirect approaches can yield the information that the researcher is seeking. She suggests that "creative assignments . . . (may) . . . produce important and useful insights into students" (Ellis, 1998, p. 58). Ellen Langer (1997) suggests that "sideways in" techniques often serve to iform interpretive inquiry much more effectively than direct data gathering techniques. Moving in sideways. After my initial introduction to the class, 1 began to interact with students both individually and in small groups. 1 realized that one way of moving in sideways was by having open group discussions during which 1 guided a somewhat freewheeling exchange of ideas and opinions. The following discussion we had about cornpetition illustrates how such discussions can establish the foundation for later individual conversations. JP: Some people feel it's important to be cornpetitive? Jonathon: Pride! it's important to see who's better and I don't want to be

made fiin of? Keith: There's a push to do better, be over-competitive 1.. Have to win . , . not a good idea! Lina: Very important to be good at sornething, like in math . . . [A great deaI of confsed talk and comments from students] P: Do you think that's Iearning? Several: Both! JP: Nadia, what do you think? Nadia: 1 don't know cause i'm behind in class and people make fun of me for being slow and 1 just want to be ready for next activity and try to catch up. JP: Who is competitive in this cIass? Several [Shout out various names] Me! J. and K! We just look at each other's marks to see how we're doing. Yes, to see what 1 got wrong to see what 1 missed studying. JP: To see answers or learn it fiom someone else, or? Jonathon: What my mark is and how 1 can improve. JP: 1s that cornpetitive with self or others? Lina: JP: Lina: JP: Keith: JP: Jonathon: JP: Jonathon: JP: Kei th: Nadia: Jonathon: Several: I don? know. Sometime I want to beat sometime 1 don't so I can't. And no good, kids and I'rn in the middle and I want to be away from them and 1 hate it like they get a 5 or 4 and 1 really want to beat K. or JR and 1 be happier if I beat thern! So you'd like to be in the other group sornetirnes?

Yah, like I'm only one in the middle and 1 want to We will have individual talks too. I'm competitive with myself. Lina's talking about another angle. Can 1 get one thing straight! My name is Rattrap or Wayne or whatever! [Laughs] 1s this dass as competitive as Iast year? No, like last year they always said it's your fault or you're cheating or you missedWhy is this class different? Last year the Grade 6 influenced; we didn't have any influence! They are oIder and have to win and we are younger and we have to lose. It's easier cause we're al1 in Grade 6 Yeah, Iast year we were kind of outcasts. As a result of such discussions, 1 became aware that learning for these students was perceived as an interrelated complex of persona1 concerns that was situated within the immediate classroom context. Overall, it was from these interactions, 1 was able to develop a general sense of how the students thought about leamhg and how 1 might go about talking with them individually in the most productive manner. Despite the fact that the group discussions tended to be dominated by the vocal few, there were indications that small group discussions allowed students to express their personal opinions and to draw upon and expand upon each other's opinions. For exarnple, the majority of the students in this round of group discussions appeared to equate leaming with production or extemal indicators and the subjects they were "good at" and, conversely, subjects that were their "least favorite". In my individual conversations in the second phase, I pursued these thernes as entry questions or conversation starters. One student described how he went about Iearning, suggesting to me that when I tallced about leaming with other students 1 should consider what students did when they were learning. He suggested that 1 inquire into their ability to visualize, to fuid out if they were able to fom pictures in their heads as a strategy for remembering. This kind of suggestion and others that the students made during the informal group discussions did help me by providing a bridge to the conversations 1 had with thern as individuals. In addition, the students who took part in the group discussions appeared more cornfortable talking with me individually than those who had not met with me previously in a group. Developing Focussing Questions

The qualitative researcher plans to use part of the study to learn what the important questions are. (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 32) Following the advice of Bogdan and Biklen (1992), I devoted part of the first phase of the inquiry to investigating not only the ways and means by which 1 could collect data, but also potentially important questions related to my practical concem. Thus, when my rather vague notion of "wanting to inquire into students' perspectives on leaming" was situated in the classroom, some interesting questions began to emerge. They included: How do students see their lives in classrooms dolding? How do these students perceive school leaming and what impact do they see learning having on their lives? What influences do the students perceive in thcir leaming-what helps, what hinders? From a student's perspective, what do teachers do that helps them to learn? What purposes do these students see in what they do in classrooms? What value do they place on their classroom learning activities? How do they see themselves in relation to the overall idea of "school"? How do students perceive what it rneans to have "learned" something? What differences, if any, do they see between learning in different subject areas? How important is it for students to be recognized and acknowledged as individual and unique learners? How does the depiction of learning as "work" affect students' perceptions? Do the students see learning fiom a perspective other than "work"? There were, of couse, additional questions that emerged as 1 observed in the classroom and tallced with the students, and it became apparent to me that as the inquiry proceeded, there were to be many more questions that would ernerge. It was also apparent that the questions that 1 had pre-fonnulated remained relatively abstract and 1 found that they needed to be refined and restated if the students were to be able to respond to them. However, as 1 began to focus on individual students and their activities within the daily classroom routine, it was obvious that they were better able to talk about their leaming when the discussion was referenced to their immediate classroom expenences. For example, saying to a student, "1 noticed in math that you were having a little problem following Mr. T's directions; how do you usually deal with this?' ratlier than the more general, "What are some of the things that help you (or make it difficult for you) to learn in math?" tended to elicit a more extensive persona1 response.

Overall, the general questions I posed above proved to be useful guides as they presented a number of thematic fiarneworks within which 1 gathered the students' experiences with learning (ECvale, 1996). In a general sense the themes that were embedded in the questions dealt with identities, theories, values, activities, relationships, metaphors, and emotions, as well as contradictions, paradoxes and anomalies, reflecting the idea that al1 learning in classrooms is ecologically webbed (Smith, 1991) and that meaning is always "constituted by the participants" (Bowers & Flinders, 1990, p. 11). When a classroom is viewed from a hermeneutic perspective, questions arise continuously. However, the general questions 1 generated provided effective starting points around which the interviews with the students proceeded. Exdorina Children's Response-abilities One reason for the sparseness of research that has children as participants may lie in the commonly held belief that "... children's capacities to understand and communicate may limit their abilities to reveal insider perspectives" (Hatch, 1988, p. 3). In essence, what Hatch indicates is that children may not be the most reliable sources of data about learning. Another reason may be that data that emerges fiom adult-child interactions are so affected by the child's perceptions of what is expected, that it really does not represent what the child is thuiking. By way of response to the foregoing caveats, there are indications that children are more than capable of reflective talk, and that it is ofien in indirect ways that they indicate their level of awareness of various constructs and abstractions related to their persona1 ways of knowing @onaldson, 1978; Graue & Walsh, 1999). The indication that children are indeed capable of S ~ ~ O U S and deep thought reflects in many ways the changing view of children and of childhood generally. Claire O'Kane (2000) points out The emergence of the paradigm ... [that seeks to explore and validate childhood experiences] . . . reflects a rnove away fkom seeing children as passive recipients of adult socialization, to a recognition that children are social actors in their own right, are active participants in the construction and determination of their experiences, other people's Iives, and the societies in which they live. (P. 134) A review of the research in this area indicates that children at almost any age, cm indeed engage in reflective thought about their own capabilities. Susan Hayter (1990) summarized research that investigated children's self-concept and one of her conclusions was that "Young children [ages four to seven] are able to self-report measures to make judgements about their

competency or adequacy if these are couched in tems of concrete, observable behaviors." And, under certain conditions, ". . . young children are able to make such judgements about their cognitive competence, physical competence, and behavioral conduct" (1990, p. 87). McKay and Kendrick (2000) in looking at how children in Grade 1, 2, and 3 represented their perspectives on reading and writing by way of their drawings, concluded 'The images of literacy contained in the drawings also appear to reflect that what children know about literacy includes a sense of themselves and others as participants in parricular literacy transactions" (p. 33). The research study conducted by Hudson-Ross, Cleary and Casey (1 993) which invited students from Grade 1 to Grade 8 to talk about how they engaged in reading and writing indicated that students at al1 ages are capable of engaging in reflection and selfappraisal. ChiIdren in the study demonstrated their ability to discuss their literacy learning and development. For example, Hudson-Ross et al. reproduce a conversation during which three Grade 1 students were asked questions such as: "How did you know how to spell like that?" and ". . . tell me how you have changed as writer." To prompts such as this, the children gave extended descriptions of how they approached the tasks and the procedures they used when going about them. Similarly, in their interview research with Grade 3,4, and 5 students in Australia, van Kraayenoord and Paris found that "The quality of students' comments suggests that students are able to assess their o~vn work and provide both cognitive and af5ective evaluations according to particular features that influence learning" (1997, p. 532). Leroy, in her doctoral research interviewed Grade 5 girls in an inner-city school and concluded ". . . ail of the girls in this study were exceptionally frank and open about discussing their lives outside the classroom as well as their experiences within it" (1999, p. 53). Harste, Woodward, and Burke in the introduction to their book Language Stories and Literacy Lessons (1984) state ". . . the result of our efforts have taught us . . . that children know much more than we or past researchers have ever dared to assume, and that many of the premises and assumptions with which we began must give way to more generous perspective if research and understanding are to proceed" (p. xviii). Thus, there appears to be ample evidence to suggest that children can engage in discussions that cal1 upon them to actively reflect upon and appraise theK own learning. In this chapter, I have discussed some of the challenges faced by interpretive researchers who conduct inquiries with children as participants. Among these challenges are the need for the researcher to defme the most productive context within which to locate the inquiry, the need to overcome (or take into account) the distance between the researcher's and the children's

worlds, and the need to consider the children's abilities to articulate their perspectives. In addition, in another aspect of my foreclosure, 1 have suggested iat my observations in the classroom were subject to the interpretive horizon that I brought to it. 1 traced these influences as they appeared in the farniliarization stage of the inquiry, a phase that was specifically designed to re-orient me to Iife in an elementary classroom, to give me an opportunity to look into data gathering possibilities and to the development of particular questions related to my concern. CHAPTER FlVE CONDUCTING THE INQUIRY The act of research is conceived as nested contexts including the researcher's perspectives on research, theory, and ... children; the role negotiated withhy the participants; and the relationships that ensue over time, From these contexts, data are generated in a local way that represents their cornplex and dialecticaI relationships. Data are not 'out there' to be collected by objective researchers. Instead they corne out of the researcher's interactions in a local setting with participants, and out of interpretations of what is important to the questions of interest. (Graue & Walsh, 1998, p. 73, emphasls added) When Graue and Walsh write about nested contexts they are referring to the fact that, in the generation and interpretation of the data, interpretive research does not consist of clearly separated or distinct stages. They capture the idea that every aspect of data generation, observation, field 'cjottings" and notes, conversations, memos and reflective joumaling, debriefing with colleagues, and ongoing literature review, are contiguous and continuous. Each aspect infoms the other in a constant "looping back", which is depicted as the return arc of the hermeneutic circle (Ellis, 1998). In fact, Ellis points out that "The uncovering of an entity is the return arc of the hermeneutic circle and it is the response to our inquiry" (p. 23). In essence, this means that data as they are uncovered are reexamined and reinterpreted continuously. In John Smith's terms, "Good interpretation cm only be pursued with a constant movement back and forth between the expression and the web of meanings within which that expression is lodged" (1993, p. 16). Thus, hermeneutic inquiry is a process of constantly "looping back" to revisit data in light of what has been "uncovered" in the course of the inquiry (Ellis, 1998). Essentially, this means acknowledging that there are aspects of the topic that wiil only corne to light as the inquiry proceeds. The researcher anticipates uncoverings, but cannot predict what they will be or their nature! Often there are multi-loopings involved as the researcher not

only generates data, but is irnmersed in it, allowing additional questions to emerge through reflection and ongoing reading of related studies (Graue & Walsh, 1 998). For example, during phase two of the inquiry, 1 becarne intrigued by the students' responses to various aspects of "cornpetition" and the apparent personal noncompetitiveness that they evidenced in the classroom and in their play. In turn, this led me to consider the literature on ccopposition and resistance" (hyon, 1980; Freire, 1970; Giroux, 1983; Leroy, 1995) as 1 attempted to interpret and generdly understand what was occilrring and why it might be so- 1 was engaging in the "backward arc of the hermeneutic circle," as 1 evaluated my initial interpretations and attempted to explain for myself the behaviours that I kvas observing and what 1 was hearing in the student voices. These concems appeared at the tirne to be only tangentially related to my initial question, but later 1 realized that they were integral to a more cornplete understanding of what influenced students' perspectives on learning. 1 became more aware that what 1 observed and attended to, what 1 recorded and what 1 disregarded were critically important research decisions. Thus, rny "ability" to assume alternative conceptual frameworks and to ask old questions in new ways was a key component of the unfolding spiral of interpretive research. As Julia Ellis (1 998) summarizes: To understand a part, one must understand the whole, and to understand the whole, one must understand the individual parts. One can visualize this back and forth movement between the part and the whole, a movement that has no natural starting or end point, as the hemeneutic circIe at work in al1 human understanding. (p. 16) Thus, in the description of the setting and the data generation methods that follow, though they may appear distinct, it is essential to keep in mind at al1 times the concept The Research Setting Any inquiry process should begin with a purpose and with locating a setting in which the purpose is avaiIable to be observed or accomplished. (Green & Chandler, 1990, p. 204) Phase two of the inquiry was situated in the same classroom where I conducted the familiarization phase, except that in this phase the class had seventeen Grade 6 students only. Its cultural composition reflected the class in which 1 conducted my familiarization inquiry, except that this tirne we had Yin, a newly arrived student from Viet Nam, who spoke no English. 1 generated data in the classroom over a penod of approximately five months, fiom Febniary to June, 1999.1 had indicated to the teacher, Mr. T., that 1 would be modifjhg my "role" vis--vis the students in the second phase, and that 1 would not be teaching or supervising. 1 observed in the classroom every morning on a daily basis. Once the students

were cornfortable with my presence, 1 began small group discussions with al1 of those students whose parentdguardians had given their consent. Following this, 1 interviewed each of these students using a modified version of the initial interview/conversation protocol suggested by Seidman (1998) (a procedure that will be described in detail later in this chapter). I secured permission from the students' parents/guardians to tape-record and transcribe the protocols from both my small group and individual conversations with the students. (The request and permission form is included in Appendix A.) The school. My major focus during the inquiry was on discerning and interpreting the students' perceptions of leaming within this particular classroom; however, it was obvious that there were many aspects of personal, social, and cultural growth that were stressed in the school, and that these elements needed to be accounted for as they provided the broader context for the interpretive account (Graue & Walsh, 1998). The students were iocated within an interactive school community that conbuted to their persona1 and social growth. As the senior students in the school, this group of Grade 6 students, like their predecessors, was af5orded numerous oppominities to engage in leadership activities. They were expected to lead by example and the principal and teachers made every effort to include them in the organization and govemance of school activities. They were represented on various school committees and clubs. They also took active roles in other initiatives such as supervising and guiding other students and parents during school presentations, setting up displays and generally acting as behind the scene organizers for school events. They acted as team leaders for the school "sports day" (activities that emphasized involvement over competitiveness). Their major role during this tirne was to ensure that every member of their "'team" fiom kindergarten to Grade 6 had opportunity to actively participate. They were also responsible for monitoring their groups and ensuring they "stayed together," no easy feat given the wide variation in age and attention spans! I accompanied the students on several field trips. During these trips, they acted very responsibly and seldom did their teacher have cause to overtly discipline them. In fact, they appeared to enjoy these trips and maintained an easy good humor throughout, both going and coming and while they were there. On one particular trip for an orientation to a Junior High school, they revealed an easy camaraderie and a cohesive group spirit. This was particularly evident in the "-iendiy" soccer tournament arranged

by the Junior High teachers. They accepted the nomination of one of them as the most "valuable player" with genuine warmth and acceptance and, even though 1 was supposed to be in a supervisory role, actively included me in the group and the celebration afterwards. A great deal of their socially acceptable behaviour within the school could be attributed to the clear and mcompromising guidelines established by the principal and followed through by al1 of the staff. 1 had the sense that each staff member took responsibility for every student regardless of the class to which that student belonged. These clear behavioural norms were evident in Mr. T.'s class. He had set viable expectations for the students' behaviour in class and they adhered to them during the time 1 was observing. There were also clear guidelines for how they were expected to interact with each other, which, in the main, tended to be followed. On occasion when they were not, the principal a d o r their teacher would fiankly discuss the situation with the cIass in general and with a particular student if the need arose. It appeared that nothing was left to chance in the school and al1 breaches of the school d e s and behavioural standards were dealt with directly and resolutely. In general, such procedures were expected and accepted by the students and, as a result, major disruptions in school and classroom routines were minimized. The Fnday moming whole school assemblies also contributed to the building of a cohesive school culture. During these weekly assemblies, the principal and teachers took the oppominity to formally acknowledge individual student's special contributions to the school, to each other, and to themselves. These acknowledgements took the forrn of "accolades," and although the accolades were most often from teachers to students, students could also nominate teachers or each other for recognition and appreciation. The assemblies also featured an open forum for examining, sharing, and discussing aspects of the school culture that needed to be emphasized or reinforced. Generally, these open discussions were devoted to stressing the need for students to be sensitive to the physical and emotional needs of each other, but opportunity was also provided for them to bring up items of personal concern or interest, which they ofien did. The principal encouraged this open discussion and often referred concerns back to the students for their advice as to how particular school problems or persona1 dilemmas could be resolved. Overall, the school-as-community placed particular emphasis on the development of citizenship skills, both within and without the school. Students were

provided with numerous opportunities to become socially responsible members of the school. a conununity that embraced the ideals of ethical and moral behaviour and democratic problem-solving. In general, most of the Grade 6 students responded positively to these expectations and the result was a group of students who were, for the most part, very reliable and trustworthy. Overall, the staff took active steps to develop and maintain a community built around an ethic of care (Noddings, 1995). The principal and the teachers appeared to know each child in ~ h e school on a persona1 basis and the school was a warm and inviting place to be. The students had many O pportunities to experience culturally emiching ac tivities in addition to those within the ccprescribed" c ~ c u l u m . For example, the Grade 6 students took part in a DARE prograrn designed to help them understand and deal with the dangers of substance abuse. Their self-reports indicated that, during this program, they enjoyed the discussions and activities. Jonathon (one of the students in the study) was particularly pleased and he told me, "1 graduated top student in the DARE class and . . . [there were] only two medals, one for best essay and one for best student, and 1 won best student." The students attended a three-day end-of-the-year camp, took swimming lessons, attended a music festival, were part of a whole school production of a Shakespeare play, and had opportunities to hear presentations by guest presenters and authors throughout the year. For many of the students in the class the emphasis on the development of their social skills and responsibilities proved to be the highlights of their school year. When 1 asked, "Looking back, what are the highlights of this year?" Most of the students acknowledged as least one of the activities mentioned above (the DARE sessions, field trips, the patrol picnic etc.). Although, in my conversations with them, they did not specifically mention academic activities as being highlights of their year, their end-oc the-year "survey" responses to their teacher did reveal that they felt they had grown in such areas as self-confidence, and they included "developing art skills and getthg better in math." Overall, for the students, particularly those that were called upon to take an active leadership role in the school, their "social" growth did impact upon their academic leaming in that their personal sense of efficacy and self-coddence did spi11 over into their classroom learning activities. It was also noteworthy that during the whole time 1 observed in the classroom, particularly during the second year, 1 observed no instance of overt or blatant misbehavior from any of the students. I sensed that my presence in the classroom haci

very littie to do wth this. ClearIy, M.. T. and the students had defmed the interactive and behavioural boundaries, and they generally operated within them. This does not mean that the students, as a group or individually, did not misbehave, as sometimes it was obvious that the class was being reprirnanded for something they had done when 1 was not present. Overall, I aIways felt that Mr. T. was in control, and that the students respected his authority and felt he had their best interests at heart. Support for learning in the school. It was obvious that the school devoted considerable effort to furnishing the resources necessary for supporting the students' learning. The teachers had available current curriculum resources and texts as well as supplementq and support materials, such as Math manipulatives and Science lab rnaterials. There was a wide range of literature available In the classroom for the students to read, and the library was well stocked with traditional and current reading materials. In addition, books were prominently displayed throughout the school and it was evident that the principal and staff made extensive efforts to raise and support the literacy consciousness of the students and the community at large. For the Grade 6 students additional classroom support was often available. The teacher drew upon the expertise of the school administrators in Language Arts and the Central office consulting staff in Mathematics to supplement and extend the students' opportunities to leam. Yin, our ESL student, had a full time aide, who often was able to provide help and support for the other students when her student was working in a group setting. Within the context of this particular cclassroom the teacher made sincere efforts to expose the students to multiple and varied leaming experiences. The students made considerable use of the technology available in the school, usually spending at least one period each day in the library with the cornputers. Their "cornputer tirne' was usually structured and related to some aspect of the prescribed curriculum. Manipulatives were used extensively in mathematics, and in science classes, the students were encouraged to engage in experimentation, observation, and hands-on leaming activities. The prescnbed textbooks provided the core of the instructional program, but the teacher often supplemented these texts with additional resources. When using the prescribed texts, the teacher tended to follow the teacher resources and manuals, and generally to implement the program in the prescribed manner. It was apparent that a great deal of the school's resources was devoted to maximizing the students' achievement, but it was also apparent that for some of the

students this achievement was not forthcoming to the degree expected. In a very real sense this school was faced with the perennial problem of al1 schoois: despite the best efforts of caring teachers and administrators, some children do not achieve the anticipated levels of leaming success, however defmed (Maynes, 199 1). Data Generation A variety of interrelated and interconnected data were generated during the inquiry principally from my classroom observations, field notes, small group discussions, conversations/interviews with individual students, personal reflection, and discussion with my supervisor and colleagues. Classroom observations. Mr. T. introduced me to the class by saying, "Mi Proctor is interested in what Grade 6 students think about iearning in school and he will be spending time with us for the rest of the year. He would like to talk with some of you later, and he will explain how this wili happen once he has been here for a while," He also pointed out that 1 was not a teacher and for some of the students from the previous year, this was a little problematic, but they generally accepted my new role. Sometimes though, we broke the d e . One day Keith, one of the students who 1 will introduce in the next chapter, said to me, "Mr. Proctor, I know 1 am not allowed to ask you this, but if you were trying to figure out the differences between Greek education and ours, what would you say?" It was an invitation I simply could not refuse. Ln the main, however, for the fxst month of the inquiry 1 observed and interacted quite informally with the students. My observations were mostly confined to the classroom; however, I spent time with them during music, in the library and the gym and during their recess breaks. Once the students returned permission forms, 1 began to concentrate my classroom observations on these students in their daily activities. Field ''jottings" and notes. Graue and Walsh (1998) point out that it is perhaps misleading to think that a researcher cm make extensive "field notes" that record what is occurring in a classroom at any given time. They suggest that the most a researcher can hope for it to record "jottings" that may be retrospectively fleshed out at a less hectic time. 1 found this to be the case; concentrating on even one student for an extended period revealed a shifiing interplay of individual and group activity and inaction, response and simply silence, and any distraction, no matter how minor, meant that the observational thread was often lost. Quite often my jottings contained the words ccapparently" or "appears to be" to

indicate that 1 was really not sure of what was occurring with the student or students. The frequency of such notes indicated to me the general tentativeness of my interpretative inquj.. However, my field notes based on observations helped me build a reasonably comprehensive picture of the setting and the c u h e of this particular class, as well as of the individual students who were its members (Morse, 1994). 1 recorded two types of observational field notes, "descriptive" and "focussed" (Goetz & Lecompte, 1984). The descriptive notes provided a general sense of the events that unfolded in the classroom and included such things as the day's timetable of activities, the teacher's actions and instructions to the students, responses by the students to questions or situations that arose in the class, and the lesson "contenty' and focus of the student and teacher activities. In my more focussed field notes, 1 recorded the actions and responses of particuiar students to the instructioaal activities. 1 also recorded marginal comrnents, "personal reactions" and questions arising. Later, when 1 talked with the students individuafly 1 was able to incorporate my notes into Our conversations, thus situating our discussions as closely as possible within their lived worlds. Group discussions. Mer a period spent observing and being with the students in a variety of school settings, 1 split the eight students into two groups for our introductory small group discussions. The small group discussions served a number of purposes: * They allowed me to introduce myself more personally to the students. They provided opportunities for them to feel c'involved" in the research project and to develop, in a Iimited way, a sense of ownership of the project. They enabled me to develop ideas that served to provide entry points for my individual discussions with them. They also provided transitions to our individual conversations. The group discussions also allowed me to observe how the students interacted with each other in a more informal setting than in their regular classroom setring. The contrasts were revealing and will be discussed M e r in Chapter 7. As 1 indicated in Chapter 4, research "talk'' with students represents a number of distinct challenges and as such, it is usefil to present an overview of these challenges, in order to situate the special status of data that are generated through interview/conversations. Amos Hatch (1988) points out "When children defme the interview context as a

guessing game with the object of fmding the answers the researcher expects, they are not able to respond as informants" (p. 7). Once again, this goes to the heart of how students perceive the situation. When they have only experienced adults in authority roles, particularly in school, there may be a tendency to mask any confusion they may expenence, to cover up what they don? understand, and to generally give the adult what he or she wants to hear (Donaldson, 1978). As one way of overcoming this challenge, Julia Ellis (1998) suggests that the researcher start with the "whole" person. Instead of focussing on a particular frontal assault form of direct inquj., she suggests that the interpretive inquuer use open-ended interview questions/prompts which "appear to work by evoking a variety of memories, feelings, and categories of activity interviewees Iike to report" (p. 37). To this end, Ellis developed a series of questions that have proven to be successful in evoking salient student memories. For example, she suggests the researcher may ask the student to "Tell me about something you have done that really surprised other people" (p. 48). Prompts or invitations such as this indicate to the studentlparticipants that their experiences are valued. They provide a context within which the interviewer can provide the occasional "navigationai nudge" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992) toward securing responses to the particular focussing questions that underwrite the inquiry. In another "sideways-in" approach, Schoenfeld (1989) created a questionnaire designed to elicit students' views on learning in mathematics. The questions he posed suggest a number of prompts that may help students to begin a reflection on their learning. For my inquiry, 1 adapted ideas fiom both Ellis (1998) and Schoenfeld (1989) and used them as a guiding framework for my initial conversations with the students. Appendix B provides a partial listing of how these adaptations were developed- These prompts remained open to adaptation, as profitable directions often presented themselves during interactions with the students (Kvale, 1996; Weber, 1986). Kvale suggests that "An interview is literally an inter view, an interchange of views between two persons conversing about a theme of mutual interest" (1996, p. 14, original emphasis). He m e r suggests that as a means of gathering data, an interview is a "conversation that has a structure and a purpose" (Kvale, 1996, p. 6). As 1 did not have unlimited access to the students and their views, and as 1 had indicated to the parents/guardians and to the teacher that the research would not significantly interfere with their learning prograrn in the classroom, I had to develop a manageable framework for generating data. One of the ways that interviews can be stnictured is indicated in the

work of Seidrnan (1998) who suggests a three interview schedule which works to help the participant to c c r e c o ~ c t his or her experience within the topic under study" (p. 9). He suggests a semi-structured schedule which means that the "Open-ended, in-depth inquiry is best carried out in a structure that allows both the participant and the interviewer to maintain a sense of focus for each interview in the series" (Seidman, 1998, p. 13). Ostensibly, the purpose of the first interview, which Seidman terms the "Focussed Life History" inteniew, is to put the participants' experiences in a context by having them tell as much as possible about thernselves in light of the research question. Thus, fiom a content perspective, the first inteniew was structured to allow the students and me to explore some of their past experiences with leaniing in school. Of equal importance, these first interviews/conversations provided me with an opportunity to let the students know that 1 was just as interested in them as persons as I was in what they couid or would share with me about their learning experiences. My aim was to develop the trusting relationship that might allow them to candidly and openly discuss their experiences with me in future interviews (Manning, 1997; Morse, 1994). Thus, this first interview served to establish not only a framework for the inquiry, but also the tone within which the next set of interviews would be conducted (Knupfer, 1996). Seidman suggests that the second interview which he terms "The Details of Experience" buiIds upon the first, this time "concentrate[ing] on the concrete details of the participant's present experiences in the topic area of study" (p. 12). During this conversation, the researcher rnoves from a general orientation to the topic to talking about the participant's present and past experiences with the topic. My second conversation with each student revolved around or emanated from my classroom observations and our initial uiterview/conversatiun. The themes and topics 1 chose to focus on were based on my observations of the classroom activities, both in general and particular, that they had engaged in foliowing our first conversation (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Using my field jottings and journal entries, I constructed an outline for the second round of conversations, and Appendix C details the interview schedule that 1 developed. During this conversation, 1 tended to use the questions and prompts as a guide radier than a prescription, and I often rephrased them depending upon which student I was talking with at the time. Thus, the second set of conversations yielded data generated around particular themes or strands, which, in turn allowed me to discern general and individual responses to, and interpretations of, specific activities in which

they engaged. The third interview suggested by Seidman focuses on having the participants reflect upon the rneanings that have been developed over the course of the previous interviews. In addition, the students and 1 extended our "meanings" as we revisited some of the key ideas fiom the new perspectives that emerged. The whole interview process reflected the constant process of "looping back" as 1 revisited my onginal intents, conjectured on emerging metaphors and motifs, and reformulated new questions which related to the underlying theme of the inquily- In a criticai sense, each phase and aspect of the inquiry "push[ed] forward" (Kvale, 1996) those that followed. The researcher's reflective journal and peer debnefmg. Researchers make preconceived ideas explicit, monitor themselves by keeping a research journa1 of ongoing thoughts and feelings .,. [with the aim to] . .. enhance objectivity and decrease bias. (Hutchison & Wilson, 1994, p. 3 12) A practice I developed during the familiarization phase of this inquiry was to maintain a journal. This was a useful practice as it served to guide and focus my observations, often providing opportunities for realigning or redirecting my observations and interactions with the students (Francis, 1995; Hart, 1998; Paley, 1996). It also provided a useful entry point for my discussions with my supervisor. In essence, this reflective journal provided the basis for peer debriefmg, a procedure that entails the "involvement of colleagues, peers, mentors . . . who cm challenge and shock one out of habitua1 ways of thinking and experiencing" (Manning, 1997, p. 104). This element of the inquiry proved to be a productive tool for developing more fully informed interpretations of the students' perceptions. As Manning notes, "It is through thi ... (intemal) . . . dialogue, as well as in conversations with respondents that meaningful and worthwhile interpretations emerge" (p. 104). John Smith (1 992) m e r emphasizes that a distinctive aspect of interpretive inquiry is that the researcher approaches the inquiry from a reflective perspective. He points out that First, interpretivists hold that self-inquiry in the forrn of a diary andor a selfhistoxy, can be an important way to proceed. Much can be learned fkom peopIe who take a determinedly seIf-reflective stance toward their own reasons and motivations for doing what they do or have done and toward their understandings of their interactions with others- (p. 103) Usually 1 reviewed my field notes and wrote a reflection or tentative interpretation on a regularly scheduled basis. These journal entries provided me with

frther prompts and ideas that 1 incorporated into the conversatiodmterview cycle that 1 developed. A sumrnary of the research design is presented in Figure 2. Analvsis of the Data The analysis of the data was conducted fiom a nurnber of perspectives: analytic induction, constant cornparison and typologicai analysis (Goetz & Lecompte, 1984). Inductive analysis involved reading and re-reading the transcripts of the conversations 1 had with each of the students, sorting them into broad categories and identiQing relationships. As a result of this analysis, 1 identified three clusters of related ideas: The students' persona1 characteristics as leamers Their responses to specific classroom activities Their perspectives on learning. These categories are constrained in a number of specific ways. The first category is limited to an overview of certain persona1 characteristics that may be generally associated with leamhg in school. 1 made no attempt to individually caphue the whole child, and any information about their backgrounds, their home situations, or their persona1 lives was gathered incidentally. Thus, any "personal" information 1 gathered was based solely on my classroom observations and what they chose to share (and the manner in which they shared it) with me in our conversations. In addition, the second category that relates to their general and particular responses to specific learning activities was essentially Iimited by the nature of the questiodprompt protocol 1 used in the second set of conversations. The third category evolved fiom specific prompts and questions 1 provided for them, from my observations and fkom my review of particular "literatures" pertaining to the activities that diey experienced in their learnhg day. Overall, based on my decision to maintain rny primary focus on the leaming experiences of a particular group of eight students, 1 did not gather any data fiom their teacher or fiom any other personnel in the school. The second step in the inquiry process was to juxtapose these three categories upon my observational field notes and TEWP journal reflections. This process of "constant comparison . . . combines inductive category coding with a simultaneous cornparison with al1 social incidents observed" (Goetz & LeCompte, p. 182). Thus, as a second step, 1 reviewed my field note-jottings and cross-referenced them to my journal entries. 1 matched pertinent observations with the discussions 1 had with the students, and essentially developed a more complete and thick description of what I saw as the

primary influences upon the students' perspectives on leaming. In the fmal step 1 engaged in typofogical analysis which meant that I divided al1 the inquiry data into categories or themes and interpreted them from the perspective of the related literature and my own interpretive fiarnework or horizon. Overall, this type of "... analysis can be viewed as a stage process by which a whole phenornenon is divided into its cornponents and then reassembled under various new mbrics (Goertz & LeCompte, 1984, p. 192). Within this framework, 1 attempted to capture a sense of the complexity of student learning in schools. Figure 2. Summary of the research design. Research Activity Phase One: FamiIiarization Observations, group discussions, individual conversations Phase Two: The Inquiry Observations and field jottingdmemos Group discussions Extended interviews/conversations with individual students (based on parental consent) following the three stage interview fiamework suggested by Seidman (1998) Reflective journal and field notes Peer debriefing Ongoing literature review To orient myself to the 'reality' of Iife in classrooms and to heIp me define my "role" as researcher. To explore data generating possibilities To develop important questions related to the topic of the inquiry To develop entry lines of inquiry for interaction with individual students. To note and record events or situations within which group and individual discussion may be situated.

To listen to student perspectives on learning within a collaborative setting. To identiQ additional data gathering options. To explore in depth the perceptions of individual students. To monitor and reflect upon the evolving interpretive account. To review interpretations and emerging themes. To provide reference and interpretive sources related to ernerging themes and motifs, and emergent puzzle situations. In this chapter, 1 have provided the context for the inquiry, and 1 have suggested that the teachers in the school made a determined effort to creatte a positive learning environment for the students. 1 have provided an overview of the procedures 1 used to generate the data and have presented the analytic fiamework I used to interpret the data. CHAPTER 6 THE INTERPRETIVE ACCOUNT PART A: THE STUDENTS Because cultural phenornena aIways can be frther analyzed, subdivided and reconstituted, the final analysis represents an arbitrary stopping point established by the [researcherys] choice of the components to be studied, the data collection tools used, or depth of analysis to be accomplished. (Goetz & Lecompte, 1984, p. 189) The interpretive account that is contained within the next three chapters starts with the "acknowledgement that children's worlds are different," and the presentation of my understanding of it may present something of an interpretive challenge for the reader, One way to read the account is to keep in mind that it consists of overlapping and interlocking layers of description each of which contributes toward the total interpretation that 1 developed within the hermeneutic circle. In essence, the account contains a pattern of meanings that requires the reader to consider the students' perspectives of leamhg (whar they shared), as being situated within each student as a unique and special individual (who they are), and contextualized within the learning experiences they encountered in their classroom (how they acted). In other words, my

perceptions of the perspectives that the students shared with me are intended to be situated in who they are and the contexts fiom which they drew their interpretations. In this chapter, 1 present the eight students who participated with me in the inquiry. My particular intent here is to provide a sense of the students as "historicai" rather than "etemal." Arguing fiom a Vygotskian perspective, Graue and Walsh (1998) point out that the major difference between the two conceptions is that "The histoncal child exists in real places in real tirne. She (sic) is not a representative sample, somehow timeless and without context [as is the depiction of the etemal child]" (p. 35). In essence, Graue and Walsh argue that childhood is not an amorphous stage of development, but a cccontinual construction" (p. 35) by individual and particular "kids". Thus, interpretive inquiry that seeks the perspectives of children-as-students presents a challenge in that the students in the inquiry, as "historical children," consistently resist any attempt to sort them into categories, whiIe the coding of thematic strands indicates the research necessity for "fitting them into" broad descriptive categories (Manning, 1997; Yin, 1994). Given the foregoing caveat, in the descriptions that follow 1 hope to make it obvious that even though 1 categorized them according to their responses as "students in school," they each remained unique and particular as children in their own right. In many ways this distinction points up one of the major differences between research efforts that are designed to investigate the effects of teaching on students as a cchistorical" group and interpretive research that seeks to understand the meanings that schooling has for each particular "etemal" child. The School as a Backdro~ to the Inauirv The school was designated as an "inner-city" school, and a nurnber of factors contribute to this classification. In the first place, the school was situated within an area of the city that earned it the designation as an "urban poor school," which meant that the school was located in an area in which between 3 1-40.9% of the residents were poor (Maynes, 1990). In addition to drawing students fiom "poor" families, the school also drew students fkom the ethnically and culturally diverse community that surrounded it. In fact, the school was centred within the Chinese, Vietnarnese and "Little Italy" commercial and cultural communities, which resulted in a diverse school population. The students who were participants in the inquiry reflected this ethnic and cultural diversity, and 1 had students whose backgrounds were British, Chinese, Italian, Polish, Laotian, Portuguese, and Vietnamese. Although the influence of their home and community life does play a role in the way students view leaming (Bempechat, 1998;

Delpit, 1992; Gibson & Ogbu, 199 l), tirne and the research focus 1 had set did not allow me to investigate in depth the ways in which the students' background affected their leaming. However, it was of particular interest for me to note that the students in the study did not appear to corne fkom "pooryy families. Most of thern indicated that they, or their parents chose to attend the school and four of them were driven to the school by their parents. In addition, six of the students had persona1 cornputers at home and three were being tutored or attending enrichment classes. From a research perspective, this diversity, this heterogeneity contributed directly to the richness of the data that were generated in the course of the inquiry, and Mermore, the diversity also contributed to a more Wly idormed interpretive account than 1 had originally anticipated. CIassifi.in9 the Students' Res~onses to Classroom Activities My observations of and interactions with the eight students (Marion, Keith, Jonathon, Gerri, Lina, Andy, Nadia, and Arthur) indicated that each of them dealt with the daily leaming routines and dernands of the classroom with varying degrees of efficacy. Some of the students demonstrated a reasonably functional grasp of how learning was supposed to proceed in the classroom while there were those who ofien overtly demonstrated various degrees of ongoing confusion. In a sense, the students could be placed on a continuum that reflected the degree to which each student was able to independently navigate within the classroom learning activities. Educational resilience From one perspective this ability to adapt to and operate within the cfassroom learnng environment and has been termed "educational resiliency" (Masten, 1994; Wang & Gordon, 1994). ResiIience is viewed as "the capacity of individuals to overcome persona1 vulnerabilities and environmental adversities effectively or the ability to thrive physically and psychologically despite adverse circumstances . . ." (Wang, Haertel and Walberg, 1998, p. 3). The depiction of resilient students was denved fiom an extensive review of the research into "effective schools" conducted by Wang, Haertel & Walberg, (1993). They felt that their synthesis of the research into effective schools provided support for their contention that "effective schools" are essentially those that promote and encourage the development of resiliency in their students. Although their findings have been disputed on rnethodological and philosophical grounds (Levin, 1993; Palinscar & McPhail, 1993, fkom their distillation of the research, Wang et al. (1993) claim that, given the right combination of conditions, circurnstances, and pedagogical practice, children can indeed develop those

attributes of resiliency deemed necessary for success in schools. According to Wang and her colleagues, these key attributes include: high verbal fluency a sense of compctence high sel f-esteem self-reIiance or independence openness to new experiences Overall, Wang, Haertei and Walberg (1998) conclude "Two of the most salient charactenstics of resilient students are their high level of engagement and sense of 'persona1 agency.' [Which means that] . . . Resilient children engage in many activities and believe that they themselves determine their lives" (p. 3). They subsequently suggest that children whose primary Discourses are not synchronous with those of schooling (and most often these Discourses are those which children who attend "innercity" schools bnng with them) need to develop personal resiliency if they are to learn and succeed in schoolThe foregoing depiction of resiliency is fraught with shortcomings, not the least of which are the problems associated with casting student leaming as occurring within a context that requires them to overcome "personal and environmental adversities. Notwithstanding, many of the "resiliency" characteristics described by Wang and her colleagues were those 1 observed and noted as being present (or absent) in the students. In general, it was the students' overall sense of "personal agency" that appeared to play a central role in how they viewed and engaged in learning. The students who displayed "high persona1 agency" were those who tended to be assertive and in control within the parameters for behavior established by the teacher. They were reasonably independent, tended to respond to their classroom experiences constructively, and generally appeared to be positively oriented to their experiences (Pelletier, 1994). In contrast, the "low personal agency" students often appeared lost and confused, and they displayed many of the characteristics associated with leamed helplessness in the classroom (Langer & Park, 1990). Overall it appeared that these students could discem (or create) Iittle of personal relevance in their dassroom activities. Based on my observations over an extended period of time during which 1 recorded their responses to a wide range of classroom activities and my forma1 and informal interactions with the eight students, 1 placed them in a very approximate rnanner on a "resiliency continuum" with the caveat that it is applicable only in the

particular situation and context in which my observations were made. In the next three chapters, 1 describe in more detail how 1 arrived at the conclusions about the students' persona1 agency and 1 provide iilustrative examples to support my conclusions. Table 1 is intended to summarize in a general way how 1 arrived at my overall conclusion about the relative strength of each student's persona1 agency. Table 1 : Indicators of student resiliency. VerbaI fluency Mar ion Keith Jonathon Gerri + = Higb O = Medium -- - low. Sense of cornpetence Lina Andv *Arthur's "profile" indicates one of the major shortcoming of taxonomies such as this one and why this is so will become apparent in my discussion of Arthur as participant in the inquiry. Selfesteem + + + O Openness to new experences Self-reliancel Independence Overall Personal ++++ O

+ O++ + O+ O .- . -. - + + + + ++ ++++ -I-The High Persona1 Agencv Students From the viewpoint of personal agency, I considered four of the eight students, Marion, Keith, Jonathon, and Gem, as reasonably confident and competent in most classroom situations. These students generally demonstrated the ability to work effectively with and within the daily classroom routines and requirernents. In almost al1 situations and "subject areas", they were the ones who asked and answered the rnajonty of the teacher-to-whole-class questions. niey tended to be task oriented and reliable in terms of productivity, and they did not hesitate to check with the teacher to ensure that they were on track with their class assignments. They appeared to take it for granted that they would do well in schod and they shared with me a nurnber of strategies that illustrated their grasp of the school "game", a game that included giving the teacher what he wanted, and knowing when it was propitious to appear interested and academically engaged. In group activities, they tended to take a leadership role and were generally regarded by the other students as knowing how to do things. Each of these students had been with the teacher the year before as part of the Grade 5/6 split class and they had experienced what they considered to be the oppressive influence of the Grade 6 students. Ultimately, a good deal of their persona1 ~ o ~ d e n c e appeared to emanate from their perceived "liberation" fiom the more threatening and dominating students of their previous year's class. Jonathon Jonathon had been at the school since Grade 2. The reason he attended the

school was because "My Mom . . . doesn't think it [the school closest to them] would be good, so she wants me to corne here!" For four of the eight students in the study, this was also the case; they (or their parents) chose to corne to the school, a decision that often required their parents to transport them to the school at their personal expense. Jonathon benefited quite obviously fkom being with the teacher the year before and he did indeed "emerge" over the two years of the inquiry. When 1 observed and spoke with him when he was a Grade 5 student the previous year, he seldom, if ever spoke up in class and was usually quite docile or compliant in group activities. However, this al1 changed in the next year. When 1 asked him, ccHow are you different this year?" He replied, "1 wasn't picked on that much . . . Now I'm in Grade 6, no one picks on me that much because I'm equal with them, and they don? tease or bother me in class." Based on my observations of Jonathon fiom the previous year, this growth in his persona1 efficacy and new found (or won) self-confidence was obvious, and there were many occasions when he clearly demonstrated his sense of control over classroom routines and activities. His strong verbal abilities allowed him to assume a form of leadership role whenever the students worked in groups. Along with Marion, Keith, RJ (a student who was not in the study), Jonathon usudly took care of the management of group assignments. Working within the guidelines provided by the teacher, he usually decided on who would be responsible for completing specific tasks, he set deadlines and production quotas, acted as quality controller, and generally organized and kept the group on task. Uniike many of the other students in the class, Jonathon enjoyed reading and apparently needed no extemal incentives such as assigned book reports that were marked by his teacher to induce him to read. In fact, after one conversation, he enthusiastically persuaded me to read a book in which "Animorphs" are the central characters (the book was part of a series of Animorph stones that was his favorite reading choice). Overall, Jonathon appeared to have a firm grasp on what was required to be successful in this particular class and he viewed school as an important part of his life, currently and in the future. Marion Like Jonathon, Marion always appeared to be comfortable with herself and in our conversations was the most verbal and coherent of al1 the students. She credited this to her outgoing and gregarious nature. When I observed, "You did very well in the class

presentations" (a group project in Social Studies), she responded, "Yeah, 1 like to talk. Everyone in my family talks a lot and we even talk to our dog. 17m not shy - 1 like to talk to people . . . tell what we did." Marion was looked up to as a Ieader by the other girls in the class, and they, as well as the majority of the boys, liked to be in her group. With some notable exceptions, she was mostly willing to help and contribute to group discussions and activities. She was generally chosen by the school principal to take leadership roles in schoolcommunity programs and she was the captain of the school patrollers. At times she evinced a fiair for the dramatic and indicated that she was eagerly anticipating going to a Junior High school that was generally acknowledged for its focus on the fine arts curriculum. She lived close to the school and had attended it since kindergarten. She considered herself to be one of the top students in the class. When 1 asked her "How are your writing skills?" She replied "1 think theyyre very good . . . like in LA, 1 write and 1 enjoy it and I've always been a good writer." Marion also felt that she benefited from her previous year's expenences with Mr. T. when she was in the Grade 5 group. She explained: "Well, like, last year we were the youngest in our class 'cause we were in Grade 5 . . . in the split . . . and this year we're the oldest and this year we have a really small class. There's only 16 kids and we get more attention ... one on one." She enjoyed attention and it showed particularly when she was engaged in the group presentations that she usually coordinated. In terms of her personal agency, she equitably accepted the day-to-day classroom routines and activities and inevitably demonsirated conscientious effort in her learning. Keith Keith appeared to enjoy taking with me and, like the other high agency students seemed to be cordortable interacting with adults. He had very clear and consistent opinions about most aspects of classroorn life. He was perceptive and certainly the most openly "aware" of al1 the students in the study . Like Marion and Jonathon, he had been with Mr. T. the year before and, although he enjoyed the class, he was often somewhat perturbed by the predictability of sorne of the daily lessons. When we discussed the fact that they were covering essentially the sarne math concepts as the year before, the following exchange occurred: JP: Keith: P:

Keith: IP: Keith: JP: Keith: So is it [the math class] any easier or ... ? It's pretty rnuch the same. 'cause last year 1 knew how to do graphs. You already knew it? So, this is your third time around ... for the graphs? Does it get any easier or ... is it any more helpfiL or ... ? Pretty much the same. It's like ... exact the same thing that we did last year . . . So . . . is that helping you? Well I knew - well a little bit cos 1 know exactly what we're gonna do. Just like [he assumes the teacher's voice] "We're going to do another graph now ... we're going to do a bar graph today ... and then we're going to do a cluster graph and then we're going to do.. ." [resumes his voice] and so on and so on... . Does that help your learning do you think? Having done it before? No! paughs] . . . Kind of like you're learning it f'rom a machine . . . So? . . . What's the point! In the course of our conversations, Keith was the only student in the study who openly acknowledged that the curriculum was not overly challenging for him. In contrast, Marion, Jonathon, and Gem, although they benefited substantially in many ways fiom their previous encounters with the curriculum, did not (or could not) acknowledge the benefits that accrued to them fiom having encountered a sirnilar version of the curriculum in the previous year. They preferred to maintain that their persona1 growth had corne by virtue of them becomng more effective learners or as a result of their increased persona1 efforts. In a general sense whether they acknowledged the source of their persona1 efficacy or not, the students' view of their persona1 adequacy as a leamer played an important role in allowing them to cope with most of the challenges they had with leaming in the ciassroom. Keith tended to become more emotionally involved than the other students did. Of al1 the students, he was the one who was most likely to directly question or challenge the teacher and several times he becarne quite indignant when he felt that the teacher

was rejecting his argument or perspective out of hand. He was extremely pragmatic when it came to working with his group, and he was consistently sensitive to the need to produce evidence for the teacher of his personal effectiveness as a leamer. He was being tutored in math on Saturday mornings at a local college and considered that this was beneficial as he already had a reasonable grasp of most of the "Grade 8 math concepts." The repetitior, of previousiy presented math concepts by the teacher was another source of his frustration in the math class; however, he seldom gave any overt indicators that he was frustrated in class and he only referred to it at my prompting. In the overall scheme of things, it was obvious that the leaming agenda in the class did not represent a high degree of challenge for him, which, in a somewhat paradoxical sense, contributed to both Keith's sense of frustration and his efficacy as a leamer. Gem Gerri was a quietly proficient and industrious student, and in terrns of her persona1 confidence and outlook, she could be classed as having a high sense of persona1 agency. Not as outgoing or gregarious as the previous three, she tended to accept the classroom routines and procedures and to work within them. She was consciously concerned about her school achievement and, although 1 never did observe any instances where the students compared their achievements with each other, she indicated to me that she surreptitiously monitored her learning status within the class. In her persona1 estimation of her abilities, she felt that she had had a successfil year. When we discussed her achievement, her appraisal, although somewhat cryptic was direct and honest. JP: How have you done this year? Gem: Pretty good 1 think rny average is about 90 in al1 subjects. JP: An honor student! How did you do it? Did a small class help? Gerri: Yah! 1 worked hard and 1 paid attention and sorne years I was in a class of like 30 and this year 1 got like more attention 'cause less people. In class, she usually appeared quite relaxed and cornfortable with the teacher and her peers, and 1 got the impression that she was the most willing of d l the students to share and help others in group situations. She assiduously attended in class, followed directions and seldom asked questions of the teacher. Of al1 of her experiences, she selected her appearance in the ccMidsummer's Nights Dream" (a play that was developed in the school with the help of a professional acting troupe) as the highlight of the year.

JP: Gerri: P: Gerri: P: Gerri: P: Gerri "Midsummer Night's Dream," . . . what was the best part? Me ... dying! What about the presentation [of the play to the parents] how did it go? It was good. Everyone did well. Everyone knew the lines. Was it different from rehearsing? 1 think it was different 'cause it was different now you're in front of a big audience and in fiont of parents . . . my parents didn't go. Would you want to do it again? Good experience for me if 1 wanted to go to . .. [the local Fine Arts Jr. High] . . . then it would be something 1 had to have, like, ... in drama Good for you! . . . Did you learn about yourself? 1 knew 1 could act! 1 had watched the rehearsals for the play and the evening "gala" performance, and 1 had obsenled the other students' enthusiastic reaction to Gem's melodramatic and humorous "dying" performance in the concluding scene. During these short periods, she had been the "star", and based on this brief experience she now knew she cccould act." The Low Personal Aeencv Students Lina Lina brought a trernendous joie de vivre to her life in and out of the classroom. She demonstrated ongoing enthusiasm for and comrnitment to almost every activity in which she engaged. Her enthusiasm was often ternpered by the fact that she appeared unsure of what she was supposed to do with her assignments or during the class activities. For example, Mr. T. assigned them to independently read a novel on their own time and to produce a "poster" that demonstrated their understanding of the key elements of the story. Lina explained her understanding of the assignment this way: JP:

Lina: P: Lina: JI': Lina JP: Lina: n?: Lina: So you did the book report poster. How did you enjoy doing that? I don't like it. Like, you have to read the book and then you have to, Iike, finish by the end of the week and sometimes 1 just, like, ... the book and one time 1 would, like, another book and then 1 don't have much time reading it, and sometirnes at nighttime 1 can read it but other times 1 am really, really tired and 1 don't read it and 1 go to sleep. Then you had to do the poster .. . was that usefl? Yeah it was OK. It helped me to understand the story, Iike, who was the character and who was the setting was and how , . . the story was .. . . What wouid you prefer to do when you read a book? Huhh ... just tell him like the character ... is ... sornetimes, like, we don? have enough time to, like, do al1 the ... . right? But sometimes, just Say about the book that you read, Iike, a book about the moon and if someone forgot, Iike, to read a book before and ... uhmm . . . know what it about and then so the very next time to get out to read and then if we put it down poster and ... it be useil for them to take the book out. Like, it might help somebody else? b r n . . . yah! Any suggestions for teachers that would help you to read? Uh huh huh huh . . .. Nooo .. . they are good! This exchange is illustrative of the tenor and flow of a great deal of Our conversations. Quite often, Lina stmggled to explain clearly or recount what she had experienced in the classroom. Although sbe had attended the school since Grade 1, she still had substantial problems both with her fluency and her ability to explain her

92 expenences adequately. To various degrees the problems she had expressing her ideas were similar to those experienced by Andy and to a lesser extent by Nadia and Arthur. In contrast to the problems she had explaining her experiences with leaming, when we discussed topics of interest to her Lina was reasonably articulate and clear. Perhaps a plausible explanation for Lina's apparently confused response is that she did not understand what she was supposed to do in order to represent her interpretation of the book in the assigned way. In many respects the problem she had with expressing herself in both her taik and writing relating to class activities contributed to some of the problems she experienced with her leming. Despite this particular challenge, Lina remained always enthusiastic and considered herself to be very fortunate to be able to attend school. Above dl, she felt that it was very important to put forth her best effort al1 the tirne, as this exchange demonstrates: JP: Lina: JI=: Lina: JP: Lina 1 hear you saying you're really fortunate. Any advice to new Grade 6 students? I forgot what 1 wrote. [The students had written some "advice" as an activity in class] By doing best and being confident in yourself and don? come to school with a sad face. Corne with a happy face; don't come and feel terrible inside and be open to everybody and don't ... . Do ... just do homework. Do your best; nobody's perfect, so just do your best. What does it mean to be perfect? 1 don7t know ... maybe 100% and if smart then they be very popuIar. Like, is no one perfect? Ah no . . . peop!e make mistake, and I make mistake too sometime, and you make mistake too! Within this sunny outlook, Lina's consuming ambition was to meet the "Backstreet Boys" (a currently popular singng group I understand from her) and she

spent any "fiee" cornputer time surfhg the web for idormation about them. It was of more than passing interest to me how coherent she becarne when she informally discussed the activities and lives of the Backstreet Boys with me. Nadia and Andy Of the eight students, Andy and Nadia appeared to have the least developed sense of persona1 efficacy. In class, they both gave continuous indications that they were generally overcome by the demands of the classroom. In my field observations, 1 recorded countless occasions when they both appeared to be ahost ovenvhelmed by the demands placed upon them. Often whole mornings would pass without them providing any observable indicators that they were engaged in learning. They appeared to me as lost sods adrift in a sea of directions and explanations, buffeted by confsing forces over which they had no control. In many ways, classroom life did not appear to make any substantive connections with what they brought to it, and the more they experienced it, the more disconnected it became. Nadia Nadia had been in the school since Kindergarten and when I asked her "What is the best part of corning to this school?' She replied, "Uhmmm . . . the program, like, the cooking program fiom 4 o'clock to 6 o'clock during the school." She kvas refemng to an afier-school program at the school, but she subsequently revealed that she was not sure if it was scheduled during the current year or if she recalled it from previous years. In some ways her inability to recall anything of note fiom her school experiences represents what Jonathon Osborne (2000) terms an ccunconstmcted absence", wherein the student does not or cannot attach any particular significance to her experiences. Such unconstnicted absences were evident in the way she most often responded to my prompts and questions with either, "1 don't know," or "uh uh"! Jonathon Osborne further suggests that the "1 don? knowy' response may onginate when the student really has no idea what is being discussed and therefore, has no basis for response, or the student's "ignorance" is an active choice based on the student's perception that there are more important things to think and talk about, or the student decides that the topic is of marginal interest, and is irrelevant to his or her present life situation. Most often, 1 suspected that Nadia had IittIe choice in her responses, as she had become so used to not understanding her school discourse with teachers and other adults that she responded automatically, habitually and immediately with this form of disclaimer. However, this was not the case when o u conversations became more personally relevant. On these

occasions, Nadia did attempt to rationalize her Iack of understanding of what was happening to her in the classroom (in a sense, a form of resilient behaviour), as the following exchange illustrates: P: In the Greek project, you ended up working on your own. How did that work? Nadia: Kinda fine. 1 iiked it 'cause there wouldn't be anybody in your group to bug you or anything, and then you'll be the only person left out and you won't get to do anything 'cause, like, when we're in groups, I'm always left out and, like, 1 don? have nothing to do so 1 get bad marks and when I'm by myself 1 can do everything by myself, and 1 learn things by doing everything by myself. P: Two ideas: 1 would Iike you to tell me about: In the group you get left out and you get a "bad mark"? Nadia: Yeah, because you didn't do anything; so Mr. T. counts that as a mark, like nothing and 1 get bad marks. Then the Greece project 1 finally got to do by myseff and 1 got kind of a good mark. This exchange indicates important aspects of the challenges Nadia faced in this particular class situation. Nadia appeared to spend considerable time in class trying to sort out and rationalize for herself why she was sometimes not included in group projects. She indicated on several occasions an even bigger ongoing concern for her, the fact that, even when she was in a group she was often "lefi out." It was obvious that she was not alone in this respect; for overtly or indirectly, and in much more subtle ways, the other low agency students were often "left out" of group learning activities. In addition, despite her daim that she learned best on her own and that she "cm do everythmg by myself," this was not evident when I observed her in the classroorn. In reality, she seldom demonstrated an ability to learn by herself. In fact, during the times 1 observed in the class, she spent a great deal of her time ostensibly avoiding engagement with the task prescribed by the teacher, often playing with or exarnlning items in her desk, organizing her matenals, or simply appearing innocuous, She gave me every indication that she was abstracted fiom the general flow of the classroom. In many ways, I felt that this was one of the primary defences she had developed in order to protect herself from the personal problems she experenced trying to l e m in an almost alien environment. In our conversations and in the classroom in general, Andy, like Nadia and Lina,

clearly had problems expressing his ideas. In addition, he usually demonstrated a palpable lack of confidence in himself and his abilities. Several aspects of his insecurity are illustrated in the following extract fiom a longer conversation we had: JP: Andy : JP: Andy : JP: Andy : J-P: Andy: JP: Andy: JP: Andy : How have you done in this school? Kind of good, Help me out a little . . . What does that mean? W u m . . . 1 don? know. Does that mean you got good marks or . . .? Sometimes get good marks and sometimes 1 get bad marks. So it's been kind of up and down, but you've enjoyed it? Being at this schooi? Yeah! OK, if 1 asked you what was the best thing about going to school what would you say? Uhmm ... 1 Iive near here and a long time ago it was a good school, no bad things happen Iike shooting or stealing. When we were talking in Our group, we were tatking about competition. Do you think competition is important in school? No, because ... they would get in trouble, and in competition they would take away the test and Say no competition or the person will cry if they got a bad mark or something. His closing comment echoed a general sentiment that flowed through most of

his talk with me about school. It appeared and one of his primary goals in school was to stay out of trouble. In addition, Andy often appeared to be confused about how the various aspects of school related to him. In his final response to me, he appears to equate competition with copying on tests, which he sees as a practice that hm severe 96 consequences, one which would reduce him to tears. In subsequent conversations I sensed that, although he had attended the school since kindergarten, he remained quite unsure of how the school as a "system" worked, Andy generally saw school as a threatening place, despite hs belief that "no bad things happen." He often referred to students being punished and the need for him to behave. His view of learning was one that was tied intimately to being good and conforming to what he understood to be his teacher's behavioural expectations. He appeared to believe that if he just kept quiet and did not attract attention to himself, he would be successfl in school, as is perhaps illustrated in this exchange: JP: Andy : JP: Andy : JP: Andy : JP: And y: JP: Andy : Would that help [for hirn to talk with his group partners]? 1 forgot! .. . When you're helping tell how to do and what to do. So, when you get assignments are you always sure what to do? Uhhhmmm, . . . a Iittle bit, What do you do when you're not sure? 1 ask some help from partner or teacherHow often do you ask the teacher? Uhhhhmmm a couple times. You don't ask very ofien. Are you pretty sure what you're supposed to be doing?

Uhhhmmm ... Yah! You're s'pcsed to be working on what you're assigned for; no fooling around, like taIking or stuff. To a certain extent, Andy's confiision as to how his learning was supposed to proceed in the classroom resulted from the conflicting overt and "subtle" messages about leaming that he received fiom his interactions with his teacher, his peers, and the "systern" of schooling generally. For students like Andy, who was often lefi to his own devices to figure how to actually go about leaming, the system provided somewhat contlicting messages. For instance, when he was required to work independently, Andy appeared to be unwilling to ask his teacher for help because it might indicate that he had been "fooling around" or not listening. When he was in a group, he appeared to assume that silent application would provide a favourable indication to the teacher that he wasn't "fooling around". His perceptions of how to behave correctly inevitably took precedence over his need to understand what he was required to leam. Both in class and in my interactions with him, Andy evinced a basic insecurity, and like Nadia, demonstrated his hstration and confusion with the situation by usuaily responding '7 don't know" to many of my questions and prompts. And it was true, although he had been in the school since kindergarten, he did not appear to adequately comprehend what was happening in the classroom, and he appeared to not to have developed any strategies for dealing with the situation except to withdraw and allow the situation to unfold around hirn. In many ways, his persona1 agency was constrained and limited by a situation over which he felt he had no control. 1 often got the impression that his fnistration brought him close to tears and the primary characteristic he looked for in a partner was someone who would "be kind." He lacked any form of explanatory framework that might enable him to account for his situation. Meanwhile, his atternpt to intemalize the teacher's procedural explanations (and the discourse of schooling in general) was translated into sornewhat inadequate behavioural guidelines CWO talking" and CLNO fooling around") for how he was supposed to learn and exist in the classroom. In one sense, by allowing himself to be determined by other people's explanations and actions he avoided the risk of confrontation and decreased his encounters with traumatic experiences. However, in this avoidance, he had developed a pattern of compliant responses that denied his personal confidence and efficacy (Bowers, 1974). Most often in class he appeared lost. He appeared unable to fully comprehend the explanations or procedures of either his teacher or his peers, and he was left wlnerable and confsed. As was apparent from his responses to me, he did not know why, nor did he have any

personal resources available that would enable him to overcome the situation. Thus, the more he continued to be immersed in the process of schooling, the more dis-abled he became. Arthur's Mom chose to transport him to the school each day (a considerable distance), and had done so since he was in kindergarten, and Arthur believed thzt the school was the best one for hh. AIthough he had ongoing "leaming" problems, over time he had learned to adapt to the school "game" in a number of ways. He certainIy was the most passionate and overtly engaged student in the class; however, his sense of competency appeared to be undennined by his inability to adequately deal with the learning tasks in the classroom. In many ways his sense of persona1 agency and competency \vas compromised by the hstration he felt with what he perceived to be a lack of appropriate skills. On several occasions during our conversations, Arthur went into lengthy detail as to how his particular problems with reading and spelling were the source of his difficuities in the classroom. However, despite his Iiteracy shortcomings, he showed considerable strength when he presented oral reports to the class, and he particularly reveled in occasions when his classmates asked questions that required him to explain his understanding at length. In addition, he appeared to be a competent auditory leamer, and he was at his best when learning involved active manipulation of materials. In most of the clctss activities, including those that involved reading and witing (and spelling, his consuming problem), he usually gave the appearance of being actively engaged. However, there were particular times when he appeared very much ccturned off" or 'kned out" fiom what was occurring in the class. He was not alone in this respect and the "opting out" strategy was one that 1 observed in each of the students. Arthur was an avid sports fan, particularly Italian soccer, and he could cite ail pertinent statistics and discuss the world soccer situation in great detail. He enjoyed engaging me in hallway dialogues on the ments of Italian soccer relative to those of British soccer, and he inevitably wore a soccer shirt to school. An interesting aspect of his consuming interest in sport was that he was the student who protested most adamantly that learning in school should not be a cornpetition. In reality, he appeared to very conscious of the need to complete tasks quickly (before the other students). In other words, I sensed that extemal demonstrations relatng to his persona1 productivity provided some form of compensation or "cover" for many of the problems that Arthur realized he had.

Despite al1 the literacy challenges he faced, it was interesting that, in most situations, Arthur ouhvardly displayed a great deal of self-confidence and enthusiasm. In a rather perverse way, the self-confident persona he displayed worked against hirn as it did not allow him to ask the teacher for help. To do so would have indicated that 11e was unsure and as he evinced an attitude that he could be successfiil in al1 of the leaming tasks assigned by the teacher, his perception of his personal credibility would have been undermined. In the final analysis, he considered that he had had a successful elementary school career. In our last conversation, he shared this perspective with me: JE': Anthony : JE': Anthony : JP: Anthony : JI': Anthony : JF': Anthony : JI': Anthony : JF': Anthony : JI': Anthony : JF': Anthony : Looking back what are some highlights [of the year]? Hockey and Our intramura1 tearn. Anything else? Uhrnmmm . . . social was fn and that's about it. How has the year gone for you; was it successfiil? Yah! Everything they taught us through the years at . . . [the school]! Just this year?

Everything! Academic and playing? Yah! So, how have your marks been? Good! Out of a 100, I've done about 80. I've only failed one or two tests. Which Junior High are you going to? (A school) . . . by the army base in . . . (mother suburb) Why there? It's a good S C ~ O O ~ 'cause F e named another school he could have gone to in the district] doesn't give as much help. What are you looking forward to in particular? The sports and the school. See what it's like and they teach good but they ain't doing so good in some things 1 signed up for, but if you don't wanna go you can skip it! Arthur's responses give the appearance of blithe confidence and, fiom the tenor of his responses alone, he cornes over as an active decision-maker in matters related to his learning. But this perception is somewhat illusionary, for in the class, he spent a great deal of energy masking or covering up his problems with reading and writing. He felt that he knew how to solve his problem (by Ieaniing what he termed, the "sounds"), but the prescribed school's language arts program did not include phonics instruction in Grade 6. Whether such instruction would have solved Arthur's problem is an open question; however, as Delpit (1993) has pointed out, when the distance between the cIassroom program/curriculum and the actual leaming needs of the student is of considerable proportions, the result is usually continuing hstration for the student both with leaming and the demands of schooling in general. The Students' Responses to Their School Ex~enences Like Lina, Andy, and Nadia, Arthur appeared to experience a great deal of frustration in his encounters with learning in the classroom. For any number of reasons, the prescribed curriculum which he experienced (and apparently had experienced to this point in school), even though it was derived fiom what might be considered to be sound theoretical leaming principles, did not appear to respond adequately to what he needed in order to learn. In addition, it appeared that the low agency students had not learned or deveioped (or been taught) persona1 strategies that would allow them to overcome the

obstacles and demands that they faced in the classroom. The high agency students, on the other hand, feit secure in their ability to handle the situations that arose in the classroom. For example, in my final conversation with Jonathon, he shared the following perspective: JP: What personal qualities does it take to succeed?" Jonathon: Mmm . . . like, you know, when do a test, ask the teacher. Some people have too much pride, like, they don't know how to ask for it so like ... . JP: h y other? Jonathon: Like learning and pay attention and listen. JP: Have you become more confident? Jonathon: Umhum ... more confident and 1 take more responsibility for rnyself. Like patrolling, 1 have to come 10 minutes early so I have to go to sleep early and Iym confident that 1 can do it. And 1 volunteer to do more work like in senior home and help out at dinner and stuffIt is apparent that Jonathon believes he can take care of himself in most situations and he is confident that he can cope with any new challenges that might arise for him. He was confdently looking forward to moving on to Junior High school and he talked about his prospects in this way, JP: Jonathon: JP: Jonathonr JP: Jonathon: JP: Jonathon: What does it mean to be smart? Like, being overachiever and do good on tests and do good at school and remember what you learn. Will this be useful going to Junior High? Yeah, 'cause if 1 think that I'm smarter. 1'11 be able to cope with Junior High. It's going to be challenging but I'rn ready for

the challenge 'cause 1 study lots. So you're more confident! What might be challenges in Junior High? Might be working on projects alone and harder assignments, meeting new friends and everything will be harder than Grade 6. What wili help you the most? Studying and Iearning about the stuff and looking it up. 1 would look it up so 1 wouId know the next day about it. Marion also talked about her self-confidence and the role it played in her life, When I asked her ". . . what have you learned this year?" she replied, "1 leanied a lot like the basic things and leadership and working in groups and stuff and, . . . Oh yah! . . . good independent skills too!" Marion identified her role as captain of the school patrollen as being one of the highlights of her year. It is of more than passing interest to note that in order to be student "leaders", the students needed to be nominated and appointed by their teacher and the school administrators. My perception was that such expenences contributed to their persona1 efficacy, confidence and independent decisionmaking abilities. It was also apparent that this affirmative way of thinking about themselves and their possibilities spilled over into their responses to the classroom activities. In the classroom they tended to be proactive in their approach to learning, they asked questions, they were inevitably the ones who responded to the teacher's questions, and they seized upon any opportunities to "demonstrate" their abilities as leamers to their teachers. As a result, the personal interpretive circle that was created for and by them was self-sustaining. In the final analysis, it was their sense of self that ernerged as a major factor in their ability to flourish in the classroom, and this view was a direct outgrowth of the opportunities they were afforded to develop and practice their personal efficacy. In other words, it appeared that the critical self-sustaining characteristics of personal agency they needed to succeed were not inherent personality traits. They learned them within the situations and contexts created by their teacher in particdar, and the school in generd, In direct contrast to the awareness that students such as Marion and Jonathon demonstrated, the low agency students seldom talked about a need to be in control of their own responses to be, in a sense, self-actualizing individuals. For exampte, Nadia

shared this perspective with me in our closing conversation: JI': Nadia: P: Nadia: J-P: Nadia: JP: Nadia: JP: Nadia: P: Nadia: J-P: Nadia: JP: Looking back, what's the best thing that happened in Grade 6 for you Uhmm, uhrnrnm . . . [long pause] . . . Uhrnmm [long pause] . . . What's one thing? The reading challenges. [The teachers and students had a "reading chaIlengem a "cornpetition based on which group could read the most. The students had to complete a "reading passport" as part of the contest.] Did you complete the reading passport? Wdsl Anything else? Uhrnmmm - . . (pause) . . . uhmmmmm. I can't think of anything? What was one of the hardest things? Like exarns! How have you done in Grade 6 Kind of good and kind of bad. How do you know you've done kind of good The report cards and 1 know more than 1 knew last year. Any reason for doing better?

Nadia: 1 don't know. JP: What was "bad" about this year Nadia: Uhrnmmm .. . pause . .. 1 don? know. JP: Did you enjoy the year? Nadia: Kinda JP: Which was your best subject this year Nadia: Uhmm . . . a learning subject? Uhmrnrn 1 think math. The reading challenge was indeed cWy for the students, as the teachers had to dye their hair when they "iost". In this situation, there was no pressure on the students to fulfill assigned "work"; al1 they needed was their parent's signature confirming that they had read at home. However, in an overall sense, for Nadia and Andy trying to identi& significant experiences for the year was a challenge. Nadia's unhappy, sometimes painfl, struggle to corne to grips with her Iife in the classroom, coupled with the fact that she was given very few if any responsibilities in the class or the school meant that she had few options to choose fkom as "special" occurrences to celebrate or share. Her choice of math as her "best subjecty7 is interesting, as my observations of her responses to math activities indicated that it was seldom a particularly enjoyable experience for her. 1 could not help but feel that she selected it only because it was the subject that caused her the least discornfort. It is also interesting to me that, in this conversation, 1 missed her reference to math as a "learning subject." In retrospect, 1 can ody conjecture how Nadia would describe the rest of her encounters in the classroom, aside fiom those with "learnhg subjects." The students who demonstrated high persona1 agency inevitably attributed some of their success and achievements to their efforts, in effect, they saw themselves as in control. When 1 asked them about success in school, Keith replied, "It's a matter of if you work hard and study hard." Gem explained her success by noting, "Yah! I worked hard and I paid attention." Lina felt that success required "doing your best, and listen, and get your reports done, and be happy to get an education." Jonathon sumrnarized his views this way: "Listen to the teacher, studying.. ., doing well, avoid fights, no talking in class, no detentions, don? be afiaid to ask for help if you need it!" In contrast, when 1 talked with Andy about his future plans, the following exchange occurred, JI': Andy:

JP: Andy: JP: Andy : JP: Andy So after you go to Junior High what's afier that? Do you know? No, I'm going to high school at . . . maybe . .- . After High School, what then? I'm not going to do anything for the future So, you'll graduate and then what? Are you hoping you will get some advice from someone? Yes someone in the future, like a smart person! Anything you would Iike to do? pause] . . . any special interests? Uhmm . . . 1 have to see if they got special interest in , . . 1 need some advice. In many ways, Andy's concluding remark summarizes a key element of the perspective generally evuiced by the low agency students. In Andy's view, he would have to wait until someone else told him what his interests were. Essentially, he was alienated from his persona1 Iearning experiences, and more importantly and somewhat tragically, fiom his sense of self. Bowers (1974) writes In effect, the existential mood we associate with being alienated tends to restrict imagination and to erode one's will to act. In not being rneaningfuIly invoIved in an experience the individual tends to act more passively and thus, to not take responsibility. Events control his behavior, not because he believes in them or has a deep sense of cornmitment but because his level of persona1 involvement is so low he ceases to exercise his own imagination or to take responsibility. (p. 76) Alienation, in a sense, is the reverse image of persona1 agency. In Bower's estimation, "dienation ... erodes one's will to act" and this existential ennui was evident in both the tdk and the classroom behaviors of the low agency students. It was also apparent that the efforts they made to engage in the intemal mental dialogue necessary for coming to grips with their classroom leaming (Arnes & Arnes, 1989) were ovenvhelming, leading them to give up early or not start at all. For Andy and Nadia,

and, in some subtle ways, Lina and Arthur, the sense of ftility they felt and their implicit sense that they were not in control of their own lives led them to a state of confusion, that in, Bowers' terms, emerges as a burgeoning and debilitating sense of alienation. In general, dl of the students displayed some form or degree of alienation (few students can sustain unabated enthusiasm and interest for every aspect of school), but for students like Andy and Nadia it was chronic, as it was not only denved fkom the situation, it was also exacerbated by it. In many ways, both explicit and implicit, 1 observed this iatrogenic feature of schooling emerging fkom and situated within the students' classroom experiences. In support of rny contention that a great deal of the low agency students' disabilities were derived fiom their experiences with leaming in the classroom, it is interesting to note that every day Andy went home and, for four hours helped his parents in the grocery store they owned. In addition, he spoke Vietnamese fluently. Similarly, in the course of a conversation about the Provincial achievement tests, Nadia shared this insight with me: JP: Nadia: JP: Nadia: JP: Nadia: JP: Nadia: Did the practice [for the tests] help? Yah, and ahh . .. uhmm .. . [long pause] . .. by helping me see how the writing is and how to answer it, and uhmm . . . the Ianguage is hard and I can't think of anything more. So, it helped to do them. Did you do any studying for them? [Shakes her head] Didn't have time? No. I've been helping my grandma cause she's been in a car accident and 1 have to heIp her, and Yah, like that. How long ago was the accident I think last week on Monday or Tuesday. It was rny cousins and they

were in a car crash. She had a black eye and had to stay in hospital for two nights and my cousins, A and E, they both have a mark on their left side. It is pertinent to this discussion to juxtapose Nadia's explanation of her encounter with the testing program upon her concluding comments about the car accident and to note the differences. Nadia was expected to help at home with her baby brother and her grandmother, and usually when she talked about her family, her experiences outside of school, or her interests, she was easy to follow, forceful and coherent. This conversational ccfluency" was also evident when Lina tallced about the Backstreet Boys and Arthur discussed soccer. It is also interesting that during our actual conversations, most often everything that they shared made sense to me in the context. 1 can only assume that my ability to follow their responses was derived in part fiom being with them for an extended period. In a sense, 1 surreptitiously assumed part of their discourse as my own. In retrospect, 1 realize that a great deal of my interpretation was dependent upon my assumption of their discourse. Thus, the transcripts of our conversations do not capture al1 of the nuanced meta-messages that accompanied our conversations, indicating that the students were not quite as disfluent as the bare transcnpts imply. Despite this proviso, there was a clear difference between the two groups of students in their abilities to discuss their understandings of their leaming experiences in school. The fact that the low agency students appeared confused and disoriented in the classroom and in their talk about their experiences is one indicator that school was apparently "not working" efficaciously for four of the eight students in the inquiry. The Teacher's Role in the Inauirv To this point, 1 have acknowledged the eight students who were my coparticipants in de inquiry and it is incurnbent upon me to acknowledge the role that Mr. T., the teacher played in facilitating the research. For two years Mr.T. allowed me to prod, pry, observe, write notes in his class, and talk at length with his students without ever being really sure exacdy what 1 was doing. In my submission to the school district, I indicated that 1 would follow ethical procedures and I had the permission of the principal to generate data in the school. M. T. agreed to allow me into his classroom on the basis of somewhat sketchy information. Al1 he knew was that 1 was "interested in how students thought about learning," but Little else. My attempt to situate rny interpretation in as "natural a setting as possible" (Lincoln & Guba, i985) meant that 1

could not intervene in the daily classroom routines, the studentsy learning, or the teacher's methods. It also meant that I could not discuss with Mr. T. his plans, his methods, or his rationale; nor did I provide any direct feedback to him while the study was proceeding as to how his stridents perceived their learning in his class (although we did develop an implicit code of "teacher looks" during the course of rny time in his classroom). He was literally a "silent partner" in the inquiry and his role required a great deal of trust in my personal integrity and the ethical guidelines 1 had agreed to follow for the study. Nevertheless, as Biggs and Edwards (1994) point out, We [as researchers in classrooms] have been faced with the very real tension between trust and what might be perceived as betrayai. On the one hand, teachers have been generous enough to open up their classrooms and expose themselves to scrutiny. On the other hand, it is very Iikely that they might not be able to handle the observations . . . . (p. 97) In an effort to be as open as possible with Mr.T., at the conclusion of the first phase of the inquiry, we did discuss some of my initial observations, and I shared with him the challenge that 1 had as a teacher observing another teacher's practice. As Newkirk (1 996) points out "Anyone who spends a great deal of time in a teacher's cIassroom, particularly someone who has experience in a sirnilar teaching situation will observe practices that seem ineffective" (p. 13). Boostrom (1994) identifies this as the ccevaluator~' stage of interpretive research, and 1 have discussed previously how 1 became aware of my propensity to engage in this during the familiarization stage of the inquiry . Eventually , my observations were tempered by the recognition that a colleague sitting in my classroom would probably see many of my shortcomings (and perhaps, wish to point them out to me as soon as possible). As Michelle Fine (1987) observes The researcher's sadistic pleasure of spotting another teacher's collapsed contradiction, aborted analysis, or silencing sentence was moderated only by the ever-present knowledge that similar analytic surgery could easily be perfonned on my own classes. (p. 172) Overall, the reading of this interpretive account needs to be situated in my recognition that al1 teachers are caught in an ongoing dilemma. They are continually faced with situations wherein they are required to respond to conflicting demands within and without the school. In one sense, what emerged as the inquiry proceeded was how these often contradictory expectations and demands filter down to become a cntical part of the interpretive fiames that children use to explain what counts as

learning in the classroom. In iis chapter, 1 have presented a number of insights into who each student in the study was. In developing a perspective on each 1 have concentrated rnainly on those characteristics that con-ibuted to the "personal agency" of each of the students as these characteristics appeared to be those that contributed most to their "success" in this particular classroom. 1 have noted that each of the eight students in the study, in his or her own unique way, demonstrated a form of resilience. However, for some of them, it was apparent that the coping and response skills they had developed were not adequate enough to allow them to respond to the classroom demands placed upon, or the demonstrations of learning expected from them, by the system of education in which they were immersed. From our conversations and my observations, it was clear that the interpretive frameworks that they had developed and the ways in which the classroom/school shaped and defined them had not equipped the "low agency" students to appropriately deal with "learning" as it was defmed in the classroom. In fact, they, and in certain respects al1 of the students, had developed and were developing a form of Discourse that, fiom a number of perspectives could be viewed as non- or even counterproductive to their best interests, both in their own lives and in the roles that they needed to assume in theu present and future communities. Chapter 3 Method The main focus of this study consisted of examining the implementation process for formative student self-assessrnent in a classroom setting in an eastem Ontario School Board during the 1997-1998 school year. As stated, the purpose was to document the assessrnent process in which students and tcachers CO-participated in order to produce both valid and reliable results. Details regarding the participants, instrumentation and the procedure are provided in the following sections. Participants Teachers and students Six grade 6, 7 and 8 teachers from three schools in Eastern Ontario and seventy four of their students participated in the study during the 1997-1998 school year. As this was an implernentation study and required teacher participants who were interested in learning about self-assessment, the

selection process was purposive rather than random. After receiving permission to conduct the study from the board superintendent, the researcher solicited teachers volunteers with the help of the school board's junior/intermediate language consultant. The criteria for selection were simply an interest in alternative assessment strategies and a willingness to involve students in the assessment process. Ten teachers were invited to participate. Of the original ten, three agreed to participate. The remaining three participants were interested peers of these three. Of the six teachers involved in the study, al1 had experience using some form of alternative assessment, for example; student lead conferencing, portfolios, peer evaluations. AI1 had used rubrics to assess students' work and had designed rubrics for student assessment purposes. None had involved students in the mbnc development process, nor had followed the selfassessment process described in this study. (See Table 1 for a description of their teaching expenence, grade level presently teaching and alternative assessment background, p.40). Each of the teachers had attended workshops about the new Ontario Language Cumculum in 1997 and was using it in the classrooms for teaching and assessment purposes. AIthough al1 of the students in each class participated in the selfassessment process; in total, 74 students received permission to share their selfassessment results with the researcher. Those who did not receive permission 40 participated in the process but their self-assessrnent data was withheld from the researcher. The six classes consisted of mixed socio-economic and family Table 1 Teacher Participants Jkiuxk Teaching Grade Levels Curren tlv Teaching 8 Experience CO nfe rencing portfolios, student

conferencing 1 portfolios, peer conferencing phys. ed. self-evaluation forms. peer conferencing. portfolios forms, peer assessment -- - portfolios Note. pseudonyms have been used to ensure anonymity backgrounds. Approximately 30% of the overall student population had been identified as needing language resource help or as leaming disabled. As the teachers were to work together, each class assessed a similar set of expectations as designated by the provincial cumculum (appropriate for each grade level). Writing was the complex skiU that was focused on and the specific expectations that were the object of the assessment were chosen by the participating teachers in the first portion of the study. Leaniing expectations for a11 areas of language arts are outlined in The Ontario Language Curriculum: Grades 1-8 (1997). Consultants Two consultants participated in the study: the school board language arts consultant and a representative of the Ministry of Education and Training. The language arts consultant from the school board participated in the four team meetings. Her school board responsibilities include liberal arts education for kindergarten to grade 8. She has attended numerous workshops on the new Language Arts cumculum and offered expert opinion on the topics of rubric development and exemplars. A consultant from the Ministry of Education and Training was the second expert to provide guidance to the teachers within the process. Her current role for the Ministry is to develop exemplars to accompany the new Ontario curriculum for language arts. Her expert opinion was sought regarding the validity of the exemplars chosen by the teaching team as well as the rubric development. Researcher background A brief description of the researcher is provided as she played an important role in the implementation of the intervention. She is an junior/intermediate teacher with five years teaching experience. As her

teadung career progressed she becarne cognizant of the fact that her university education had il1 prepared her to conduct quality student evaluation and assessment. As a teacher, she felt that traditional evaluation practices did not always serve the learner as well as they could and felt this type of evaluation often discouraged rather than informed many learners. She retumed to university with the wish to learn more about assessment and to investigate methods that provide valid, reliable results and are designed rather than to just rnonitor or audit student performance, enable leamers to improve it. The researchers main role in the study was one of guidance, specifically with the goal of empowering teachers to implement the process in their classrooms. Secondly, she provided expert opinion with regard to external technical checks. She was also responsible for collerting descriptive data to document the process. Each of these roles are further described in the procedure section. Instrumentation In order to gather and analyze data regarding the implementation of the proposed framework for self-assessrnent within the classroom, two instruments have been developed by the researcher: a double entry journal, and an interview guide. A thVd rneans of gathering information was the researcher's field notes and observations of the meetings. A double entry journal (see Appendix A) was set up with two columns for each entry. One column was used to document purposes while the second asked the journal writer to reflect/critique the process that was recorded. Specific entry titles provided by the researcher for the teachers are as follows: 1) Discussion of writing expectation and cnteria with students, ensunng validity. 2) Development of 1st draft assessment mbnc. 3) Discussion of exemplars and changes to rubrics. 4) Practice with the rubric. 5) Final draft of the rubric. 6) Use of rubric for student self-assessment. 7) Peer assessment of work. This allowed teachers to chronicle the self-assessrnent process as they implemented it with their students, as well as providing them with an opportunity to critically reflect on the process as each step was completed. These journals provided the researcher with a means of documenthg intemal validity and reliability checks as well as gathering teachers' critical reflections regardhg the overall process.

Interview guides (see Appendix A) were developed for the participatirtg teachers in order to capture qualitative data conceniing the overall selfassessment process and its technical quaIities as it was applied within a classroom context The questions were framed in part by the self assessment framework in order to uncover data relating to the vdidity and reliabity of the process. A second goal of the interview was to capture factors that impacted the process. The interview guide was semi-structured to allow for emergent responses. It allowed the researcher to probe beyond the information contained in the journals as well as to gain the teachersf professional observations about the students' participation in the process. Interviews were taped with the teachers' permission. Procedure Ideally, this study would investigate an existing self-assessrnent scheme and its technical qualities thus reducing the intervention role of the researcher. However, because the teachers were implementing a framework that is researcher guided, the researcher occupied an important role in the process. In an attempt to reduce the possibility of researcher bias, the researcher provided teachers with a variety of resources relating to the self-assessrnent process and rubric developrnent in order to help teachers intemalize the process before classroom implementation. This empowement was further developed through monthly hlI team meetings which are described in detail in this 45 section. She also brought outside expertise in the form of the school board's language arts consultant as well as a Ministry of Education and Training Consultant to assist with extemal validity and reliability checks. For these particular reasons, the researcher maintained the role of facilitator and data collecter. The study took place during a period of six months. At the beginning of the months of January, February, March and May the researcher conducted a meeting which was attended by the participating teachers as well as the school board's junior/intemediate consultant. A total of four meetings were conducted during the period of the studv. A study time line is ihstrated in figure 2. The extemal (meetings) and intemal (in class) procedures are described as they relate to intention, measurement and interpretation in the

following section. Study Timeline JAN r F FEB MAR + APR MAY JUN Fiaure 2: Overview of study timeline As previously mentioned, because the participating teachers were unfamiliar with the process, the researcher provided thern with an implementation plan. This plan is discussed in the following section and is illustrated in figure 3 (See p. 50). Step One: Intention: The researcher introduced teachers to the goals and outhe of the study, the framework that they were to use as a guide for implementing the self-assessrnent process with their students, as well as the data collection materiaIs. A mini-workshop was conducted relating to measurement concepts and prinuples to ensure that teachers shared a common understanding of the important concepts relating to the study. The board consultant assisted the researcher by helping the teachers to choose a combination of writing expectations that were appropriate for each grade level. Before the second meeting, the teachers were requested to introduce the students to the project and were to attempt to ensure that their students shared a comrnon understanding of the expectations and performance criteria. They were requested to corne to the second meeting with a draft rubric and samples of student writing which might be used as exemplars to illustrate the four levels of achievement according to the ministry guidelines. Step Two: Measurement Teachers met with the board consultant and researcher to discuss their initial nibrics and choose exemplars which illustrated the four Ievels of achievement. Exemplars were to be chosen from a pool of writing samples gathered by the teachers and the researcher. The team was to work together to evaluate each dass' rubric and suggest improvement to irnprove validity by ensuring that the criteria related to the leaming expectation and reliability by suggesting improvements in language darity. 48

Rubrics were forwarded to a Ministry of Education and Training consultant for feed back regarding validity of the nibric criteria and descriptions. Comments were dso solicited on the choice of exemplars for each of the three grades. These comments were to be communicated to the teachers before the third meeting. Within their cIassrooms, teachers were expected to implement the second block of the framework. During this month, exemplars were to be presented to the students as well as a means of illustrating the four achievement levels appropriate for each grade thus further promoting a common understanding of the cnteria and increasing reliability. A second reliability check asked the teachers to allow students time to practice and familiarize themselves with the use of the rubrics. Step Three: Measurement and Judgment Teachers brought rubrics meeting for a final critical analysis. Feedback from the Ministry of Education and Training consultant was discussed. Any final discussion regarding nibric development took place at this meeting. Measurement tasks were dicussed and each teacher decided with the help of the team, on an appropriate writing task. In the classroom, students were to complete the first draft of an assigned writing piece and to interpret it in relation to the specified learning expectations by using the developed rubric. Once a student had used the rubric to interpret the data, two other interpretations were colleded from the teacher and a student peer in order to determine the reliability of the results. Step Four: Debriefine; This Iast meeting was a debriefing session to discuss the success of the process. Teachers shared the final month's experiences as well as their opinions of the process. Student assessrnent data, final copies of the rubrics and the double entry joumals were collected by the researcher at this time. Semi-stnictured interviews were scheduled by the researcher with the teachers approximately month after the final meeting in order to accommodate the teachers' busy schedules. (The interview guide is presented in Appendix A). INTENTION Meeting One dntroduce framework to teachers,

indicate that self-assessment is to be formative. ~establish leaming & assessmenl goals, ddentify expectations that sWdents and teachers will be using. workshop teachers on assessment & rneasurement concepts. *assure comrnon undershnding of expeclation and process (r) *stuclents are introduced to the goals of aie study and their rote. *sludents are presented with the chosen expectations for leaming. teachers and students work together to identify important criteria within the expectations. (v) eteachers attempt to ensure that students share a common understanding of the expectations as well as he identitied criteria. (t) wtudents & teachen work together to develop 1 st dratt ol performance rubric. Whole class participation to ensure common understanding (r) and understanding of nibric's MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT AND INTERPRETATION Meeting Two oresearcher Jeachers and board consullant evaluate nibrics in relation to

expeclations. Suggestions for irnprovement are made ( v) *exemplan are chosen to illustrate the four levels of achievement for each grade level.(r) *rubries and exemplars are sent to MET consultant to check adequacy and relevancy of criteria and exemplars in relation to expeclation, (v) *students and teachers use meeting suggestions to irnprove ~brics in terms of relevancy (v) and common interpretation (r) astudenls are familiarized with the exomplars and practice using rubrics on the exemplars and 0 t h pieces of work (r) 1 Legend: (R) = mliability checks, (V) = validity checks 1 Meeting Three Meeting Four -- - - - -. . . - . ateachers receive feedback from MET consultant (v) *final discussion as to improvements to be made to the rubrics. Same as meeting two.(rdiv) .discusion relaling to

appropriate wnting task and teachers each decide upon a task for their students (v) . estudents will use rubrics to interpret their first draft of the assignment *final changes are made to the nibncs (v&r) *sludents create dralt piece of writing. *studenb use rubric to interpret their performance regarding their first drafl. *bath the teacher and a peer use the rubric to assess the same first draft .(r) oteachers bnng self, peer and teacher ratings to ttie researcher for calculation of agreement percenhges. (r) *final meeting used as a debriefing session as well as a chance for teachers to share their opinions regarding the final sleps of the process asludents have completed their participation in the study Eirure 3: lmplementation framework outlining external and intemal aspects of the process Anabsis After completing the interviews, the audio tapes were transcribed

verbatim. As well, double entry journals, field notes and observations were combined with the interview data. Codes were applied to identify the external and internai validity checks as well as cornmonalties and variations with these checks between classes in the implementation process. Specifically, steps that were taken that related to validity and reliability were noted and categorized. At the same time themes and salient points identifymg factors affecting the validity and reliability of the process were highlighted. Once the student self-assessrnent data was collected, the researcher determined inter-rater percentage agreement between student and teacher, as well as student and peer scores in order to determine the reliability of the students' self-assessrnent scores. Resuhs are presented in the following chapter. Meetings are documented and external technical checks are highlighted. In order to incorporate the variation between classroom implementations, a synopsis of the process as it occurred in each class is presented. In response to the second research question, the factors influencing the technical aspects of the self-assessrnent process as they emerged from the 52 coIlected data are presented. A checklist matrix is used to highlight the major factors as the were identifed by both the teachers and the researcher and indicates whether the effect was a negative or positive influence on the technical qualities of the process. RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction This study was conducted within tne naturalistic paradigr.. The approach was, therefore, qualitative and interpretive in nature. This chapter presents the philosophic stance which backs the study methoa, the actual methodology utilized, the data collection techniwes and data analysis procedures, and concludes with the measures used to ensure trustworthiness of the study's findings. Philosophical Stance As the purpose of the study was to explore the perceptions thac faculty members have about instructional

ski11 developmental activities, ic was necessar ro find out how respondents perceived the experierices they have had. How do they view them? What value do they place on them? What knowledge did they gain from them? Did these experiences change their teaching behavior? These are important questions which assisted me in understanding the realities of their experiences. 1 tried to see the events as they saw them and this necessitated a qualitative study (Owens, 1982). As Owens explained, 1 must get "a rich sense of understanding events and of having insight as to their meaning or, more 3G likely, meanings" (p. 17) . This allowed me, as Merzian (1988) put it, to find out "how people make sezse or' cneir lives, what they experience, [ana] how they interpre~ these experiences" (p. 19). In order for me to unaerstand these experiences, 1 was prepoxed to do as Connelly ans Clanainiri (1990) suggested: you must "follow your nose" (p. 9). 1 was prepared to allow the respondents' experiences to direct mlr inquiry, while at the same tirne subcly help them fine a direction for their explanation of their experiences. Lincoln (1989) was clear on this process. She described the qualitative inquiry process as being one of asking questions, which previously "could not be asked because they could not be framed sensibly using the conventional inquiry model" (p. 114). This is of the utmost importance for me as the researcher. In order to to explore the relevance of each situation, 1 had to be able to "enter inca zhe parcicipanc's world; to gain a stronq piccure of it, vf'lile remaining aware of what aspects of it are particular an6 special" (Measor, 1985, p. 77). Glaser and Strauss (1956) believed this approach allowed "important concepts, basic categories and significant hypotheses' to emerge and avoided the ianger that the data may be forced to fit predetemined categories" (p. 57). A positivist orientation would not allow the latitude

required to take me either where the story goes or to "feel" the richness of the respondents' experiences. Guba and Lincoln (1982) were succinct on this point when they stated that "qualitative methods are richer and can deal withphenomenanot easily translatable into nir~bers" (p. 244). To understand cne richess of the respondents' experiences and the relevance these nave within the comext of their lives, 1 personally gathered the data. Withir. this philosophic stance, I agreed with Guba and Lincoln (1982) "that qualitative nethods are the methods normally preferred by humans using themselves as primary data coiiection instruments . . . . And (if the reader will forgive what is not intended as a pun) natural in this case" (p. 244). That is, this was a naturalistic inquiry. This allowed me, as McCall and Simmons (1969) posited, to "maximize discovery and description" (p. 1) . Method Merriam (1988) defined a research design as "a plan for assembling, organizing, and integrating information (data), and it results in a specific end producr (research fincings)" (p. 6) . She further explained that the type of research design to choose was dependent on three questions. The questions are '1. The nature of the research question . . . 2. The amaunt of control . . . . 3. The desired end product" (p. 9). The questions I asked are "how" and "why" type questions; 1 had little control of variables; and the desired end product was a "thick description". As this is the philosophic stance 1 took. 1 chose a research design and procedures which would fit within it. Lincoln and Guba (1985) explained procedures for an interpretive study. first, there should be a strict set of 32 Holsti's (1969)

They stated ~ h a c , rules and remlations followed, but "they need not be formulated until the ena of the inquiry* (p. 3 3 7 ) . Second, the data that are included can be determined at the end as well, as long as the saine mles are applied throughout. Third, as there is no theoretical mode1 being followed, there is no necessity to generalize the findings. Guba a ~ d Lincoln (1982) had earlier declared that "without a priori theory or hypotneses, [you] literally are unable to specify a design (except in the broadest sense) in advance" (p. 245) . Part of the problem with research design in the naturalistic paradigm was described by Lincoln (1989), w h e ~ she elaborated on th2 "ernergent paradigm" (p. 69). She explained Schwartz and Olgilty's (1979) shifc from simple to complex realities wherein it is not possible to isolate one variable, as "diversit and interactivity are inherent in mosc phenomena and systems" (p.69;. That is, I dia not look for one particular thing, one particular way. Because 1 was looking at individual experiences of reality, it followed that 1 should work within the "[naturalistic] paradigm [whichl is better suited (exhibits more fi ttingness) to human phenomena" (Lincoln, 1989, p. 112). Owens (1982) described a naturalistic inquiry as the study of human behavior so that people can "be understood through understanding their thoughts, feelings, values, 33 perceptions, and their actions" (p. 5) . I vante6 CO see ~ h e world as the respondents saw it. This necessitatea an emergent design plan (Owens. 1962). While 1 attempted CO be as specific as possible. the design was allowed to "tuifoidu (Guba and Lincoln, 1982; Owens, 1982) as it progressea. Nonetheiess, 1 informed myself about the topic, identified entry qdestions and listened to the parricipntsl stories

throughout. Data Collection The collection of data involved detemination of the study site. negotiacing entry, selection of participants, data collection techniques and the type of documents that were to be collected. and deciding how the interviews were to be conducted. Determination of the Study Site The first step in data collection is the determination of the study site. The two criteria used to aetemine the study site were types of college programs offered and college size. 1 considered that a comprehensive community college, offering a large selection of certificate. diploma and university transfer programs would make possible a more diversified data sample. The deteminant for college size was the number of instructors. 1 did not want the number of i n s t r u c t o r s to be so small such that an instructor could know every other instructor personally. On the other hand 1 did 34 not want it to be so large and impersonal that inst-qctors from one area would never meet and talk with hstrucior fron ano ther area. The college chosen is located in a large ur~an center in Western Canada. This city is a bustling center of indust-y and comerce and has a great Qeal of ethnic and economic diversity. The college offers up to two years of university transfer study in five baccalaureate programs. the first year of study in ive pre-professional programs, and more than 40 certificate and diploma programs. It has a~out 600 faculty and 32,000 scudents in credit or credit-related courses, workshops , and seminars. Negotiating Entxy Once the study site was determined, it was necessary to negotiate entry. 1 contacted the Academic Vice-President at

the institution where I wanced to conuct rny study. 1 was then directec to approach the 1ristir;utional Resezrch Off icer . He was contacted. initially by phone and lacer by a persona1 meeting. This was followed by a formal writcen request in which the study parameters were outlined (Appendix A) . Approval was granted to do the study and to make contact with the respondents. 1 first extended an invitation to each of the respondents to become involved. A letter was sent (Appendix B) explaining the study and how the participants were chosen. This was followed by a phone cal1 and then a personal 35 meeting. 1 wanted to meet them in person so that 1 could begin r;o Duild rusc. The hoge was cnat a mutuai x x s c woi develop so thar there could be a genuine dialogue focusing on their experiences. which would not be affecte6 by tne intrusion of a tape recorder. participant Selection The participants were selected usino a process described by Bogdan and Biklen (1982) as "purposive sampiing." The faculty development officer and the academic chairpersons at the selected college were asked to select participants who had been involved in ISD activities, who were knowledgeable about certain aspects of ISD, or were recognized by their peers os instructional improvement seekers. If tnere appeared to be a group not represented, 1 asked che participants already involved to suggest others, in a process described by Glesne and Peshkin (1932) as "snowball samp;ir,gu (p. 27). Al1 of the instructors who were asked to participate in the study agreea to become involved. Three participants were selected from each of the four main college divisions, so as to ensure representation from many different disciplines. There was an attempt within the selected group of 12 to equalize the number of males and

fernales. The interview cohort is show in Table 1. Table 1 Code Name, Gender, and merience of Interview Cohort Code Name Male / Female Years teaching Years at Present College 1 also tried to strike a balance between those wich more than 15 years of teaching, and those with less than 15 years teachinq experience. The results are show in Table 2. Table 2 Years of Teaching Experience by Gender Years of teaching experience (median) Male/ Fernale 1 believe that the sampling methods which were utilized gave me a sufficiently diverse group of instructors as Number recommended by Glesne and Peshkin (1992) . Years of teaching experience (Rarige) Years of teaching experience (mean) ~ata-collect ion Techniques The three data-collection rechniques used were a persona1 j ournal, documents. and interviews. Persona1 Journal. A personal journal was maintained to assist me with data analysis by serving as a means to gather

my own persona1 perceptions of the inquiry as it proceeded. Guba and Lincoln (19811. Owens (19821 and Winter (1989) have al1 described the necessary elements to be included in a persona1 journal kept during an inquiry. 1 incorporated several of these suggested elements in my journal. Initially the journal was quite objective. listing the contacts 1 made, the participants selected. and otner "mechanical" events, such as accounts of my interviews. The journal then became more subjective. as 1 recorded my impressions of these same events. As soon as possible afcer an interview, 1 tape recorded my perceprio~s and feelings. transcribed them, and included them in the journal. In the journal I also note6 possible themes and coding structures for use in data analysis as the study progressed. 1 used a small portable recorder so that inmiediate thoughts and perceptions could be recorded, as well as those things which were "holes" to be filled. or those things that were unexpected or surprised me. The recordings from this tape were also transcribed and entered into the journal weekly. Guba and Lincoln (1982) explained that the aim of a journal 32 is not only to assist with analysis but also to provide an audit trail. Documents. The respondents were asked for notes that they made during ISD activities, lesson plans, or any other written documentation that they felt was pertinent. This assisted with not only che analysis of data, but also remindad me of relevant events in the experiences of tne participants (Owens, 1982; Winter, 1989). 1; aiso supplied background for some interview questions. A document study was undertaken to gather rich background information on the ISD activities occurring within the institution studied, and to gain an overview of the institutional climate, without direccly intruding orr

indiviiuals (Lawler, Nadler and Cammann, 1980). Reviews were conducted of the professional development newsletter and the minutes of the college professional development committee for the previous three years. The institutional strategic plan was analyzed in those areas dealing with i~struction, teaching and learning. A- number of direct observations were also made. For several months, I was allowed to attend the professional development cornmittee meetings. In addition, 1 attended professional development days and workshops presented by the professional development committee or other inst~ctors. Personal thoughts, insights, comnents and findings were recorded in the journal as soon as possible after each event. 39 interviews. Dexter (1970) asserted that intemiews are one of the major cechiques employed by social scientiss. and they were the primari data-gathering rechniqde. Tnere was one interview with each respondent, and they varied irom one hour and 15 minutes to one hour and 45 minutes. They were recorded and transcribed. Imnediately following the interviews, potential categories were idefitified and entered into the journal. The interviews were not sxuctured; rather they took the form of an open-ended discussion between two concerned participants. 1 attempted to stay away from "danger zones." These surfaced, or became evident to me during the initial invitation, or in the early discussions utilizing "safe" questions. The college had instituted larger class sizes and increased workloads in some programs and one program ha gone to complete Problem Based Learning. These issues were a "sore spot" for some instructors ana I attempted to steer away rom these topics. The firsr: quescion was quite Droad in an attempt to gather general information about instructional ski11 development and to sec the respondents at

ease. The initial question dealt with faculty development in general and allowed the interviewees to talk about the areas they were comfortable discussing. In most cases they had thought about the topic ahead of time and had specific things they wanted to mention. Three of the interviewees had made brief notes of items they wanted to speak about. The response to the opening question was used to "8irec:" tne discussion to those areas I wanted them to tak G -b OU:. The interview guide (wpendix C) had questions cesime to elicit responses to the specific research questions. Interviewees were asked to discuss their instructional development needs, the general and specific value they place on activities they were involved in, why they did or dia not participate, ar,d what the college provided for them. The funnel technique explained by Owens (1982) was also used. After generai area questions, there were questions for checking information (verification), some probing questions, and then those meant to confirm my initial understanding. 1 also used a checklist of the specific questions 1 wanted to pet responses to, to ensure that 1 id not miss any key points (Appendix C) . My training as a facilitacor traiaer, together wich my training and experience in the operation of a volunteer crisis line, were invaluable in this stuay. Tt is of the utmost inportance to gain the responaents' impressions and not direct their ideas to where you personall think they should go. In al1 cases, the respondents were extremely open with their conanents. As 1 had talked to them each at least twice on the phone, and at least once in person, there was a rapport built on the mutual grounds of interest ir learners and learning. Data Analysis Data analysis was begun at the same time as 2ata collection. Glaser (1978) took the view thac che researcher

should collect and analyze the data himself. This 1 found to be very worthwhile. I had made a conscious decision to transcribe the interviews myself. Transcribing was begun as soon as possi~le after the interview. 1 had to listen to the tapes over and over while transcribing, as rny typing prowess leaves something to be desired. Hearing the same thing several times over reminded me of events, nuances in language, laughter and reflective pauses which added to the understanding of what was being said. Each of these in their own way added to my understanding of their perceptions regarding their experiences. Specific understacdings and events were entered into the journal. The procedures used for coding the data were a combination of the strategies suggested by Connelly and Clandinin (19901, Measor (1985), hieber (19861, and Winter (1989). The transcriptions of interviews were analyzed to find overall instructional development themes, potential categories of responses, or patterns of thought for the meanings that participants gave to events they had experienced. 1 did as Owens (1982) suggested. A t the begi~ing of the inquiry, about 80% of the time was spent on data collection and 20% on data analysis. As the study progressed, more time was spent on analysis and less time on collection. This process allowed for checking and verifying 43 In the begiming of this process, the major code clumps were individually coded into fewer categories. These coded sections were hen combinea and resorted until " c h szory" began to emerge. This sortin involved taking the data from a number of codes and placing them in the same file. The contents of the file would then be interpreted to detennine if there was an emergent pattern. The use of he cornputer allowed me to "try" any nurnber of code comparisons. The

process of sorting ana rereaaing the files created, whiie extremely time-consuming, aliowed me to compare the contents of various code categories. In the final analysis, 28 of the 34 codes were included in one of the ten categories as iisted in Table 3 following. Tkro of the codes applied to more than one category. The coe teaching transfer apglie to the category Value of Irxtructional Skill Development Activities and also to Transfer to Teaching. In sorne cases the ince,rc.iewees discussed the fact tnac instructional ski11 development activities had value for tnern but they did norr specify exactly how it applied to their teaching practice. These coded sections were included in the category of Value of Instructional Skill Development Activities. In other cases they specified exactly how they used the new information in their classes. That is. they gave a specific example of how they used the new information in their teaching practice. They were in essence sayin9 it had value for them because it did transfer to tbeir instructional practices. These sections were placed in the category Transfer to Teacning. The second code that qualified for several categories was "faculty work together." Instructors discussed how they felt a need to work with other instructors which fits ifi the category Facuity Needs. They also talked extensively of how they valued working with other instructors. Tkis fitced in the category of General Value of Instructional Skill Development. As well they also mentioned examples of specific activities they worked togetker on. That is, working with other faculty allowed them co see "the Value of Instructional Skill Development Activities." The other four codes were not used in the analysis. The reason for this is explaine in Chapter 4. I believe the processes used allowed me to develop what Owens (1982) described as a "thick description" (p. 15) . The

'thick description" was placed in the fourth of a series of binders. The first binder contained a cornplece copy of the approved interview transcripts. Binder Two contained the coded sections of the interviews with the individual sections grouped into the 34 original codes. Included with each section of transcript was information that stated exactly where and in what interview the coded sections were taken rom. The third binder included the coded data after it was grouped into the ten categories listed in Table 3. Table 3 List of Codes Placed in Each Category Ca t egory Faculty Needs General Value of Instructional Skill Developmen t Participation Reasons Non-participation Reasons Value of Inscructional Skill Development Activities Learn More Aboxt Teaching Trans f er to Teaching College Climate College Provide Faculty Development Office Coaes discipline knowledge, needs, personal needs , f eedback f ron students, technology, faculty work toqether persona1 value, usefulness, value, faculty work together participation always, participation why,

~articipation yes non-participation reasons, participation no teaching transfer, faculty work together ceachifg fun, persona1 development, teaching profession, teaching try, teaching, bag of tricks, teachinq cnanqe teaching transfer college climate, college encouraqe college support faculty developrnent, participation what, things done, visitinq other classes 46 The data within each category were then arrangea inro an order which created the %toryM for chat category. Tkis *.vas placed in Binder Four. Inclue with the data was ~ k e original analysis code assigned to it as well as the interviewee code. This was used to determine when ar, instructor comented in a similar way to another instructor. The code was also used to cross reference with Binder Two =O find the exact section of an interview thac was being quoted. Once the exact section of the interview was determined, this section was rea from Binder One, dong with che discussion which preceded it and that which followed it, to ecsxre the quote was taken in the context in which 1 was using it. Binder Four with the ordered coded sections of transcripts was used to mite the four aualysis chapters. Trustworthiness Four major criteria are usec to assess the

trustworthiness of study findings. Guba and Lincoln (1982) summarized them as t ~ t h value, applicabiiity, consisriency, and neutrality. They then listed the 'four analogous rems within the naturalistic paradigm . . . [as] credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability" (p. 246) . Credibility. In order to ensure the believability of the analysis and interpretation, several methods were used. 1 spent as much time as possible with the respondents to build up a trusting relationship, allowed them to check the transcripts as well as the interpretations, an6 utilized 47 triangulation as much as possible. Instructors' transcripts were compared to my recorded perceptions from xrr journal and to the docu.'~~ents given to me by the instructors. The perceptions were also compared CO the College Stracegic Plan, the professional development newsletters, the rninctes of the college professional developrnent committee, and my obsenrations from attending professional developrnent committee meetings, professional development days and workshops. Initially 1 sent ot persona1 letters (Appendix A) to the interviewees, talked to each of them at least twice on the phone, and met with each of them personally at least once before the actual interview. ha& also had informal discussions with many of then at the professional development workshops or committee meetings 1 attended. Each of these things in their own way helped to develop a mutual trust. A letter was sent to the interviewees notifying them that the transcripts were coming and givinc t5em their code name as 1 had them listed on the interviews (Table 1). They were given the codes listed in Table 1 to ensure anonymity. The interview transcripts were sent to them with a coveriag letter and a page of questions which related to the study (Appendix E) encouraging them to add, change or modify the

transcripts, or add any written comments. There were four questions that related to the four main study questions that they were invited to respond to. Changes noted on the transcripts or conmients from the question page were added to 48 the data. Five of the interviewees added written comefits at the end of their inte-nietni ranscripts. Sometimes they forgot to mention something 6uring the interview, so they appreciated the chance to add it after. An example of an added written comment is the statemenr: "There are several opportunities to learn about the Internet and how to use it. ~lso, al1 faculty can take up to $300 in courses a year, credit or non-credit at the college." These written conunents were added to the data and included in the analysis. The interpretations were sent to the interviewees with a cover letter (Appendix H) allowing them to again cornent. The interview transcripts, comrnents on interviews, documents, personal thoughts and the journal al1 in their own way helped create the story of instructor perceptions of instructional skills developmenc activities. hansferability. Transferability is more likely if there is, as noted by Goertz (1973). a great deal of information, or "thick descriptionv, about a very specific group of respondents. If this is done, then "working hypotheses from that context might be transferable to a second and similar context" (Guba and Lincoln, 1982, p. 248). In carrying out this research, it is not rny intent that the findings be transferred to other contexts, nor, as stated by Bogdan and Biklen (19821, "does qualitative research suggest that there would be a consistency of action in other situations" (p. 4 9 ) . My primary concern was to obtain 49 meaningful insights into this specific group of instruccors at this one colleg~.

Dependability. Due to the nacilre of naturalistic inquiry, it is unusual to replicate studies. Depeaeability cornes, therefore, rom maintaining an accurate record (audit trail) of the methoaological steps and decisiors rade, so that the reader will believe that "good" process was f ollowed. Al1 signi f icant events , thoughts and processes vere duly recorded into rny journal. The journal was then use extensively during the analysis, and the subsequent writing of the final report. ~onfirmability. Within the naturalistic paradigm, the data are confimed utilizing triangulation and the use of journal and data clusters to ensure that the interprecations were reasonable. Tne original interview transcripts were reurned to the respondents to check their validicy. The docmert analsis was used as background for che interviews. This also erisured that the researcher and the interviewees had a common base of knowledge of the college and its instructor development programs. Finally, the respondents were sent a copy of the findings chapters to review and comment on (Appendix H). It should be mentioned that half of the interviewees responded to the findings chapters. They were sent the chapters of the dissertation along with a response sheet 50 (Appendix Hl They did not suggest a single change. A sample of their corrunerits are: You accurately represent the content as well as the spirit of rrry remarks. I am proud of this college as reflected in your papes. It's valuable to find out other peoples' perceptions of faculty development activities. You certainly sampled a good cross-section of people across the divisions.

It's always interesting reading things close to your heart . So much said seemed familiar chat 1 may have said it or I just agree. It looks great to me. Looks good to me. These coments, in no way solicited, were comforting to me, in that 1 represented the respondents fairly. This encouraged me to believe in the trustworthiness of the study findings . Ethical Considerations Of utmost importance in any inquiry is the necessity to respect and safeguard the rights of the respondents. This is sometimes done formally by application of a Code of Ethics. Glesne and Peshkin (1992) quoted a section of the Code of Ethics for the Council of the American Anthropological Association. In part, this Code States that when people do research, the "paramount responsibility is to those they study. When there is a conflict of interest, these individuals must come first" (p. 111). Glesne and Peshkin (1992) and Wincer (1985) listea procedues to safeguard the ethical concerzs involve8 iri naturalistic inquiry. The University of Alberta also hzs Standards of Conduct for Ethics in Research. Everything was done to ensure that the study observed these standards. Initially the University Ethics in Research f o m was completed and submitted for approval. After the respondents were selected, they were sent a letter explaining the study and asking for their cooperation (Appendix B) . This letter explained that they could opt out at any time. Before the interviews began, the responaents were asked to sign an informed consent fom (Appendix F) . -1-t the interviews, the 12-point "cover story" (Glesne and Pesnkir, 1992, p. 32) was read to al1 respondents (Appendix G). The respondents were

given the opportunity to examine the tape transcripts and the interpretations, and to "opt out" at any point. They were also given the chance to add, change or remove sections of the interviews or parcs of the icterpretations. My advisor was also approached for advLce and checking of procedures. Through it all, I realized it was my responsibility ro uphold the ethical principles and mintain the confidentiality of the respondents. Chapter Sunmiary Many colleges offer ISD activities for their instructors, as the colleges have teaching excellence as part of their mission. A naturalistic inquiry was wdertaker: to explore the perceptions that instructors a the college selected for this stuey have towards similar ac=ivi-,ies. Through the data-collection and data-analysis procedures outlined, 1 developed a thick description of their experiences . Owens (1982 1 explained this as "synthesizing. integration, and relating [of] observations in such a wa as to ' take the reader there' " (p. 15) . It is hoped chac the reader will gain an understanding of college inst~ctors' perceptions of ISD activities and the effect these activities have on "la raison d'tre" of the colleges -- the students. CHAPTER 3 Methodology and Research Design This chapter outlines the research procedures used to conduct this study. Among the topics discussed are the site of the study, population targeted, procedures followed in field-testing the validity and reliability of the instrument, and analyses of the data collected. The results of the study identify those predictor variables that are significant indicators of teachers reasons for staying and choosing to teach in an urban school district and also the level of commitment of those teachers. Setting This case study was conducted in the Norfolk Public Schools District, an urban school district located in southeastern Virginia. The district is located within a city that has a population of

approximately 239,400 and covers an area of 66 square miles. There are approximately 58 educational sites within the district. This urban school district services approximately 36,000 students who attend the citys five high schools, eight middle schools, 35 elementary schools and 10 alternative education sites. The current teaching force was approximately 3,200 (2001-2002 school year). The racial/ethnic composition of the teaching force for that year was 43.0% African American, 54.5% Caucasian and 2.5% other and the gender breakdown was 82.0% women and 18.0% men. Population The target population for this study consisted of experienced teachers in this district who had remained for a minimum of 10 years. The names of these teachers were identified through utilization of an automated database. An all-inclusive sample was used of current teachers hired before August 1991. 49 Permission to conduct this study in the selected school district was requested and approved by the districts Department of Research, Testing, and Statistics (see Appendix B). Approval from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Institutional Review Board for Research was also granted (see Appendix B). Instrumentation A teacher survey instrument was used to gather the information needed to answer all of the research questions. The first step in formulating the survey involved a review of the problem, purpose of the study along with the research questions, and a review of surveys used in similar studies. The commitment factor section of the instrument was developed using questions from a survey instrument developed by Allen and Meyer (1990) and used by Hawkins (1998) in his efforts to determine predictors of organizational commitment among high school principals. His and other similar studies used a Likert scale design for the survey instrument. The Likert scale design was chosen for two reasons: (a) research studies reviewed indicate that it provides for the most honest interpretation of responses in these types of studies, and (b) it is needed to obtain scores for each area of the instrument. The teacher questionnaire was composed of three parts. The first part was designed to obtain the following demographic information: (a) gender, (b) race/ethnicity, (c) present assignment (grade level), (d) number of years of experience in an urban district, (e) age, and (f) education level. Part II was designed in a Likert-style scale format and consisted of two parts: reasons for selecting to teach in an urban school district and reasons for remaining in this urban school

district. The section included statements about the teachers reasons for selecting to teach in an urban district, reasons for staying and their perceptions of professional development 50 activities. Part III of the instrument was designed to generate a composite score to determine the level of commitment of each respondent (see Appendix C). Validity tests were conducted of the teacher survey instrument using an expert panel composed of doctoral candidates in an Educational Leadership cohort. Development of the questions for the survey and the content validity testing were done by this expert panel comprised of experienced education leaders pursuing advanced degrees. Before validating the instrument, the panel of doctoral students was given a brief introduction of the study and an overview of the instrument itself. After a reassessment of the needs of the survey instrument and three rounds of validation to reword items, the original instrument was revised and a section on commitment factors was added. The arguments for pre-testing (the instrument) are compelling. No one wants to invest large sums of money and considerable effort in hefty research design only to fail to achieve the research objectives due to some unforeseen error (Babbie, 1990, p. 220). The instrument was designed to define the exact domain of the items asked and how well by association that domain is sampled by the test items and the clarity of each (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). The domains used were: extrinsic factors, intrinsic factors, professional development factors, and commitment factors. The responses to the content validity test items were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to determine frequencies and percentages of responses. Using the panels suggestions for wording, those items with less than an acceptable percentage (85.0%) were revised and a corrected version of the instrument was tested. After the fifth round of validations, all 32 items on the survey instrument met at least an 85.0% level of agreement (see Appendix D). The commitment items tested at .85 51 for the median reliability when used in the Allen and Meyer scale and at .78 when tested in Hawkins study (Hawkins, 1998). Data Collection Procedure An email from the Senior Director of Research, Testing, and Statistics was sent to Principals indicating approval of the study with a request for cooperation. Written documentation of the approval can be found in Appendix B.

The coded survey instruments were then sent out through the school district interoffice mailing system to each teacher who fit the criteria. Nine hundred and thirty teachers received the instrument. Teachers were asked to return completed surveys by interoffice mail to the researcher in the Department of Human Resources. The instruments were coded so that tracking could be done for a follow-up of unreturned surveys. The first mailing received a response rate of 51.5% (479 returned surveys). After reviewing the list of returned surveys and deleting the names of those teachers who had left the system during the summer, a second mailing of 369 was sent to all teachers who did not respond during the first mailing. Forty-six teachers responded for a total return rate of 56.4% (525 out of 930) significantly more than the 270 required for an effective sample size (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). To provide validity to the results of the survey, the researcher made certain to obtain an acceptable response rate based on guidelines from Krejcie and Morgan (1970). Data Analyses The data collected for the study were reviewed and analyzed after coding the responses to each item and inputting them into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Missing scale scores for the commitment section were recorded as a three on the five-point scale. Missing items for the other sections were replaced with a three as well. The Likertscale type 52 survey instrument contained 32 items used to determine reasons for selecting to teach in an urban school district, reasons for remaining, and levels of commitment. One negatively worded item (item 30) has been positively worded and analyzed for the purpose of presenting in tables. The rating scale used to indicate responses to items was (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, and (1) strongly disagree. Characteristic Analysis A descriptive analysis of the data provided a profile of the survey participants through the use of frequency distribution of the responses to the appropriate items on the questionnaire. The categories for each variable were assigned a code (i.e., for gender, male were assigned the code 1 and female assigned the code 2). The codes were then entered into the SPSS database. These scores indicate the number and percentage of teachers who participated in the study. Each set of data was disaggregated by gender, race/ethnicity, present assignment (grade level), number of years of experience in urban classrooms, age, and education level. Frequencies were tabulated for all demographic variables. Also, responses for each item were analyzed to obtain item mean scores and standard deviations. These scores were then used to

make statistical comparisons between and within the groups and to answer the research questions of the study. Scale Analysis Data were generated from SPSS to obtain frequencies of responses for each of the five response options on the survey instrument. The five options and the assigned weights for each can be found in Table 3. 53 Table 3 Likert-Scale Response Weights ___________________________________________________________________________ ___ Response Scale Option Weight ___________________________________________________________________________ ___ 1 Strongly Disagree (1.00 1.99) 2 Disagree (2.00 2.99) 3 Undecided (3.00 3.99) 4 Agree (4.00 4.99) 5 Strongly Agree (5.00) ___________________________________________________________________________ ___ Reasons for selecting. Responses to survey items 1 3 and 17 22 were used to identify the reasons of teachers for selecting to teach in an urban school district. Frequencies of responses for each item, mean scores and standard deviations were calculated. Analysis of this data by characteristic variables, frequencies of responses for each item, t-tests, an ANOVA, and Tukey post-hoc tests assisted the researcher in answering research question one and its sub questions: Why do teachers select urban school districts? Reasons for remaining. Responses to survey items 4 10 and 17 22 were used to identify the reasons of teachers for remaining in an urban school district. Frequencies of responses for each item, mean scores and standard deviations were calculated. Analysis of these data by characteristic variables, frequencies of responses for each item, t-tests, an ANOVA, and Tukey post-hoc tests assisted the researcher in answering the second research question and its sub questions: Why do teachers remain in urban school districts? 54 Professional development. Items 11 16 were professional development items and were used to identify the activities teachers believed to be important to urban districts. Frequencies of

responses for each item, mean scores and standard deviations were calculated. Analysis of this data by characteristic variables, frequencies of responses for each item, t-tests, an ANOVA, and Tukey post-hoc tests assisted the researcher in answering the third research question and its sub questions: What professional development activities are important in urban school districts? Teacher commitment. The commitment level of each respondent was obtained by adding respondents ratings for 10 specific items on the survey instrument. This section was represented by items 23 32. A numerical commitment score for each respondent was calculated by totaling the survey responses for this section and dividing by the number of items (10). The numerical score for each respondent indicates the teachers level of commitment. Analysis of these data by demographic variables, frequencies of responses for each item, t-tests, an ANOVA, and Tukey post-hoc tests assisted the researcher in answering the third research question and its sub questions: What is the level of commitment of teachers who stay? Relationship between commitment and reasons for remaining. The relationship between why teachers choose to remain in this urban district and their levels of commitment was determined by comparing the commitment composite scores with mean scores for all of the items used to determine reasons for remaining. Composite scores were calculated for only the commitment section of the survey instrument. A correlation matrix was also constructed to determine the significance of the relationship between why teachers choose to remain in this district and their levels of commitment. Analysis of the resulting data assisted the researcher in 55 answering the final question of the study and its sub questions: What is the relationship between reasons why teachers stay and their level of commitment? 56 METHOD Design The participants in this research were 300 introductory psychology students (148 fernale, 152 male) at the University of Western Ontario, who participated to fulfill a course requirement. An additional 18 participants served in a preliminary pilot snidy. The 300 subjects participating in the main study were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment conditions defined above, that is, Low Enthusiasm, High Enthusiasm/Strategic, High Enthusiasm/Random, and High Enthusiasm/Uniform,

with the restriction that each condition included 37 females and 38 males. In order to create a simulated classroom environment, participants were tested in groups of 2 to 10. To equate subject characteristics as well as time of presentation across treatment conditions, groups of 3 to 10 subjects were randomly assigned to the four treatment conditions, and the four conditions were filled concurrently rather than sequentially. All other experimental conditions were identical across conditions. Prclcedure Each of the 300 participants was first asked to read and f i l out a consent fom regardhg participation in the study (see Appendix A). Participants were then given introductory oral and written instnictions informing hem that the purpose of the shidy was to investigate factors contributhg to effective classroom teaching in universities (see Appendix B). They were further instructed that they would be viewing a 67 videotaped lecture, approximately 16 minutes in length, presented by Professor Mary Dow of the Faculty of Education. Participants were told not to take notes during the lecture. The rationale behind this procedure was that note-taking could potentially interfere with the present study's measurement of attention. For example, participants may experience difficulty using one hand to take notes and another hand to press the button for the secondary task reaction tirne measure. Behavioral observations of on-task behavior could also be affected by note-taking. During the videotaped lecture, it would be difficult to differentiate between lecture-onented note-taking and "doodling". They were also told that a tone would sound periodically throughout the lecture, and that they were expected to press the button on their desk as fast as possible every time they heard the tone. They were instructed that following the lecture, they would be asked to: (1) recall as many points as they could remember from the lecture, (2) complete a multiple choice test on the lecture, (3) rate the effectiveness of the instructor, and (4) complete a 5-item interest s w e y . In order to present a life-size image of the instructor to students, the videotaped lectures were projected on a 4 X 4 foot overhead screen with a Sharp Videobeam Color Projector Unit ( Perry & Pemer, 1990; Perry & Magnusson, 1987). Group size was resmcted to 10 so that each subject had a clear and approximately equal view of the overhead screen. Resuicting the group size to 10 subjects also increased the accuracy of "hme-on-task" observations. 68

Tones were presented at 30 to 90 second intervals while subjects viewed the 16-minute videotaped lecture. Participants were required to react to the tone by pressing a button on their desk, and reaction times were recorded autornatically for ali participants concurrently. Irnmediately following the lecture, subjects completed a teaching evaluation fom, free recall test, multiple choice exam, and Finally a student interest survey. The teaching evaluation form was given first to ensure that teacher effectiveness ratings were not influenced by test performance. The multiple choice test was given after the free recall test because the multiple choice questions could aid in the recall of lecture material. in order to hold conditions constant, participants were required to spend the full time lirnir on each questionnaire before going on to the next questionnaire. More specifically, subjects were given 5 minutes to complete the teaching evaluation form, 15 minutes to complete the free recall test, 10 minutes to complete the multiple choice test, and 5 minutes to complete the interest survey. Upon completion of the questionnaires, participants received a debriefing form (see Appendix Cl. AU four versions of the videotaped lecrure were constructed and presented by Mary Dow, an actor, communications consultant, and former speech and drama instructor at Fanshawe College. The same substantive points were presented in ail four versions of the lecture and the length of each version was approximately 16 69 minutes. The lecture topic, "A Schema Theory of Reading Comprehension", was taken from an excerpt in an advanced educational psychology textbook by Glover, Ronning, & Bruning (1990). The text or script of the videotaped lecture is reproduced in Appendbc D. A senior level psychology topic was chosen to reduce the likelihood that it had already been learned by participants in their introductory psychology course. Certain variables were kept constant across al1 four versions of the videotaped lecture, including lecturer, length. lecture content, organization, and the use of visual aids. The script based on Glover, Ronning, and Bmning (1990) was used in constmcting al1 four versions of the lecture. Thus, the same points were presented in the sarne order in al1 four conditions. However, the four videotaped lectures vared rnarkedly in terms of teacher enthusiasm. Teache: enthusiasm was operationally defined in this study as consisting of the following expressive teaching behaviors: (1) speaking in a dramatic or expressive way, (2) variation in pitch and

volume, (3) vocal inflection, (4) pausing to stress important points, (5) moving about while lecturing, (6) gesturing with hands or arms, (7) exhibiting facial gestures or expressions, (8) eye contact, and (9) humour. The lecturer relied upon her acting skiils to implement these expressive behaviors in varying ways in the four versions of the videotaped lecture. The Low Enthusiasm condition contained few if any enthusiastic teaching 70 behaviors. The instructor simply read the lesson verbatim from prepared notes, periodically looking up at the camera and not moving from behind the lectem. The High Enthusiasm/Strategic condition contained high levels of enthusiastic teaching behaviors, and these low-inference behaviors were coordinated with the structure of the lesson and the importance of lecture material. For example, the instmctor emphasized important points with hand gestures or vocal inflections. Prior to videotaping, the topic structure (Le.. macrostructure) of the lecture was determined using propositional analysis and this topic stnicture was incorporated into the lecturer's script (Kintsch, 1982). The instructor highlighted the macrostructure of the lecture in two ways. First, the instructor signalled the macrostnicture of the lecture by exhibiting high levels of enthusiastic teaching behaviors at the begi~ing of new lecture topics (see Appendix E). For example, the lecturer paused, spoke more expressively, and/or moved toward the camera each time a new topic was introduced. Secondly, the lecturer vared the level of enthusiastic teaching behaviors within each topic. This variation in enthusiasm was determined by propositional type (Le., high vs. low topic level). High topic level propositions support andor elaborate upon the topic of the paragraph in which they are embedded. while Iow topic level propositions are less relevant to the topic structure of the text (Kintsch, 1982). Appendix F provides an example of high and low topic level propositions. High topic leveI propositions were signaled by higher levels of enthusiastic ceaching behaviors(e.g., 71 gestures). In contrast, low topic level sections of the paragraph were talked about with less enthusiasm (Le., more matter of fact, fewer gestures). The High Enthusiasm/Random condition also included frequent use of enthusiastic behaviors, but these behaviors sometimes did and sometimes did not coincide with high topic level propositions or the begi~ing of new lecture topics. Instead, they were presented at random intervals throughout the lecture. More

specifically, enthusiastic teaching behaviors occurred appropriately during certain sections of the random lecture and inappropriately during other sections. For example, the instructor sometimes paused and spoke more expressively at the beginning of a new topic, and sornetimes did this at other randornly determined locations in the text. Consequently, students may not have realized that a new topic was being introduced since the new topic was not signaled by the instructor's behaviour. Appendix G outlines which topics were signaled with high levels of teacher enthusiasm and which topics were not signaled in the High Enthusiasm/Random condition. The High EnthusiasmNniform condition also featured frequent use of enthusiastic teaching behaviors, but their occurrence rernained constant throughout the lecture. This condition is analagous to highlighting an entire essay with yeiiow highlighter. The instructor exhibited high levels of enthusiasm during both high and Iow topic level propositions, and at the beginning and the end of topics. This constant 72 level of enthusiasm did not differentiate important from unimportant information. ctwe anention. Attention was measured in two ways: on-task behavior and secondary task reaction time (STRT). On-task behavior was measured using Brigham, Scniggs, and Mastropieri's (1992) time sarnpling technique. Every 60 seconds, the investigator used the observation form shown in Appendix H to record whether each student in the testing session was on-task (e.g., "general orientation toward teacher, actively listening to teacher" ) or off-task (e.g., "drumming pends, hands, feet, talking, looking out windows"). On-task behavior was reported as a percentage of the total number of observations for each subject. To check the accuracy of behavioral observations, a second observer independenrly recorded on-task behaviour in four separate testing sessions. The second observer recorded the on-task behaviour of 17 participants and made 272 observations in total (Le.. 16 observations for each participant). The second observer, a PhD candidate in Educational Psychology, followed the same guidelines for on-task behaviour as the investigator but was kept blind to the experimental condition by wearng earplugs and facing the students rather than the video screen. Interobserver reliability was determined by percentage agreement between the two observers' ratings of on-task behaviour. The two observers were in agreement 99.3% of the time. More specificaily, out of the 272 tirnes that both

73 observers rated on-task behaviour, the two observers gave different ratings only 2 tirnes. The second measure of attention was secondary task reaction time (STRT). Subjects were required to react to each of 20 interspersed 1000 Hz, 70-millisecond tones embedded in the audio track of the videotaped lecture. A two-channel digital storage oscilloscope was used to ensure that the amplitude of the tone was noi significantly greater than the amplitude of the lecturer's voice. Accordingly, the volume of the tone was about the sarne as the lecturer's voice, clearly audible, but not so loud as to wipe out the voice. In the High Enthusiasrn/Strategic and the High Enthusiasrn/Random conditions, 10 tones were placed at 60 to 90 second intervals during penods involving low levels of teacher enthusiasm, and ten tones were placed during periods involving high levels of teacher enthusiasm. This allowed for a within group measure of selective attention in addition to a benueen group measure of selective attention. In the Low Enthusiasm and High EnthusiasmRTniform conditions, the 20 tones were placed at approximately the same temporal locations as had been selected for the High Enthusiasrn/S trategic and High EnthusiasmlRandom condit ions. Students reacted to each tone by pressing a button on their desk as quickly as possible. The time between the onset of the tone and the button press was measured in milliseconds by a digital timer. The digital timer dlowed up to 10 74 subjects to be tested sirnultaneously. After each tone sounded, the researcher recorded each participant's reaction time on the data sheet shown in Appendix 1. By the time the video finished, 20 secondary task reaction times (STRT) had been recorded for each subject. The measure of selective attention was the average STRT score for each subject. Text memorvfrenresentatiop. Text memory was measured by performance on a free recall task. Free recall instructions were written at the top of a lined piece of paper. Participants were told to use the page to recall as many specific points as they could from the lecture. They were further instmcted to be as accurate as possible, but not to worry about exact wording. Finally, they were told to give specific points rather than summarizing the gist of the lecture. Four recall measures were used. as defined below: (1) overall recall, (2) topic

access, (3) conditional recall, and (4) topic representation. Overall recall was rneasured by the total number of propositions recalled, with a possible range of O to 127 propositions. The complete list of the 127 propositions presented in the videotaped lecture is reproduced in Appendix J. Overall recdl is a global rneasure of memory, whereas, the three remaining recall measures examined the selective effects of teacher enthusiasm on rnemory. Topic access was rneasured by the number of topics for which at least one text proposition was accurately recalled, with a possible range of O to 17 topics. A list of the topic was 75 17 topics is reproduced in Appendix E. Explicit or implicit reference to a not required for this measure. Topic access was credited when participants 1 recalled one or more propositions rom the corresponding subsection of the lecture text. Subjects were not directly asked to recall lecture topics since, "such a task would permit subjects to consciously reconstxuct topics that they might otherwise have forgotten" (Lorch & Lorch, 1985, p. 140). According to Lorch, Lorch. & Inman (1 993, topic access tests whether signaling a text's topic stmcture influences the encoding of that structure, or in the present context. whether strategic use of teacher enthusiasm irnproves recall of superordinate content (Le., topics). Conditional recall, the third measure of text memory, was developed by Lorch and his colleagues (1993) to test whether signaling a text's topic structure improves or interferes with memory for subordinate content once a topic is accessed. For example, "signaling may cause students to attend more to the text's topic structure at a cost of more superficial processing of subordinate content" (Lorch et al., 1993, p. 284). In the present study, conditional recall was used to assess the impact of teacher enthusiasm on recail of topic-related information. Conditionai recall was scored as the percentage of propositions recalled about a topic, given that at least one proposition about a topic was recalled. For example, if a participant recded 2 of the 10 propositions presented on a topic, then their conditional recail score for that topic would be 20%. The mean percentage was then calculated across ail recalled topics (i.e., excluding topics for which nothing was recalled) . The fourth measure of text memory was topic representation. Topic representation assesses whether signaling a text's topic stntcture influences

organization of topics in memory, or whether strategic use of teacher enthusiasm causes topics to be encoded in the same order in memory as the actual order of presentation of topics. This measure assumes that "a subject whose recall organization matches the organization of topics in the text has better represented the topic suucture of the text than a subject whose recall order diverges from the text order" (Lorch et al., 1993, p. 283). Topic representation was rneasured by the rank correlation between the order of recalled topics and the actual order of presentation of topics. For example, assume that a subject recalled 4 topics in the following order: 2, 1,6,8. These numben were paired with the actual order of presentation of topics: (1, 2) (2, 1) (3, 6) (4, 8), and a rank order correlation coefficient calculated across these pairs. In this case, the rank order correlation is .80. A separate rank order correlation was cornputed in this way for each participant. Spearman's rho, a nonpararnetric version of Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient was used for this purpose because it is based solely on ranks. In addition to the text memory measures defined above, the High Enthusiasm/Random condition included two additionai measures, namely random topic access and random conditional recail. Random topic access was measured in 77 the same way as the topic access score, with one difference. As indicated in Appendix G, random topic access divided the topic access score into two separate measures: (1) recall of signaled topics (N=7), and (2) recall of unsignaled topics (N=lO). Since the number of signaled and unsignaled topics was unequal (Le., 7 vs. IO), scores were converted into percentages. For exarnple, if a participant recailed two signaled topics and four unsignaled topics, their signaled topic score would be 28.6% and their unsignaled topic score would be 40.0%. Random conditional recall was measured in the same way as conditional recall, with one difference. Random conditional recall divided the conditional recall score into two separate measures: (1) percentage of propositions recalled about signaled topics, and (2) percentage of propositions recalled about unsignaled topics. The system for sconng recall protocols used in the present study was developed by Lorch and his colleagues (Lorch; 1989; Lorch & Lorch, 1986), and is based on Kintsch's system of propositional analysis (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1974). The main difference between the nvo scoring systems is the type of propositions scored. Lorch's system only analyzes major propositions correspondhg to major clauses in

sentences, while Kintsch's system anaiyzes both major and minor propositions. Several studies have demonstrated the reliability of this scoring system (e-g., Lorch & Lorch, 1996; Lorch. Lorch, & h a n , 1993; Lorch, Lorch, & Mogan, 1987). Lorch and Lorch (1996) exarnined interrater reliability of this scoring system 78 by having one rater score recall protocols without knowledge of expenmental condition while a second rater, also blind to expenmental condition, scored a random subset of 20 recall protocols. The two raters assigned the same overall score 95% of the time, that is, 19 of 20 recall scores were identical. A second measure of interrater reliability examined the specific propositions credited by each rater. Agreement was scored when both raters scored a specific proposition as refemng tc, the same topic. Disagreement was scored when both raters scored a proposition as refemng to a different topic or when only one of the raters gave credit for a specific proposition. On this measure, the two raters were found to agree 82% of the time. Lorch (1997) gave two arguments for adopting a less detailed approach to propositional analysis than that of Kintsch and van Dijk. First, Lorch stated that the type of propositional analysis used to examine recall protocols should depend on one's research goals. Researchrs should be clear on what aspects of the message they want to examine (e.g., organization, recall of specific parts of the text), then detemiine a breakdown of content that focuses on mernory of these aspects. Second, Lorch asserted that detailed systems such as that of Kintsch & van Dijk (1974) are unsuitable for most research questions because they often produce "broad" descriptions of content. Consequently, it is futile to analyze "all" of the content of a text and memory for that content if doing so fails to answer key research questions. 79 The master list of topics and core propositions shown in Appendix J was used to score recall protocols. Core propositions corresponded with major clauses within each sentence. For example, the sentence "Many factors conm'bure to air pollution, but the burning of fossil Bels is a major source of srich pollution " is a made up of two core propositions. The first core proposition is: "Many factors contribute to airpollution. " and the second core proposition is: "The burning of fossil bels is a major source of such polltuion. ". Once the master list was formulated, each subject's recall protocol was scored for "gist recall" of the 127 core propositions. More specifically, each recall protocol

was broken dom into propositions expressed by the subject. Next, an attempt was made to match recalled propositions with corresponding propositions from the master list. Lastly, if recalled propositions corresponded to an idea from the master list, then the nurnber of the proposition from the master list was written above the recalled proposition. It is important to note that occasionally a single word in the recall indicated that the subject had remembered a specific proposition from the lecture text. The present study used the same method as that of Lorch and Lorch (1996) io assess the reliability of the scoring system. The principal investigator scored the recall protocols of all 300 participants. A second rater, blind to experimental condition, independently scored 20 randomly selected protocols. The second observer, a PhD candidate in Educational Psychology, followed the same guidelines for sconng as the principal investigator. Two measures of interrater reliability was calculated. The first measure compared the two rater's overall recall scores. The two raters assigned the same overall score 85% of the time, that is, 17 of the 20 overall recall scores were identical. The second measure of interrater reliability examined the specific propositions credited by each rater. Agreement was scored when both raters scored a specific proposition as referring to the same topic. Disagreement was scored when both raters scored a proposition as refemng to a different topic or when only one of the raters gave credit for a specific proposition. On this measure. the two raters were found to agree 100% of the time. Lecture recall test. Subjects completed a 15-item multiple choice test, shown in Appendix K. that assessed participants' recall of lecture topics through mainly comprehension, application,and synthesis questions. Bloom's taxonorny of educational objectives guided the construction of the multiple choice test items (Woolfolk, 1993). Application questions required subjects to use a general concept learned in the lecture to solve a specific problem, for example: mile reading a tertbook chap~er on "Personalky Disorders, Joe realized that he had already learned the sections on "Schkophrenia " and "Depression ". Consequently, he sped up his reading rmtil he encountered something new. Of the manyJwctio~zs that schemara serve in reading comprehension, which funcrion does this best illtts~ate? a. intepi-etation ofreading material b. swnmarizution of content

c. editing of content d both (a) und (c) Synthesis questions required subjects to corne up with a new idea by combining different ideas learned in the lecture, for example: Whenyou read the sentence "Erin borrowed the antique tablecloth ", you know more about the sentence than whar is being explkit& stated How is this possible ? a. schernata influence the interpreiution of a sentence b. new information is added to existing schemata c. schemaiu enable readers to draw inferences about text d schemaia are teinplaies for in formation we already h o w -tiv-. Student motivation for further leaming was measured in two ways: a pend-and-paper test and a behavioral measure. As shown in AppendUt L, the pencil-and-paper test included 5 items requiring students to rate their degree of interest in leaming more about the lecture topic. Each item was rated on a 5-point scde where scale values were defined as follows: l=zero interest, 2=slightly interested, 3=rnoderately interested, kvery interested, and S=extrernely interested. Several theories of motivation (e.g., Deci and Ryan, 1985; Keller, 1983; Schiefele, 1991) justiv the operational definition of student motivation as interest in further leaming. Deci and Ryan (1985) argued that interest plays "an important directive role in intrinisically motivated behavior in that people naturally approach activities that interest them" (p. 34). Keller (1983) dso identified interest as a criricd component of student motivation. According to Keller, to improve student 82 motivation, teachers must stimulate and sustain student interest in class lessons. Additional support for the operationalization of student motivation as interest in M e r learning is provided by Schiefele's (1991) in-depth research review. Based on findings of past research, a model was proposed that outlined causal relations between interest, general motivational orientations, cognitive capabilities, cognitive and emotional mediating processes, leaming, and evaluation of the learning experience. According to this model, interest is always content-specific, in that it is related to a specific subject or activity. This mode1 further proposed that interest is a prerequisite to subject-specific intrinsic motivation. In other words, when students are interested in a subject, they want to leam more about it. Schiefele's (1991)

definition of interest provides strong support for the present study's operational definition of student motivation. One purpose of the present study was to investigate student motivation to leam more about the lecture topic. Therefore, aqoperational deftion which focused on a more general motivation orientation (e.g., achievement motivation) would not have been suitable. The second, behavioral measure of motivation was obtained by telling subjects that further reading on the lecture topic was available and would be mailed to them if they were interested. Interested subjects were asked to write down thek name and address on a separate piece of paper. The sarne measure of motivation was used by Slater (1981). Requests for hirther reading is considered an ideal behavioral 83 measure of student motivation under the laboratory conditions of the current shidy. Laboratory experiments are limited in their choice of motivation mesures since data are couected from simulated rather than actual classrooms. Consequently, motivation measures used in observational and field studies (e.g., amount of studying, senior course registration) are not available in laboratory experiments. evalVpUpn of t-. Participants rated the effectiveness of the videotaped instructor using a 5-item questionnaire derived from The University of Western Ontario's hstructor and Course Evaluation fom. As indicated in Appendix M, participants rated each item on a 7-point scale where scale values were defined as follows: l=very poor, Z=unsatisfactory, 3=borderline, 4=satisfactory, 5=g00d, 6=very good, i-outstanding. - As a manipulation check, a pilot study was camed out in which 18 undergraduate university srudents (9 male, 9 fernale) viewed the four videotaped lectures and rated them on various scales as described below. The following three hypotheses were tested regarding the four treatment conditions to be compared in the experiment proper. 1. The three High Enthusiasrn conditions (i.e., Strategic, Random, Unifom) were expected to differ from the Low Enthusiasm condition in perceiveci or rated frequency of occurrence of enthusiastic teaching behaviors, but not in perceived frequency of other types of teaching behaviors (Le., clarity, pacing, organization, speech). Student ratings of "overall enthusiasm" were expected to be higher for the three High Enthusiasm conditions (i.e., Strategic, Randorn, Uniform) than

for the Low Enthusiasm condition. Student ratings of degree of connectedness between enthusiastic teaching behaviors and the structure of the lesson were expected to differ significantly among the four conditions. More specifically, student ratings of degree of connectedness were expected to be highest for High Enthusiasm./Strategic condition, followed by the High Enthusiasm/ Random condition, and High Enthusiasm/Uniform, and Low Enthusiasm conditions, with the latter two conditions not expected to differ. This hypothesis was based on the fact that even though al1 three High Enthusiasm conditions were expected to have equally high levels of teacher enthusiasm. the High Enthusiasrn/Strategic condition was the only condition in which enthusiastic teaching behaviors were consistently coordinated with the structure of the lesson and the importance of lecture topics. In conuast, the High Enthusiasm/Random condition coordinated enthusiastic teaching behaviors with the structure of the lesson about 50% of the tirne. while the Kiah Enthusiasm/Uniforrn and Low Enthusiasm conditions never coordinated enthusiastic teaching behaviors with the structure of the lesson. The pilot study used a within-subjects design in which al1 four videotaped lectures being shown to each of the 18 subjects. A modified Latin square design was used to randomly order the presentation of the four videotaped lectures, with the restriction that the Low Enthusiasm condition was always presented first. This balancing technique ensured that each of the three high enthusiasm conditions appeared equally often (Le., 6 times) at each ordinal of the last three positions. The first group of six subjects watched the videotaped lectures in the following 1, 2, 3. 4 order: Low Enthusiasm, High Enthusiasdstrategic, High Enthusiasm/Random, and High EnthusiasmNniform. The second group of six subjects watched the videotaped lectures in 1,3,4,2 order: Low Enthusiasm, High Enthusiasrn/Randorn, High Enthusiasxn/Uniform and High Enthusiasm/Strategic. The third group of six subjects watched the videotaped lectures in 1,4,2,3 order: Low Enthusiasm, High Enthusiasd Uniform, High Enthusiasrn/Strategic enthusiasm, and High Enthusiasm/Random. To check on whether expermental manipulations were irnplemented as intended, pilot subjects were asked to rate the frequency of occurrence of lowinference

teaching behaviors in each version of the videotaped lecture, using a modified version of Murray's (1983) Teacher Behaviors Inventory (see Appendix N). 86 The TB1 version used in the pilot study contained 27 items divided into five categories: Clarity, Enthusiasm, Pacing, Organization, and Speech. Students rated the frequency with which their instructor exhibited each TB1 behavior on a 5-point scale where scale points were defined as follows: l=aImost never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, koften, and 5=almost always. Participants also rated the instnictor's overall level of enthusiasm on a 5-point scale where l=low, fmedium, and 5=high (see Appendk O), and as a check on whether teacher enthusiasm was properly coordinated with the structure of the lesson in the different treatment conditions, participants rated: (1) the extent to which teacher enthusiasm was coordinated with the main points of the lecture, that is, occurred with increased frequency during main points and with decreased frequency dunng less important points; (2) the extent to which teacher enthusiasm served to reinforce the meaning of the lecture, that is, helped students understand the lecture; and (3) the extent to which the level of enthusiasm was appropriate to the points being discussed in the lecture (see Appendix O). Student ratings of connectedness of enthusiasm were given on a 5-point scale, where l=almost never, 2=rarely, 3=some times, koften, 5=almos t always. Each of the 18 pilot study participants were asked to read and fi out a consent form prior to participating in the pilot study (see Appendix P). Participants were given a printed copy of instructions, and introductory instructions were given upon arrivai (see Appendix Q). Participants were told that they would be viewing four different videotaped lectures, and that following each lecture they wodd be asked to rate the frequency of specific teaching behavioun. They were also asked to pay particular attention to differences in teaching style between the four videotaped lectures. Upon cornpletion of the questionnaire, participants received the sarne debriefing form as participants in the main study, which is reproduced in Appendix Chapter 3 - lmplernenting the College: A Chronology In February 1995 the Royal Commission on Learning publicly released its four volume report entitled For the Love of Learninq (Ontario, 1994). Contained in that report was a recommendation that cailed for the creation of an Ontario College of Teachers. The Commission felt "that teaching itself cannot tnily be called professional because an essential characteristic of a profession in

Ontario is the exercise of self-regulation, under statute" (Ontario, 1994, v. III, p.9) and that characteristic was missing in the province. The recommendation was destgned to rectify this omission and thus professionalize teadiing in Ontario. At the tirne of the announcement, many teachers believed that the Commission was correct and were strong supporters of the concept of selfregulation. However, the honeymoon was short-lived. Using available print sources, this chapter will trace the debates among teachers about the creation of the College. Following the Royal Commission's announcement of its many recommendations for educational reform, the OTF and its affiliates began drafting responses to the repart. Among these responses, of course, were initial positions on the creation of an Ontario College of Teachers. An examination of these positions reveals many of the crucial points of difference between the Commission's concept of a teaching profession and that of the OTF. AH five of the affiliates were contacted by the author with a request for documentation outlining their initial responses to the Commission's cal1 for the creation of a College of Teachers. However, only two such reports were ever received by the author: l nterim Re~ort: Response to oovernment initiativeslRoval Commission report (OECTA. March 1995) and FWTAO positions on: New foundations for Ontario education (announcernents frorn the Minister of Education and Training in response to the reoort of the Roval Commission on Learnina (FWTAO, March 1995). Both documents clearly stated that the concept of self-governance through the creation of a College of Teachers would be supported "in principle". Both also list the conditions under which these two affiliates would support the creation of a College of Teachers in Ontario. Ftrst of all, they agreed that the rnajority of the members of the Governing Council of the College should be practising teachen. "Practising teachers" are defined in both position papers as members of the OTF. This definition. of course, excludes any teacher not currently employed in a publiclyfunded school system in Ontario, school board superintendents or directors of education, Ministry of Education and Training education officers and other ministry officiais, as well as professors and deans at the Faculties of Education. OECTA went one step further in that it defined a "majority" as representing

75% of the voting members of the Council. Wth regards to the election of the teacher representation to the Council. there was further agreement that each affiliate should be responsible for the election of representatives through its existing structures. There was also agreement with regards to the investigation of complaints. OECTA simpiy stated "That the College of Teachers not include the investigation of complaints as announced by the Minister of Education and Training" (March, 1995, p.4). FWTAO, however, was more descriptive when dealing with the issue of complaints. The functions of the College must be limited, and not intrude in any way on the current functions of OTF or the Affiliates or on the evaluation function of school boards; . . . OTF and the Affiliates should continue to handle conflicts between teachers or complaints against teachers, except for suspension or cancellation of certificates; school boards should continue to deal with parent and student complaints so that intervention by the College is limited. (March 1995, p.22) Clearly. neither affiliate wished the College to become a public corn plaints bureau for dealing with grievances against teachers or school boards, and was attempting to make public the fact that school boards and the OTF already have responsibilities with regards to public complaints. Finally, both affiliates agreed that it was the government's responsibility to assume al Teachers. and of the start-up costs related to the creation of an Ontario College of Although it was understood that the intent of the Royal Commission government was that the College be independent both of governrnent and of OTF and its affiliates, FWAO and OECTA clearly state that start-up costs should not be borne by teachers. Not al1 affiliates published independent documents following the Royal Commission's announcements, but certainly they were al1 engaged in discussion and debate about the many initiatives set forth by the Commission. These discussions and debates were not solely interna1 to each of the affiliates

but were also brought to the OTF table for further investigation. It was not until June 1995, however, that the OTF Draft Position on a Cotleae of Teachers was distributed. This document contains the initial position of the OTF on the issue of the creation of an Ontario College of Teachers. In keeping with past practice and the policies and procedures of the OTF, the document also should reflect the official position of al1 five affdiates on this issue. However, Earl Manners. president of OSSTF had stated publicly that "very simply and unequivocally. we're opposed to a College of Teachers" (E. Manners. personal communication, July 3. 1996). OSSTF. then. was not in favour of the position published by the OTF lncluded in the initial position of the OTF is the following preamble: WHEREAS OTF did not ask for a College of Teachers and, WHEREAS no affiliate's brief to the Royal Commission recommended the creation of a College of Teachers and, WHEREAS there was no consultation process and, WHEREAS the benefits of the creation of a College of Teachers are yet to be deterrnined, BUT, WHEREAS it appears that the creation of a College of Teachers will be legislated, the OTF reluctantly [emphasis added] adopts the following position (OTF, June 1995, np.). It is telling that the OTF chose to add the word "reluctantly" to this preamble. This word ensured that the membership and the government understood that the OTF felt somewhat coerced into adopting a position on a College of Teachers it neither desired nor supported. The OTF's initial position resernbled to a great extent the positions of the FWTAO and of OECTA discussed above. Wth regards to the governing body of the College, the OTF as a whole adopted the position that: 25% of Council members shall be members from the public-atlarge. 75% of Council members shall be members of the College of Teachers and shall be elected through the Affiliates of OTF. (OF, June 1995. np.) It is important to note that OTF and the affiliates, by insisting that Council mem bers be elected through the affiliates, are in fact defining the teaching professional as a person who is currently employed by a publicly-funded Board

of Education in Ontario and, by implication, a member of the OTF. This procedure certainly leaves no room for private school teachers. Faculty of Education professors or other educators to be included in the 75% "professional" majority of the Council. The definition of " professional" with regards to the final breakdown of the governing body would become and remain a very significant issue as the debate became more heated. Election to the Governing Council is not the only issue that is narrowly defined in the OTF's draft position. Mernbership in the College. as stated in the document, should be compulsory for and limited ta: (a) a teacher with an Ontario Teacher's Certificate (OTC) and a form 1, 2 or 3 contract with a school board in the province of Ontario; (b) a peson with a Letter of Permission, Standing or Eligibility, under contract form 1, 2 or 3 with a school board in the province of Ontario; (c) a teacher with an OTC, listed for employment with a school board and ernployed on an occasional basis. (OTF, June 1995. np.). The limitations imposed by this definition once again exclude al1 educators who do not fulfil the criteria listed above and is similar to the election procedure eligibility clause requested by the OTF and its affiliates. The issue of financing the Ontario College of Teachers probably did not arouse much or any debate as the draft position simply states that "The Government shatl pay all costs" (OTF. June 1995, np.). This. of course. reiterates the positions already adopted by the FWTAO and OECTA discussed earlier In the course of the discussions that led to the draft position paper. the federation and association presidents decided to visit Scotland, where they could witness first-hand the workings of the most established, most well-known college of teachers. "The General Teaching Council of Scotland" (GTC). A report containing the overatl impressions of four of the affiliate presidents (Ronald Robert. AEFO; Bev Gardner. FWTAO; Claire Ross, OECTA; and Reg Ferland. OPSTF) was prepared. It is clearly stipulated within the first few

sentences of the report that it "is not a statement of what we accept or support with respect to Ontario's proposed college of teachers" (The Scottish Exoerience. 1995, np.). Rather, the authors note that the document "is primarily a report of what we heard, saw and experenced in Scotland" (The Scottish Emerience, 1995. np.). The first section of The Scottish Experience explains how the presidents came to be interested in exploring the functioning of the GTC. The mind-set of the four presidents. with regards to the concept of a college of teachers, is particularly clear in the following excerpt of their report: It is noted at the outset that the four presidents making this report are personally oDen to the concept of a college of teachers. There is a willingness on the part of the four affiliate presidents to dialogue and to search out the best answers for the teachen of Ontario given what now appears to be the political inevitability of this initiative. Provided necessary self-interest goals are achieved and essential rights protected, we are prepared to move creatively foward. study, research. influence and implement. (The Scottish Ex~erience,1 995, np.) This statement suggests that. at that particutar moment, four of the five affiliates recognized that there were advantages for the teaching profession in the concept of a college of teachers in Ontario. It is also quite clear that the affiliates felt strongly about protecting "self-interest goals" and "essential rights" for the teaching profession. not those of the public at large. At any rate. their report indicated a certain willingness. on the part of the profession, to cooperate and to be proactive in the process of creating an Ontario College of Teachers The report emphasises throughout that the GTC is governed by a majority of teachers. Of the 49 members of the Council 30 are elected members, 11 from primary schools, 11 from secondary schools, 5 from the Colleges of Education and three from the further education sector.. . 15 of the nonelected members are appointed by the Scottish universities, the polytechnics, the Association of Directors of Education in Scotland, the employing authorities and the churches. The 4 remaining memben are directly nominated by the Secretary

of State of Scotland ... (GTC, March 1992, p.5) The report also lists 22 concepts and principles of the Scottish Teaching Council. Of these. some are more closely related to this research than others and reflect much of what the OTF and the affiliates had already indicated in their own position papers on the College of Teachers. lncluded in this list are the following: The Council does net function as a cornplaints bureau. ..Any corn plaints directed to the Council are sim ply redirected back to the school in question. It is good to have outside representation on the Council. This insures the profession is "not closing ranks". Broader community representation gives more weight and credibility to the profession. Teacher representatives to the Council are elected at lame for a four year period. .. In the elections, the unions present dates of preferred candidates.. . To underscore the impartiality of the Council, the president of the ElS and the president and vice-president of the SSTA are currently elected as members of the Council. No recertification is required of teachers who are out of the profession for a period of time. A fee is charged for reregistration only. The integrity of the Scottish teachers' register is sacrosanct. There are no Letters of Permission or Temporary Letters of Eligibiliity[sic]. All who teach in Scotland, if even for a day, must be duly registered to teach. (The Scottish Ex~erience, 1995, np.) The final section of the report lists the pros and cons of creating a College of Teachers. The list contained 20 pros and only 7 cons, suggesting, of course, that there were more reasons to move ahead and further explore the government initiative in Ontario. The objectives of furthering the professionalism and increasing the powers of teachers were most prominent among the pros. A College, they said, would: be a tangible symbol of the professional status of teachers in

Ontario. . . . Allow the profession to deal with the critically important issue of professionalism. . . . Give teachers in Ontario recognized professional status for the first time in history. . . . Allow teachers of Ontario to gain real control over their profession. . . . gain essential powers and privileges as necessary steps to becoming a recognized profession. (The Scattish Ex~erience, 1995, np.) It appears that the list of "cons" may be best summed up as the possible dissolution of the OTF, which could result in the loss of a collective teacher voice when dealing with the government as it is the only forum in which al1 five of the affiliates enjoy equal representation. Certainly, the College of Teachers has no mandate to guarantee such representation. indicates their fear of losing power over professional will certainly move to the College. The list of cons also development as this power The four presidents wncluded the report on a note of willingness to "seriously and creatively" explore the concept of a college of teachers for Ontario. They viewed the "concept of a wllege of teachers as a means of further enhancing the professional interests of the teachers of Ontario" (The Scottish Experience, 1995, np.). Although the General Teaching Council of Scotland became the preferred model of the four federation and association presidents, it is important to recognize that there is an existing Canadian model of a college of teachers in British Columbia. The discussion surrounding the BCCT, however, is somewhat iess positive. As was briefly discussed in chapter one, the way in which the BCCT was introduced was not viewed favourably by all. There were many 31 accusations of union "busting" surrounding the government's rapid adoption of this legislation. By establishing the College and removing the historical recognition of the BCTF the governrnent, gambling upon teacher conservatism by separating the professional concerns of teachers from their economic concerns. believed that the College of Teachen would

challenge and eventually "vanquish" the BCTF (Ungerleider, 1994. p. 375). It is interesting to speculate about the reasons why the OTF and its affiliates chose to focus on the GTC instead of the BCCT. The Scottish Ex~erience (1 995). portrays the emphasis of the GTC as the professionalization of teaching while that of the BCCT was perceived by teachers' federations around the country as coercive and threatening to the existing structures of teacher representation. "The intent of the B.C. government is to destroy the BCTF one way or another. " Thomas[ATA president] said. Other professional teacher organizations, including the ATA, also are threatened since provincial governments across the country are considering similar types of legislation. (Keeler, April 1987, p. 1 ) Much of what the presidents shared with the author. in terms of documentation, was limited to the GTC. In can then be assumed that the BCCT was not considered as an acceptable rnodel by the federations and associations in Ontario. Mile the discussion and debate were ongoing among the OTF and its five afftliates, the govemment-appointed College of Teachers lmplementation Cornmittee was in the process of drafting its recommendations for the creation of an Ontario College of Teachen. Their final report, entitled The Privileae of Professionalisrn (Ontario, MET, lmplementation Cornmittee, 1995), outlined what the cornmittee believed to be the most significant issues in creating a college of teachen in Ontario: membership, a Governing Council. organizational structure. fees. committees, standards of practice, roles and responsi bilities, and the concept of self-regulation. In its report the lrnplementation Committee deals with the issue of a selfregulating profession. This chapter of the report discusses the guiding principles the Committee felt the government should include in the legislative framework for the creation of the Ontario College of Teachers. "The Committee developed a set of principles of public accounta bility" (Ontario, MET. lm plementation Committee. 1995, p.9). They are as follows: Direct public participation will be provided in the selfregulatory functions of the College through significant public

participation on the College's Governing Council and its cornmittees. Open Council meetings and disciplinary hearings will sewe to increase access and accountability. Public access to information on whether or not a teacher is registered with the College will improve the profession's accountability with the community. Public accountability will further be ensured through the submission of an annuat report on the College's activities through the Minister of Education and Training to the Legislative Assembly as well as to the teacher mernbership. The Ontario College of Teachers Act will provide legislative parameters within which the College will operate. The Statutory Powers Procedures Act will regulate the adjudicative processes established by the College. The College will consolidate a nurnber of activities currently undertaken by the Ministry of Education and Training, faculties of education, and the Ontario Teachen' Federation. (Ontario, MET, lmplementation Committee, 1995, pp. 9.1 O) 33 It is interesting to note that nowhere in this list of principles is there mention of furthering the professionaiization of teachen. Equally interesting is the repeated mention of public participation and public accountability. If these are to be the principles upon which the legislation will rest. it is clear that the emphasis is on making teachers more accountable to the public and allowing the public more access to and more control of the profession. Smaller (1 995) drives home this point when he states that most students, parents and the public "perceive it [the College of Teachers] as an instrument for controlling classroom practice and disciplining individual teachers who get out of line" The lmplementation Committee also dealt with the issue of membership in the College. The Committee opened the door much wider than OTF or any of the affiliates had requested. Members of the College would include qualified teachers and

supervisory officers in public and private schools, memben of faculties of education, occasional and unemployed teachers. and qualified teachers working in the ministry, colleges. universities, and the private sector (Ontar~oM, ET, lmplementation Committee, 1995, p.10). This list is more inclusive than that set out by the OTF position paper discussed earlier. The Privileae of Professionalism (Ontario, MET. 1995) identifies the Governing Council of the College as being responsible for the functioning and the decision making of the College. Certainly, it was recommended that the power and control of the College lie with it. The Royal Commission on Learning suggested that there be "substantial representation of non-educators from the community at large" (Ontario, 1994, vol. Ill, p. 1 1). However. the OTF clearly stated its preference that only "25% of Council members shall be members from the public-at-large" in its draft position (OTF, June 1995, np.). The l rn plementation Committee obviousl y chose to respect the Royal Commission's view, recommending a Governing Council of 31 members, 17 of which "should be elected to the Governing Council by the membership" (Ontario. MET, lmplementation Committee, 1995, p. 12) and "14 memben [to] be appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council to represent the broader public interest" (Ontario, MET, lmplernentation Committee, 1995. p. 13). This split represents 45% public representation and 55% "educator" representation. The term "educator" was specifically chosen as it is more inclusive than the term "teacher". As will be discussed further in chapter four, the OTF and its affiliates belteve that, in fact, this recommendation opted for minority teacher representation on the Council because 3 of the 17 elected members were not members of OTF. A recommendation for a very narrow majority of elected educators on the Council forces one to consider the reasons the Committee chose the numbers it did. If the ultimate objective was to allow the profession to self-regulate, it would make sense to ensure a clear professional majority. If, however, the objective was not to allow true self-regulation, it makes sense to blur the lines between majority and minority representation. Also, in this particular case, the definition of "educator" varies from one group to the next, making consensus sornewhat difficult to achieve.

The report also contains recommendations with regards to operating costs and the way in which these shall be covered. "As with other self-regulatory professions, the costs of running the Ontario College of Teachers should be borne by the membership" (Ontario, MET, l mplementation Cornmittee, 1995. p.21). The Committee recommended a registration fee of $25 and an annual fee of $90. The report did not contain any indication that the government would or should bear any of the initial start-up costs of the College. The implication. then. is that the start-up costs would be paid out of the initial fees collected upon the opening of the College. This, of course, is contrary to the OTF's request that the government bear al1 costs related to the opening of the Ontario College of Teachers. Following the introduction of the lrnplementation Comrnittee's report the OTF and its affiliates began studying the document and making recommendations to the Minister of Education and Training, John Snobelen. The federations even proposed a different mode! that would be an extension of the existing structure of the O F The details of this proposal will be discussed in chapter four. The Minister, however. chose not to consider any of the requests or accept any of the proposals made by the federations and associations. The recomrnendations in The Privileae of Professionalism (Ontario. MET. lmplementation Committee, 1995) foned the basis for Bill 31: An Act to establish the Ontario Collecre of Teachers and to make related amendments to 36 certain statutes (1995). which received first reading in the Legislative Assembly on December 14. 1995. This legislation went to second reading on April 2, 1996. third reading on June 17 1996. received Royal assent June 27 1996 and was proclaimed on July 5. 1996. Following the publication of The Privileae of Professionalism (Ontario. MET. lmplementation Committee. 1 995). the Ontario College of Teachers lmplementation Committee began publishing and distributing a broadsheet newsletter entitled Professionallv S~ekain g. The purpose of the first edition of the newsletter was to address some of the questions and concerns teachers had about what was. at the time, the potential structure and jurisdiction of the Ontario College of Teachers. The first issue, dated September 1995, had a lead story under the headline, "Mat WiII the Proposed College of Teachers

Mean to Me?". Most of this article does not actually respond to the question put forward in the title, but instead answen more technical questions about the College such as, "WIII I have to join the proposed College?", "Who will fun the Ontario College of Teachers?", "WiII there be a membership fee?" and "How will discipline procedures change?". Certainly this publication was designed to enlist support from the teachers of Ontario. The December 1995 issue summarizes the lmplementation Cornmittee's recommendations to the Minister of Education and Training. The lead article begins The skill and cornmitment of Ontario's teachers are the heart and sou1 of our education system. So it is only appropriate that the Ontario College of Teachers will finally give teachers the professionai recognition and status they deserve. (p. 1) This is an interesting opening comment when only a few days earlier, on November 21, 1995, the Minister of Education and Training was conveying a different message in the Legislative Assernbly with regards to the creation of an Ontario College of Teachers. There, he said: Today, I am pleased to announce another reform to our educational system that speaks to the public's request for professional accountability and quality in our public service. This important initiative will ensure that the teaching profession will be fully acwuntable to the public it serves. (Snobelen. November 21 1995, pl) Certainly the emphasis of the government in creating the Ontario College of Teachers is public accountability. However. the series Professionallv S~eakinq suggests that the College has been created to further the professionalization of teachers. This suggests a certain amount of politically-motivated double talk in the rhetoric surrounding the Ontario College of Teachers. Following the proclamation of the Colleqe of Teachers Act in July 1996. the Septem ber issue Professionallv S~eakinqa ddressed al1 of the issues related to actually creating the Ontario College of Teachers, with particular attention paid to the election of the Governing Council of the College. This latest publication was 12 pages in length with charts, tables, regional maps and a cal1 for nominations for the election of the first Governing Council. It also

included nomination procedures with questions and answers and a nomination f o n for all those interested in standing for election. There is also an article 38 that explains that "One of the campaign's key targets is the group of 70,000 qualified teachers who are not employed by a school board and who must register themselves with the College" (Professionallv S~eakinqS, eptember 1996, p.5). Another important piece of information included in this issue of Professionallv S~eakingw as a chart (p.3) which listed a number of the other professional organizations in the province of Ontario with the breakdown of professional representation versus public appointments on their governing bodies. The numben listed show that the College of Teachers has a 55% professional representation on its Council. Of the other 28 professions and semi-professions listed, only seven had a lower rate of professional representation while 2 1 had a higher rate of professional representation. Of those with a higher rate of professional representation the range was from 56% to 100%. Only the lnstitute of Management Consultants had no public representation on its Council, followed by the Law Society of Upper Canada with only 4 out of 44 public appointments, 91% elected professional representation. While the l mplementation Cornmittee and the govemment were pu blishing their plans for an Ontario College of Teachers, the OTF and its affiliates were in the process of examining and responding to the proposed model. According to Reg Ferland, president of the OPSTF, the Minister of Education and Training, John Snobelen, had agreed to explore an OTF proposal for the creation of a College of Teachers before going forward with the lmplementation Cornmittee's 39 rnodel for a College. However, this was not to be, as for some unknown reason Mr. Snobelen decided to move fotward with great urgency to legislate a College of Teachers in Ontario using most of the lmplementation Committee's recommendation (R. Ferland, personal communication, Novem ber 27,1995). Following the first reading of the legislation in the Legislative Assembly. the OTF and its amliates began studying and responding to the proposed legislation contained in Bill 31 Briefs were presented to the Standing Cornmittee on Social Development,

the group responsible for reviewing and proposing amendments to Bill 31 before final reading. OECTA and OSSTF both raised similar concerns with regards to the excessive power granted to the Minister under this legislation, the lack of true self-regulation. the blatant discrimination against some teachers. the inadequate classroom teacher representation on the Council, and the violation of the privacy rights of teachers (OECTA, April 1996 and OSSTF. April Both affiliates raised the issue of the intrusive power of the Minister of Education and Training under Bill 31. Section 12 of the Bill defined the power of the Minister as including the ability to: a) review the activities of the Council and require the Council to provide reports and information; b) require the Council to do anything that, in the opinion of the Minister, is necessary or advisable to carry out the intent of this Act; C) require the Council to rnake, amend or revoke a regulation or by-law. (OSSTF, April 1996, p.8) 40 The repeated use of the word "require" instead of words such as "suggest" or "request" were regarded as particularly offensive as they imply that the College will be anything but "self-governing". "The powers of the Minister are excessive in rnany aspects of the operation of the College. . . . This unprecedented intrusion into the workings of a College that is supposed to be self-governing is alarming" (OECTA, April 1996, p. 16). OECTA also objected to the Minister maintaining the power to grant Letters of Permission in light of the fact that the College is responsible for the certification and recertification of teachers in Ontario. "With the arriva1 of the College. the Minister surrenders the power to grant certification - except to people with no qualification at alln (OECTA. April 1996, p.18). According to OECTA, "licensing unqualified persons would be affordable" and thus explains why the Minister wanted to continue to grant Letters of Permission. In fact. the reality is that during the period of the Social Contract, from September 1993 through February 8. 1996 (most recent Ministry of Education and Training data) when school boards were required to reduce their teaching staff by 4.75 per cent with a

commensurate increase in the student pupil ratio of 5 per cent, the Ministry saw fit to grant eight hundred and twenty eight (828) Letters of Permission.[ernphasis added]. (OECTA. April 1996. PW It is clear that self-regulation, according to the affiliates. should entail full control of certification and recertification, including the type of temporary certification granted with the Letters of Permission. There was also a great deal of concern on the part of the OSSTF and OECTA about the teacher representation on the Governing Council of the College of Teachers. Consistent with the numbers discussed earlier. the OSSTF and OECTA both objected to classroom teachers being represented by less than 50% of the Council. The OSSTF puts the question. "How is professionalism enhanced when teachers are a minority in a College designed to be self-governing?" (April 1996, p. 1). Both affiliates agreed that this structure ensured that the College would not be truly self-goveming M i l e it is recognized that it is important to have public and lay representation on the Council, the majority of members must be practitioners. This is the case with every other professional college, and it is intrinsic to a profession being self-regulating. To have it otherwise would be public-regulating, not self-regulating . (OECTA, April 1996, p. 15). The issue of representation on the Council has been very heated right from the outset. Smaller (1995) points out that representation became an issue right from the time the lmplementation Committee members were announced. There was not one classroom teacher in the initial group. According to Smaller. it took one month of intense lobbying from the teacher federations to have one classroom teacher added to the cornmittee, but he also notes that one school board trustee was also added to "balance" things out. It should thus corne as no surprise to the government that the teachers' federations snd associations are somewhat sceptical about representation on the Council. The OECTA and OSSTF briefs also complained about discrimination against physically or mentally chailenged teachers. Both documents condemned section 28(3)(b) of Bill 31 which reads: (3) The Discipline Committee may, after a hearing. find a

member incompetent if, in its opinion, (b) the member is suffering from a physical or mental condition or disorder such that the member is unfit to continue to carry out his or her professional responsibilities or that a certificate held by the member under this Act should be made subject to terms. conditions or limitations. In both responses there was mention of the Ontario Human Rights Code. "Selfregulating professions must conform to Human Rig hts legislation which views disability in a particular way and quite separate from disciplinary issues. This legislation ignores this and even appears to provide punitive sanctions for disabilities" {OECTA. April 1996, p. 9). OSSTF took this response one step further, adding that "in fact, the Human Rights Code requires employers to accommodate disabilities. not discriminate against them" (April 1996, p.2). it is obvious that both OSSTF and OECTA agreed that Bill 31 violated the Ontario Human Rights Code. It appears that they both also agreed that it might contravene the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act of Ontario as well. The OSSTF document raised the issue in terms of violation of the privacy rights of its members. Boards may be required to disclose private information about members, and such information may be kept in a register open to any member of the public. This represents a serious violation of privacy rights. No other professional College legislation includes such an override of privacy protections. (April 1996, p.2) This move towards disclosure of a teacher's personal information raises the question "why?" Why would a government offer self-regulation to a professional group of people, and at the sarne time legislate an ovenide on that same group's privacy? In acquiring the title "professional" are teachers going to be subject to further control by the government? Should the motives of government not be questioned when it moves to remove legal defenses of any identified segment of the population? On July 5 1996, Bill 31 was proclaimed and became law in the province. On January 1 1997, the Ontario College of Teachers became the professional regulating body of the teaching profession in Ontario. It wuld certainly be said that this legislation was hurried through the legislature as it took less than

seven months from first reading to Royal Proclamation. The speed at which it was adopted makes one wonder why the government was in such a hurry ta adopt legislation that is a long way from being popular among those it is supposedly designed to help. "ln workplace dernocracy votes held across Ontario. teachers voted to reject the proposed College of Teachers by a margin of 94%" (OSSTF, College of Teachers information sheet, nd). If the College is designed to truly place the regulation of the teaching profession in the hands of teachers, one must wonder why it is that 94% of the OSSTF's teacher members are opposed to the mode1 leg isiated by government. The next chapter explores the perspectives of the teacher federations and associations on professionalism and self-regulation through a description and analysis of interviews wnducted with the president of the OTF and with four of the five presidents of the affiliates. CHAPTER THREE: THE PARTICIPANTS lnterestingly enough, when i looked over the Iist of teachers I had invited to participate in the group, al1 but two of them weie older than me and rnost had many more years of teaching experience than I did. Ali but one were female. I ended up being the youngest in the group, a fact that I didn't consciously realize until I was writing this study. The group was eclectic- quite a mix in terrns of teaching experience, age. Iifestyle, and interests- although al1 of us had taken courses at Simon Fraser University within the pat seven years. I asked the participants to write up a rnini-portrait of themseives that I could use to introduce them. I felt it was important to give each of them as authentic a voice as possible, while ensuring that their identities remain confidential. 1 asked them to describe how they became interested in joining an inquiring teachers group, and to describe some of their stniggles as educators. Some of their university course work had requested sirnilar information, and so they were able to provide me with detailed descriptions of their formation as inquiring individuals. Others did not give me as much in depth background, but I had known them for nine years and could write about it from my perspective, asking them to edit the final draft. I have paraphrased chunks of the autobiographical writing, using direct quotes to permit their voices to be heard. As I became involved with their stones, I was arnazed at how many similar stniggles we have shared. These include the challenges of creating an effective literacy

program, the difficuCties of changing from a highly collaborative staff to one that works in isolation for the most part, dealing with outrageous behaviour problerns, feeling Lost and Found 46 cornfortable with ones' professional sense of self versus the personal one. and how to "do it all" and keep a balance in one's life. In these stones, I also saw the efforts these teachers made to stay curent, to regain a balance between their professional and personal Iives, and to do what is necessary to keep positive and stimulated. Each individual has gone through transitions and has been faced with changes that require some adjustment. I found their stories fascinating, and believed that an understanding of the context of their Iives was necessary for me to describe the functioning of the lnquiry Group. For example, it is interesting to note how frequently the theme of "lost and found" appeared to reoccur in these anecdotes. t will introduce my CO-facilitator, Anita, first, followed by the remaining six group members in afphabetical order- Angela, Barb, Cindy, Deb. Martha, and last but not least, MicheIle- Anita's portrait is longer than the others because I worked the most closely with her through the process. Pseudonyms have been used to keep their identities confidential, although not al1 of the participants feIt that this was necessary. lntrod uctions Anita 1 first met Anita in 1996 in her role of Summer Session English Language Development (ELD) Coordinator for ouf district. Last year, when Anita contacted me about teaching ELD again, we began to discuss graduate studies, and when she expressed a desire to go to SFU just when 1 was starting, I recomrnended we consider working together. To our mutual pleasure. Anita and I ended up following very similar individual programs. As I got to know her interests and experiences, I wondered if the group could be part of her final project. I valued her expertise and so she was the first Lost and Found 47 person I approached about the group. 1 invited her to CO-facilitate, and together we applied for approval from the University Research Ethics Cornmittee. Anita is a wonderful sounding board for me and 1 was gratefut for her pnor experience with action research and her leadership skills. Anita has taught in our district for twenty-two years. Dunng this penod of time, she has expen'enced many educational changes and developments which have directly affected her and uitimately the students she teaches. One of her most profound and

inspiring focuses has been the teaching and understanding of Iiteracy development and its implementation. Anita described in her p~rtraitth at "when 1 first began teaching I spent little or no time refiecting on what I was doing. I was in survival mode"- Anita remembers feeling that she was "at the mercy" of those whom she perceived to have more knowledge than herseif. It seemed that they were making decisions on her behalf. Anita came to believe in hindsight that it wasn't more knowledge she needed, but more experience, "How could I know what 1 was talking about until 1 had observed patterns and trends in children's behaviour as reIated to the expenences I was providing for them?" So, as Anita gained more experience by teaching and most importantly, by obsewing her students, she began to become more aware of the impact of what she did or did not do. Anita was not satisfied with her initial traditional reading program, When Anita came to realize that there were actually two reading senes- phonics based and sight word based- and two methods for instnrction of reading, she started questioning why her school couldn't have both sets. She believed that the school district's policy, at that time, was for each school to choose one of the reading series. Anita had no idea what the rationale was for having this either or situation, and was faced with the reality of her Lost and Found 48 school having chosen the latter. She did, however, persist in her questioning and seeking out information until she eventually collected enough well-used sight-word readers from other schools to make up a ctass set. Afthough, at the time, 1 wasn't able to put it into words, or better yet wouldn't dare at such a young age to "question", I always fett inadequate about the way we teachers were being told how to teach children in relation to literacy development, ~ntuitivelyI, knew that children did not leam by one method, but at the time I didn't quite know why. My emerging beliefs about teaching reading were not yet fu Ily understood and I wasn't ready developmentally to articulate my thinking in a solid way. l remernberthinking, that although this 'othet phonics-based reading series consisted of contrived vocabulary, just as the sight word reading series did, it had 'sornething' (1 had to get really creative in my thinking!) which could be used to develop some imaginative, fun images for the students to build on. I tended to rely on it more than the previousfy used sight word reader which was pretty close to "Dick and Janet' and left little to the

Imagination (Anita's mini-portrait, 1 998). Anita had made a decision based on what she had observed happening in her classroom and continued to use two very different approaches to teach reading. It seemed that teachers with less expenence were more supportive and innovative in combining the two reading series. Anita does not recall much support from her more experienced coileagues. She wondered if this could have been due to their lack of Lost and Found 49 exposure to the latest research or participation in district workshopsWhile Anita taught using the two readers and their accompanying skills, she also noticed the impact that children's literature books, not the readers had on her students and on hersetf as weil. "We al1 loved story time! It was fun, sometimes humorous and totally captivating for the twenty minutes that 1 was 'allowed' to teach it." The students were always disappointed when these literature based activities ended. Anita was too, but again she wasn't totally sure why. Anita began questioning again as she looked at using the fomal two readers and now realizing that children's Iiterature was also having an impact on her students, 'They loved the naturai fiow of the Ianguage, (talk written down), the intrigue of stories which ted to creative thoughts, ideas and related activities. The language in the readers was contrived, stilted and down right boring!" Anita wondered, baseci on the reading sets, why reading and writing were intnnsically more difficutt even than leaming to talk? She began to wonder if reading and writing were artficial and unnatural in relationship to other developrnentai tasks. What she was hearing, as the readers were being promoted and workshopped, to try to convince her otherwise was not what she was seeing in her students- "This would have been a perfect time for a research project ... definite 'chaos' between theory (Ministry?) and practice," An ita reflects. The captivation of children's literature and the movement to include more literature based bookslreaders in classroorn practice was beginning. It was the time of Don Holdaway and others who were looking at the foundations of literacy. This was in the early eighties and individual teachers (no longer a school-wide decision) could choose which readers they would like students to use. The Ministry had also extended their 'prescribed and authorked' Iist of readers which allowed for this choice. Anita remembers continuing to use the readers, but relying on children's books more and more. Lost and Found 50 Chiid-watching and analyzing techniques were the philosophicalthemes during this time. Anta was slowly evolving into a teacher who was becoming child dnven instead of

prograrnJbook driven. The emerging ideas related to literacy development paralleled children's natural growth and development. The newer Ministry prescribed-readers began to reflect these beliefs. Anita wrote in her rnini-portrait; Like ail teachers from my era, we have corne a long way in truly understanding and believing in the shift from contrived/stlIted reading sets to more fiterature-based resources to teach reading. The children were my biggest influence. They taught me that Iiteracy could be developed out of songs and poems and that fascination in stories Ied more directly to reading and writing than my competently prepared tessons in word recognition. It is amazing to realize that 1 knew this intuitively in rny first few years of teaching, but did not act upon this until six years into rny career! During my teacher pre-service, t had studied about children's growth and development and yet in rny first few years had experienced an interpretation of those findings which was a contradiction of what was really happening in the classroom. My change in thinking was paralleled to the emerging change(s) in understanding Iiteracy development, but because things were still mandated and poficies were set, teachers did not seem to question out ioud. I wonder if beginning teachers are thinking these same thoughts and will look back in five years and Say the sarne things? So does security to "question", corne from expenence or theoretical knowledge? Lost and Found 51 Anita took an Education Leave to complete her ffih year at U.B.C.. She chose to focus her coursework on literacy developrnent, Upon retuming to the classroorn, Anita found herse@ imrnersed in a stimulating and progressive school environment. Her new understandings regarding Iiteracy were enriched in this setting. New information was presented to her by way of theoretical material. by having supportive and thoughtkil conversations with colleagues, and from continual obsewing and reflecting white teaching. Her new administration supported and promoted discussions, collaborative professional development opportunities, and professional resources related to the philosophicai beliefs this newly buift school was based on. Anita comments There was an excitement and enthusiasm as we discovered that Our growth to this point was supported with research and Iiterature. It was exciting to read articles and books which cfearly defined processes and

frameworks for which we as individuals expenenced at that time, or were about to experience in the future. The staff goal was to function as a cohesive group that searched to understand why they were doing what they were doing. Their thinking was guided by intemalizing the concepts of Whole Language. The positive group dynamics supported the philosophical challenges. Anita stated in her min-portrait that: Maybe it was our collegial, supportive model that helped whole language to succeed at our school and not at other schools. ft was in this group situation that some of rny greatest moments in leaming took shape. Lost and Found 52 Assumptions shifted and my knowledge base expanded. Not only did I grow from the positive, nurtunng support of my colleagues, 1 was tmly valued as a leamer as well. It was an opportunity to put into words what 1 intuitively knew as I 'lived' this phase of understanding Iiteracy . Another group highlight includes the process related to the teacher action research mode1 presented in the Field-Based Research Manual (7 992)- Collaboration time was provided for both individuals and smalt groups, A process of inquiry promoted engaging, rich, discussion. Anita wrote that "1 feel that the method of having research questions related to authentic opponunities helped me leam from rny classroom practice and from colleagues, and as a resuit, helped shape my beliefs." After seven years in this setting, Anita again sought renewal and new direction in professional development. She became a Facutty Associate at Simon Fraser University's teacher preparation program- known as the Professional Development Prograrn (PDP). This experience was extremely positive for her, and Anita does not hesitate to recomrnend this opportunity for growth and reflection to others. When she retumed to teaching young children she continued to search for ways to strengthen her literacy program. She wrote, I have continued to have many questions about Iiteracy development related to irnplementation and each year I have attempted authentic research in my classroom. My present understanding of the opportunities which I provide related to literacy development, are driven by my observations of children and rny mernories of how 1 learned to gather information and analyze it thoughtfully. I am still Ieaming and reading new Lost and Found 53

theories. The challenge is to translate them into practical activities; watch what happens as children interact with them and then refIect in a meaningful way. Everything in my classroorn is valued and viewed as language deveiopment; it is connected to childrens' experiences and my anly goal is to have everything I do make a difference to the students' leaming. 1 could never continue encomtering new innovations in teaching as an isoiate. 1 have experienced too much support, wisdom and joy of working with several collaborative groups to even consider 'going it alone'. Anita is in a very supportive environment now, in another school that has earned the reputation of being on "the cutting edge". When 1 finished my education teave, 1 applied to join her staff, and now she and 1 are working together. Many of the staff are part of action research groups already, and there is buiit in collaboration time for teachers to rneet once a week. Angela has been a resource teacher in ouf district since 1987. She received her teaching certificate in 1983 but was initially unable to get hired in the Lower Mainland because of the lack of dernand for teachers, As a result, she decided to work as an on cal1 teacher in Northern British Columbia for a year, and then she returned to the Lower Mainland and became a social worker while she attended night school to finish her frflh year. Angela continues to be an advocate for disadvantaged children and families- her preference is tu work in the most needy schools in our district. Lost and Found 54 I worked with Angela at my first "glory years" school from 1989 to 1994. She is the only teacher 1 know who reads professional Iterature for fun, and she has shared witti me that one of her goais is to pursue her Doctorate in Education and become part of a university faculty. Everyone who has had the opportun'w to engage in professional discourse with Angela can well imagine how she wolrld conduct herself in this role. I do know that she has been an inspiration to me- she was the first teacher I knew personally that took an education feave to do her Master's, and she and another one of our coIleagues were the first teachers I knew that engaged in teacher research. Angela was the only participant with young chiidren, and it was often a struggle for her to frt in ouf meetings. She is passionate, however, about allowing herse# to engage in opportunities that promote professional development. In her mini-portrait, Angela described how she sees her role as a resource teacher. She wrote,

As educators, we are constantly being challenged to meet the diversity of our students within our schools. Over the past ten years of teaching, 1 have corne to understand my role of resource teacher as one of supporting the inclusion of students with special needs by supporting the classroorn teacher. 1 believe that this is most successfuI within a risk-taking collaborative approach. Angela went on to describe how she has been fortunate 0 have worked in a schooI that wetcomed, encouraged, and celebrated both risk-taking and collaboration. Lost and Found 55 'Together with the classroom teacher, we al1 would try to find out 'what works' best for a particular student within a particular classroom within Our particular school and then reflect on 'why' it worked." Michelle, who is another participant in the group, and Angela were both resource teachers at this school, and Angela credits Michelle with "pushing" her to professional development, This sentiment is reciprocated by Michelle. Cindy, also a participant, and I were also teachers on this staff. The quest for "what works" and "why", she explained, is "integral to what we do" and was "the driving force" for her to first join a teacher research group over seven years aga This group of twelve teachers met monthly over a four year period to experience a more fomat approach at teacher inquiry- Angela feels that they benefited by "having a facilitator who had experience with the action research process and who enabled them to meander through their first chosen topics". Each year that they participated in this first group, they became more and more farniliar with the process and were able to set timelines for certain components to be compieted. Angela wrote, While these requirements that we devefoped added pressure to the experience, the accountability aIso caused us to push ourseIves to reflect that much more, ask more thought-provoking questions and corne away with a more complete written project than any of us thought possible. This teacher researcher group was the single most important professional development format that 1 had encountered. In 1994, Angela was granted a year long Education Leave by ouf district to pursue her Master of Education degree in the area of teacher development, She completed it in Lost and Found 56 ten months. Angela reflected in her portrait that this period of study helped further her

understanding of her experience in a teacher research group. Angela also shared that "1 Ieamed how I could be of a support to rny colleagues by pointing thern to the literature on teacher development to assist thern in their individual professional quests". ln addition to supporting rny endeavour in starting this inquiring teachers group, Angela hoped that some of the "excitement and enthusiasm" that she experienced with her former teacher research group could be "recaptured"_ She daims that she was not disappointed! Barb I have come to know Barb through her connections with my last school and her working relationship with my first principal. We had connected a few tirnes and when she was given my invitation via my first principal, she recognised my name alongside that of Anita's. She happened to be taking a universty course with Anita, and their conversation clinched it. She decided to join our group. I was pleased to see her, as was Michelle, who had taught with her early in their careers, close to thirty years ago. I have appreciated getting to know Barb, as we teach the sarne grade level. I hope to be able to make more connections with her regarding our cornrnon teaching strategies, assessrnent and evaluation rnethods, and cuniculum planning. She has a weakh of ideas and experience. Barb is continually searching for ways to improve her practice, and compares herser to Caravagio in Ondaatje's The Encllish Patient, who stated "The trouble with middle age is they think you are fuily formed" (Ondaatje, 1992, p. 121). In her autobiographical portrait, Barb wrote "I once thought I would be fully fomed by the tirne Lost and Found 57 1 reached middle age. Instead, as 1 get closer to my frfth decade, 1 am still defining and forming rnyseif as I intertwine my graduate work with my personal and professional life." Bab's work as a teacher of nine and ten year olds in an inclusive cIassroom has been the impetus for her university studies and the precursor of her research interests. Because the needs of her students and the requirements of the intemediate cumculum are varied and nurnerous, Barb's studies have extended over a broad range of topics. These center around an exploration of the relationship between learning and teaching practices in the early intermediate classroorn. Barb's inquiry has focussed on her obsewations of her own learning, her children's learning, and her teaching experiences. Her research has centered on the conditions that facilitate real leaming, which Howard Gardner defines as "a grasp of concepts and principies, or skills, so that one can bring them to bear on new problems and situations, deciding in which ways one's present

cornpetencies can suffice and in which ways one may require new skiils or know[edger' (1991). Barb's course work has focused on how schools can provide more than a superficial approach to leaming. Her questioning of teaching practice has evolved over rnany years and was further motivated by reading of Uncommon Sense: Theoretical Practice in Lanquane Arts Education by John Mayher. In her course work she has become more knowledgeable about the work of Howard Gardner and his theory of multiple intelligences. She has also become intrigued with the educational research and reading theories which connect the emotional and imaginative response to story with rneaningful leaming. The work of Kieran Egan has helped her identify the leaming stages of the children she teaches (nine and ten year olds). The writing of Madeline Gnimet has given her examples of how her personal experiences as a mother, daughter and Lost and Found 58 teacher can be an integral part of her academic studies. Many of Barb's beliefs are a reaction to the way she was taught and the way she Ieamed. In the prairie town where she received her forma1 education, schools operated with the transmission approach, It was accepted that the teacher was the speaker (thinker) and the students were the hearers (receivers). In elernentary schools, the teacher elicited rote memory answers from the students. Barb commented in her mini-portrait; Anyone who strayed from the script by offering an original interpretation was chastised for being impertinent. Notes were copied and worksheets completed in silence since talking indicated cheating and wasting time. Any discussion was minimal, since knowledge was considered static and unchanging. This was attested to by the fact that her sister's notes were exactly the same as what she copied nine years later. As a passive receiver Barb nevet questioned why this knowledge had not changed in aIrnost a decade. In the schools of her youth, people Iike Barb who Wied to converse with ciassrnates were served with detentions and had report card comments such as "Barb would leam more if she spent Iess time talking to her classrnates". As she glances in retrospect, she realizes that most of my real Ieaming; the values and beliefs I hold today, are based on what 1 leamed as a talker not as silent receiver. Over the years, 1 have continued to construct and reconstnict the knowledge and concepts that i

Lost and Found 59 first acquired through "exploratory talk" Barb's mini-portrait). FortunateIy, Bah's home and community provided many opportunities for conversations that helped her interpret the world. With her father who was a newspaper publisher and a mother and siblings who were active in the community, Barb's home was full of stories that ranged from neighbourhood gossip to world politics. Whether exchanging gossip with rny piano teacher, probing the mysteries of puberty with my Girl Guide leader, or discussing philosophical issues with my Sunday School teacher, these experiences allowed me to connect previous knowledge with new concepts and information. When Barb's student years ended and she plunged into employment as a teacher, she was a naive eighteen year old who was certified to teach as she was taught. Her preparation for a teaching career consisted of nine months of " how to teach" courses, as well as one course entitled School Administration where she memorized the bureaucratie structure of the schod system and leamed how to fil! out and balance the attendance register. Wfih this minimal preparation, al1 in the transmission paradigm, Barb admits that she was "hardly equipped for her first teaching assignment". Sfowly, however, her beliefs took form as she learned from her students and her own children. Thinking back to her first teaching year, faced with teaching a grade nine Language Arts class and the school music program, she was 'Yoo concemed with the day-to-day reatities of schoot to dwell on what it was al1 for". Barb does recall wondering if the grarnmar exercises and literature interpretations cribbed from CoIes Notes would have any relevance to the students. However, since she considered most of what she Lost and Found 60 did in schooi to be irelevant, she could "easily rationalize her mimicking of the teachers who had taught hefl. Also, as a fledgling teacher, principals, colleagues and the school inspectors kept her on the "transmission route". As she observed her own children in elementary school, she noticed they were most enthused when they were in classes where their leaming included "peer and teacher interaction that helped them make connections between the famiIiar and the newuDuring the years when they had mundane grammar exercises and were required to answer a myriad of literal questions about reading selections, school became a chore. Having observed how her own children learned about language, Barb started to adopt a similar phiiosophy in her school teaching. Over the years, she integrated practices such

as whole language, cooperative Ieaming and class meetings into her classroom. Barb's classes became noisier, with talk being an acceptable form of communication. In order to nurture a love of leaming, Barb believes "the teacher shouId be actively involved in Ieaming as well as the children", During the graduate seminars that she participated in as part of her Diplorna, she became intrr'gued with the work of educational theorists. reading the work of Howard Gardner, Kieran Egan and Garth Boomer has helped her expand the assumptions she had formed from her observations of Ieaming of her own children, her students as well as her introspective reflection of her own learning. Barb has been curious about teacher research since she read some reports by teachers in one of our School Board Publications. She had also heard about action research in some of her graduate courses- including a presentation by Maureen Dockendorf. In the past Barb has worked on designing cumculum units and sharing ideas with teachers from similar grades and found it refreshing to work with people outside of Lost and Found 61 her school. Some of these liaisons were facilitated by our district resource center and some were self initiated- working with others on a common project has been stirnulating for Barb and she tends to gravitate to these situations. 8arb explained to me: "VVhen I arrived at your home and found so many fnends from other teaching and leaming situations, I thought that the group would be right for me. The delicious food was the clincher! " Cindy Ciridy is an amazing teacher, colleague, and fn'end. She was on my first staff and I was awed by her skili with children and aduits alike. She is kind and thoughtful, always willing to stop what she is doing to talk, and is loved by everyone who cornes into contact with her. She is dedicated to her profession, and puts in long hours making her program stimulating for her young students. It is a testimony to her mastery of teaching that when Angela had her first child, she seriously considered moving to Cindy's school's catchment area so that her son could attend Cindy's kindergarten. Like Angela, Cindy began teaching in 1983, at a time when it was not easy to find a teaching job in B.C. She substituted in kindergarten to grade four classrooms for three years. In September of 1986 she was offered a half time kindergarten class. This was at my "glory years" school- Cindy has remained at that first school now for twelve years. Five and six year old children are her favourite age group to work with. Cindy

commented in her portrait "They are so honest, affectionate and enthusiastic about leaming and life. I feel that I get more love Wom them than I gve." Each year she visits the homes of her new kindergarten students. She does this for many reasons but the Lost and Found rnost important reason for her is that they see that i am a real person who sincerely cares about them and they are important enough to visit. I also want them to feel safe, happy and respected when they anive at schoot. The rapport that develops frorn these visits is almost irnmediate when they arrive at school. Building a positive relationship between farnilies and school is an important contnbuting factor in a child' success in the education systern (Cindy's mini-portrait). Teaching has been a very challenging and rewarding experience for Cindy. While teaching grades kindergarten to grade 2, she has had the opportunity to plan and tearn teach with three other teachers and collaborate with many others over the year. Cindy acknowledges that her 'golden years' of teaching so far were the four years she spent tearn teaching with two other teachers. Each of them were given a K/4 split class. Their classrooms were connected and al1 of their kindergarten children arrived for half a day in the moming and went home at 11 :30. The teaching tearn did everything together. Cindy wrote to me "1 discovered strengths that 1 didn't realize I had and 1 beneffied frorn the strengths of the other two as wetl. It was an energizing, fun and rewarding experience." Cindy shares my mernories of the whole staff focusing on trying new teaching strategies and collaborating. Visting teachers toured ouf school to see what we were doing. It was an exciting time. She reflects, Maybe that is why teacher research and evaluating my teaching practice has become second nature to me. Much of what we did as a team was Lost and Found 63 trying new things and evaluating the outcome. lmproving on things we had done individually became second nature to us. It was a safe place to make mistakes and a supportive, validating environment for ail. We became interdependent. Unfortunately this scenario is al1 too rare in our schools today. In the early 1990's Cindy retumed to S.F.U- to complete her BGS degree. This enabIed her to select Education courses that she could apply directly to her teaching. Cindy feit that reading the most curent research on reading and language developrnent

directly improved her teaching, as well as the practice of those around her in the collaboratlve cultureGradually many of the staffthat had participated in this collaborative culture moved to other schools- Cindy now says that the school has gone almost a full circle, with most of the staff working in isolation. lt is typical that a school that impfements a whole lot of new ideas will not keep up the momenturn (Fullan, 1991). Cindy would [ove to be able to work with the two teachers she spent so rnany years teaming with. She found that their combined ideas and energy made teaching so much more rewarding and simplified the amount of planning she had to do. Attending a Sumrner Early Literacy conference last summer inspired Cindy to try some new things to improve her practice. Part of the attraction for Cindy to be part of the teacher-researcher group was that Angela, Michelle, and I had all been part of that special time when we had such a collaborative school cuiture. Cindy is the only one of the four of us who has not moved, but she is considering a change for next year. Lost and Found 64 Now that 1 am working on rny own again, attending a teacher research group that included sorne of our previous staff provided me wilh a place to brng my questions. It was an opportunity to discuss ideas and receive support frorn colleagues, just as 1 did in #ose 'golden years'; something I miss very much (Cindy's mini-portrait). Cindy decided this Iast year to teach part time in order to regain some balance in her life. She now job shares with a teacher she has collaborated with for most of her career. As a resuit of working less, she looks more relaxed and is able to take time for her hobbies and exercise program. She is much more content. Deb I met Deb almost six years ago when she was fresh out of university and was a teacher on cal1 at rny first school. Deb connected with Cindy at this same school setting, and then Iater at district professional days. Deb also had a prior relationship with Barb, as they had frequently collaborated as rnembers of the sarne staff at Deb's first school. In the summer of 1997 Deb and I reconnected again when we were part of the English Language Development staff at Summer Session. Anita was our coordinator. We spent a lot of time discussing our programs and got to know each other on a more personal level. 1 was impressed with her enthusiasm and cornmitment to becorning a better

teacher. Like many teachers, Deb began her career as a teacher-on-call. "And was 1 thrilied!" Deb wrote to me. "1 was going to make a real difference. 1 knew everything Lost and Found 65 there was to know about what was good for kids. 1 was sure that within a month or two, t would be in my own ctassroom, working magic." Two and a hat years later, Deb was still laying awake at night wondering if that 6:00 cal1 would corne. If it did, she would get up, drive her husband to his workplace and arrive at the school in question. Some days. she would wonder what on earth she was doing. YOU MEAN YOU WANT ME TO TEACH IN A FRENCH IMMERSION CLASSROOM? AT THE GRADE 7 LEVEL? AHHH! Partez vous franais? Ooh la la! Ooh, no, no, no! - I think 1 can manage, though. There might be a job at the end of this road. Other days, Deb wished she had 'Yaken Valium before beginning the day". How about teaching a group of students who literally swing from the ceiling? Or a group of students who think that they rule the wortd, and that on cafl teachers (the "subs") are second class citizens who are simply there to be walked upon. "When one works on cal[, ANYTHING GOES! Ftexibility is one's best ally. "Go with the fow" was my motto. 1 leamed a TON! But developing real and lasting relationships with students was not part of the "on-call" equation. And, in the on-cal1 environment, the "magic" she wanted so desperately to work was not in the cards. tost and Found 56 What Deb did leam during the on-cal1 experience, though, was ffexibility and a belief in herseif as a person capable of dealing with anything that came her way- not to mention ali the terrifie ideas she picked up about what works well in classrooms. And, Deb was able to refine her teaching philosophy by trying on many different "hats", so to speak. Every day was a new experience. I used to be te~fiedo f teaching anything beyond Grade 3. Grade 7's were these temfying big people with raging hormones that I was convinced would be the death of me. I don't believe that anyrnore. Through being on cal1 I leamed that kids are kids- It doesnft matter how old.

Deb claims that the tirne as an on-cal1 teacher provided her with some of the best professional development experiences of her career to date. Then came the exciting day that Deb received her first ternporary contract. lt was a grade 314 class in a school that housed a district behaviour program. M e n she first began, Deb was optirnistic, keen and was "going to change the world". However, at the end of this year she was ready to quit. She seriousIy thought about career alternatives. Not onIy was Deb trying to follow another teacher's routines and beliefs about teachingshe was also deafing with behaviours from that fiery place below and two diRerent reporting agendas- letter grades and anecdotal cornments, "1 was trying to be democratic with students who needed really clear limits that an inexperienced teacher such as myself could not give thern. I had no clear sense of where 1 was going myseff, How could I possibly pass clear limits and a succinct vision onto my students?" Out of this year Deb leamed about perseverance, and that sorne years are easier than oihers. An extremely supportive administrator and staff helped Deb through and convinced her that no- the world was not over, and no- not al1 years would be like this and yes- she would gain the experience needed to help her through Qing times and students. 'Thank goodness for Lost and Found 67 colleagues!" Deb wrote. The following year opened the door to a new temporary contract. One of the teachers on staff at the school Deb had worked at the previous year was going on educational leave from Septernber to Decernber. She wanted someone to take her Wl cfass until January, with the possibility of working haif time for the balance of the year. Deb, of course, accepted, and started the year wth a group of students who she thought, at the tirne, were quite typical, ordinary students. In September, she spent the first 45 minutes of her day getting students out from under coats in the coatroom, from under chairs and tables, helping them get their shoes tied, keeping them from punching someone and running out of the room, and eventually, getting them settled at the carpet for opening activities. Then she madIy "taught" for between ten and frffeen minutes and aid "GO PLAY", preparing herself mentally for the next half hour of attempting to get students ready for recess. In December it was decided that she would remain in this classroom haW time for the balance of the yea ne,r'. her partner retumed in January, she said "Oh my! How on EARTH have you rnanaged this long with these children?" During this Ki1 experience, Deb had the opportunity to work very closely with 3 other teachers in a team teaching and planning setting. "1 LEARNED SO MUCH!" Deb

reflects. "They basically taught me the essence of a good early childhood program. Most of what 1 do now in my Kindergarten program is modeled after what I ieamed from them." At the tirne, she had severe behaviour students. And, she had many leaming assistance needs. Deb explained in her mini-portrait; But 1 don't think 1 could have asked for a better year. The support and collegiality 1 feit on that staff put me nght at ease and made me cornfortable Lost and Found 68 with myseif as a teacher and able to take risks. In that kind of environment, the sky is the limit. Everything we did, we did "?ogethetl. My behaviour and leaming assistance students were not "mine". They were "ours". And when 1 had a problem to work through, whether it was acadernic, behavioral or philosophical, my colleagues were there to work through it with me. 1. needless to say became fairiy close to that staff and feel I owe them much credit for who I am as a teacher. They gave me a foundation that 1 will carry with me always. ARer this harrowing yet invigorating year in the W1 class, Deb found herser back in the job search market. (Her appointment at this very supportive and "farnily like" school was only temporary). Deb wound up in a Kindergarten class at a school with a relatively settled and well-adjusted student population. On herfirst day of school (which was in the second week of school as she received the job late), her Kindergarten students walked in the door, sat on their bottoms, crossed their legs and looked at her. She remembers They Iistened for HALF AN HOUR! 1 was cornpletely amazed. 1 had no idea that students such as this existed. 1 felt Iike I had died and gone to heaven. 'YOU MEAN I CAN TEACH? 1 DONT HAVE TO CHASE STUDENTS ABOUTTHE ROOM AND KEEP THEM FROM KlLLlNG EACH OTHER?" I had discovered a completeIy new wortd. in this world, however, Deb quickly discovered the wodd of "involved parents". During her first few weeks at this school, she had parents who would daily arrive about Lost and Found 69 haff an hour before dismissal time and glue their noses to the windows. Deb would be teaching, look out, and observe close to ten parents staring- she was sure- at her. 'There were days when 1 was really close to closing the blinds in their faces- My good judgement and strong beliefs about teaching kept me from doing this, however, but it was difficuft." Deb just kept reminding myseif that they were looking at their "little darlings" and not her-

In the long nin it paid off, and she was right. They wanted to see smiles on their children's faces and weren't' overiy interested in what Deb was doing as a 'Yeacher". By the end of the year, these same parents ended up being her best allies. Deb also discovered, in this new school culture, a different understanding of the word "colIeague". At the school she had corne from, the atrnosphere was somewhat Iike that of family. The staff was very close and was very open to discussion of professional issues. In her new school setting, the staff is not "unweIcomingf, (Deb's word) but somehow not the same. Perhaps more "reserved" is a better word. For one thing, the school is a fair bit bigger- Iending fiself Iess easily to cohesiveness as a whole. And, its student population is much less needy from a social emotional, behavioraf and academic viewpoint. At any rate, the level of 'Yeam planning" and "buddy work" was not as much a component of her new school as it was her last (in Deb's perception). This had implications for me as a teacher. In some ways, rny first year at this new school was very ciifficuit. I didn't feei I was making connections with other teachers, and I was feeling very isolated. Part of this isolation had to do with the fact that I was the only full tirne Kindergarten teacher. I think it also had to do with being a new person on staff and needing time to get to know others and thern to get to know me. At the end of my first Lost and Found 70 year at this school, 1 was seriously considering a transfer. 1 didn't do it, though, and 1 think now I'm glad (Deb's mini-portrait), This was Deb's second year at this school. It was an easier year for her because of some new connections she was making with sorne of her new staff. She also received support from outside her school staff. Last surnrner, while teaching Summer Session, Deb met a few teachers, including mysetf, that she connected with. One of these teachers also taught kindergarten in the district. In Septernber, Deb and her new friend began working together on developing Math adivities to supplement their programs. This began to help Deb feel connected with other teachers interested in investigating their practice. Later in September, when 1 phoned to ask if she would be interested in participating in an "Inquiring Teachers" group, Deb was at first unsure if this would be a good idea. Her words explain "1 was womed it would take me out of my league, and that it would require a time cornmitment I wouId be unable to handle. 1 was convinced that the group would be based on interesting

discussion- so I joined. And am I ever glad I did," Between her kindergarten teacher friend and the inquiring teachefs group, Deb feels "plugged in" again to teacher collaboration. And, ninning parallei to this, she has connected with sorne of the teachers within the school she teaches. According to Deb, "lt feels great! My confidence as a teacher has skyrocketed this year, and I attribute this to the support of colleagues-" This year Deb describes a renewed excitement abcut what she is doing in her classroom. I think it has made me a better teacher. Talking to other teachers makes Lost and Found 71 me introspective and helps me search for excellence. And, when my job gets overwhelrning they help me through. I don't think this job is meant to do alone. It is with collegial support that teachers flourish. I hope I never (ose the enthusiasm and interest 1 have in rny job right now. This year, 1 think my professional development has been intemally driven. I think Our district professional growth program and teacher researchfinqu iry groups have facilitated this interna1 drive. I hope that they bcth continue. Martha Martha and 1 met three years ago when we both were staff union reps. We would Save each other seats at the monthly meetings and exchange bits of personal information and bring each other up to date with our teaching lives. We were teaching the same grade level, and 1 appreciated being able to discuss cumculum with her. (1 was the only grade 4/5 teacher at my school.) I admired her dedication to her students and her efforts to attend night school and sumrner school to finish her ffih year. She had some interesting ideas about designing a classroom program around Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory. l also looked fonivard to her wonderful sense of humour and her friendship, and I knew that 1 wanted to find a way to stay in touch with her. Martha has taught for thirteen years, at the intemediate and late primary level. Herfirst two years were spent in an isolated northern community and then she moved to the suburban school were she has rernained. She is considering teaching overseas on exchange at some point in the near future. Five years ago Martha retumed to university to complete her frfth year. Martha Lost and Found 72 explained to me in her journal that the driving force to return to school came from one student in particular. She remembers when this child was moved into her room she was

told it was so the child coutd be closer to the resource teacher and that this teacher would be responsible for the childrs program. Later the resource teacher spoke with Martha to reinforce this but she was told she would be responsible for the child's prograrn on the day and a half this teacher did not work. Martha was able to do this only with the support of a special education assistant (S.E.A.) and her reguiar resource teacher. Largely as a resuit of this experience, Martha took courses in special education and ~[assroornp ractice. Martha felt that she was not "equipped professionaIly" to meet the special needs of an increasing number of her students, and she was concemed that teacher resource time was being cut back each year, thus leaving her to depend on her own skiils and knowledge. One course in particular provided a catalyst for changing her classroom prctice, This was a field study in criterion-referenced assessrnent which enabled her to implement ideas in her class and to reflect upon her practice. It was facilifated by Martha's principal. Two more field studies followed this- both on the topic of multiple intelligences (MI). Martha did a lot of communicating with parents around the philosophy of MI, including creating a pamphlet and booklet on MI. This was in response to their questions about the new educational terminology she was using. She found the majority of them to be supportive, and she appreciated the informative and helpful feed back they offered . When Martha completed the requirements for her ffih year, she decided that she needed to regain a sense of balance in her life. She was tired after teaching full time and attending university courses in the evenings and in the summer. Martha promised herself that her focus would be herself. She would not return or even think about attending more Lost and Found 73 university for another three years, when she would tum forty. She began running, spending time renovating her home, quiking, and even started drawing again. She now rnakes more of a conscious effortto go for long walks, sit in herfavourite coffee shop, and sleep late on weekends. As Martha put it, 'There is still a lot 1 want to do and I have a long way to go." Despite her recent vow to focus on herseif, when Martha received my invitation in the school mail to join an inquiring teacher's group, she wrote that: My cufiosity got the better of me, so I went to see what this group would be about. I decided to stay with the inquiry group for three reasons: it was an opportunity to connect professionaliy with others in my distfict, ! knew rny leaming wasn't over (of course we're always learning), but 1 mean I had

a wonderful opportunity to continue my learning in a more infonnal and relaxed manner with a group of supportive professionals and again design my own prograrn, and I couId talk to other teachers and hear thern describe what they are doing in their classroorns. The format of the group suited Martha because it was not too taxing. It met some needs that she had to connect with other teachers and allowed her to receive support for continuing to implernent ideas that she feels strongly about. Martha describes the many stniggles that she has had professionatly, including how others see her professionally, how she sees herself professionally, her classroom practice, if she is meeting her students' needs, wondering if her report cards are thorough, and who she is as a teacher. She feels that it is the last struggle that is rnost significant for her. Lost and Found 74 A teacher needs to realize they are doing the best for their students, there are things/lessons you do well and those you won't (keeping working at both), and you will make mistakes (sorne big and some Me). Accept these things and you will do weIl. It took me time and sometirnes 1 still struggle with this (Martha's joumal). Martha's journal reflects the joumey she undewent to allow the "real me" to emerge. She has come to the understanding that she is doing the best that she can for the moment, and knows she needs to be patient with herseif and believe that her students are doing the best they can. Not everyone follows the same leaming cuwe, and we al1 get better through time. Martha is a kid watcher, and in one of her joumal entries she reflected; Sometimes you just have to give children room and trust they will do the task you've given them. An employer has to trust that his employee will work without continually reminding and hounding them to. So do 1. How else will the work ethic grow and be installed? Martha is dedicated to her students and their families, and strives to build open communication with them. Her wonderful sense of humour and easy-going nature invite al1 those who know herto develop fnendship and respect. Martha is passionate about her students, and they adore her too. Lost and Found Michelle

1 was lucky enough to have Michelle as my schooI associate when I did rny second teaching practicum in 1989. She embodied the virtues of wisdom, serenity, and patience, and I loved tearning with her. She enabled me to feel confident and successful. After I was hired, she becarne head teacher and resource teacher, and we continued to plan together and team teach. l leamed so much from her! She was one of my first mentors. FAichelle started teaching in our district in 1969. She has taught at the intermediate level, been a district consuttant, served as a head teacher for many years, combining this with the role of a resource teacher for the past eleven. She has taught full tirne except for a brkf pen'od folfowing her rnatemity Ieaves. (Her children are now ages twenty and sixteen. Barb's daughter is twenty-one and her son is seventeen. This was one of the reasons that Michelle and Barb became such good friends when they taught together over twenty years ago-) When Michelle first started telling me about her teaching career, she began by stating that she was not sure if any of her expen'ences have been profound. Then she acknowIedged that there had been significant forces that shaped her professional development. First she warmly recalled the n'ch opportunities at the school where Cindy, Angela, and 1 had worked with her. Michelle reminisced about the stimuIating and supportive leaming environment and the help that we had from teacher development facilitator Faye Brownlie. Michelle cleariy shares the sentiments that I and others have already described about this staff. Then Michelle went further back in her memory- to 1975. In her sixih year of teaching, she had been invited by her principal to be a head teacher. This was not a Lost and Found 76 job one could apply for. She did the job for two years, until she took a matemity leave to have her first child. When she retumed to teaching in 1978, Michelle was asked by ouf school board to be a district consultant at our large district resource center. The job sounded really interesting, and would involve a lot of collaborative teacher development opportunities. Her role was to ease the transition for some secondary teachers that had been reassigned to elementary schools. She started giving workshops and developing cumculum. lt was rewarding work. Michelle loved the part time position, and stayed for two years until her second matemity leave. Working collaboratively was cutting edge in 1978, althoug h earlier Michelle and Barb had pianned together as new teachers- teaching late intemediate for a few years. Michelle had no intention of continuing in administration after she had becorne a

mother. She knew at that point that if she did do anything different, it would be in the area of cuniculurn rather than administration. lt was more appealing to her, having done a fair bit of curriculum work at the resource center. "Being a head teacher was too much work and too administrative. tt did not seem to offer a role as a cumculum leader then. It was just kind of a thankless thing to do- counting books and filling out foms." After a second matemity Ieave, Michelle retumed to her original school and found herself shating a class with the principal- not true collaboration, but some connections were made as they shared the same students. He taught them for an hour each day, About seven years Iater, when Michelle transferred to a new school, she found herseff in a very different environment. This was were she met Cindy and Angela. Later, I joined the staff, first as a practicum student, and then as a teacher. This school was a developmental site for the very progressive Year 2000 program, both at the primary and intermediate levels. Extra funding was provided by the govemment for staffs to explore tost and Found 77 a systematic change to cumculum and teaching. Once again, Michelle recognized that she had a lot of opportunities to do the kind of curriculum work she so much enjoyedWhen the principal asked her to apply for the position of head teacher, she accepted, The role had changed significantly since herfirst experience frfteen years earlier. Michelle was aware that there would be funds available to provide increased staffing for teaching development. This allowed for a large resource team and for a teacher development consultant- Faye Brownlie. We were given release time for intemediate and primary team meetings. Most of the staff participated in a teacher-research group facilitated by Maureen Dockendorf. For a time, this school was extremely resource rich. However, the Year 2000 funding and initiatives were scrapped in 1994 when a new govemment was elected- When Michelle finally lefi this school, the extra staffing positions had been cut. She had been there nine years and it was time to move on. ''The real heyday was over." At her curent school, where Martha also teaches, the staff is working really hard on colfaboration. As Martha has already described, this particular principa! is incredibly talented, and actively recruited Michelle to be part of the staff. Michelle described to me in her journal how "she (this principal) doesn't mandate collaboration, she wants people to corne to the reakation thernselves. She does everything she can to foster and support it". One of these ways is by encouraging teachers who share the same grade configurations to meet, and finding some creative ways to allow this.

At the beginning of last year, as a new staff member, Michelle wasn't sure what her own professional development and opportunities for staff collaboration were going to look Iike. Then it began to take shape- primarily for two reasons. First, her involvement in Our distrct Math cornmittee began, once again ai the invitation of a principal, Michelle Lost and Found 79 has always been interested in Math, and she has a lot to offer her colleagues- People on her staff sought her out for advice on materiais, resources, and strategies. Michelle appreciated these connections. The second factor was a budding relationship with a prirnary teacher who had transferred at the sarne time as Michelle from their previous setting- Akhough they had not spent much time colfaborating previously, this quickly changed in their new environment. Michelle feels very positive about their accomplishrnents. "You know how when good things start to happen between two people, you talk about it and then others see what is happening and start to try Tt-" This other teacher has given Michelle a prirnary perspective, and appreciates Michelle's patience, They have worked together on a couple of Math workshops. "it is really interesting for the rest of the staff to see an intemediate and a pfirnary teacher work together- 1 think that has helped a trernendous amount this year." Michelle anticipates the Guided Reading focus this year with nine of the staff will provide sorne rich dialogue. Micheile explained during a phone conversation that she responds well to gentle pushes from people to try new things. Her opportunities for professional development typically corne from her collaborative work with other educators. lnsig hts and Dilem mas 1 feel so fortunate to have had the privilege to work with these teachers over the past year. I admire them immensely and feel inspired by their accornplishrnents and visions. 1 think it is important to surround one's self with people that "make you want to be a better person", if 1 may borrow a line from Jack Nicholson's character in the rcent movie " As Good As It Gets", \ Lost and Found 79 One day in June, as Martha and 1 discussed some of what 1 had written so far, 1 reflected that I was the youngest member of the group, and with the exception of Deb, the others had taught for at least five more years than I. I wondered how it was that this had happened. Could it be that I valued their experiences and sought to surround myseif with seasoned educators? Or, could it be that 1 am not meeting the newer teachers hired

in Our district? Perhaps there was a hiring freeze. However, Martha commented that it takes at least five years of teaching before one starts to reflect seriously on what one is doing. Deb also agrees with this. I remember at least one of my early years when I was too bogged down with ail that was going on in my classroom to consider attending any workshops. I felt Iike I had enough to read through and consider without being exposed to any new ideas. l was in survival mode. It certainly takes courage to share your doubts, fears, questions, and insecurities with your colleagues- perhaps it takes a while to build up that kind of risk-taking initiative, Because this group of participants had been purposively selected, much ofthe time and energy typically necessary for establishing a clirnate of trust and mutual respect was foreshortened- Thus the conditions quickly became present for teachers to take the risks required for meaningful conversation and potential growth. Lost and Found 80 CHAPTER FOUR: THE FUNCTlONlNG OF AN INQUlRlNG TEACHERS GROUP Each inquiry group session followed a loose agenda. Our initial meetings centered around getting to know each other both on a personal and a professional level, We Iistened attentively and attempted to reflect on what it was that we wanted to achieve. As time went by, the participants' cornmitment to the group was strengthened, and our group took on an identity. 1 grew more confident and experienced in my role of the facilitator, as I grew to anticipate the conversation fiow and some of the reoccurring topics of discussion, One of my objectives was to maintain a fn'endly and social group atmosphere while inquiry was pursued. Our sessions did change over time, but they were consistent in many aspects. Making a Cornmitment to the Group Each group member made a rich contffbution to the meetings. It was important to the dynamics that people were able to attend each session, and the cornmitment people had to the group was a continuai inspiration to me. The two part time teachers, Angela and Cindy, occasionally came on their days off. When we were given only six release days with the Education Change fmplementation Grant, (see Appendix F), Cindy generously offered to corne on her day off so that no one eIse would have to juggle their classroorn coverage. Angela, in particular, had difficutty arranging her schedule at times, but she always managed to be atour meetings because she fekthey were such a positive professional venture. Her final report read at our sharing and celebration session

describes how she joined out of a sense of guilt and some duress, but kept coming Lost and Found because t was so worthwhile. I wiil openly admit that 1 joined this Teacher-Researcher group under duress. Weil, maybe not exactly duress, but certainly under a sense of guiit. When Janice firt contacted me, I totd her 1 was rnuch too busy to commit the amount of tirne and energy required to a Teacher-Researcher group. I have had the opportunity to be in various Teacher-Researcher groups on and off for the Iast eight years- I just feit that 1 simply did not have enough time. 1 have two pre-schoolers, 1 teach three days a week, and 1 look after my invalid mother on a part-time basis. Further, my husband and I had just made a cornmitment to find more tirne for each other. Oh yeah, I wanted to try to find some time for myseif, too. So, my answer was a firm "No, t couldn't possibly join at this time ... 1 know it will be great, Janice. ... Yes, 1 know that it will be a positive professionai venture, Janice. ... Listen, Janice, 1 will make a gesture of support by attending the first meeting only. " One of the things 1 love about Angela is her sense of humour! It shines through in her writing, and when she laughs it is contagious. Other people also had a tremendous load on their shoulders. Anita was the accreditation chair at her school, and had just begun her graduate studies. This meant that she was involved in many meetings and had a lot of reading and writing to do. She also had the role of a Summer Session coordinator, and thus had many extra responsibilities. However, Anita wrote "1 love connecting with teachers not from my school so that other perspectives are shared". She felt "there is not enough pro-d in Our Lost and Found 82 district which connects teachers forjust talk time, extra support, curiosity, and sharing their ideas"- Anita kept coming even when her energy was low because 'iivhen I commit to something t stick with it, and besides, 1 reaIly like the group atrnosphere so 1 didn't want to miss it!" One day in March she described how she had not wanted to corne because she was completely exhausted. She had coached a skipping club before school, been on recess supewision, skipped lunch, experienced difficutties with her class, chaired an accreditation meeting aRer school, and then to top it all off would be facing a forty-five minute drive home from my house after our meeting- She came because of her

cornmitment to the process, to the members of the group, and to herseif. Others also wrote about their reasons for joining, and their expectations of the process. Deb, a relatively new teacher, wished to increase her collegial network. She enthusiastically accepted my invitation to participate. Deb originalty envisioned the group more as a chance to talk, and did not anticipate thzt she would be inspired to take on so much! By the end of May, she had compiIed an enonnous collection of resources that she plans to use next year. Her thoughts from her March journal entry provide insight into her change of heart: 1 joined to establish contact with other teachers in the district and discuss issues of concem to me in my classroom. Did I know what I was geffing into? NO! 1 thought that I could just go and 'Ya1k"- but 2 turned into a thinking activity 1 coutdn't escape .... Am 1 sorry I joined? NO! It made me do some thinking that has extended my practice, and put me back into contact with other teachers who are interested in expending their practiceand their insight and support has been invaluable. Lost and Found 8 3 Deb's school aIso was going through a grilling accreditation process. Like Deb and Anita, Cindy also agreed to participate almost immediately after 1 invited her. She had taken a summer literacy course in August and was excited to try some new things in her classroom. She had been involved in a teacher-research group before and had some idea of what to expect. She also was excited about the opportunity to work with some of her former colleagues once again. Barb had been exposed to readings on action research and had had conversations with Maureen Dockendorfabout the process. She wrote on her Reflections Questionnaire that: I have been intrigued with Teacher Research ever since I read reports from Bumaby Teacher Research Groups a few years ago. I also have done some reading on Action Research through univers@ studies and have talked to Maureen Dockendorf about Action Research. 1 decided on this group because 1 knew most of the people before joining and am very cornfortable with them. Martha wanted to "keep Iooking or explonng or Ieaming about topics new and old in education". Michelle shared that she fett "honoured to be included". Her initial hesitation about joining was "more my usual tendency to procrastinate- I never doubted

for a moment that this group would be valuable". We usually met at 4 pm on a Monday afternoon in my living room. My house tumed out to be a fairly central location, and it was a nice feeling to be able to meet outside of our schools. I did everything 1 could to make my guests feel welcome and at Lost and Found 84 home. As people amved, they would wander into the kitchen, grab a coffee, tea, or cold dnnk, and stand chatting to the others. (We debated during our first session whether or not we wanted to have wine available, but we decided that it woutd after the tone of the discussion and that it would best be saved for our sharing and celebration.) This time provided a chance for people to unwind a little bit, to reconnect with people they may not have seen for a month, and to wait for everyone to arrive. In these opening conversations, Cindy shared with us her progress in piano lessons, quik making, and card making- ail activities she had taken up since deciding to work part time as of January. Martha and Michelle would provide us with updaies on the progress they were making training for the Sun Run. I rnust admt that 1 was aiways aware of how much time was ticking by, 1 knew that we couldn't get right to work, but it was hard to balance the mingling and socializing with the responsibility of "getting down to business". The reconnecting tirne continued as people moved into the living room to sit in a circle around a coffee table laden with what I hoped were tempting looking appetizers. Since the living room was where the work took place, 1 craftily put the food there so that people would not linger in the kitchen too long. M e n 1 fek the time was right to begin to focus, I would get everyone's attention, start talking "business" and let the group know that 1 was starting to tape record the conversation. As the months went by, this reconnecting time took longer and longer- up to forty-five minutes a few times. My Role As The Facilitator As the group facilitator, I had a vatTety of roles, including that of an inquiring techer who was a group member and a reflective practitioner, graduate student, organizer, information gatherer, chef and hostess. This group functioned so weIl that I did Lost and Found 85 not often feel 1 needed actively to direct discussion- By providing the opportunity, framework, and setting for us to meet, I served an important rok- probably the most important one, in ternis of the needs of these particular group members. 1 tended to be one of the quietest in the room- 1 really wanted people to have a chance to talk, and they did an excellent job of listening to each other and building on one anothefs ideas. 1 did

not feel the need to be continually asking probing questions and then try to reflect back what 1 was hearing because the other participants did it intuitively. There seemed to be a genuine ethic of caring within the group. 1 did not need to control the conversations or act as a expert with al1 of the answers and be aware of al1 of the available resources and the latest research. I was able to focus on Iistening, and give the occasional comment or direction when necessary. i asked the participants to describe my role when they completed the Reflections Questionnaire. 1 had not been aware of that here were so rnany facets to this role, as demonstrated by the following responses. Barb's comment was: The facilitator for the most part provided a cornfortable setting for discussion. She also provided encouragement and helped to clarfy. I think it was also important to let the agenda evolve- like many group activities it takes time for the group to bind. 1 don't think this always happens with a rigid agenda. (1 am finding this in my classroom as well.) Cindy replied 'You established the group, consistently reminding us when the next Lost and Found 8 6 meeting was, provided your home and al1 of the wonderful food. You kept the time we spent together in check and directed the conversation when necessary". On her questionnaire, Martha answered: The facilitator provided a place to talk, directed discussion, organized the group, provided booklets on research, booked TOC'S (Teachers on Call), arranged dates for meeting, provided refreshments and food, S he contributed to rny search for understandings through providing an opportunity for discussion. Angela descnbed my role as: lnitiator of the group getting together, as well as being al1 important materials manager (ie. setting, food, etc.), She kept us on track, (when our meandering went on too long), suggested activities, (ie. writing in joumals, grant application), as well as contributed to discussion, as any other member. Deb and I had most recently taught together, and I think that I was able to make a solid connection with her. Deb told me on several occasions that 1 was a mentor to her. She was the teacher closest in age to me, and had the least teaching expen'ence in the

group. Deb called me often to discuss her process of finding a question, and she wrote: Janice consistently asked me questions such as "Can you tell me more about that?" or "Why do you think that worked?". She was aiways very Lost and Found 97 positive and supportive. And she Iistened to me on the phone when I was stmggling with issues and needed to 'Yalk". Michelfe commented to me several times that "we were a tough group to focus". Focusing might have been easier "had we not so much in common, or had previous connections". The facilitator, she wrote, was "a necessary role, and the (research) questions were important to keep us on track." Redirecting the conversation flow was the most challenging part of the facilitator's role for me. I tended to use natura! breaks in the discussion before I changed topics or requested that someone share what they had been doing. Sometirnes I fek nervous or reluctant to take a new direction to serve the needs of my agenda. This was certainly no reffection on the climate of the group- everyone was very accommodating and easygoing. it was a new experience for me to be directive with my peers, but eventually I woutd gather the courage to ask people to listen to my opening comments. 1 would begin by cornmenting on what part of the process of action research we were striving to be at, and then I would mention any necessary business details. I described the menu for dinner and dessert, and would briefly discuss how m graduate studies were progressing. It was never hard to get people talkng- the conversation always fiowed and once we began to talk about classrooms and our practices, people continued to be highly interested and actively involved in the dialogue. Sometimes I found myseif cut off before I had a chance to Say everything 1 wanted 0, but t never was a frustration, as I could corne back to the ideas at another point if 1 needed to. Lost and Found 8 8 Conversation Flow Once a topic came up for discussion, the group would typically stay on that line of thinking for the next twenty minutes or so. People seerned to be genuinely interested in one another's thinking and experiences- 1 noticed how frequently one idea would piggy back off another. Angela even called it that when she smoothly redirected the conversation towards her research question during our ApriI session. (Her sense of timing was exquisite,) "Well, 1'11 piggyback on your's (meaning Cindy's research question) becstuse that is what 1 focused my question on."

Another example occurred about twenty minutes afer Angela's "piggybacking". Angela, Cindy and Deb had made some connections about scribing for students. They both wondered if they should do some facilitating of the student's ideas or just record what is said verbatim. Angela was stniggling wth the dilemma of using teaching moments or if she had a tight to inject her ideas into what the students were writing. Angela- "..-it was the same thing, Iike, do I do it (scribe for them) verbatim, or do 1 do some teachable moment kind of stuff right there? 1 really struggled with that, for the longest time. If it is their story, do 1 just write it the way they Say it or is it me injecting my ideas in there ..." Cindy- "1 know what you are saying. Yeah." Angela went on to explain how she came to at first a temporary conclusion, which would require the students to prepare for the writing assignment before they came to class. Then she would provide some direction to the development of ideas so their stones made Lost and Found Angela- "And ultimateIy, there are three profiles of three very different students. And each one looked very different when i worked with them. Sol I've come to (laughs) my conclusion! My ternporary conclusion, is that 1 get them to prep before they come. They have to know the charaders, the setting, the problem, the soIution, that's al1 they need to corne with. And so when we go to write it, 1 do have a d-ifferent level of direction. One of them had way too many ideas, " C indy- "Y es ." Angela- "and 1 had to rope him in! "You know what? You need to wrap this up in 45 minutes!" Lets rope it in now! Because his ideas are so many so fast, and so furious. And they don't even rnake sense! They just need the organizational part- The other one, who is ESL, has braces, and is EMH and, to pull anything out of hirn is just Iike pulling teeth! It is really interesting. Each one is very ci-ifferent. ... But al1 of them are highly interactive. And I get to a point where I don't just change the gramrnar, spetling, and the sentence structure, as we go along, but now 1 am also at the point where 1 will direct. So it is Iike, "So just a second, back here you said this guy is out of the room, Now where is he?" So it is that direct." Deb reflected on how the goal during this process is to increase the studentls seffLost and Found 90

esteem so that they feel like they can communicate through the written word. Cindy and Angela agreed that it is important to motivate students. Deb- "At our Ievel we are buiiding them up. Eventually, what we want them to be able to do from the scribing is to have the confidence to be able to pick up that pencif and write!" Cindy- "And some of them actually started to do mat, When they were waiting for me tney starTed their story." Deb- 'That's because they wanted to." Cindy- "Yeah! 1 think that there is a lot of po\ Mer in this \ Angela- 'Yeah! l think sol and the kids that 1 am thinking of working with it are the kids who are the reluctant readers and reluctant writers. And they have so much to say! They just can't show what they know. And they are completely undermined. Their ideas are undermined by other teachers, by peers, by themselves, they just think "I've got nothing ta write about!" Cindy- 'Yeah, right." Angela- ""Writing is too drfficult, so I am going to give up." And they just Lost and Found 91 shut down. Versus if they have this little help getting started! I mean, i know that it is ideal for me because I can teach in one on three situations, and you can get ten minutes at a time" Cindy- "Yeah!" Angela- "And I sort of just get that sense of, yeah, just see what their ideas could be. Then it is that Iittle taste of hope." Cindy- "Thatls n'ght! It gives them some feeling that, "Yeah! 1 have sornething to say." Cindy did some clarifying about the process of our action research projects Iater on in this April meeting. During the conversation, Cindy observed that Angela, to al1 interests and purposes, had written a final report about her project. Cindy wanted to check to see if this is what she should be working toward. Angela gave a good description of the way she went about writing out a report to summanze her findings and share with our group. She described how she pulled ideas from her journal and from observations of tessons to corne up with recommendations. Cindy- "l'm hearing that Angela has done a sumrnary, so that is probably

what a goal of mine should be. Just a general, basic, overview of what we started with, what we've Iearned, or that kind of thing. So that when we get to June, we have something to kind of tell a little bit about what we did. What the process was for each of us." Lost and Found 92 Janice- "1 think you'il find writing it out for yoursetf will make you think of new things." Angela- "lt did, yeah!" Cindy- "lave just been doing Iittle journal notes." Angela- "Even just putting those together, or going through them, and the things which are really salient, pull out. Because when I went through my journal notes, 1 thought, "Most of this is blather, but, oh yeah!" There's a fine! (Laughter.) You put it together. 1 think that is part of the joumey ... everybody else was talking about this, and I was thinking about this, and suddenly .... And now this other thing, this other tangent.-mow where does that go? ... The decision to change that joumey was based on something. So the joumey is the process." Unidentified participant- "Rig ht!" Angela- "There are also observations of lessons or things. And there was also the part of recommending conclusions .... Not conclusions, just a ternporary stopping point for me." The rnernbers were encouraging and respectful of one another, such that 1 never felt that 1 needed to redirect any negative lines of thinking. My biggest concem was trying Lost and Found 53 to ensure that people were given the opportunity to have equal talk time. 1 think that over the course of the year, people did have somewhat equal talk time, but this did not happen at every meeting. 1 think, however, that the topics were of high interest to everyone invoIved. Although the group ranged from resource teachers to primary and intemediate generalists, there was enough that was similar to al1 of us. When I asked Martha in June to read this chapter and comment on the issue of equal talk time, she said that "Not always did 1 have something to Say. Many times t just listened- I talked when 1 had something to say." Cindy and Deb had both used similar words of reassurance when 1 asked them about it halfway through the process, Barb mentioned that it might be helpful in future groups to make sure each participant at least got a chance to discuss their

project at each session. 1 fek guiity when 1 read this, but 1 think people did, forthe most part, get to speak about their topic at each meeting. 1 eventually came to wonder if Our group was more of a support and a discussion group than a working action research group. We were al1 inquiring into our practices, but there were also occasions when we also were using the time to discuss things that were not directly related to our specific questions. This made the process more natural and informal. Sometimes the conversations we had meandered away from the process of action research, but 1 came to value the talk as a necessary component of the group dynamics that motivated the participants to keep returning. If I had only allowed talk that supported each participant's individual research, 1 think that the group would not have been as successful. The participants reassured me time and time again that they needed to have the informai, Iight, "chit chat" and side talk in order for the process to be as comfortable and pleasant as it was. Sometimes 1 fett anxious when we strayed too far from discussions about teacher research, as I knew how Iittle time we had to reflect and Lost and Found 94 engage in inquiry. I f e l uncornfortable when the topic was off task for too long because I feit a reponsibility to ensure that inquiry was indeed occumng. It was a Iittle unsettling for me to be directive with people whorn 1 knew so well. The only timed agenda item that I kept consistent was dinner. It was afways ready between 6:00 and 6:15 pm. We wrapped up our meetings between 7:50 and 8:05 pm, afthough people often stayed a b l longer to finish conversations. However, we did achieve a lot of leaming , and t was an enjoyable process for al[. The tone of the sessions was much more relaxed and natural than that any of the professional workshops 1 have attended, probably because the discussion stemmed from the participants. True leaming, 1 would argue, occurs when people have the opportunity to self-direct their areas of study and this group provided that opportunityHow The Group Took On An ldentity It appears to me that one of the main purposes of an action research group is to identify a focus question and to undertake a project that will work towards answering the question. However it isn't my focus question that 1 think of as I drive my car down Blue Mountain Road one Monday a month. It is the anticipation of seeing the members of our group and hearing the tales of their teaching lives. It's sort of Iike the Neil Simon play Same Time Next Year only our research group is Same Time Next Month. 1 look

forward to hear what has been happening in the cIassrooms and lives of the mernbers of our group. One night we laugh about Cindy's guided tour of the boy's washroom, anothertime we empathize with Martha's valiant efforts Lost and Found 95 to reach a troubled boy who has touched her heart and challenged her teaching skills. Anita wams us about the trials of accreditation as we imagine her dashing around her school in her dressup box bathrobe. Michelle and Deb remind me of the laughs we had when teaching together. Angela's stories of her "special kids" help me understand the mentally handicapped child in rny class. Along with the banter and gossip that has taken place in Janice's living room the discussion has gone beyond a simple focus question, we have taken the time to "relax" and refiect on our practice (Barb's journal). This excerpt from Barb's journal is an useful illustration of her impressions of the functioning of our group. Our group was so much more than a working group. We formed a connection with each other and enjoyed each other's Company- We felt part of each other's classrooms, and knew that we were not working in isolation. The laughter that accompanied our group sessions made the experience Iight and we never felt ovenvheImed by what we were talking about. Sharng expennces and seeking ideas in a supportive climate enabled us to leam in a gentle and virtually risk-free way. 4 On our district professional day in February, called "Changes & Choices" (see Appendix B), our group members were al1 drawn to each other as we met among our colleagues. The focus of this day was on action research and networking groups, and I think we al1 feit validated. It was afirrning to hear about the importance of these meaningful types of professional developrnent from the keynote speaker, Ann Lieberman, and Peter Grimmett, who facilitateci a discussion panel that responded to Ann's address, Lost and Found 96 and then for us to meet in the aftemoon for a session of our inquiry group. We leamed that there were twenty-eight other action research groups up and ~ n n i n gin our district, (see Appendix C) and it was a good feeling to be part of this movement- We were able to say to our coIleagues "this is what we have been doing as part of ouf inquiry group". We were spokespeople for and active participants in the mode1 of professional development that was being proposed. The timing of this district day was good for our group, as we had been meeting for five rnonths and were in the middle of formulating our

research questions. "Are We Focused Now? The question "Are we focused now?" reflects the amount of time we meandered in our conversation topics. Aithough 1 saw stimulating discussion as the group's prirnafily purpose, we were involved in conducting action research. The invitation to participate offered a chance to do more than focus on a project. It began; Corne participate in a thought-provoking teacher inquiry group with your colleagues. Discover what you value and believe- Does it match with your practice? Why do you do what you do? In this context you will be involved and supported in rethinking, refiecting, and reshaping your practice. School-based and field-based inquiry are tenns that descnbe an approacb to education research which recognizes the central role of teachers in the process of gathefing and interpreting information within an educational setting. The purpose of these projects is to promote inquiry Lost and Found 97 that validates and creates understanding about teaching and Ieaming. We will be talking, writing, and reflecting on our practices as a way of developing knowfedge a bout the craft of teaching . Meetings wiH focus on identeQing research questions and methodologies. The framework for each meeting will included reflective writing, conversations, developing a research question, working collaboratively, and consuitinghrvork sessions (see Appendix A for full document). Many more issues were discussed than our research questions and proposed methodo[ogies. Almost al1 of the topics refiected a desire to irnprove one's teaching practice, or "the craft of teaching", as I referred to it in my invitation to participate. If this group were to continue next year, 1 would Iike to see more group time spent on discussing methodologies and wys of collecting and analyzing data. It was my intention to have our April session serve as a working period to look the collected data in srnall groups, but not a11 members of the group were at this stage. People tended to work individually on their research projects. The group provided ideas and served as a sounding board when people were stuck or seeking resources. Transcript excerpts from Decernber's session illustrate my attempts to direct the

conversations back to action research. This was after discussion had strayed to the topic of recent positions filled by new teachers in the district. 1 wanted to focus on the Field Guide: Lost and Found 98 Janice- "Neat! Shali we continue? I'm on page two now. Here are some teacher's perspectives on teacher research." ..., discussion about geffing sfarted based on page fwo of Jemski? Booth, & Dockendorf, 7992:s guidebook to action research.._.People reading if silenfly, working thmugh to worksheet on page seven . Jeroski, Booth, & Dockendorfs 1992 publication was an excellent resource for providing us with a focus. It outlined the research process and provided technical support. 1 ordered a copy for each participant from the Ministry through our district resource centerTwenty minutes later in this same session I again referred to the same document af'ter the conversation had wandered to the subject of my recent birthday party. Janice- "lt was fun! Anyway. (Laughs) The tape's on, isn't it? (More laughter) Okay, so...by dinner ... we'll have done page seven. t'If ask you just to spend a couple of minutes looking at that, and then do some sharing before dinner." Angela- "Personally, page seven doesn't do it for me. lnstead of focusing my thinking, it expands rny thinking ... and then 1 have more difficulty focusing ." Janice- "Okay. We'll go right to focusing then. Let's have page eight filled in ... and then after dinner we cm work on page nine. " Lost and Found 99 In January, there was a more vivid description of the challenge of directing conversation flow. This dialogue occurred just after we had settled down to work- I addressed the group, letting them know what I was looking for in ternis of discussion. I wanted to focus on the development of the research questions. We had been meeting for four months now, and I was anxious to "get things on track". Janice- "1 would Iike to find out what questions you are most interested in ... and figure out what we can do to support each other in answenng those questions ,...( We should) think about something to do ... back in the classroom. You are going to start gathering some information to show that

you are getting somewhere with your question. Now does that sound too scary? Do you understand what I am taiking about with the data collection? ltls just that if you want to see improvernent in your kids' writing, you need to know what you are looking for..," Deb- "lt's kind of Iike setting out your leaming objectives and doing your regular teaching job ..." Janice- 'Yeah! Exactiy! And it has to be something that is important to you, something that you are thinking about. " Martha- "What page are you on?" Janice- "l'm on page ten." (Of the Field-Based Resestrch Guide.) Lost and Found 1 00 Unidentified participant- "So this is just what we already wrote through last time. We did page nine-" Cindy- "Yeah. Focusing your question. articulating your question, so ..." Michelle- "So coming up with a research plan." i fett like everyone was following along and understanding what steps needed to be taken in selecting a question, but just as we got on a roll, I was distracted when 1 noticed Martha searching for her Field Guide. Then 1 choose to greet my husband as he came home from work, He brought news of the senous snow fall that was on the back of al1 of Our minds. (Angela and Anita had gone straight home from school in the fear of being caught up in it.) I then continued with my efforts to lead and focus the conversation. Janice- "(We need to develop) a research plan ....Why don't you just take a minute and look through Chapter Three..,.On page eighteen, there is a worksheet where you can start drafting out your plan. So why doesn't everyone take about ten minutes and look through Chapter Three, starting on page eleven, and then do a little draft of your plan. Or do people feel that they need to talk about it?-..Write a bit more before they do that.--or should you draft out your plan, talk, and then use page nineteen for .... Do you have one of these? "(To Martha) Lost and Found 101 Martha- No, I thought I put it in my bag, but I do have one at home." (Someone asks Marfha a question.) The conversation suddenly shfted and the participants discussed an upcoming workshop, a recent conference in Baltimore, and a district resource person. After Iistening

for about five minutes, I choose to intemipt these chains of thought. I felt the time was too short to stray far from my agenda of promoting inquiry, and 1 wished to encourage the participants to find a partner to collaborate with on their projects. Janice- "1s there a way that anyone here can work together on a research question?" Michelle- "1 have some sense of what Anita and Angela are doing, even though they are not here ..." Unidentified participant- "1 know that Anita's question is in the area of Math and Literature, but what is Angela's?" Cindy- "She was thinking about ... kids' storytime with her .... Didn't she Say she had some grade 6 or 7 students who have started ... reading to her? I don? know if that was something she was just experimenting with, or if... that was going to be a question." Lost and Found Michelle- "Those kind of questions are quite scary." Janice- "1 talked to her today and she said, "l've got my question". I wished 1 had asked her exactly what was her question!" Cindy- "Even if we just know each others' questions we can support each other ..." f he grou p's research interests were varied, and certain ly the p hysical geograp hy separating the various school settings discourages convenient collaboration. No one seemed to feel the need to have a partner. The conversation fow shfted to what colleagues in Our district are working on, and then Martha's interest in Gardner's theories of muitiple intelligences. This was in line with Barb's research interests. We discussed anotherworkshop that was coming up, and some appropriate resources for ML Barb then brought us back to the process of action research. Barb- "My understanding of field based research is that we want to have some way to develop a base line." Janice- "A starting point? You want to develop an awareness of what it is you are looking at now." Barb- "Yeah." Lost and Found 1 O3 Cindy- "And it could be something where you measure their growth .... This is the first time I've ever even looked at this, so 1 don't even know what is

going to happen with mine. But that is part of research. isn't it? You have to begin with something and take an idea somewhere and see what happens." It was chaltenging to Iimit the discussion to an action research focus. Conversation did tend to rneander, but it always came back to the process. Sharing Resources As the group members got to know each other's interests and questions, they were able to offer support for each other, flot only verbally but also with resource materials, suggestions for further reading, and insights into vanous instructional strategies. Often this occurred when the tape recorcling our sessions had not yet been activated, or was tumed off during dinner or as people left. The participants offered ideas and suggestions, but they also often had something concrete to share. For exarnple, in the following exert from our December transcript, Cindy responded to Martha's desire to do three way conferencing with her students and their parents. Cindy- "Actually, 1 have a copy of a report card that was done in a kindergarten room where they did a three way conference where it was actually wntten with the teacher and the parent and everyone contributed. With goals and everything. And if you want, I could dig that up?" Lost and Found 1 O4 In January, the group was discussing instructional strategies forteaching language development. Barb enthusiastically recalled one of herfavourites. Other participants were familiar with it, but for others, it was new. Bah- "Have you ever used that strategy that Faye Brownlie called "Think of a Tirne"? The idea is one person talks and the other person listens- And then you switch over and it is the same. l've used it on narne calling, or something 1 think they'll find humorous. "You called sornebody a name, or somebody called you a name, or you watched somebody", it is sort of from the three different perspectives." l chose to include this except because it was fairly typical of many of our exchanges. Our group presented many opportunities to discuss strategies. In February Martha acknowledged in her journal, "Barb sent me examples of sheets and letters she uses with her students and parents-" The participants made notes to themselves when they wanted to remember to bring ideas or resources to share. On Martha's same journal page, included on her 'Yo do" list was "give film strip to Barb" with

a checkmark beside it to show it had been accomplished. Deb made good use of a resorce Cindy gave her. Cindy prepared a "stages of writing" document for a course a few years back, illustrating what writing development looks Iike by using student samples. Deb re-fomatted it to serve her purpose of communicating to parents about language developrnent. Cindy was quite interested to see the updated version, and so were Angela, Michelle, and 1, who had helped provided some of the student data when we were on the sarne staff. Lost and Found 1 O5 As previously discussed. the March session transcrpt documents that Deb was given information articles by a colleague in a neighbounng district, as well as the idea to create a writets suitcase. Our group offered Deb further ideas for information sources. Janice- " People here might have some interesting articles too!" Deb- Yes! I would be interested in collecting more." Anita- "There is a lot in the Primary Program, too. The philosophical guidelines." Deb- "That is a good idea. Thai is a good place to draw from." Anita- "You can copy it right out of there or you can cite it.... the Supporting Leaming document has the questions parents ask and the answers we can give. Those sheets are excellent." Deb- "And Janice was saying that the teaming indicators are useful. Or whaf was that, Janice?" Janice- "The Leaming Reference Set?" Deb- 'Yes .... Samples of writing and stuff?" Lost and Found Janice- "Yes." The Primary Program was a Ministry vision that began around 1988. Many of the philosophies have been camed foiward, akhoug h not ail. The latter documents referred to in this conversation were published by Our B.C. Ministry of Education. They inciude Evaluatinq Writing Across Curriculum: Student Samples For The Writinci Reference Set and Evaluatinq Writin~A cross Curriculum: Usins the Writins Reference Set To Support Leaming. Sirnilar tlles were also pu blished for evaluating reading . These were reprinted in 1993 and distributed to every teacher. but this was before Deb had her own class. These are important resources for teachers. As educators, we receive an abundance of information each day. For example,

Our Ministry has published at least frffeen lntegrated Resource Packages (IRP'S) since 1995. These serve as our provincial curriculum and instruction guidelines, but I have heard many teachers admit that they have not yet removed the protective "shrink wrap". Many are Sitting unread on shelves. Teachers admit feeling overwhelrned by the influx of reading material. Having the opportunity to discuss what resources were needed or what were available was clearly appreciated in our group setting. Changes Over Time As we got to know each other better and began to understand where each other was coming from, we were able to offer more resources and other fofms of support to each other. People discovered commonalities in philosophy and approaches to instruction and also were given encouragement to try new things. Martha helpfully gave Barb a resource package on literature circies. Barb passed Martha information on three way tost and Found 1 O7 conferencing. Cindy offered Deb her project on literacy development. Angela got many ideas from the writer's suitcase that Deb prepared. Cindy Wied many of the ideas offered by the group towards her project on wnting. As people saw their ideas being implemented. it must have been a source of gratification to know that they had been helpful. One of the most wonderful things about working with other teachers is knowing that there is such a wealth of expertise only a request away. After the first few sessions, it became harder to maintain rny request that the participants al1 have equal voices. M e n we wrote about and then shared our thoughts, the group members more naturally seemed to take equaI turns talking. No one person monopolized the conversations. This changed slightly over the course of time, as people became more and more involved in their questions. We began to spend more and more time discussing individual topics. The discussions increased in complexity, and as a result, not everyone had a chance to present their progress at each session. I felt perplexed about this, because I had expected that each person would be able to get equal time, but the conversations were meaningful and everyone seemed to be actively involved. There was also a degree of overlap between projects, and so ideas and information offered to one person may have in fact been heIpfuI to another. The biggest change occurred at our final sharing and celebration. It was absolutely vital for everyone to get equal time to report to the group about their projects. I estimated how much time everyone could speak for, and then I sent a bulletin out to the various schools infonning the participants that they would have twenty minutes of sharing

time, and that they would be timed and cut off if they went overWhen we began our sharing tirne on May 28, 1 introduced flashcards with the waming words "five minutes" and "one minute" that would help with time management. Lost and Found 1 08 The first few times I held these up, we al1 laughed because it was such a different style of facilitating for me, but we agreed it was the only way we could get through al1 seven mini-presentations. After the first presentation. I repeated that if people had comments and questions, would they please jot them down so we could continue the conversations over dinner once everyone had a chance to share. I wondered if this style of facilitating woutd have worked in Our previous sessions, but I felt it might have taken away from the spontaneity of the discussion and rnake things somewhat more rigid. The fact that this style worked for our last session highlights the level of respect the group members had for one another. The format was valued because everyone had something to share and al1 wanted to ensure the time was equally divided. We al1 sat captivated when it came time for each mernber to share their process and their findings. There was clearly respect for each other! Initially, I expected that people's level of commitment to the group would decline as tirne passed. tt did not. Instead, it was evident by the dialogue that the participants grew more and more interested in the process and wanted to keep up with the other members. I was constantly aware of how busy these teachers were, and I was so impressed that they wanted to be involved in the group. 1 wondered what influence the participants' prior connections and level of respect had had on their level of commitment to each other. In hindsight, my ongoing positive perceptions of the smoothness of the group's functioning were accurate. Listening to the transcripts over and over again has confinned this for me. More importantly, the experience was worthwhile for al1 of those involved. My main concems were regarding the lack of a rigid agenda, but this did not detract from Lost and Found 109 the meaningfulness of the group. Rather, it allowed the group to feel more empowered to express their ideas as they wished. Conversation was certainly more free-flowing than I had anticipated, but the professionalism, persistence, and dedication of the group members kept us retuming to each of the participants' research questions. Lost and Found HAPTER FiVE:

FOCUSING RESEARCH QUESTIONS I asked the participants to focus on a few areas when they were considenng possible research topics. The process of focusing on a research question was one of the most challenging parts of the process. I have documented how these questions evolved for each of the participants. I also have expanded on the progress of two of the questions. My documentation is drawn frorn mukiple sources of information, including transcripts of the sessions, informai interviews, joumai entries, worksheets, and questionnaires. Guidelines for Choosing Research Topics When I sent the initial invitation for people to participate in a 'Yhought-provoking teacher inquiry group" I stated that "topics can be in the area of laquage development, cumculum integration, or assessment and evaluation" (see Appendix A). I set these guidelines because one of the conditions of my district's paid Education Leave was that I explore these areas. 1 also feit that it was necessary to set some guidelines. I was a littte womed that other areas of interest would anse for the participants, and I did not want to block their genuine curiosity by irnposing a structure. Indeed, as I suspected, during our first two sessions, when the participants wrote and then shared their questions, worries, dilemmas, and tensions, other topic areas did anse. These included meeting the needs of individual students, rriaking curriculum rneaningful and motivating, finding time to collaborate with otherteachers, irnproving assessment and evaluation, communicating Lost and Found 111 with parents, classroorn management, organizational frustrations and time constraints. Additional reoccunng topics included the use of cornputers to assist writing, integrating math and literature, resource funding and availability, working to heip students who are "slipping between the cracks", diversity of students and teachers, problem solving as an instructional strategy, and educational politics, From here, we began to talk and work our way to finding a focus for each participant to work on- This was not a process to be rushed, and 1 did not want to stick to a rigid agenda in which each person was assigned a fixed amount of time. Arriving At A Question Choosing a focus was one of the most challenging tasks of the whole process. During the first meeting, each participant spent time writing on the topics that they wondered and worred about, what was on their mind as they drove to work, ideas they wanted to try and what they would like to spend time thinking and talking about. These

responses served as a basis for our opening discussion. The next tirne we met, 1 asked the participants to spend frfteen minutes writing, and I provided them with a handout entitled "Generating Questions" from Jeroski, Booth, & Dockendorf (1 992). These began with sentence openers such as "Lately t've noticed 2, "l've always wondered-2, "1 worry about...", "What would happen if....", "ltts funny how my students ...-" and "How can I...". After the writing times, we took tums going around the group shanng what was on Our mincis. Sorne of the reoccumng concems and questions emerging from these first two sessions included the topics of meeting the needs of individual students, making cufflculum meaningful, motivating students, finding time to Lost and Found I I 2 collaborate with other teachers, improving assessment and evaluation, communicating with parents, classroom management, organizational fmstrations and time constraints. Amiving at a focused and rneaningful question is a dficutt process, and this did not happen ovemight, Afthough one of the most important functions of our group was to provide people wth the opportunity to seek input from other participants about how they could narrow down their question, the process of writing also helped clanfy thinking. Some journal entries reflect the struggle to find a suitable topic. If it was easy to select something to spend such a large arnotint of tirne investigating, 1 doubt the process would be as rewarding or the end product as useful. Their writing tells the story of how they found a focus based on their prior knowtedge and experiences, conversations with group members, and extensive reflecting on what it was they could do in the context of their already overloaded days. 1 have included key selections frorn the journal entries of Anita, Angela, Barb, Cindy, Deb, Michelle and Martha that reflect their searches for a question. To make it easier for the reader to refer back to chapter three, where 1 first introduced the participants, these selections are presented in the same order. The examples are mostIy drawn from writing that the group members did outside of the group meeting. It seerned the group tirne alone was not enough for the in depth reflection to happen; through the process of writing the teacher-researchers discovered insights and beliefs about their practices and thernselves. A n ita Anita started off wondering how she could integrate literature with math- She was also curious about how these two subjects areas could be combined in centers. She was feeling positive about the Math program she had chosen, but was "having difficulty Lost and Found 113

organizing and planning for it" (excerpt from Individual Write on Oct. 20th). She aIso wanted to have more communication with parents about math concepts. On the Generating Questions Worksheet (see Appendix in November, Anita worried about not covering Math and Language Arts outcornes in a rneaningful way (in isolation, rather than connected to other subjects and studentls Iives), She wondered what would happen if she "started to read mostly books which do contain exarnples of prescrbed math skills". She had obsewed that her students responded to stories and any math skills which are in the stories. "They enjoy the challenge of the problem." Anita hoped to find out what resources were best for this integrated approach. Many of the discussions in ouf sessions focused on the areas of I'rteracy, but there was not much talk about Math. Perhaps this is why Anita switched her area of interest to reading conferences by January. Also, Anita's schooi was going through an accreditation, and was beginning to identfy school wide goaIs that included reading, assessment, and evaluation. When I met with her over breakfast in late January, Anita explained to me how she had honed in on her research question over Christmas. She spoke her interest in reading over time, and stated that she wished to know "What am I doing that I want to talk about more?" She stressed that she wanted to be efficient with her data, using individual reading conferences, reading logs, and the Reading Reference Sets descriptors to identify skills, attitudes, and knowledge. She expressed her belief in teaching skills "by allowing students individual choice". Thus, Anita's questions were centered around how she could use reading conferences to improve assessment, instruction, and evaluation. She wrote about her project in May: Where are my students in their reading and their thinking about Lost and Found 110 reading? Do they see themselves as readen? Do patterns emerge in their choices of books? What do the reading conferences tell me about their ie. attitudes, stniggles/successes and choices related to reading? How can I use the Reading Reference Set to determine a child's ability and attitude toward reading? I wanted to create a conference form to record specific information to help me assess rny students' reading abilities individually. Initially. I used sample "A" as my weekly Conference Fom, but redrafted it into sample "Bu. Next year, I will draft another sample which will help fiIl the

gaps I have experienced with these foms for this project. The frarne for the Conference Forms came from ideas presented in the Reading Reference Set, LRP, conversations with colleagues and other assessrnent esources. The mini-portrait that Anita wrote focused on her professional growth in the area of teaching reading. The two other teacher research groups Anfia had participated in previously had had a readingfwriting focus. It is not surpflsing that Anita found it rneaningful to continue her search in an area she had already spent a great deal of time and energy thinking about, especially since it frt in with the other participants' reoccum-ng topics of discussion. An~ela In her final report, Angela commented on her process of developing a research question. She decided that it was worthwhile to work with a question that Lost and Found 115 was centered around the groupfs dorninating theme of Iiteracy issues, and she reevaluated her question affer starting in order to make it as meaningful for herseif as possible. Here are her words: After 1 joined the group, 1 thought that 1 wouid be reflecting on teaching Math. However, most of the group members were discussing literacy issues- 1 decided to change the direction of my question to be more central to literacy, too. Noi that anyone would have minded if 1 had decided to pursue a difFerent focus, it is just that in my past groups, 1 have found that if your question is not directly related to the overail topic, the potentiaf depth of the group shanng is somewhat lessened. Put differently, 1 have found that it is just that more relevant if your research question can somehow relate to what other group rnembers are doing. This enables al1 of the questioning, the probing and the discussing to be more connected; more connections make more meaning which ultimately results in a more meaningful process. When I did finally narrow rny focus to fit in under the group's umbrella topic of "student literacy", I realized that one of the areas that 1 had been thinking about was the use of scribing for my students who are "reluctant" writers. 1 have found that the great majority of the students that are referred to me as a Resource Teacherworking with Upper Intemediate

students have many great ideas, but they have not developed the skills necessary to record their ideas on paper, As 1 see it, the problem becornes one of how to motivate these students so that they recognize that tost and Found 116 their ideas are good enough to persevere in developing their wnting skills so that they can record their best ideas with the goal of shanng Lhem with others. One of the most cited rationales for using computers in classrooms today is that they are highly rnotivating for the great majority of students and it is no different for our students who are "reluctant" writers. They get very excited about using the computer. The question then anses, how can we Lest tap into the excitement they show when their work comes off the printer to motivate them to write? Angela has been participating in teacher research for the Iast seven years, and she was efficient in focusing in on a question. She thrived in the setting of the inquiry group, and knew that she would get the most out of the experience if she was able to fit her inquiry project into the prevailing topic of conversation. Cindy was scribing for emergent writers at the primary ievei, and Angela was working with intermediate students. Our group had some interesthg discussions about what scribing could look like. Angela's writing continued to illustrate how she amved at her question: After much consideration, 1 decided to narrow down my research question to "How does scribing students' writing ont0 the computer affect their attitude to their wnting ideas?" Then, as I began to compile a studentattitude checklist, 1 becme aware that this assessrnent was somewhat redundant for me. I already knew that scribing their storks onto the computer was motivational for them. I have seen it in their faces and their Lost and Found 117 bodies. I realized that 1 was not so interested in gathering evidence to measure if the students perceive the computer as a useful writing tool. I already knew they did, After much deliberation, 1 realized I was more interested in effective ways to improve the scribing process itself. Angela spent a few months observing and recording data based on this first research question. She came to the realization that she was focusing her energy on an area that she already knew to be me- She wanted to delve deeper into how she could

make a difference to her students. 1 remember when she shared this with the group. Angela recatled: Once 1 narrowed myfocus on thi process, the questions came fast and furious. m a t tools, (Le., graphic organizers) could be given to the student prior to sitting at the cornputer with thern? Once we have time at the computer together, would 1 only be prepared to type verbatirn or should I direct them in any way? (Grammatically or othewise?) Should I onIy suggest and make grammatical changes, explaining the changes as I make them, hoping they may become teachable moments? Is there any time when 1 should direct their story content? (For example, when a requirement is for a one-page length story and they have dictated only one paragraph?) If I do try to direct them, which questions can I ask that would not intrude on their own creativity? Looking back over these questions, l decided to reshape my question to, "Mat skills and tools can I develop to be an effective scriber for my students who are reluctant writers?". Lost and Found 118 Angela had now narrowed down her question. Participating in the group encouraged her to persist in researching an area of her practice that had been troubfing her. The sharing and refiecting that were promoted in each session pushed her thinking beyond what it had originally been-Barb Barb documented in her journal how she a ~ v e adt her question and began the process of researching it. Feb. 7 As 1 attempt to sift through data to come up with some substantiated letter grades for this terni, 1 wonder why I didn't have data management as my focus of inquiry since this truly is my weakest area of teaching. However my real interest is teaching so that children will learn and Iike leaming- It took me a while to settle on a focus question. When I finally stated to the group that 1 thought rny research would have to do with involving the children in planning their leaming, Michelle noted that this wasn't too much of a stretch for me since 1 had been leaning that way back in the seventies when we taught together. 1 guess it has always been a focus for me in my teaching career but I still feel 1 have a long way to go. I have dabbled in leaming styles, type theory, negotiating the CU~CUIU~

and MI but still don't feel that 1 have a handle on it. Recently 1 decided to refine my focus to MI. Having Martha in Our group whose classroom is modeled on Gardner's Muttiple Intelligence theory, has prompted me to want to provide conditions that facilitate real leaming which Gardner defines as "Students are able to take information Lost and Found 119 and skills they have leamed in school or other settings and apply thern flexibly and appropnately in a new and sornewhat unanticipated situationMThis entry demonstrates how Barb choose an area to focus on. She admits to having a weaker area in the management of data, but comments that she would rather pursue a topic that she is highly interested in. The key for inquiry is to be able to find a research question that motivates you to keep investigating- We al1 have areas that perhaps we should focus on, but it is much more rewarding to spend tirne refiecting on areas that excite us. For Barb, this means Iooking at how she can motivate her students to plan their own leaming. However, she also realized that this has been an ongoing process for her for over twenty years, and so she decided to take a closer look at Ieaming styles. It is noted that comments dunng our group session frorn Michelle and Martha have been infiuential in challenging and changing Barb's thinking. (Later in the monfh- ondated enfry.) My actual research project: because of time and energy restraints, I have narrowed my project to something 1 can manage. After my student teachers are finished their practicum at the end of March 1 wil! plan some Iearning activities that involve an intelligence that 1 have neglected. I think it will revolve around novel studies since I am also interested in doing a Literature Circle approach at that time. 1 may also involve the teacher-librarian orland the resource teacher for some of my classes and planning. I have been interested in the Literature Circle approach since 1 went to a workshop given by Judy McQueen. I also have been accumulating articles about this Lost and Found 120 topic. Like many things that "happen" in rny classroom, rny interest in Lit Circles evolved out of what I was noticing in my classroom- This year two groups of students spontaneously fomed their own literature circle: one with Tom Sawer and one with Laura Ingalls Wilder novels. I tried to encourage the four boys who naturally formed a Lit Circle while reading

Tom Sawyer by giving thern a separate place where they could talk about their book and i tned to facilitate their discussion while the rest of the class was involved in silent reading or wrting reading responses. The group mernbers seemed to enjoy reading the same book as their friends but it was difficult to supervise wifh the rest of the class on other tasks. I also have a few other children who read books by the same author. Aithough they read the same books, they have rarely read them at the same time so that most of their discussion consists of : " I read that book. lt was good." Still to do: devise the plan, select the targeted intelligence, and decide on a way to evaiuate rny work. (Perhaps I will make a before and after questionnaire or a comparison of understanding using linguistic intelligence and the child's preferred intelligence. In this case 1 will select children that have weak Iinguistic skills.) Although it was only late February, Barb felt the crunch of fming in everything that she wanted to do with her students. She was aware of the limited amount of time that was available for her inquiry project. Barb wisely considered what it was that she could achieve. She combined her desire of using a Literature Circle approach with one of Gardner's identified seven intelligences that she felt she had not been addressing. Her Lost and Found 12i topic evolved as a result of her observations of and reflections regarding her classroom. March 9: My question has changed somewhat since I last wrote. At first I was interested in using Literature Circles as a vehicle to use M 1 (Gardnets Multiple Intelligence). However now I feel that my main focus is setting up Literature Circles. I wiil still incorporate Mf concepts (mainly showing understanding with technology; but rny main focus is trying a new type of reading activity: Literature Circles. I think that 1 can give a Ml slant to Literature Circles by having the students demonstrate their understandings of the book by using other intelligences besides the linguistic intelligence. So far 1 have met with the resource teacher who has helped me select book sets especially those for low readers. We are also planning ways that we can teach the roles. I have talked to the Iibrarianl computer teacher about assisting me with these groups and using technology to show understanding. 1 am still wondering how I can document progress.

In order to make their projects workabte, it is typical of teacher researchers to narrow down their question, and Barb is no exception. Aithough she continued to be interested in the theories of Multipfe Intelligences, Barb focused her thinking on Literature Circles. She was able to bnng on board some of the resource teachers at her school to assist her with these groups. Her last Iine is connected to her concems about data management. Lost and Found 122 Cindy Cindy' Individual Write and sharing at our first session in October identified a variety of issues that she wondered about. These included: why some teachers are much happier and content working on their own, and others feel quite isolated on their own; worries about not being good enough, not giving the children what they need; how she could make each day more fun or enjoyable; not really ever being satisfied with her behaviour management; integrating new expectations in the IRP's into her program; how she could find a partner to help her take on new challenges; and trying new language onentated themes such as shared rnorning reading, storytelling, and Guided Reading. She cornmented: 1 love trying new things but 1 need the exposure and reassurance from teachers 1 admire to try them out. 1 love being a team player. The next session, Cindy was more focused on the area of Iiteracy. Lately, I've ~oticedh ow my grade ones are picking up reading, writing, and s pelling . 1 feel good about their general progiess ... They are enjoying their reader response books. I have stones, fiIl in the blanks, questions, Iists, pictures from my enthused chiidren. They love it! Dunng our December session, Cindy adrnitted "1 am going to need help focusing for sure!" After extensive consideration, she had decided to look at scribing children's stories, but she was not sure what her research question was. Lost and Found 123 Cindy began her sto~ellingp roject folfowing a brief presentation at a summer workshop entitled Children As Stor~tellers: A Bridne to Success in Readinq and Writing. This was presented by Carol Martin, the CO-author of a book by the same title, at a sumrner institute called Balanced Early Literacy. Cindy leamed that she could use the children's dictated stories as a instrument to teach them to read. The process includes serial drawing, an art therapy technique used with children in counselling, facilitating oral

expression, and the incorporation of story grammar. Cindy descdbes the activity as highly motivational for young children, confidence-building, and one that ensures success. Every grade one student in her cfassroorn has a duotang that contains their stories. Every second Friday alternoon the students would share their stories from the previous week, discuss any key ideas and points, then write. Cindy had a votunteer from September to December to help her with scribing. Cindy struggled to maintain her scribing project after her votunteer left to go into a teacher preparation program. She shared the following during the January session: I need someone to scribe with me ... 1 have fourteen kids and 1 can't get around to scribe. Unless I end up doing one week scribing for hatf and the next week scribing for the other half or sornething like that, So for me, it is looking at their stories with me scribing, and then, what directions can 1 take that. And does that improve their abiiity to write stones? And maybe even I can incorporate that into their reading ... There are different directions I can take. Cindy discovered that some children did not have the language or framework to Lost and Found 1 24 dictate a story. She leamed to reach them first. before they drew, so she didn't get simple stories such as ''This is a Sun. This is a horse. This is a tree." She wanted to spend time thinking about how best to assist their Ianguage development and story writing potential. Cindy was really clear about asking for ideas and suggestions from the group when she felt she needed help in deciding what to do next. In March she wrote: I would Iike to select sorne stofies and type thern up in prirnary print on the computer and use them for language related activities. 1 could use some direction in this area So far 1 have lhought of ... - adapting the stories of the stmggling readers to their level - guided reading in a small group - colouring over basidkey word vocab words in small or large group (Le., find al1 the 1's and colour them yeliow). - write a note to the author and te11 her your favourite part. Do you have any advice for her next story? In the April session, 1 asked the participants to complete the Reflections Questionnaire, (see Appendix D). Cindy was the third person finished, and as 1 looked

over her responses, she let me know that she woutd really appreciate three minutes to get some feedback on where to go next. She felt cornfortable and assertive in expressing her needs. Lost and Found 125 -Deb Deb wrote extensively in herjournal about her beginnings as a teacher-researcher. She changed her focus many times, but explored each question quite thoroughly along the way before she moved on to the next one. 1 have selected only a few of her words to reflect the process she undenivent. I began by looking at behaviour issues that kept coming up in rny classroorn, and realized that 1 needed to get the behaviours 1 was dealing with under control so that: 1. 1 could get sorne teaching done2- 1 could get on the road to devetoping a positive classroom tone 3. 1 could get on the road to building rny students' setf-esteem These issues were resolved by talking about them in the inquiry group and through collaboration with rny resource teacher and principal at school. Now 1 feel Iike for the rnost part, the behaviour in my class is under control and 1 can get to teaching. It was then suggested that pertiaps 1 should '"fcus" on a question. AAAH! 1 thoughtAhey want me to think!!! They want me to hone in on one thing!!! That's not easy for me..,-However, I rose to the occasion and began asking rnyseif the question "Mat makes a good literacy prograrn at the kindergarten level?" Frorn here 1 explored the things 1 value about a good literacy program, looked at what 1 currently do in my classroom to support Iiteracy, and then asked myself if what 1 am doing is in Iine with what 1 value. And 1 discovered that, for the most part, it is, This was good Lost and Found 1 26 news. There were some things, though, that 1 decided ( wanted to look at and try to irnprove. The list was fairly exhaustive. 1 then made myseff a checklist so that I could Iater assess rny progress on these issues and took a step back. 1 asked rnyself: "VViII putting these things in place have a positive impact on the Iterary developrnent of my students?" And, I asked

myseff how 1 would know if putting these things in place had a positive impact on my students. In answering this last question, I asked myself what 1 wanted my students to take with them to grade one. After winding a11 over the map for awhile, I went to an lnquiry Group meeting and was asked to revisit rny focus question. My conclusion was that I was still interested in finding the best ways to build a solid literacy program for children so that they are ready for grade one. And, what 1 kept coming back to was self-esteem (excerpt frum Deb's journal). Being a participant in an inquiry group forced Deb to identify several issues that she was concemed about and to explore what it was she valued. ARhough Deb was able to list many questions that she wanted to examine, the group encouraged her to be selective in her focus. This process did not happen ovemight. It took many rnonths of reflection, discussion, and processing. Her journal continued to illustrate her struggte. Then along came another aside and one more dimension to my development this year. One of my colleagues and 1 were talking at school one day and she was telling me about some of the things her daughter's Lost and Found 127 kindergarten teacher has been sending home, and I got really excited. She got me a copy of a booklet this teachers sends home for parents to read that inciudes articles on topics ranging from kindergarten philosophy to play to Iiteracy developrnent to building math skills. It is excellent! I then started to think about the fct that parents are such an important link in the development of seif-esteem. And, 1 started to wonder whether they really understand what I am Qing to do in my class to promote I'rteracy devetoprnent. And it dawned on me that without understanding, how can they possibly support what I'rn doing? From this, then, I started off on a brand new tangent. I decided that 1 wanted to design a plan and materials that will altow me to comrnunicate my goals with parents and do what I can to get them on board and supporting my program. During the course of my inquiry, rny focus evolved and changed until I developed an interest in finding ways to infom parents of school goals and leaming processes and ways to involve them more fully. 1 plan to use the rest of my time in this focus group to develop resources to begin

using next year, accompanied with a time line and ways these resources would be used. 1 won't be able to evaluate it tilt next year. Deb's question had been narrowed down to focus on cornrnunicating with parents. She fett that sornething was facking in this area and knew that having parents understanding what she was doing would be valuable. For exampfe, the parents would be able to support her classroom program without undermining what she was doing. Deb Lost and Found 128 decided that this goal was attainable and would be something she would continue to work on for the next school year as well. Ways that she would see progress would inctude noticing a change in the types of questions parents would be asking her, as well as their interactions with the students if they happened to be classroom volunteers. Deb's focus had been strongly infiuenced by a chance conversation with a colleague, but because Deb had been refiecting extensively about what it was that she wanted to change, she knew that this was something that would help her to achieve her ends. Martha Martha's initiai responses to the process of generating questions were to focus on behavioural concems. She had a challenging student that prornpted responses such as "What would happen if my behaviour chiId was not in my room for a week? How would the other students change?" (from November's Worksheet: Generating Questions). She wondered how to motivate this student into working more. Martha also expressed satisfaction that her Multiple Intelligences strategies "seerned to be working better this year". She fett that she had a good repertoire with her class and feit that there existed "a relaxed rnanner in rny room". On the otherhand, she had noticed that "some of my student's behaviour is regressing". Behaviour did not continue to be a major concem for Martha. Rather, she wrote about Writer's Workshop in her January journal, "Sometimes it is just nice to sit and watch the students mingle ..." When we met as a group in December, MaRha had decided to focus on three way conferencing for her research question. Her question was "What are parents looking for in report card comments? Lost and Found 129 See last year when I was doing my course work at Simon Fraser University, I got this book ..- on assessment and evaluation. And in it they talked about three way reporting. M e n you sit down with the parent and

child and you al1 wnte the report card. ., It wasn't syrupy, Iike another report card they had. And I just thought, you know, "Mat do parents want out of a report card?" I mean, I've never had a cornplaint about mine. I nomally have three things they can do, three things that they need further work on, and three things you'd like at home. I don't want to ovewvhelm the kid! ... And so 1 thought, well, you know, what I'd Iike to do is actually sit down and do some reading, sit down and talk to the parents. Maybe with five parents. SR down and write their child's report card (from the Decem ber transcrpt), Martha later did select five famiIies from her class to invite into this process. These were chosen because they were "stable families". Martha wrote in her journal that these were "ail families 1 was cornfortable with" and that after last year I was not prepared to take a risk and do this with sorneone I did not know or was not comfortable with. Even though it was basicafly two families last year, that was still pretty hard on me emotionally. I can't wait to see what 1 get back from parents, how they feel about this evening. It was wise of her to set a limit on the number of students involved in trying something new, as il would make the task more manageable and she would be able to reflect upon what worked well and what she might consider changing for next time. Four Lost and Found 130 of these farnilies chose to participate in the process. The format of the conference was for the parents to have frfteen minutes to go through books, notes, and portfolios, and then ffteen to thirty minutes to write the report, covenng the student's strengths, areas of challenge, and an action plan. Martha was the only teacher in her school trjing the three way conferences. Perhaps she may not have tried thern if she did not have the support and sounding board of the inquiry group to rely on. She also credited the rapport in her class as giving her the confidence to try something new. She had taught at the same school for many years, and valued knowing the same families over the years. 1 met with her in January over lunch and she was very clear on her focus, Martha did not get sidetracked from trying three way conferences. Once she made up her mind in December, she was the only person in the group that was consistent. Michelle Michelle's first individual write in October described the many different issues that

Michelle was spending time thinking about. These included: how to balance the needs of the individual student with those of the class; how to be a more collaborative partner with other teachers instead of one person being the leader; wondering how diverse we can be as individuals and still be effective; worrying about the kids that slip through the cracks (both acadernically and socially); how to program for those few kids who really do not 'TI, no matter how flexible the cuniculurn; and to improve organizational skills. She wrote also that she wanted to do a Writer's Workshop with her own class and to design a Math program for a year. Michelle commented that she wanted to spend time thinking and writing about "diversity and al1 its implications, making a difference". Her responses Lost and Found 131 to the next session's worksheet were very sirnilar. Michelle's Apnl journal entries and her sharing frorn May 28th illustrate some of her thoughts on her process of developing several research questions: Finding a question to investigate was problematic. Most tfioughts were simply too general, and yet, because of the nature of my assignment, everything I do is general. Not having my own class meant that I could not focus the inquiry on a particular group of students, at least not without dismantling rny entire schedule. Retuming to the buming issue of what was really gnawing at me, helped to find a question that was: general, but not overly so; workable with a smaller group of students; appropriate to rny schedule and the students with whom I work; consistent with rny philosophy that the flexible curriculum is the first option for many, if not most of these students. The question: given the decreasing level of staffing for resource, and the everincreasing number of students who need some degree of assistance, are there other ways we can find the necessary support to these children? Three directions became immediately apparent, two of which 1 have had an opportunity to explore in some detail. The third is an avenue stiIl to be travelled, hopefully before the end of this terrn. Some other interesting options have also emerged and perhaps will become a focus for next year's professional growth. Members of a teacher researcher group have different personalities and leaming Lost and Found 1 32 styles, as do our students. Michelle was pulled from many directions in regard to her

questions. She appreciated the opportunities for discussion mat oui group provided, but they did not senie to help her narrow them down to just one topic- I do not assume that she would have wanted to have been, but she did Say that she thought that she could be more productive the next timeThe three topics which Michelle focused on this year emerged to be: cross-grade peer tutorr'ng; using volunteers; and, Guided Reading. She described in her journal how the opportunity to participate in cross-grade peer tutoring presented itsetf. I have a!ways been interested in Iiaising with the secondary schools. An outgrowth of the district Math committee that I have been on for several years has been the formation of a Iead teacher's group to present workshops for a Math evening. From tirne to time, the committee has involved both secondary and ekmentary teachers, and 1 had often thought that the high schools were an untapped resource. This year, it was suggested that we try especially hard to present as an elementarysecondary team. I had already decided to work with a grade two teacher at rny school. A high school teacher from our district wanted to join us. He was interested in having his Math 10 Aitemates somehow work with the grade two's. It happened essentially during the time that I was in her classroom anyway. I was so interested in doing t! There were so rnany spin offs for the kids involved- his and ours. We knew in our hearts that the first two would work. One was tessellations, because they are fun, and are manipulative, and al! that. The second one was making geometric Lost and Found 133 solids, and we knew his kids could provide the support for using the glue and the scissors, The grade twos' loved ail of the technical language. The third was a real test, and we reinforced double digit adding and subtracting. That was a challenge, but it worked, too! We designed a project that wilt be presented at the April 30, 1998 "Night of Exploration". Aithough the three sessions of the project have been completed, the workshop plan has yet to be finalized. I hadn't even Iooked at it initially as a resource component, but it realfy is, because t gave one on one support to twenty-four kids. I think that this is something that the district is going to continue with because it was really successful. Michelle has focused much of her professional growth in the area of Math, and she

is an excellent resource person for our district. One of her strengths is presenting workshops, and it is frtting for one of her areas of inquiry to lead to another district presentation. The idea of collaborating with a secondary school appealed to other rnembers of the group as well. This was something that al1 of us could appreciate. Michelle also explained how she worked to set up an effective adult volunteer program in her school. Recaliing the years at my last school where Angela and another resource teacher had implemented a parent volunteer prograrn to provide reading intetvention for non readers, I had been interested in using aduks in this capacity. As a commun-Q school, we have many volunteers, sorne atready working in classrooms, and wasn't sure how to focus some of Lost and Found 134 them into a specific program. Our Community Coordinator and ouf Education Assistant helped me out. We had a meeting for about ten aduits (eight of them parents), and outlined the program. It required a three-day a week cornmitment of one-haif hour minimum, per the. Although I knew this woufd happen, we lost most of them right there! However, undaunted, I decided to pursue the program even if it was on a limited basis. We had three volunteers who worked one on one with kids who are strugglingPart of our criteria was that these kids had some kind of support at home so there would be some reinforcement. The volunteers were given a handout to use when they worked with the kids, Ali of the books that they used we developed flashcards for. So it helps give the volunteers some structure to work from. Using volunteers provided a way for Michelle to provide Ieaming assistance to some of the needier students in her school. Our group sessions often discussed ways to attract and train volunteers. Cindy's research almost collapsed because she lost a volunteer. Deb relies heavily on her parents to support her program. Barb harnessed her school custodian to be a volunteer readerfor her students. The discussion was beneficial to ali. Michelle admitted in her journal that when she first joined this inquiry group, she thought that her question was going to be "1s Guided Reading a viable option for intemediate students who are expenencing reading diffcuky?" She added; But I think i got talked out of doing it for this group. 1 am still interested in

Lost and Found 135 the answer, but the bits and pieces 1 am beginning to put together suggest that t is an approach that will need to be adapted to meet the needs of the particular students in our school. There are a number of primary teachers, one other intermediate teacher (besides me, because 1 still think of myself as an interrnediate), and our Community Coordinator, who are going to visit a school in Langley that has invested a fair amount of time and money in Guided Reading. What especialty excites me is that with the nurnber of us who are interested- about twelve, 1 think- it should resuf in sorne professional conversation around reading instruction. 1 would also like to visit a teacher at another elementary school in Our district who is using Guided Reading with some of her resource students. Martha was also interested in Guided Reading, and was one of the interested teachers whom Michelle referred to. Cindy also expressed an interest in leaming more about the philosophy and strategies that could be used. However, Michelle did not feel ready yet to pursue this topic. Not everyone in Our group feft that Guided Reading was a useful tooi. One of the participants admitted to me privately that she was respectful of where people were developmentally, but she personally fek that "Guided Reading seems to be a throwback to reading groups featuring 'Bluejays', 'Buuards', etc." She prefers to teach skills by allowing students individual choices, but she is too respectful of the other group members to voice her opinion. She was sensitive to hurting someone's feelings or shutting down their ideas, I'm not sure why Michelte stated that she was talked out of this area of interest, but there certainly did not seem to be any defensiveness involved. A month later, on her Reflections Questionnaire, Michelle wrote: Lost and Found 136 The group helped in so many ways, as an audience and a sounding board. It was realiy the group who helped me focus my question ... l'm quite cornfortable not knowing where things are headed, and sometimes 1 prefer it that way. I think I would get started faster another time, after going through this process once. So, I rnight be more productive the next tirne.,.-On the other hand, I think I had to work through it myself. Michelle knew that the purpose of the group was diTerent for each member, and she trusted me enough to accept whatever she did. 1 did not intend to put pressure on the group, and if some members chose to be more "productive" than others, that was their

choice. Literacy: The Cornerstone For Life-Long Learning Early on in our meetings, it became apparent that the broad topic Iiteracy was a common interest for the participants. This continued to be the most reoccumng topic of discussion, indicative of the District's position that : No part (of a student's development) is more important or more meaningful than the development of Iiteracy because it is a cornerstone for Me-long leaming (Bumaby School District, 1998). To recap the various inquiry topics: Anita's research question was on the topic of Lost and Found 137 reading conferences; Angela's was to determine what tools and skills can be developed to help her be an effective scriber for reiuctant writers; Barb was researching the use of Literature Circles; Cindy's topic was scribing for emergent wnters; and Deb put together a package of material and a box of activities for parents to help them understand the fanguage developrnent, as well as to support the classroorn cumculum at home. Martha focused on three way conferencing between students, parents, and herseIf, but she also contributed a lot of information about Writer's Workshop and titerature Circles. Two of Michelle's areas of interest fell under the Iiteracy umbrella; using volunteers to provide support for at risk readers and explon'ng guided reading. Presumably, the overall conversation focused on Iiteracy. In a discussion 1 had wth her in April, Anita commented that she did not feel there was strong enough commonality of research interests. Her previous teacher research groups had focused around a specific area, and she fek there were sorne very strong advantages to having a comrnon focus. This had also been Angela's and Cindy's experience. However, Angela shared with me in Apni that atthough people were not ail researching in the same area, the discussions were meaningful for everyone involved and that it was very much a learning process. In the sessions following this obsetvation, there continued to be a narrowing down of inquiry questions. Although many of our conversations rneandered to other ares of interest to the participants, most of the group members were focusing on issues regarding literacy. This was documented in the transcriptions and field notes of the sessions. One of the results of my purposive sampling strategy was that I had selected participants based on my previous reiationship with them, not because of areas of commonalities regarding professional gram plans. Therefore, 1 could not be surprised

Lost and Found 138 when people did not al1 express interest in a narow area of study. It was more important to me that l knew the people that I would be working with, since I was counting on their dedication and support. Lost and Found CHAPTER SIX: THE PROGRESSION OF INQUIRY The first step of the inquiry process was to discover our questions. Focusing these seemed to be the most challenging part of the research. After deciding on a focus, we worked towards creating a research plan, collecting data, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting the data, and finally preparing a report for our sharing and celebration meeting. Each session provided opportunities for participants to offer a progress report on titeir action research projects. These updates sparked animated conversation as we worked together to develop ideas, network, and offer knowledge of suitable resources. Some projects were discussed at greater length than others, but everyone enjoyed the dialogue. Al1 of the participants made connections when we discussed issues of common interest. I have selected several illustrations from our transcripts of how the group provided opportunities to discuss first Barb's, then Cindy's, and finally Deb's inquiry process. 1 felt that these were sufficient portrayals of the searching for understandings and findings that occurred once the participants had focused on a question. The process of inquiring into one's practice is dependent on continual questioning and exploration. These teacher-researchers actively searched for understandings rather than passivety sit back and accept what was happening at facevalue. Once the projects were undeway, the participants continued to struggle in their search for understandings. The searches for understanding were not just Iimited to the framework of our monthly sessions, The participants engaged in continual reflection as Lost and Found 140 they worked on their questions. Some of this was documented in their joumal entries. I have also included transcripts Rom our sessions to illustrate the progression of inquiry. Barb's Proiect Bah's research question evolved into: "How will a literature circle approach to silent reading affect the leaminglreading in my 415 class?" (As identified on her final

report.) Here are some selections from Barb's journal that outline her search to understand how best to use literature circles in her classroom. She began by crediting sur group with giving her some feedback on ways to collect data, and how she planned to document what she observed. March I O The teacher research group gave me some ideas about how to document the progress of the literature circles. We talked about using videotapes and tape recorders but 1 think I will use a before and afer questionnaire. (Martha and Michelle gave me some ideas as to where 1 could find a suitable questionnaire.) 1 also plan to use direct observations and to record my observations (about myseif as well as the students) in my journal. (March journal entry.) Barb then descnbed how she took the time to prepare for the implernentation of her experiment with literature circles. Her preparation included finding suitable resources, getting her resource teacher "on board", and sharing her ideas with her principal in order to get heIp. Lost and Found 14 1 ApriI 7 Well, the student teachers finished yesterday and atthough the literature circles have just started in my classroom 1 have been preparing for this project for awhile. Before Spn'ng Break I went through the book pool catalogue and ordered muitiple copies of novels that 1 thought would be suitable to the interest and reading abifities of my students. 1 did this with the resource teacher. Together we discemed the codes of the pool book catalogue Le., pic. nov, is a chapter book that has a picture on every page Le., Nate the Great, and iII. nov. has several iIIustrations (about two or three per chapter). Having the resource teacher to discuss this with helped me clam what 1 wanted out of the literature circles and how 1 was going to manage it, I realize that what I want the most is to provide opportunities for the kids to talk about their novels in some depth. This is especially important for the ESL students. We found that together we had read several of the novels. Ordering the novels proved to be a dficutt task since the person who is in charge of the book pool was sick and no one at the resource center knew how to do her job. My principal somehow was able to get our order in and the books finally arrived Iast Wednesday

in time for my resource teacher and 1 to have another meeting to survey what the book pool actually sent and to scrounge around for more multiple copies of novels in the school. Once Barb had al1 the materials she needed, she decided to identify a base Iine for her research. She did this by giving her students a questionnaire that drew out the existing attitudes towards reading. She then introduced her students to the project, and Lost and Found organized them into working groups. On Monday, April 6, rny starting date, I gave the students a reading questionnaire to ascertain their attitudes to reading.) i also gave a boo ktalk on several novels hig hlig hting the su bject, rsading challenges (how many pictures, size of print, etc.) On chart paper 1 had prewritten the titles of the books and the children were instructed to write down the name of a book that they wanted to read, After al1 the talks, they were asked tu rate their top four choices. I separated the students into six groups of four based on their selections. Some got their first choice, others got their second or third choice since 1 wanted to lirnit it to six books and to take into consideration personalities and reading abilities. 1 also used this selection process as a vehicle for rearranging their desks into new groups. Barb spent tirne reffecting on what was hppening at the beginning of this project. She was sensitive to the needs of the students, and made effcrts to give students choices. She anticipated where some students mig ht have difficuities. AI1 the groups looked as though they would work well but 1 thought I might get some opposition from the last group who had The Borrowers as their choice but Iittle else in common (Two quiet, polite Chinese girls, one being level two ESL and two boys who had Ittle to do with each other. One of Lost and Found 143 the boys was a good reader but often opted out of assignments and tried to be invisible, the other was very outspoken and would let me know if he didn't Iike where he was sitting. However for the sake of the five good groups 1 thought t would go ahead with it. Barb found that she was pleasantly surprised when t came time to begin. Her concems regarding one group proved to be unfounded.

When it came time to read, the Borrowers group started to read outtoudI had envisioned a quiet peaceful 15 minutes simiiar to our usuai silent reading time but was so pleased that this group did not complain about their group, I quickly offered to find them an alternative place (The classroom next door which was empty because the class was at camp). As 1 periodically peeked in on them 1 ahivays found them on task and saw that they had organized themselves to read in round robin fashion. M e n the 15 minutes was up they asked for 15 minutes more tirne to reach their goal. Since they had been discussing the story all along I let them carry on with the reading. When they returned to the classroom they reported that they knew al1 the words except " crochet and hassock" which they could quickly locate and read the sentences where they were found. Al1 the other groups worked well except for the group that had "Secret of the Mumrny's Tomb" This group read the entire book in 15 minutes. Barb went on to carefully document the format of her Iiterature circles. Her Lost and Found 1 44 process of recording what she did enabled her to reflect on what worked and what did notHer data collection methods induded: a survey on reading attitudes; self evaluation of participation in discussion completed by students; teacher conferences with groups; students' writing; double entry journal wntten by Barb descrbing events of class and observations of herself with students; and, students' evahations of the process. Barfi's sharing during our June session included a three page typed handout on which she summarized her research and identied her findings: Highlights: 1. My most reluctant reader read a book to the end with understanding. 2. Other people on my staff worked with my students (Le., custodian, education aid, and resource teacher). 3. Some of the children expressed more cornplex reading understanding than when reading atone. 4. When I was able to sit in on the discussions I was impressed with the discussions that were taking place- (The From Anna group discussed conflicting emotions in one part and they were able to voice disagreement with each other with ease.) 5. Now that we are finished, several students have chosen to read books

that other groups have read (expanded their reading repertoire). 6. An unplanned addition to the lit circle was having successful discussion groups model their discussion. 7. Afthough I was at first disappointed with the writing that ensued from lit circle discussions, when I gave the students extra tirne their writing was as Lost and Found 145 good or better than previous reading responses. In some weak writers 1 could "hear" the voices of the group members in their wntingBarb found that students' reading, writing and discussion skilis were strengthened through the use of literature circles. She also described some unanticipated difficuities: Problerns: 1. It was difficult to find approptiate books, (1 misjudged with one group and they tn'ed two books before they settled on one.) 2. The children were frustrated with the different paces of the readers in their group. Some had lots of time for wtiting and preparing for the discussion time while others had to arrange extra time to "catch up". 1 intentionally tned to rnix weak readers with good readers wnich 1 think in the long run was beneficial but which added to the frustration3. Each novel group had different dynarnics. The members worked difTerently and needed a different kind of prodding encouragement or intemention. 4. 1 Iiked the groups of four for discussion purposes but it meant that I had six different books. (Perhaps 1 could have more than one group reading the same book.) 5. It was hard to make sure that al1 discussion groups were on task. Some children didn't think discussion time was worthwhite. (Excerpt from Bah's final report on Iiterature circles.) Lost and Found 146 Several months later, when we took a course on assessrnent and evaiuation together, Barb came up to me and said, "1 did rny literature circles al1 wrong". She had a smile on her face, but her concem was that she focused on the activity and give no thought to assessing the students. 1 thought that she was not giving herself enough credit. Next year, she plans to work on ways to assess the students during the literature circles. The search for understandings is never-ending for inquiring

individuais such as BarbCindy's Proiect Cindy's struggks with her storytelling project are outlined in the following excerpt from her journal wntten in Apnl. She had a hard time haifway into the process because her volunteer was no longer available. Cindy then had to consider how she could continue. She preserved because of her cornmitment to our group and because she believed that what she was doing was of benefrt to her students. This new project that began at the beginning of the school year with a lot of enthusiasrn and Iittle knowledge has become frustrating in the second school terrn. Losing my volunteer in January is the main reason. Because this storytelling time occurred aitemating Friday aftemoons, it was no an integral part of the program. It aIso suffered from Pro D Days and holidays as weH. Time is a real issue. The children enjoyed it an 1 had fun reviewing the stones and finding common threads and insights into their thinking and comfort level with story Lost and Found 147 writing- Now, 1 need to decide how 1 can use this info. in the next two months. Some ideas: Children choose one for me to type Our an use with the class. Write with if2 the group every second week or every week while the other half works on something. (Independence is an issue.) Create an oral evaluation on storytelling. Have you learned anything about stories and story wnting? How have your stories changed? How do you feel about telling stories? Do they have important pans of a story? If 1 had a computer with a printer in my room that could make the difFerence. Another thought is to have them tape record their stories. Then what? The challenge continues. But isn't that part of being a teacher? During April's session, Cindy requested feedback from the group on where to go next with her storytelling projeb. She began by telling us where she was at. including some of the organizational and management frustrations she had experienced. She had

lost the volunteer who had begun the project with her in September. As a result. finding time to conference individually with the students was difficult, as was deciding what to do with the stories she had collected. Cindy had various ideas of how to assess her students' writing and bring closure to the project, but needed to explore her options in the group setting. Lost and Found 148 I tned doing the storytelling conferences on my own, and it was pretty hard gefling through everybody and having my Iittle guys be working independently ... 1 tned art white 1 was doing it (laughs) and they still had trouble! t'm at the point now where t have an accumulation of stories. And 1 need to know what to do with them. 1 was thinking of doing some kind of surnmary where I couid oraily give their responses to "How do you feel about doing story writing? Did you learn anything?"- Maybe just tie it up that way- But 1 don't teally feel Iike l've used their writing for anything. And 1 thought maybe one idea would be asking them to identify their favourite story .... Maybe 1 couid type it up in pnmary printing or get the aid to. And then use that in sorne form. Maybe isolating words they know now. Or reading it in a srnail group and talking about a favourite part. Or just somehow acknowledging some of their effort and bn'nging it in to some kind of meaningful closure. (frorn April transcript) Our group spent time brainstorming ways in which she could bring some sense of closure to her storytelling project. Deb suggested that Cindy could have her students choose which story was their favourite with the heip of a buddy from an older class. This would allow the individual conferencing time necessary for such a big decision. When the story was selected, then it could be made into a book for the classroom Iibrary. Deb- "Could they choose one and then you could take them to either your aid or maybe a buddy class, You could go to the computer lab and have them type it up and then illustrate it and take a piece of cardboard and Lost and Found 149 tape it to the outside. And then have a book celebration for these books that could stay in your classroorn library?" Cindy- "So this would be a collection of their favourites that they had written. Yeah! That's a nice way to do it." Deb- "Do you have a buddy class?"

Cindy- "1 have a reading buddy class." Unidentified participant- "Could you use that one?". Cindy- " I could ask her." Barb- "Then the two of you coufd work together even like going through, then you've got another teacher in the room," Cindy- "They have reading every Monday. So maybe their buddies coutd read with them on those books and help them pick out a story- That in itself is the most challenging." Michelle- "Do they need to be reminded of what they actually wrote?" Cindy- "They would! .... And maybe (they could) put a sticker on their Lost and Found 150 favourite one so I would know which one they wanted to have printed up. And so it looks just more fomalized, so from there, 1 thought it would be nice if somehow we used it. Whether we read thern in groups or had some fun with them and just looked for some words." Janice- 'You had that answer in your head. We just helped you bring it out." Cindy- "Thatts usually what helps me, is just the talk, hearing the talk." Janice- "1s that enough?" I wondered if Cindy woufd find it helpful to spend more time talking about her inquiry. As a resuit, the conversation continues, providing ideas on how to use a buddy class to do peer editing conference. Michelle- "These are stories that have been written over the course of the year, ffght? Would they want an opportunity to do some revisions?" Cindy- "There has been a lot of growth, so maybe picking one, and then having it revised wouId be good! 1 could probably do that on an ongoing basis with them." Martha- "Couldn't your buddy reading class do it as well?" Lost and Found 151 Unidentfied participant- "Are they familiar with the writing process or writers' workshop? How o1d are they?" Cindy- "Grade sixes. Let me think. Yeah, 1 could ask, yeah!" Michelle- "Be very specific with them about the kinds of things you wanted them to do."

Cindy- "Right. We could review the important parts each tirne. Okay. That's good." Barb- "Or discuss where they could add detail or ask some probing questions." Deb- 'You could even draw up a Iist of questions that could be used as a guide..-.if you are having an editing session, where, you know .... I don't know the correct word." Janice- "An editing conference?" Deb- "Yeah! Conference. Yeah! Ahree or four questions to guide the .... the person asking ihe questions .... Like two stars and a wish ,... There are specific questions for them to ask and they are only allowed to ask so many of them, or whatever. But it really kind of guides and focuses? And Lost and Found 152 it is like having the children having their awn Say and the ownership of their writing. Because 1 think that needs to get talked about to before you do it, right?" The conversation continued to explore how a buddy class could assist in the writing process. A discussion of how the young writers might feel about their ofder buddies making revisions on their original papers refiected the participants' sensitivity and respect for students. Deb, Cindy, and Michelle expressed the importance of student ownership of ideas. Cindy- "Yeah, I'm tempted to maybe do that part myself. Just so 1 don't get involved in grade skes making a mess over al1 of the work that they have done." Deb- "That wouid be my fear. Yeah. " Angeta- "Could you photocopy them?" Cindy- 'Yeah, 1 could see if 1 coutd photocopy them." Deb- "Yeah. But even having marks al1 over thern .... My concem would be that it woufd be my kids' very first attempts at getting their written word down .... I don't think some would pick up a pen for another year." Lost and Found 153 Cindy- "Well they didn't write these though, right? It is al1 just their ideas. I don't know that they would have a whole lot of ownership in the wnting part of it. It is ail dictated."

Michelle- "1 woutd think, too, that pretty well instruct ofder kids that they are not to make a mark on the paper unless it was authorized. You know. if they said "1s there a descn'bing word that you would Iike to add?" and they Say "Yes!" Then they could add it, that kind of thing? Because I think, 1 think that is really good practice anyway for kids." Deb- "Oh, yeah. That's a good idea." Michelle- "How to make corrections on someone else's paper-" Cindy- "So, uh, detailed descn'bing words and maybe I guess, anything else 1 can think of. They have already got titles. Talked about beginning middle ending, problern, solution.,,kind of thing," Michelle- "What are they going to do in grade fout?" (Said in admiration.) (Group laughs.) Cindy sounded a lot more positive after the tirne spent discussing her project, She then considered future directions storytelling could take. She would love to have a computer in her class to help her scribe more effciently- She also thought the idea of Lost and Found 1 54 creating a classroom book from the students' stories would be worth trying. She was appreciative of the feedback she had received, Cindy- "1 think next year using a cornputer would Save a lot of headaches. And making a book, Those two things. Because the kids seemed to realty enjoy this. And it is unfortunate that it kind of collapsed. (Because of problems with having a volunteer help scribe.) But the idea, 1 think, is good. It's just being able to refine it and make it a little more useful. For reading as well. But, when you begin something you have to kind of do what you cm. Okay! Thank you. That's good." The group then picked up on the topic of volunteers- this was another reoccurring topic of discussion in ouf sessions, Cindy's project had originally relied heavily on her extra support, Deb frequently put volunteers to work in her class, and Michelle had been working al1 year on training volunteers to work in her school. AI1 of us valued any additional help we could find to support our programs. Janice- "Sol when we have volunteers in Our classrooms we shouid appreciate them- It is really hard to get them."

Cindy- "Well, I couldn't have done this kind of idea by myseif right? That was it. That's why I took it on." Michelle- "We have a fnend of (my daughter) who is asking about doing Lost and Found 155 some volunteer work next year, so maybe 1 could (send her to you, meaning Cindy). Cindy- "Sure! Yeah! PDP (teacher preparation) students are great. And I was thinking, too, even giving the kindergartens an opportunity to give me some stories would be just tenific. lt's just managing it. It is the logistics of it ail that 1 found challenging. How do you do it? " About ten minutes later, Deb, who had been sitting quietly. enthusiastimlly announced her brainwave. Deb- "1 just had another idea!" Cindy- " M a t was it?" Deb- "What if you had the kids read their stories into a tape. and send the tapes home, and parents who have cornputers at home and let them type it out," Cindy- "You know, 1 thought about the dictation thing but I didn't know how to print it out after that-" Deb- "ln September send a notice home to parents saying, "1 will be looking for parents who are willing to sit and spend a little bit of time sitting at the computer to type up their stories. Could you please do this for Lost and Found 156 me?" Send the tape." Cindy- "1s that fair to ask?" Michelle- "And use ... volunteers, yeah! And just give them real specific instructions about how you want it transcribed," Cindy- "Yeah?" Bart>- "1 think you may be just asking for trouble if you just autornatically assume that each parent could do that." Deb- "No, ask for volunteers, tight?" Cindy- "if I had maybe some specific ones who could do that." Michetle- "And you have volunteers who aren't that cornfortable corning into your ~[assroornw ho wouldn't mind doing that,"

Cindy- "Doing that, yeah." Deb- "Or they're working moms and dads, they want to help? They want to stay home, they maybe work on computers at work? I don't know!" Lost and Found 157 Martha- "Well, 1 was thinking of a tape recorder, but I didn't know how that would get, you know, for your story writing process" Barb- "What a bout CAP students? Do you have students from hig h school that corne in your school?" Cindy- "1 Phink so-" Michelle- "You could rotate that you did not have the same kids taping your stories al1 of the time. You can be interacting with certain kids and doing that teaching stuff as you go along." Cindy- "Rig ht!" Michelle- "But it would help facilitate, you know, just get more stories out, that's all." Cindy- "Yeah, it would. Then it could become a center actually, almost. l just have to think about making sure that I taught the structure of story writing ." Cindy- "1 think ideally, having a computer in the room wherv you can actually type and save! Would be the ideal thing. And that is what this woman did who did this workshop. They went to the lab, they had al1 of Lost and Found 158 these volunteers- She had six volunteers to do that! Something ridicu~ous." And so, the idea of creating a polished writing product was linked to using volunteers in and out of the classroom. It will be interesting next year to see if Cindy uses sorne of these ideas if she continues to explore ways of teaching storytelling. 1 wonder if her frustrations with Iack of support from volunteers or resource teachers may prevent her from continuing. This was a huge stumbling btock this year. Although the group helped Cindy reflect upon some choices she had in extending her project, we did not explore her questions about assessment of the stories. As the facilitator, I wish that 1 had realized this at the time, because these issues were the first that Cindy identified. It seems more superficial to spend time talking about what to do with a writing product than how to assess student learning and reflect on how this

connects to teaching practice and understanding of pedagogy. Perhaps Cindy's teacher research woutd have been more rewarding ifshe had onIy chosen to work with a small nurnber of students. It would have been interesting to evaluate the progress that five students had made. One of the key variables in the success of an inquiry project is to make the data collection manageable. ft is easy to take on too wide a scope and give up out of fmstration. Gathenng data from an entire class can be overwhelming. If the tuming point for Cindy came when she Iost her volunteer, perhaps I could have suggested that she narrow the number of students she was researching. This is one of the dilemrnas of classroom research, because as teachers we are accountable for the assessment and evalu~tion of ail of our students, not just a targeted few- But the Iearning process of inquiry sometimes requires seIective attention. Lost and Found 159 The knowledge gained from the insights of observing only a few students is transferable. Martha's project trying three way conferencing with just five of her farnilies is an example of this. Deb's Project Deb spoKe at great Iength about her project because, as she frequently repeated, her leaming style is to process ideas through talking. The group gave her the chance to so this, and so met her expectations. Deb was eager to try new ideas received from her colleagues during these conversations, Deb was also an excellent Iistener, and offered insights to other in the group about their dilemmas. ln the following heavily edited excerpt from Our March session's transcript, Deb related how she implemented ideas gleaned while observing anotherteacher's class. (Our district allows us to have a reIease day each year in which we can visit other classroorns to learn about areas of professional interest.) She was inspired to create both an information package and a "Writer's Suitcase" that her students could take home. Her goal was to help parents understand herteaching philosophy so that they would be better able to support their children's learning at home. Deb- "1 visited this teacher ... to pick her brain about ideas for teaching titeracy. She keeps her parents really involved in and infomned about what is going on in her classroom by sending home a series of articles ... My goal between now and April is to prepare an information package ... and think through a bit of a time iine ... At the end of October ...l could start rotating articles .... on different subjects, things happening in the classroom,

Lost and Found 160 philosophy of the kindergarten and the pnmary program ... For December, 1 was going to put together an explanation of philosophy behind the writing process .... so when the parents ... start to do writing with their children, they're not working against me.,..Another thing this wornan does is send home a writer's suitcase which ... has coloured paper, pens, magnetic letters, a stapler, little post it notes, things to promote writing-" Unidentified participant- "1 thin k that sounds neat!" (Other people offer support and reassurance.) Deb- "lt is. 1 was al1 excited! And that is actually what started me on this whole idea. 1: saw these articles and 1 heard about this writer's suitcase." Deb was e~thusiastica bout her project, and was realistic in planning to stretch her process of implernentation into the next school year. As they Iistened to her describe her ideas, the members of the group asked questions that helped empower Deb. The suggestion of soliciting feedback frorn a few carsfully selected parents about the usefufness of her information package was well received by Deb. Cindy- "I liked Martha's idea about if you get this together before the end of the year, maybe choosing a couple of trustworthy parents, parents who you have a good rapport with. Showing it to them and asking them what they would think or how they would appreciate this kind of information coming to them? That might be really good feedback before you even try Lost and Found 161 it7" Deb- 'Yeah." Cindy- "They rnight think of things you haven't even thought of! " Martha- "They will become your advocates. They'll be speaking-..on your behaif," Anita- "Sometimes a teminology check helps too! Like Writing Workshop. "Do you know what this is, yes or no? Would you like to know more about it?" Just to do a Mile survey! We are good at surveys now, right?" (Group laughs.) And math. "Do you know the difierence between math and arithmetic?" I mean, there could be a lot of the things that we take for granted and it is our daily ianguage" Cindy- "Like an opening kind of letter home,"

Anita- "Yeah, sure! 'Yes I know what this is", and "No, 1 don't." And it can be anonymous." Cindy- "Yeah! "Are you interested in finding out more, yes or no?" Anita- 'Yes! You might as well not waste your tirne sending stuff home it Lost and Found 162 they're not going to read fi... Like (finding out more about) the value of play, or why we do centers- Are any of these buming questions? Do you have any other buming questions?" Cindy- "So that is a good idea, before you even start it, What areas do they want to find out more information about? You could poll the group in Septem ber." The conversation led to how the process of soliciting feedback from parents could provide data for graduate studies. This is not surprising, considering the interests and experiences of the group. Anita, Barb, and 1 are were al1 working on our Masters, and Angela had completed hers three years ago. Michelle, Martha, Deb and Cindy al1 had taken courses in the field of Education in recent years. Anita- "Actually, if you were thinking about doing your Masters, for the few years up until you do it would be great because you have these diverse parent groups from year to year. If you did the sarne kind of format." Cindy- "That would be interesting, yeah!" Anita- 'You could look at trends, things that interest parents, don't interest parents. You know, something else that you said that 1 thought. That kind of data collection would be incredible! Just to see. lt would take a long tirne." Lost and Found 163 Cindy- " And what you could develop out of that in the course of a few years would be very interesting ," Deb- "Yeah!" When Deb eventually did show her package of information to a few select parents, she received positive feedback. By our sharing and celebration session, she had a vast collection of material that she generously shared with others in the group. We were awed by her productivity! During the course of her inquiry, Deb developed the following resources for use in her next year's classroom: a kindergarten orientation handbook; a format for rnonthly

newsletters; information on and a format for a writer's suitcase, which is a box full of writing materials to be rotated through the class in January to encourage home wnting; writing samples and explanations; an ESL parents handout; ways to involve parents in school; ways to communicate school leaming; promoting hands-on and active math leaming at home; and, a compilation of articles on topics such as: helping children at home, the importance of play, separation anxiety, developing figure-ground perception, kindergarten philosophy, cen:er time, language development, writing, reading, and math. (From her final report in June.) Deb was satisfied that she had been both able to pull together so much useful information that would heip her inform parents of school leaming and involve them more fully. She was also generous in her offers to share her resources. Lost and Found Searching for Understandings The dynamic functioning of the group enabled the inquiry process to progress in a natural and supportive manner. The illustrations of the development of Bah's, Cindy's and Deb's questions reflect the important role the group played in the professional learning of these educators. The role of reflective joumal writing is also demonstrated, particularly in Barb's case. Angela, Anita, Deb, and Martha also regularly use a joumal to help them search for understandings. Michelle and Cindy wrote dunng the sessions, for their final report, and for their mini-portrait. i asked the group mernbers to reflect on how their search for understandings was assisted dunng the sessions. Barb replied that her search for understandings was helped by the similar experiences her colleagues reited, the materials they offered, and the suggestions they provided for new options. She also extended her understanding by listening to their experiences and helping them. Barb stated that she found it refreshing to work and talk with people from schools outside of her own. Cindy feR that just hearing the spontaneous talk helped her get ideas, as did the responses she received to her direct questions. She enjoyed the benefrt of sharing books and articles not connected with her question and saw this as a natural spinoff of the group. The support and "words of wisdom" offered by the group mernbers were very helpful to Deb. She found that her issues were clarified through discussion, and she was eager to hear what was going on in their teaching livesAnita wrote that her thinking was clarified when the other participants asked her

questions and offered thoughtful suggestions. She appreciated their support and Lost and Found 165 guidance when she was unsure of how she wanted to handle her research question. Anita let me know that 1 was an excellent Iistener who helped move discussions along by asking further questions and offerhg comments to increase each person's thinking to look at their focus in a d-fferent way. Martha appreciated the questions that were asked of her, the information that was provided or identified as available, and the probing ideas and suggestions that were offered. The discussion and the tips she gained were what Michelle valued most. "The group helped me in so many ways, as an audience and a sounding board. It was really the group who helped me focus my question. I tearned a great deal from other's focus questions, too- things l'd like to try," Angela explained: Teaching is a complex undertaking. Everything is interconnected somehow. As we talk and wonder and question, 1 never feel we have reached a definite answer, but the connections make for meaningful insights, observations, and new understanding. Together we are smarter (and more interesting and more diverse and dynarnic). From the perspective of wondering whether or not the group would have fared better had al1 of the participants shared a common focus instead of the varied and diverse projects represented, f would Iike to assume frorn my findings that it may not have improved the workings of the group. Anita suggested to me in a conversation in March that there may have k e n more pressure on the participants to become "experts" ifthey knew that the other Lost and Found 166 members were pursuing simifar lines of inquiry. It is less threatening if you are alone in a topic, and you are able to work at your own pace- there is not as rnuch direct cornparison with others' progress. I believe that there was enough individual accountability for each of the participants to keep on track, and that there was mutual respect and appreciation for the leaming that was made possible by engaging in conversation about other topics. They al1 exhibited real dedication for a better practice. Continuation of Projects By April, I noticed that the research projects coufd easily be cam'ed on through the next school year. Indeed, the participants anticipated ways they could continue their inquiry.

I made an encouraging comment about this. Angela responded by recafling how her first teacher researcher project lasted five years. Janice- "1 am hearing that this year is not long enough for you to finish what you have started, You seem interested in continuing with whatever you have been working on ..At has been a meaningful procesS.-. It might be something that you work on for the next two years, or whatever. You just see where it goes." Angela- "1 worked on spelling for five." (Laughs) "1 swore I would never look at it again! But the next year I did it again! Bonehead!" (A few people talking and laughing al1 at once.) " it was quite a process!" Lost and Found 167 Angela had a lave/hate relationship with her previous research project. Although she was committed to the inquiry process, and enjoyed the collaborative relationship with her research partner, she found it very time-consuming. There cornes a point where there can be too much of a good thing. However, 1 remember being so impressed with her dedication towards this topic when l worked with her six years ago. It was my hope that this group will continue to meet and grow together. Our district was encouraging teachers to use inquiry groups as a tool for professional development, and it certainiy was meaningful for the teachers in this group. Teacher research is ~IScoOst e ffective. This was a tirne of cutbacks in our province and teachers were stnrggling to gain access to funding for professional development, The next chapter further illustrates the potential of inquiring teacher groups meeting as I piesent the refi ections of the participantsLost and Found CHAP'ER THREE: DESIGN OF THE STDY This chapter on design contains an account of the procedures used in the study, including selection of participants. data collection, data analysis and trustworthiness of the study. Case Study Despite these efforts, communicative language teaching has so far not been popularized in China. In fact it is very seldom practiced in China. This is in sharp contrast with what the audiolingual method has experienced in China. The latter not only has been very popular in tertiary institutions but also has been finding its way into some secondary schools. Why has CLT had such a

difficult time in getting into Chinese English classroorns? This study iooks at the issue from the perspectives of the teachers, the front line troops. A casestudy approach has been chosen for this purpose. Case study has a long history of use in such disciplines as medicine, law, anthropology, political science and psychology. Case studies are intensive investigations of single cases which serve both to identify and describe basic phenornena, as well as provide the basis of subsequent theory development. Smith states that the assumptions underlying the use of a case study are similar to those of the qualitative research paradigm and observes that, the context has great impact on social behavior ... the subjectivity of the research is not only inevitable but provides the only means of knowing, and control is instituted through multiple perspectives and methods (Smith, 1982, p. 205). More recently, 'education has recognized the advantage of using a case study approach for better understanding the process or dynamics of certain aspects of practicen (Merriam, 1985, p. 204). Stake definas the case study as the investigation of a bounded system. ernphasizing the unity and wholeness of that system, but confined to those aspects which are relevant to the research problem at the time (Stake, 1978). According to Merriam (1988), there are four major attributes in case studies, namely, particularistic, descriptive, heuristic, and inductive. Particularistic means that case studies focus on a particular situation, event, program, or phenomenon. The case itself is important for what it reveals about the phenomenon and for what it might represent (Memam, 1988, p.11). This characteristic requires researchers to concentrate their attention on the way particular groups of people confront specific problems and also to take a holistic view of the situation. By descriptive, Merriam means that the final product of a case study should be a rich thick description of the phenomenon being studied. The thick description is a complete literal description of the incident or entity under investigation (Meniam, 1988). Wilson states that cases studies use prose and other literary devises to describe and elicit images, and analyze situations (Wilson, 1979). By heuristic, Merriam indicates that case studies cm develop the reader's understanding of the phenomenon being investigated (Merriam, 1988). Stake

also notes, "previously unknown relationships and variables can be expected to emerge from case studies leading to a rethinking of the phenomenon being studied. lnsights into how things get to be the way they are can be expected to result from case studies" (Stake, 1981, p. 47). Inductive, according to Merriam. means that case studies should rely heavily upon inductive reasoning in data-analysis and interpretation. The important advantage of using case studies in educational research lies in the possibility of examining in great depth what we want to research. It suits the purpose of my present research. Data Collection This study intends to explore the difficulties (social. political, economic, cultural and so on) that EFL teachers in China have and might encounter in their attempts to introduce CLT and their understanding of the possibilities of overcoming these difficulties. The traditional devices used in a case study data collection of in-depth interviews, classroom observations, refiective journals have been used in this study. The data for this study rely heavily upon in-depth interviews with the research participants and on-site observations of the participants' teaching setngs. The study spanned a period of eight weeks. While brief, the time allows for careful data collection by a researcher experienced in teaching in China and fluent in Chinese. Interviews Interviews with the six research participants were one of the primary modes of data collection for this study. According to Berg (1989), there are three types of interviews: the standardized (formal) interview. the unstandardized (informal) interview, and the semi-standardized (semi-structured) interview. The interviews used in this study were semi-stnictured. This type of interview is conducted in 'a systematic and consistent order, but allows the interviewers suficient freedom to digress; that is, the interviewers are permitted (in fact expected) to probe far beyond the answers to their prepared and standardized questions (Berg, 1989, p. 17). Using a number of predetermined questions, which were sent to teachers ahead of time, enabled me to translate my research objectives into specific language and enabled the teachers to prepare for the interviews, if they so chose. While fomulating interview questions, I adhered to the following guidelines

suggested by Denzin: Questions should accurately convey meaning to the respondent: they should rnotivate him to become involved and to communicate his attitudes and opinions; they should be clear enough so that the interviewer can easily convey meaning to the respondent; they should be precise enough to exactly convey what is expected of the respondent ...; any specific questions should have as a goal the discerning of a response pattern that clearly fits the broad content of the investigation ...; if questions raise the possibility of the respondent's lying or fabricating (which is always a possibility), care should be taken to include questions that catch him up, or reveal to him and the intewiewer that his previous answers have been incorrect (Denzin, I W O , p. 129). I held four one- to two-hour interviews with each of the participants. The first interview mainly explored the participant's background and hislher life and teaching story. The second one focused on the participant's experience of teaching English, the methods used in hislher teaching career and hislher underlying philosophy of leaming and teaching behind these decisions. The third one was on the participant's experience with CLT and the difficulties that hefshe had or might have had with CLT either based on hisfher personal experience or hisher understanding of CLT and the TEFL situation in China. The last one was an exploration of the participant's understanding as to the possibilities and degrees of these difficulties being overcome and the future directions that TEFL should be going in China, particularly in terms of teaching methods. In planning this study, the language of communication during the proposed interviews was a matter of consideration for me. According to my experience, most English teachers in China are not fluent in English, though those teaching at the tertiary level are generally better than those teaching in secondary and elementary schools. University English teachers may not find it difficult to conduct a class in English since the class is usually fairly structured and they can make preparations before class. But they generally find it difficult to express themselves in English as fully as in Chinese. Based upon such understanding, I proposed to the interviewees that either Chinese or English or a combination of the two languages would be used in Our talks and they were

asked to decide what language or languages to use. The result was that in most cases only Chinese or a combination of Chinese and English were used in the interviews. Ail interviews were audiotaped and then transcribed as soon as possible afterwards. The earlier interviews were also used to generate new interview questions and provide directions for subsequent ones. Transcripts of the interviews were given to the participants for verifkation. On-site Observations Another major source of data for this study was on-site observations of the research participants' teaching. Eisner notes, "in general, the richest vein of information is struck through direct observation of school and classroom life (1 991, p. 182). During the period of the study, I made regular visits to the participants' teaching schools. Besides observing the broad contexts that the participants were working in, classroom observations of the participants teaching were the major purpose of these visits. Such visits enabled me to understand the participants and the English teaching situations better and thus were very helpful in generating more probing questions for interviews to gain deeper understanding of the questions under study. In classroom observations, both participant and passive observation were used in this study, depending upon the activities going on in the classrooms. Since the means that were used to collect data in classroom obsewations were to keep field notes and audiotape recordings of the classroom interactions, I would take a passive role in the observations when needed so that the recording of the classroom observations was not hampered. Participant observation was also employed only when I was sure that participation would not interfere with rny observation and recording of the data. Field notes were also kept during the onde observations and later expanded as soon as possible, mostiy before the end of the day. Hutchinson (1988) encourages researchers to use both observation and interview in their data gathering methodologies. "Observing, by itself, is never enough because it begs interpretation. Interviews permit researchers to venfy, clarify, or alter what they thought happened. to achieve a full understanding of an incident, and to take into account the 'lived' experience of participants" (p.

125). It may not be possible to achieve a "full understanding" of any human experience, but I agree with Hutchinson that interviews and observations complement each other in the research process. Thus. minor short interviews were also held with the same group of teachers to complement observations during school visits. They took the form of unstandardized interviews. They were rnainly done to seek clarifications and explanations about the things that I had seen and heard that day, particulariy those related to teaching rnethodologies that arose in the lessons that ha or she had just finished. Ail these interviews were audiotaped and transcribed as soon as possible. In cases where the teachers were not available for interviews right after the class, I waited in their schools until they were available for comments. When this was not possible, I would leave them a detailed reply sheet with open-ended questions about their lessons that had just been observed and ask them to answer the questions as soon as they had time. When they gave the written cornments back to me, we would then go over them together for clarification and in-depth understanding of their ideas. Researcher's Journal To help gather ideas, throughout the research, I kept a researcher's journal myself. There were two important components of this journal. The first component was my journal of the research journey. What did I do that day? Why did I do it that wap How did it go? Why did it go as it did? Would I do it differently if I do it again and why or why not? What did I leam today as to how to do educational research? Through this process, I hope to learn from the research experience and improve my research skills. The second component was recording of my thoughts and temporary interpretations of what I saw and heard and felt throughout the study. In my experience with qualitative study, I have found that quite often data collection, interpretation and analysis happen simultaneously. I believe it is useful to keep an account of the ideas coming up throughout the study. Data Analysis Data analysis is not a simple description of the data collected. It is a process by which the researcher can bring interpretation to the data ( Powney and Watts, 1987). Bogdan and Biklen note that qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data inductively. They tell students and researchers,

As a qualitative researcher planning to develop some kind of theory about what you have been studying, the direction you will travel cornes aller you have been collecting the data, after you have spent time with your subjects. You are not putting together a puzzle, whose picture you already know. You are constructing a picture which together takes shape as you collect and examine the parts (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992, p. 32). With the data in hand, I then started to idenfi patterns of the different categories of constraints that the participants reported. Themes were also worked out in regard to the possibilities, means and degrees to overcome these difficulties. Following this, comparisons were made of the responses of tertiary institution teachers teaching English and non-English majors, junior middle school and senior middle school teachers. Cross-cornparisons were also made among the three categories of the participants, that is, the tertiary. secondary and elementary, in terms of their responses to the research questions with sensitivity to issues of tnistworthiness (discussed later in this chapter). Participants of the Study This study was conducted in the context of a large city in the eastern part of the People's Republic of China. It is situated in one of the few economically and culturally well-developed provinces. When I searched for potential participants for the study, I made it clear that I wanted to have people who had already had experience with CLT or at least were interested in CLT and had done some thinking about the issue of using CLT in China. To find them, I utilized the connections I had established in the local EFL community when I studied and later taught in the city. I was able to ask around in the community for people interested in the study, and had had some experience with CLT or had really thought about the issue. I also turned to people who knew the local EFL community well (like heads of English departrnents, school principals, local EFL teacher association staff) to recommend potential subjects. The final participants in the study were six EFL teachers teaching at different levels. There were two from each of the three levels, that is, the tertiary, sewndary and the elementary. One of the two from the tertiary level, Haigang (As in the stories, pseudonyms are used to ensure anonymity), was selected

among teachers teaching English-major students in Chinese higher institutions. The other, Fanke, was from teachers teaching nonInglish majors (for example, engineering students and science students) at colleges or universities. There are ON0 teachers from the secondary schools, which in China are called middle schools (from grade seven to grade twelve). One, Chenli, is an English teacher of a junior middle school (grade 7 to grade 9) and the other, Yanbo, a teacher of a senior middle school (grade 10 to grade 12). There are two teachers from the elementary level. In China, only fRh and sixth graders in most elementary schools leam English. Dingmei taught English to grade five and Maili taught English to grade six at the time of the present study. The study involved two instructors from tertiary institutions. One was a comprehensive teachers' university and the other an engineering univenity. The study also involved two instructors from two secondary schools and two elementary schools. Tnistworthiness of the Study One perennial issue that al1 researchers must deal with is the trustworthiness of the research findings. Guba and Lincoln (1985) suggest that there are four major concerns relating to trustworthiness. They are: Trufh value How can one establish confidence in the "truthn of the findings of a particular inquiry for the subjects (respondents) with which and the context in which the inquiry was camed out? Applicability How can one determine the degree to which the findings of a particular inquiry may have applicability in other conte& or with other subjects (respondents)? Consistency How can one determine whether the findings of an inquiry would be consistently repeated if the inquiry were replicated with the same (or similar) subjects (respondents) in the same (or simiiar) wntext? Neutrality How can one establish the degree to which the findings of an inquiry are a function solely of subjects (respondents) and conditions of the inquiry and not of the biases, motivations, interests, perspectives and so on, of the inquirer? According to Guba (1981), researchers in the quantitative research paradigm use such terms as intemal validity, extemal validity (generalizability), reliability

and objectivity to address the above four areas of wncerns, and they are inappropriate as the criteria for qualitative studies. Instead, alternative terms credibility, transferability, dependability and wnfirrnability - and trustworthiness measures should be adopted. Credibility. In establishing tnith values, the qualitative inquirer is mos t concerned with testing the credibility of his findings and interpretations with the various sources (audiences or groups) from which data were drawn. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest the following measures c m be taken to increase the credibility of a qualitative inquiry: prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing, collection of referential adequacy. and member checking during the study; establishing structural corroboration or coherence, establishing referential adequacy and member checking after the study has been completed. In the present case study, these measures were taken whenever possible dunng and after the study so as to increase the credibility of the findings and interpretations. For instance, triangulation, (the process whereby various data sources, different investigators, different theories, and different methods are arranged against one another to cross-check the data and the interpretation), was applied in the study. I used a combination of interviews, observations, and reading the participants' writings when available to gather data for the study. Prolonged engagement was also emphasized in the study. It "is the investment of sufficient time to achieve certain purposes: learning 'the culture', testing for misinformation introduced by distortions either of the self or of the respondents, and building trust (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 301). 1 spent eight weeks interviewing, observing, and interacting with the participants to explore their thoughts on CLT in China. This engagement also enabled me to gain a fairly deep insight into the situations that the participants were working in and build tnist between the participants and me. Longer time might have intensified the findings. Finally, persistent observations were employed in the present study. "The purpose of persistent observation is to identify those characteristics and elements in the situation that are most relevant to the problem or issue being pursued and focusing on them in detail. If prolonged engagement provides scope, persistent observation provides depthn (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.

302). Throughout the eight weeks of study, 1 made sure to observe each participant teaching at least once each week. Through persistent observations like this, I was able to let go of those questions irrelevant and attend to those essential to the study. Transferability. According to Guba (1 980). the qualitative inquirer eschews generalizations on the grounds that virtually al1 social/behavioral phenomena are context-bound. It is impossible to develop %th statements" that have general applicability. One must be content with statements descriptive or interpretative of a given context-ideographic or context-relevant statements. The transfera bility of the research findings relies heavily upon the extent of similarities between contexts (Guba, 1981). In order that the reader will be able to compare hislher context with the one under study, collecting thick descriptive data, doing theoretical/purposive sampling during the study and developing thick descriptions after completing the study are important measures that can be used. ln the present study, I made efforts to generate rich and detailed descriptive data of the participants and their working contexts. In the report of the study, I included a reasonably thick description of the context of this study to give the reader suficient knowledge of the context of the study so that helshe can determine the degree of fit with hislher contexts and to provide evidence for the theoretical comments generated from the data. Dependability. Qualitative researchers are concerned with stability of data, but must make allowances for apparent instabilities arising either because different realities are being tapped or because of instrumental shifts stemming from developing insights on the part of the investigator-as-instrument. Guba (1980) advocates using measures such as establishing an "audit trailn, using overiap methods and making stepwise replication during the study and arranging for a "dependability" audit after completing the study. In this study, establishing an 'audit trail" in the study has been designed into the research. The audit bail will make it possible for an extemal auditor to examine the processes whereby data were collected and analyzed, and interpretations were made (Guba, 1980). For this purpose, the researcher took and kept the observation and interview notes and other documents coming out of the study. A mnning account of the research process in the form of the

investigatots daily journal was also kept. After collection of the data, I arranged for a "dependabiliv audit by a recent Ph.D graduate able to read English and Chinese. Confirmability. Qualitative researchers shift away from the concept of investigator objectivity toward the concept of data and interpretational confirmability. Triangulation and practicing refiexivity are the two steps that can be taken during the study to achieve this goal of confirmability (Guba, 1980). In the present study, I established triangulation through collecting data from different sources and using a variety of methods and also tried to "reveal to his audience the underlying episternological assumptions which cause hirn to formulate a set of questions in a particular way, and finally to present bis findings in a particular way" (Ruby, 7980, p. 157). From my wntinuing journal in which introspections were recorded on a daily basis (Spradley, 1979), 1 documented shifts and changes in my research orientation (Reinharz, 1979). After the completion of the study, I again followed Guba's suggestion to complete a confirmability audit. The same external audit person who performed the dependability audit certified that data exist in support of every interpretation and that the interpretations have been made in the ways consistent with the available data. Because my thesis advisor had access to data and the cornmittee considered the report of the study carefully, another means of confirmability was available. Chapter Surnmary A case study approach was selected to explore teachers' understanding of implementing CLT in China. In it, six teachers were chosen to participate in the study, with equal number of participants from each of the three categories, the elementary, sewndary, and tertiary. Data collection modes included in-depth semi-structured major interviews, onsite observations of participants' teaching, and collection of participants' writings related to teaching when available, and a researcher journal. Al1 the interview recordings were transcribed and selected parts were translated into English. Al1 the data gathered were then analyzed for themes for reporting and discussion in the written report of the study. Chapter Four will introduce the participants and present their situations. From the specifics, the general themes and issues that emerged in data analysis

will be presented. Chapter 2 Criticai Re8ective Anaiysis of the Intemship Program duction The purpose of any intemship prograrn must be to establish an m depth understaadmg of the purpose and respom'bilities of the position beiog monitored. Although an understanding of the role of the Learnirig Resome Teacher on be developed through an intensive course of study at a qiialified University such as Mernoriai, the tnie essence of the role can only be understood through living t. The mternship program dows for personal construction of knowledge tbrough participation and reflection. The Association for Teacher-LiIbrarianship in Canada and the Canadian School LI* Association lists as essentiai, ten professional competencies and eleven personid competencies rekted to the Leamhg Resource Teacher's kwwledge and skills, attitudes and values (1997). An intemship program aliows new teachers to see these competencies modelled by a skilied, qiialified, and successftl professional. It also provides an opportunity for profssional feedbilck and a sharing of skills and knowledge. This report provides a description of the school and it's current status with respect to technology. The focus of the report, however is a critical reflective analysis of the experences of this particuiar mteniship, that contriied to the development of an in depth understanding of the realities of the role of the Leamhg Resource Teacher and the theoretical b w o r k that have given rise to that reality. Particuiar empbasis is placed on Macdonald Drive Elementary is a K-6 school located m the east end of St. John's. with a student population of approxbaiely 534 and a teaching stanof 32. The open area design of the school maices it unique in the province. Each grade level with the exception of Kindergarten, is grouped together m one large room cded a P d Wthin each Pod there are three classes and an area for Special Education groups. There are thm classrooms for the two and one-halfKindergarten ciasses. Esch of the six Pods has its own exferior entrance and teacher work area. The spacious Leamhg Resource Centre is located m the very centre of the cucle formed by the Pods. It has w walls, its perimeter behg denwd or@ by b o o k s h e I f ~ .T he Resource Centre is at the hem of the school both physicdy, and conceptually. Circulation is on flexible scheduling so as oot to interfere with the scheduling of resource based units. Macdonald Drive Elementmy is a school on the cuning edge of technology. It is equipped with two modem LCD imits with new dedicated VCR's, three T.V. sets also

with dedicated VCR's, a Sony Digital Camerq a Wbed scanner. a vide0 ornera with 37 tripod,three16nmipn,jecto~~wiihaneccompanyingfihna>llectio~aodanextensive software collection of appmrciniately 130 CD-ROM programs. There are 39 wmputers in ~Iassroonrtsh roughout the school with fie more expected before the end of the school year. The Leaming Resource Centre has nine computers, p h the network server- Four of these are older machines capable or@ of nmning the Columbia LI- System Although ma o k comptas in the school are P e n h with r n d t h d a capabilities, they vary in memory, speed, and hard drive capacty. T h is a printer in each pod as well as a network printer m the Learning Resource Centre and m the office. One computer k equipped with a specialized keyboard for Special Needs Snidents. Most computers are ninmng Wmdows 95 and are cotmected to a school network with a Wmdows NT m e r and have high speed cable access to the Intemet. &ugh there is w computer lab, d e n t s are not restricted to the cornputers located m their own Pod. They fkquentiy move around the school using computers wherever tey are availabIe. AU classoorn computers are on moveable trolleys allowing for f l e n i in location. Currentiy the mzumum number of computers m each Pod is six, as this is the number of network connections available. The purchase of a supplementary network hub is planned which wiil provide additional, flexible co~ectionds owing mini labs to be estabhhed where needed. Clearly th is a school c o d e d to providing a technologically rich environnient for dl students and staE A rnajor goal of tbis internship is to obtain expience m using and ariministering a school network. This area proved to be one of the greatest leaming challenges of the m t m progrsm~ Limited print resources are avaiIab1e to provide information on how to use the network and on troubleshootmg. Due to eemendous workloads, oil-site teclmical s d c e by personne1 of the Avalon East School Board is aailable ody when major network probiems occur. Assistance am be obtained through e-mail contact with these technical support sta& but prompt and effective advice depends on clearly articuhting the problems and any problem soiving strategies employed. Good communication ski& are essential under this system. Experiemce, cornb'd with the application of good problem solving stategies and creative and logical thinl<inp skills is also crltical to effective network srimmistra . . tion. In this area particularly, the mternship prognun providecl valuable knowiedge and expenence that couid not be obtained in any

other setting . The existence of a school network raises the issue of access control - e.g. what students and staffshould be aiiowed to do on the network. Restrictmg access prevents users hm mstalling software, possibly viokting copyright laws, changmg critical settings, deletmg important files, and filline up bard drives wtth personal or inappropriate files. It is therefore miportant that acceptable use guidelines be established and dorced. Rehcted access creates additional responsibilities for a network -or, the moa 39 agninaiat be& tbat the installation of new s o f i and the ctearance of prbt queues can ody be done by the Iidministrror. ReStrCtmg aceess also mates network problems wben there is a large amount of sofware beng used throughout the schooi. The Windows NT network will only dow groups of users access to a Med number of prograt~ls. The large software collection at Macdonald Drive exceeds tbat bit, causiog problems with ad* and rem* soAware. Opening the network aad dlowkg all users Unresbricted access would deviate this problem but t would also create mw ones, inch~dhga llowhg users access to . * -e program. Whut an acceptable use policy in place and si@ permission slips fiom parents, unrestricted student access to the Inteniet is iuappropriate. As a revised drafi of the acceptable use policy of the former Avalon Co~solidatedS chool Board has not yet received approval by the representatives of the school community, Inteniet access at Macdonald Drive remains restricted to the stafE The position of eetwork administnitor brngs with it the responsibility of technical support to staff and dents. Resource based rmits are continuousiy ongomg and it is a challenge to juggle teaching responsibiies with the role of technical support. Although teachers and students are involved in the problem solvhg proces, the solution often . . requires the admmistrator to access to the network and &e necessary corrective actions. Agiog equipment, with resomes that are too limaed for the deniands made on them, often cause hardware pmblems. As well Iimited h c i a l raources require that exhaustive problem solving strategies be employed before outside repair services are engaged. Considerable time is spent m nisnitammg * . * equipment and troubieshootmg. An miportant role of the Leaming Resource Teacher inchides providing and participaing in professional development. The educatiod commurty is comprised of a variefy of stakeholders all of whom have a need and a responsi'biiity to engage in activities that will help them develop the knowledge and sMls d e d to be effkctive m their de.

The role of the LeamBig Resource Teacher indudes teachhg students with a wide range of abilities, mteiats and learning styles, seIectng appropriate resources, mcluding technologid resources, and helping mdividuals locate the mformation they wed to be effective in their roles. Recognizing the importance of the Learning Resource Teacher in the dehery of quality prograins and services for leanimg disabled and gifted *dents. the administration and staffof Alexander Street School mvited Leamhg Resource Teachers working m the Avalon East School Board to an inservice on the needs of these students with respect to instruction and mornes. The session was informative and timely. It raised awarenea 1eading to a redistniution of resources, providmg a student with dysgraphia, greater access to word processing technology. Knowledge s h a . and coliaborative problem s o l ~wge re key ideas behind a professional develo pment session organized by the Special Needs Teachers aml the Guidance Counclor of Macdonald Drive. Specifically addressed m the session were the 41 needs of the leammg disabled, aad students with behavioriral probleins The mservice was provided as part of an p h dado@ % +& School Improvement Committee in response to needs i d d e d by sta& Participants inciuded parents, and stafffiom other schools wahin the board. The session kd to participants Hicreasing theu und- of themseives and othe~~a,nd the adoption of a collaborative problem so- and support modei. As weii as participa** in profkssiorral development sessions, Lemhg Resource Teachers are proactive m developing and iniplementing inservices, workshops and training sessions. Teachers at Macdonald Drive Elementary identifieci a need for trammg m equipment and software. Throughout the year, lunch time and after school sessions were offered to help teachers develop proficiency with the e>ristiag technologies and software. Training was provided m Wmdows 95, Microsoft Word, the hterne, Eudora the scanner. LCD units, and the digitai camera Specific needs were addresseci through just-in-tirne trammg sessions with individual teachers or srnail groups. This type of trahhg included instruction in multitasking, report card templates. e-maii, down loading h m the Internet, incorporatmg images into documents, using the LCD equipment wth a cornputer and VCR, and usiug Optical Character Recognition software to convert scamied text to a word processing document. The mon comprehensive professional development actMty delivered focused on

the development of an updated information skills continuum Teachers were asked to 42 sequetlce a kt of infomdon skills compikd hm the latest CUTTiCuhnn documents. The f &y workshop also kMed strategies for a9hiatnig i n f o d o n and sources found on Intemet and a discussion of the proposed Acceptable Use Policy. This kenrice was developed as part of the research component of this internship and wiIl be discussed mdepth m Chapter 3. It is the philosophy of Macdonald Drive School to provide educational opportunities for ail members of the school community. In keepng with this pb.hophy. cornputer trainiog sessions for parents volunteers, and pmject workers was included as part of a proposal for a govermnent hded special project. The sessions served several prtrposes: to provide basic cornputer skills, particulariy for new Canadian parents thereby improving their eniployment opporhinities; to help volunteers develop skills that they codd share with students; and to provide an opportunity for parents to rnodel a CO rmnitment to Melong learning. This part of the project was a unique opportunity to extend professional development beyond staffand students and to eXpenence fht haML the bene* of an integration of school and community. Learning Resource Teachers throughout the city comprise a network of expertise that they use to share information and to provide mutual support m professional development efforts. For example, the Learning Resource Teachers of Macdonald Drive, Vanier, a d Bishop Feild shared m the development and miplementation of workshops offered m those schools. On a broader level the Leamhg Resource Teachers m St. John's organized information sharing sessions and technology training labs for Leaming 43 Resource Teachers m an effort to enbanw th& kxmwiedge base and to provide equitable Services to students. This is a group of dedated professionals who are se* the standard for excellence in their field They demonstrate systems thmkmg thou@ a CO mmitment to collaborative leaming, and joint problem soiviug initiatives. They share an eqmdkg vision of information literacy needs and work together to provide an equitable idkmumm that nipports the acquisition of the skk needed to meet those needs. Among the essential indicaion of competency is the abiiity to organize the Learning Resource Centre so that it requires a minimum of teacher t h to nui smoothly. The key to success here Lies in establishbg a well trained and committed, core group of volunteers. The clerical duties mvolved m ninomg a Resource Centre cm significantly

mtnide on time aocated for other professional respomibilities. Volunteers play a vitai role in the efficient Nnnmg of the Resource Centre. Many new volunteers worry about not lmowing enough to cope with the dernands of a busy Learning Resource Centre. Explaining not ody how to do somethhg but why t is to be done in a pariicular way helps to build a knowledge base and increases codidence. Volunteers who understand how the system works can make better decisions. At Macdonald Drive, codon level a d confidence is developed tbrough hands-on trainmg and peer support. New vohmteers are paired with other competent, expiencd 44 volunteers for barnmg. The Learning Resource Teacher d e t h work priorities wkn ~ ~ e c e ~ ~bau tO-r y , worlcs with the vohmteem prbm.iiy as a coILSUhBnt. Ahhough the Resource Cenhe is hunmimg with actMty and the workload is high, a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere prevails. In addition to enjoying the social aspects associaied wah their voI~llfeerw ork, vohniteer parents are rewarded wah the imowledge that the ir children enjoy seeirip their parents prticpate in the daily actiMties of the schooL Rimnmg a Resource Centre also requires public relations and marketing skiusskius Advocacy involves eiwning that ail members of the school CO- undentand the role of the Learning Resorirca program in the development of the essential graduation leanimgs. Two pamphlets were designed to respond to this advocacy need, one outlniig the cumnt status of technology in the school and the fibure goals for technology, the other descri'bmg the Resource Centre fkcility and progranis. These pamphlets were distriiuted to parents on Curriculum Night. A display of resources and technologies, mcluding a video of a group of chdren working on a resource b a d mit was also set up. An LCD projector conwcted to a computer demonstrated how the Inteniet is used by teachers to meet curriculum objectives. Sites displayed mcluded web pages of children's authors, space information sites h m NASA. a children's site on human anatomy, and the Lego home page. A display of curriculum rehted software and print resources was also avaiiabie. Parents were encoufaged to explore the Resource Centre and to ask questions or make comments about the progranis o f f d In May, 1998, Macdonald Drive Elementary was also visited by a delegation of 45 SwediPh educators uterested m the utepzation of technobgy and m the d e of the Leaming Resource program. Ms. Lw gave a w o n on these issues and the delegates were hvited to observe and participate in an ongoing unit. It is mteRsting to

note that &ho@ Learning Resource Teachers in Caaada are stniggting to mamtain their programs against educatiod cuts, these prognuiz sene as modeis for school miprovernent m other couutries. It is apparent that advocacy reaches beyond local borders. Amther key indicator of cornpetence mvolves the abiiity to develop, organize, and maintain a resource coiiection, Although the coUection at Macdonald Drive is quite large, consisting of over 1 1,000 books, portions of it require corniderable weeding. The Resource Centre is m the process of automatmg, a perfect t h e for evaiuating the coliectioa This was done as books were removed fiom the shelffor caaioguing andor barcoding. Standard criteria were apptied to select books to be weeded and as books were removed, collection needs were assessedSelecting new resources requires a knowledge of the curriculum and resources. In addition to the needs identifieci during the weeding process, a newly introduced science prognun required additional resources to support it. Choices were made based on cwiculum needs and through consultation with teachem. Standard selection ai& were 46 used to evahiate availabie resomes where possiibk. Vendors were chosen based on price, reputation for quality hmdmg, snd stz-5~-r d. A local firm was chosen to provide basic fiction and picture books. In addition to offering cornpetitive pricing and exceptional service, the owwr's extensive knowledge of chilcira's literature was very helpfiil in the selection process. Marc records were ordered where possile. Automatmg a coiIection takes a considerab1e amount of tmie that is simply wt avaiJab1e to a Resource Teacher. A project worker, trained and supervised by the Intern, worked for eight weeks d o g u i n g d barcodiog. The Resource Centre wiU be ready for on-line circulation as soon as network cables and electricai outlets are installed in the circulaiion area. Collection growth required a reorganiration of the physical setup. Changing estabshed nafnc patterns in an open area school proved chaiiengiog but not mipossible. Access to the Leamhg Resource Centre must be convenient for ail grade levels whe maintabhg an organkatiod structure that allows for browsing and use of reference, and OPAC (On-line Public Access Catalogue) centres while resource based Unas are m progress. Consultation with admmistra . . tion and staffallowed for a mutually satisfctory arrangement. Fundine

Fundmg is aiways a major issw when selecting resources. A book fir is held 47 during the fan to raise frmds for new resoufces. A lockable m m is necessary to erwne the security of the materials for de. In an open area school the O* room large enough is the gymnasirmL The Resource Centre personnel are &en the gymnasnim for two days to conduct the book fir, one &y for viewing and the other for purchasing. Two book compries are represented which requires keeping merchandise and profits separate to ensure accurate accounthg. Approraniately 25 vohmteers work in shats at various stations a r o d the gymnasnim for the two day period. Setup and tear-down of the fk is done m the evenings before and after the fir. A book nia is a successful and exhaustmg enterprise. Funding for technology is augmenteci for this year by a matched b d s technoiogy grant fkom the School Board. The Board responded to a school proposal with an offer to contribute one dollar for every two d o h coannitted by the schooL Macdonald Drive must rehquish th& portion of the technoiogy money to the School Board and submit requisitions for purchases. Three wrinen quotes must accompaqy each requisition before approvai is obtained. Centralized control of h d s creates fiutration and extra work for the Leamhg Resource Teacher and the school secretary- The on-line requisition system is hught with technicd problems, and delays are cornmon. Central control of fiinds also creates problems with servicing cornputers. Vendon providrig technical senice are required to submit estirnates before they can actuaUy repair machmes. Technicians must work on the equipment twice before they mn actuaily submit a bill. Ail of this d t s in equipment king out for s e ~ cfeo r long periods of time. Newformdland has adopted a resource based phosophy of educaion tbat is exemplified m the prognuns o f f i at Macdonaid Drive Elementary. The Leamhg Resourw Teacher engages in cooperative pkmiing, developmem, and miplementation with the classoom teachers. Ln the imits, students develop the skls they need to become independent leamers and collaborative team members. The imegrated appmach provides students with opportunities to apply new skills m meaningfi ways. Resource units at Macdonald Dnve are bult around curriculum outcornes, and employ a wide variety of resources and formats, includhg cornputer software, the Intemet, microscopes, maps, charts, periodicais, and of course books. Students leam to compare resources and evaluate them based on idormation needs. Each unit also has a distinctively Newformdland component whether it is leamhg about the Me cycle of sahnon

in Grade One, or the endangered species of Newfouudiand m Grade Six. Activities are hands-on and lemer oriented Units are designed to challenge, and students are encouraged to go back and re-evaluate Somation when they encounter problems. Student evaluation is based on process rather than on product. Groupmg is moa ofken done heterogewously to ensure that there is at least one good reader m each group. However, grouping homogenously for a Grade the unit brought interesting results. The high a b o i students who were expected to work though the centres quickly and efficiently were hampered by problems with cooperation Each 49 student was accustomed to assimimg a leadership rok and f o d it M c d t to share that role with o h . The least able p u p , coniprised of three specia education dents, h d no probkm with cooperation and applied good problem SOIT& strategies to tasks. Their main probkm was reading. They worked a Me slower than most groups but remaineci very f o c d for Long periods of rime. In a mixed grouping situauon durhg a previous unit. these students did We readmg and had fewer o p p o ~ etos t hmk through problems in k i r stniggle to keep up with mer group members. This result should not be generalized to mean that homogeneous grouping wi work better for a specid education students. It does -est however, that teachers are dohg a good job teachmg problem sohrsig strategies but that children must be &en the thne to appiy thUnits are scheduled to nin concumently with rareiy even one &y in between. Each class gets one full week to complete the unit. Special activities and events can play havoc with scheduling but priontizmg centres and in some cases, moving centres into the classroom after their Rsource centre week dows groups to complete units. ects and Stmt At Macdonald Drive, it is not the presence of technology that drives how the cunicuhim is implemented, but d e r it is the curriculum that drives the acquisition and use of tecblogy. A commihnent to this philosophy is demonstraed by the prompt action taken to update the information sMls continuum to refiect the technology skills i d a m the latest c m d u m guides. The technology skiUs, like other mfonnatmn levels of cornpetence. The new document clarifies the levels of competency that students should have when they enter and leave each grade. These levels are seqwnced by teachers based on key stage outcorne requirements. As they worked on the sequenCmg of the cootmuum, the staffquickfy identifed the nebd for students to acquire good keyboarding skills to work efficiently with computer

technologies. This prompted the timeiy instaIlation of keyboardmg software on dl cornputas fkom grades three to six The software is set up to dow monitoring and recording of individuai students' progres. Many technology skills are introduced and developed within the cooperative units technologies to solve problems. They use technology to engage in information seekmg, location and access, organization, and synthesis. Students compare and evaluate information kom eiectronic, as weii as other resources- Each resource-based unit contains a Electronic encyclopedia a internet a Eksentation software (PowerPomt) a Word Proceshg a OPAC (On-Lk Public Access Catalogue) O Scanrier a Multimedia CD-ROM'S 51 Explicit tectmoiogy instniction k integrated into cumnium themes though a variety of activity centres- Fcr r x k , & c d s c e s rrquire students to leam the how to 's of locating URL's, makhg eiectronic boolrmarks, takmg notes onlme, and dom loadmg griiphics, to fiiad i n f o d o n , or to create new documents arod meanmgfiil curriculum topics. Grade Five students studymg archaeology, explore sites dealing with the archaeology of different cuitures inchidmg the Incas, tlae Mayans, the Pueblo Indians and the Ancient Egyptians- Students visit and bookmark the award wimiing Carnegie Museum of Natural History site dealing with Lif in Ancient Egypt. hey move through the hyper links to locate specific i n f o d o n such as the sources of information used by archaeologists to piece together infiormation on an entire culture. Students also create a word processinp document which combines information fiom the Internet on how the Egyptiaos preserved bodies, with pictures of actual mimnnies down loaded h m a Merent Intemet site. Students are required to create a document that combines text and graphic k g a balanced layout ui these activities students compare histoncal mformation about a variety of cultures through an exploration of a~:haeoIogicasli tes and artifcts. They combine information and supporthg graphics h m a wriety of sources and experiment with layout design. They also lem relevant scienrinc and tecbnological t d o l o g y . Students engage in coiiaborative, Iearner oriented activities designed to meet a variety of curriculum outcornes for science, social studies, language arts, and

tecimology. Other important skls are developed through the use of scamiing equipment and 52 software. Pietlires c m be used very effective& to support or extend text. UsHig a giwn te- students choose supportmg graphies h m resourws provideci and incorporate them mto the document. Th. quires stuents to apply a number of tecbnology skiUs mcludm& copybg a nle h m a floppy disk to their personai network drive, Scanning, cropphg, and sa* a picture, then exporting it and irsertmg it into a text document. They experiment with different ways of having the text wrap around picures as well as with page layout feanaes such as the size a d plscement of the graphic aml the use of white space. Students determine thek infiormation needs, choose an appropriate resource tben incorporate it to enhance both the infiormation deveioped and the enective presentation of that hitorrnation. Activities ushg presentation software require students to use the technology as a mhd tool (Jooassen, 1996). The creation of a brief slide show compels students to evaluate mformation, extrapolate key ideas, and mipose an organizational structure. They must rnentauy manipulate information to construct their own knowledge and the technology becomes the tool used to represent their understandings. The extensive collection of curriculum related software at Macdonald Drive Elementary creates a varety of possibilities for integration. Muihedia programs such as Kid Works Deluxe provide wonderhi oppomuiities for young students to create, around a currcular theme, multimedia stories that include fctual information, Research and creative wnting are done within the same program Sound effits are easily added and children can evaiuate thek wntmg while iistening to the cornputer rradmg back what they 53 have WLinen. Stisdents create onginal graphin or choose hm a variety of available backgrounds and "sticker'' pictutes to M d supportmg pictures. Other progr<inis dow students to listen to books that are at their mterest and comprehension level but are beyond k i r readmg leveL These prograns often iaciude feanne~th at give dennitions, a da llow adjuments to chimkmg and reading speed. These are particularly valuable to ESL shidents who are more advanced m speakmg and Iistening, than m reacihg or writing m English. Students use software to appiy physics principles to build whial machines, to construct spreadsheets and manipulate data, to compose music, and to create anilnation

Software such as electronic encyclopedias and banks of multimedia, informational CDROM'S supplement other information sources used for research- Math pro- provide tutoriaIs, drill and practise, and enrichment opportunities at aii grade levels. Techuology is aiso infused into Individual Prograrn Plans for students. Appropriate software provides additional instruction and practice in specinc areas. Word processmg is successfiiy used as an organizational stmtegy for one Grade Four student. Submitting work to the tacher on diskette solves the problem of loose paper becoming los or lefi at home. Classroom behaviour is improveci, as is the percentage and quality of work compieted. Access to appropriate software is ensured by placbg it directiy m the Pods at the most appropriate grade leveL Computers cm be moved to d i n i t Pods if access to specific programs is required m amther grade, or s d groups of students can use the 54 equipment within other Pods Copyright regulations are stktiy edorced at ail times. Network licences or lab packs are purchased when rnuitipie access is necessary. The Intemet is reguiarly used througimut the school as a resource to implement the curriculum. Students in Grade Four take a Wtual tout of a chocolate fctory d e r studying the novei, the thecolate F~~QIYC.h iIdren's Iiterature sites are used to nnd idormation for author studies, and space imits would mt be complete without checkhg out NASA's latest information Students have begun to conmie to the Internet through a ww school home page. Science week involved numerous activities and guest speakers. Students fiom each grade wrote a brief report of acfiyities for their class and submitted them to Grade Six students who took p i c m of the events with a di@ camera These were compiled and edited by the older students and then added to the specid events section of the school home page. Web publishing provides a direction for growth at Macdoaald M e . Future trammg iaitiatiVes are p i a d to insenice teachers and students m Internet publishgig. User fiendly software has been purchased with this goal m mind. AU students have access to e-mail. Grade Six students use it to participate in the CypberPaIs project where students from across the country work coilaboratively to create a database of information on capital cities. m e r students have e-mail buddies m a local high school who help them with their h i n g skls. Grade Fie students involved m the 1SLE.Net project use e-mail and a program that includes an mteractive chat component to compare life in several Noah Atlantic Island communifies. Tecbnology aows the

classoom to extend well beyond the boimdaries of s c h l walls. Macdonald Drive is a fhst pacd, action packed school environment where technology has been infused h o the c&cuhnn, Teachers aad students thrive in an atmospheie of change and challenge. The themes of cooperation and collaboration are demonstrateci ddy through the cooperative discipline program and hugh the collaborative teaching initiatives developed by the teachers. The expertise and experience of all staff enrich the leamhg environment. The internship at Macdonald Drive Elementary provided vahiable insights into the reay of the roles and respomiilities of the Leamhg Resource Teacher. This is a profession that requires cornmitment to Melong learning, particularly in the areas of mformation Literacy, cchdren's literaure, software, technology, leamhg theory, and cmicuium It requires cornpetencies m leadership, interpersonal skills, tirne and financiai management, and commURication skills. Above aU, a Leanimg Resource Teacher must be a good teafher with a . understanding and appreciation of children and how they learn. The range of experiencn and the weahh of kwwledge acquired during this period at Macdonald Drive wouid be difncui to obtain by any other mears. The conrmitment, energy, enthusiasm, and vision of the Learning Resource Teacher / vice principal Ms. Daphne Lly and the principal, Ms. Beverley LeMoine emiched the intemship experience 56 tremmdousiy. Operatmg as a team they work with the staffto create a lemhg enviromnent that infises tecbhgy- mto ciCUhIIIl and provides an atmosphere of professionalism ad growth. CHAPfl? II. METHODOLOGY The purpose of this &udy b to evaluate tea~he&r ectiveness research through a multiple irrt;elligence (Ml) theory lem. ln order to acquire a more holistic picture of the nature of &&ive teaching, this study explores the elementi of MI that are being r e p r e ~ e idn current research on teacher eFfectiveness. ne framework of this study is in the domain area of knodedge of teacher efXiiveness. The question of how best to organize an undemtanding of &&ive teaching methodologies is analyzed through a Ml filter to 5ee what's out there in the teacher eVctivene5s literature and to recomrnend how it can be irnproved. Thii study utilizes MI theoiy in the context of tea~heerf Xectiveness and examines the inffuences and ahent of MI

theory elernents in teacher effectivene55 re~earch. The importance of this research to teachem lies in its attention to how effective teaching is ddned and how &&ive teaching can be better understood. mis resear~ha lso directs focus to a greater awareness of the role of the teacher, e~pecialbw henjuriidictions are demanding ierious evaluations and examinations of teachec.5' work. Reaearch Desian Twelve studies on teacher efkctiveness were examined for their Ml elements. The descripc.5 of the audy used t~ look for Ml theoty components in teacher effectivenese research were (a) MI Instructional bhniquei, and (b) Ml Teacher Qualitiei. The measures and themes in the twelve itudies were compared to theie descriptoe ("Ml Instructional Techniques & Teacher Qua/ities Chart") [see Table 31 in order .ta designate what irrteiiigence was being 6. represented in the study and in what area. The -Ml Instructional Techniques and feacher Qualities Chartw adapted the "How to f e a ~ hto the Eight lntellgences" and "Multiple fntelligencei Subcapacities" charts (Georg, 7997)t o fom the ai~e5amentto ol utilized the researcher to look for MI elemenx in teacher &ectiveness research. Table 3 was used as the criteria to measure MI instructional technique5 and teacher qualities in the twelve studies on teacher &&ivenesis research. Table 5 show5 how the intelfr;3ences are represented in the measures and/or themes in the teacher eFFectiveness studies. The researoher is confident that the twelve studiei selected are a valid representation of the research on current teacher effectiveness. 7he twelve studies were selected because they represent the varying degrees of research design5 and methodologie5 in tzacher &eGtivenesi literature. The criteria used to seled the twelve studies was the diFFerent usages of research rnethodologies. A b r the twelve dinerent research designs were noted, a redundancy of research methodologies in macher eiXectiveness literature became evident. Saturation of samestyle methodologies was clear a fter the twelve methodulog ies were di~tinugis h ed. iherdore, the researcher s e l e m the twelve Sudies based on the variance of methodologies used. 7he diversw of research methodologies is comment& on undemeath and the full account of the avelve itudiei on teacher eFFectiveneis is provided in Table 4. The twelve studies were categonzed by the reiearcher into the following headings: Study,

Research tvfethods, School Level, Inelligences, and MeasuresAhemes. From this information, a chart wai created that survqe eFFective teaching research as it relates to Ml theoty. Each of the headings i5 explaineci below Z 5tudv: provides the name of the authors and the date of publication. ln order to maintain a curent focus, only those Sudie5 having a publication date of 1985 ta 1990 were 5elec-kd. ln addition, the itudies have been alphabetically organked. Research Metho&: consists of the methodolody the researchem used in their study to examine teacher &ectivenesi. ni5 includes one of the follo wing: proce5e-product, et udent evaluations, teacher self evaluations, teacher evaluation5 of &ective teaching, principal evaluations of teachee, interview5, ethnography-, or a mmbination ofany of these. School Levei: r e f e t~o the ducational in5titution where the study took place. This includei: elementary (J.K. ta grade 51, middle (grade 6 .t;o grade 81, secondary (grade 9 to OAC), univemit;y (Iet year students ranging to addt learnem attending univemity], or a combination of any of these. intellidences: represents the type of intelligence the itudy in queaion i5 making u5e af (baied on Gardner% theory of multiple Nitellgences). The l i i W intelligence con&ts of one of the fo Uowing muitiple intelligences: verbal-ling uistic, log ica /-ma therna tical, bodiiy-kine&etic, visualspatial, pemonal (both intra and inter], naturalist, or any combination of these. Measuresrnernes: corrtains the eletnent5 thas were ~tudiedo r ernerged frorn being studied in the research on eacher efiectiveneei. To ditferentiate between instructional techniques and teacher characteristics that were measures or themes in the studiei, teacher characteristics have been italicized. The challenge for the re~earcherw as to establish a way to evaluate existing Iitemture on teacher eiXectivene55 Chat encompaiies the eiiential elemeirts of multiple intelligence theory. The researcher hai merged the "How to Teach ia the Eight It~telligence5a~nd "Multiple ln~lligencesS ubcapacitiei" charts (Georg, 1997) to create the "MI Instructional Techniques &

Teacher Qualities Chart" to help a55e55 the exiaing Ml theme5 and meaiures of macher efFectivenes5 research [see Table 31. W v e selected etudies were analyzed for their representation of Ml in either instructional &zhniques or teacher qualities, then these themes and measures were categorized into one of the following eight intelligences Verbal-Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Visual-spatial Sodily-KinesShetic Rhythmic-Musical lnterpersonal lntrapemonal Naturalist Onk the themes and meaaures that were applicable to Ml theory were caqorized in the study. Limitations of the Studv ln conducting Ulis research, the researcher looked for univemal teacher qualities and in5truotional techniques based on Ml theory. A poisible h i t a t i o n could be the initrurnent used to anaipe the studies. The subcategories of initruotional technique5 and teacher qualities might be limiting in itself in attempting to look for effective teacher elements. ln 5uch a pioneering area of research, i t could be possible that other important teacher elements have not been included in suneying teacher &&ivenesa research. METHOD Participants. One-hundred and twenty children were randomly selected from a database maintained at the University of Toronto's Child Study Centre. Most of these children were from families of middle- to upper-middlelass backgrounds. Age and gender were evenly distributed in four groups of 8 year-olds (M = 8.49. range = 7 .84 - 9.10 ) . IO yearolds (LM= 10.47. range = 9.28 - 1 1.5 1). 12 year-olds (LM= 13.43. range = 12.97 - 1M g ) , and adults (M = 20.90. range = 18.67 - 32.22). These age groups were selected to correspond to ages studied in previous research, and to provide as complete a picture as possible regarding how conceptions of the implications of values inculcation develop across childhood and adolescence. Design and Procedure. Participants were interviewed individually in one session of

approximately 30 minutes in length. The stmctured interview consisted of 12 short scenarios involving the inculcation of values (see Appendix). Interviews were tape-recorded and later transcribed for analysis. The scenarios outlined situations involving the inculcation of different values in either the school or family setting. To ensure that the interview was not too long. and to control for the effect of repetition. a between-subjects design was used to present the scenmios in either the school or family setting. A repeated-measures design was used. with each participant receiving al1 possible combinations of values (moral. moral character. non-moral c haracter. democratic. political. and religious), and social acceptability (commonly held versus Iess commonly held values). Al1 of the scenarios were closeiy rnatched in structure and wording. and the order of their presentation was counterbalanced. The types of values to be inculcated in the scenarios revolved around 6 central themes: moral (racism. anti-racism). moral character (honesty, dishonesty). non-moral character (hardworking. lazy). democratic (pro-democracy. anti-democracy). political (patriotism. nationalism). and religious (importance of reiigion in general. superionty of particular 33 religion). Values were chosen to represent relevant issues in social and personal development as well as those that have been discussed in debates about the education of values. In addition, to investigate how children and adults reason about the inculcation of negative, or less commonly held values. values were varied along this dimension. For example. in relation to moral values. anti-racism is a more commonly held value than its counterpart, racism. which is a less commonly held, negative value. Similarly. with respect to moral character. honesty is a more cornmonly held value. whereas dishonesty is its less commonly held. negative counterpart. The non-moral character value represented by hard-working and industriousness was contrasted with the less commonly held value of slothflness or laziness. For democracy. the more commonly held value of a democratic system of govenunent was contrasted with an autocratic system (in which only the weaithy hold political power). With respect to political values. a more commonly held conception of patriotism or respect for the country was contrasted with a less commonly held value of nationalisrn. or belief in the superiority of one's country. Finally. the importance of religious values in general was contrasted with the value of one religion as being superior to al1 others. Scenarios consisted of situations involving the inculcation of values by adult authorities in the school or family settings. Participants were presented with hypothetical situations in which teachen in a school or parents in a family sought to promote a certain type

of value in children. These two types of settings were chosen because they refiect settings in which children are most likely to encounter the inculcation of values by adult authorities. In addition. previous research (e.g.. Helwig, 1997) has shown that with age. children are more 34 likely to distinguish these two contexts, and evaluate the family as an autonomous unit where parents' nghts may supersede those of their children when it cornes to matters of socidization. such as religion. Participants' evaluations of each situation were assessed. They were asked to make both a qualitative and quantitative judgrnent of their evaluation of whether it is okay or not okay for the adult authority to inculcate the value in question. Qualitative judgments involved simple affirmative or nonafimative judgments (okay versus not okay), and quantitative judgments were compnsed of ratings on an interval scale. Pior to testing. participants were familiarized with the rating scale. The design of this rating scale was adapted From previous research (Zelazo. Helwig. & Lau. 1996; Helwig & Prencipe. 1999: Helwig. Zelazo. & Wilson. 2001). The acceptability scale consisted of an array of rectangles. on a 43.5 x 30 cm. card. comprising a seven-point scale. with two levels of discrimination (positive and negative. with a neutral mid-point). For act acceptability ratings. participants were told that the largest rectangle on the far left indicates "a lot not okay." the next rectangle is "medium not okay." then "a little not okay." The rectangles to the right of centre were described as "a little okay." the next rectangle as "medium okay." then "a lot okay..' To help differentiate the positive and negative sides of the scale. the positive rectangles were shown in green. the negative rectangles were red. and the midpoint was black. A three-point scale was used to rate the degree to which participants desired government intervention to either prevent or promote the inculcation of values. This consisted of three blue rectangles on a 30 x 21 cm card arranged in decreasing size to represent "a lot." "medium." and "a little bit." Scales were combined to 35 form a 7-point scale of increasing acceptability for laws (1 = least acceptable / bad law to 7 = most acceptable 1 good law), and decreasing acceptability for acts (1 = most acceptable 1 okay to 7 = least acceptable 1 not okay), with 4 as the neutral point for both scales. Following farniliarization with the scale, the scenarios involving values inculcation were presented. Children were then asked to judge and reason about both the acceptability of the act (e.g.. "Do you think it's okay for the teachedparent to teach kids that X? Why / Why not?") and to evaluate (as pod or bad) a govemment law either requiring the teaching of the

value (for commonly shared. or "positive" values) or prohibiting the teaching of values (for less cornrnonly shared. or "negative" values). For both act acceptability (okay versus not okay) and law evaluations (good law / bad law). children were directed to the appropriate scales and asked to provide quantitative assessments of their judgments of act acceptability and of laws. Justifications were assessed for al1 questions. Coding and Reliability. Fifly percent of the interviews. evenly distributed across age. eender. and context were randomly selected for devising a coding scheme. This coding system C was used to code the remaining portion of the interviews. Two types of responses were coded: evaluations and justifications. Al1 qualitative act and law evaluations in response to scenarios involving values inculcation were coded as endonements (e.g., it's okay; there shouid be a law) or nonendorsements (e.g.. it's not okay; there should not be a law), and yesho or conditional (e.g.. it's okay and not okay; there should be a law and there shouldn't be a law). Justifications supporting each of the evaluations were coded according to the devised coding scheme surnmarized in Table 1. Twenty per cent of the interviews, evenly distributed over 36 age, gender, and context were coded by an independent judge for cornpanson with the onginal coding. Intercoder agreement. expressed as Cohen's K, was .95 for act and law evaluations and .92 for justifications. CHAPTER 3 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY This chapter describes the two courses that I conducted in March and April 1999. 1 examine their outcornes to detemine whether specific teaching and evaluation strategies that are based on adult education principles can increase leamers' motivation and achievement. In the first section 1 describe the classes in which 1 taught a technician group (drafting foundations) a portion of their communications curriculum on witing formal reports. Next, I describe my classes with a trade group (mechanical foundations) in which 1 taught preparing and writing cover letters. Finaiiy, 1 report the results of my teaching using these strategies, basing my evidence on persona1 observations. feedback fiom students, and achievement of students. Draftllig Foundatioas The cirafting foundations progsim is designed to provide students with oppominities to lem and experience the hdamentals of a variety of drafting fields, including mechanical, architectural, and structural disciplines. Emphasis throughout their

courses is on the methods of converting verbal and numerical technical information into graphical form and cornmunicating it to others. ~ k u adlra fng techniques and the use of cornputer-aided drafting pmgrams are two of the methods employed for converting the information. The communications course is intended to help them develop reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills associated with the drafting profession. Nine drafting foundations students atended communications class regularly throughout the duration of the 2-week project. Classes were on Tuesday, Wednesday. and 49 Thursday f?om 7:30 a-m. until8:30 am. Six students were female and three were male; two were between the ages of 3 1 and 35, whereas the remaining students were younger than 25. "Home" included a variety of locations, predominantly across Nova Scotia but other provinces as well. The majority of midents were employed, did not live with their parents, and were not parents themselves. The main reason they gave for their decisions to enrol in the program was to begin a career in drafting because of their interest in this area. Other reasons included to enhance one's life and to provide an educational safety net in the event that other career plans did not work out. Students had aiready developed many skilis that contribute toward the creation of a forma1 report. For exarnple, they had studied page design (font, white space, list format), the organization of documents kom presentation of facts to opinions, and choice and creation of graphies. Here I give a synopsis of the process and activities fiom each class* Class One The fm class began with introductions. I introduced myself, shared that 1 had taught communications to the drafting foundations group the previous few yean, and explained I was currentiy on a study leave while emolled in the Master of Adult Education program at St. Francis Xavier University. I also explained that my focus was on teaching and evaluation strategies that are effective in helping adult students to learn and in motivating them to want to learn. Students seemed very interested in their role in my project and in my focus on adult leaming as opposed to childhood learning. Heads were nodding in agreement when I mentioned some diBeremes in the ways adults lem and how their diversity of backgrounds is a contributing factor to their learning. Next, 1 asked students to pair with someone sitting close to them and to prepare a bnef introduction of their partnea for me. I suggested that students include the person's name, recent background, and one other interesting fact about that student. They seemed

to have fun with this, and the information was very heJp.M to me in getting to h w them better persondy. 1 then told them some information about myself, such as fmily and interests. Mer the introductions, 1 introduced the ovemll plan for the next six lessons, as well as rny intention to use a video carnera for some classes as a tool to evaiuate my teaching. Students did not respond verbdly, but body Ianguage such as raised eyebrows implied discomfort with being recorded. They appeared to relax when 1 stressed that the camera would focus on me and would not capture them in the view. 1 explained the process through which program curriculum at NSCC was determined, whereby a program advisory committee (consisting of employen of graduates of the drafting program, facuity, and former students) suggests content for the program. Then we looked at my plan for the day, which 1 wrote on the white board. I introduced the topic of formal reports by asking students what they already knew about wiiting reports. To a m e r this, they broke into two groups and brainstormed, recording points on flip chart paper. 1 directed the groups to choose a leader, recorder, and spokesperson, and outlined the roles of each. A spokesperson fkom each group taped the paper to the ?ont board and explained their findings. Ne* 1 distributed a sample of a formai report that could be written in a drafting-related Company. 1 asked the students, "What makes this formal report different fiom other reports you have seen or written?? and wrote their responses on the board. 1 asked open-ended questions such as, "What might the owner of the Company like about this type of report? The accountant? The draftsperson? Bank loans officer?" 1 then summarized three essential points about writing this type of report. I referred students to the chapter in their text that deals with this topic and encouraged them to read it within the week. 1 ended class by looking at the planned agenda for the &y, reviewing what we had accomplished and explainhg how we would continue the next class. This class involved lots of interaction between students and me, as well as with each other; they appeared attentive, gave lots of eye contact, and were very pleasant and CO-operative. Students seemed happy to focus on the parts of the fomal report that differentiated it fiom other reports, and two verbally expressed relief that they would not have to "rehash" matenal they already knew. When identiming their prior knowledge of report writing, their responses showed understanding of page design, organization from facts to opinions, and use of graphies. CIass Two

he second class began with a . overview of the day's plan and a review of what makes a formal report different f?om others. 1 listed the parts of the report on the board, and students, either individually or in groups of two or the, signed up to research components. Afier bnefly reviewing guidelines for group work, 1 instnicted students to write the purpose of the component and guidelines for preparing the component on fiip chart paper; information was available nom their texts, as weil as fiom other books that 1 provided. When students completed their research, they displayed their flip chart paper at the fiont of the nom, and a spokesperson from the group explained the hdings. 1 added or clarified idormation as necessary. When students had presented approximately half the information and class was almost over, 1 asked the following questions: Which part seems the most difficult? With which part do you feel most cornfortable? Which part do you laiow least about? What else do you need to know? From ihrir responses, i conciuded hat rhey wanted more informarion about rhe composition of letten and memos of transrnittal, as well as tables of contents. I ended class by looking at the planned agenda for the day, reviewing what we accomplished, and explaining how we would continue the next &y. Again, 1 felt cordortable with the interest and involvement shown by the members of the class. They listened well and understood directions quickly; everyone participated and several took notes. Some students appeared groggy at the beginning of class, but the group activities seemed to wake everyone up and get them actively invoived. CIass Three 1 began the third class, which 1 videotaped, with a bnef examination of the period's agenda We then reviewed previous work with teacher-led, factuai recall questions about the cornponents of the fonnal repoa that students had presented previously. A few students answered al1 the questions, while others answered none. ere were some very sleepy-looking people at that point In response to students' requests for more information on the letter of transmittal and table of contents, 1 led a lesson on these topics. I provided an outline that suggested the content to include in each of three paragraphs in a letter of t d i t t a l , and then students infomaily evduated examples and offered suggestions for improvement On transparencies, I provided samples of tables of contents that former students had created

as part of their formal reports. In reply to my questions, students offered their evaiuations on the wording and formatting. 1 used students' suggestions to revise another table of contents so that wording would be parallel. Finally, 1 provided students with a report that contained no headings; as a group we added headings and organized these into a table of contents. Although the students participated and seemed interested in this portion of the class, some were looking very lethargic, and 1 sensed that a change of pace and topic might be beneficial. However, I had not corne prepared with rny "fun activity" folder and could not think of any at the tirne. Therefore, we continued with our examination of the remaining components of the formal report. Again, 1 asked students about the parts they found most difficult, most cornfortable, and so forth. I asked if they could see advantages to this format, disadvantages, and what changes could improve the format. The main advantage that students suggested was the accessible format of the report that ailowed a variety of readers to locate the information they needed without reading the entire document. Discussion regarding the need for a letter of transhiittal led to interesting input from students. One student suggested that a letter of transmiaal for a report that a Company mailed should simply provide a fkiendly introduction of the report to the receiver. Responses showed no need for M e r idormation. The last activity of the class required groups to suggest criteria for evaluation of the component they had researched and presented. I explained that this checklist would fhme the evaluation of the formal report and would be used by themsehes, other groups, and me to evaluate their product To assist in this procesq 1 provided a sample tist of critena, which they were encouritged to revise by adding, eliminating, and rewording items. 1 collected the revised checklists. Students had added some questions to the checklist such as "Does the letter or memo of transmittal refer to previous contact [with the recipient]?" and "Does the executive summary avoid references to the report body?" Another suggested item that referred to the executive summary was to "write it last." 1 ended class by looking at the planned agenda for the day, reviewing what we accomplished, and explahhg how we would continue the next day. My main concern during this class was the sluggish fmt portion when the lesson was teacher-led. Overall, however, students seemed quick to understand the information presented and were satisfied with their understanding of the letter of transmittal and table of contents. A bief and fun activity could have inserted some variety into the lesson.

They quickly grasped my expectations in the process of revising the checklist, and leamer involvement increased dwhg this task. CIass Four 1 began the fourth class by examining the plan for the day and announcing a test on Monday. 1 explained the content and format of the test quite specifically. 1 distributed copies of the revised fonnal report criteria and pointed out changes made to the original checklist. 1 explained that 1 had not added the suggestion to %te the executive summary lasty' because, although this is important for the process of preparing the surnmary, 1 was not convinced that 1 couid aiways be sure when it was written in my evaluation of the h a 1 product. Because the class agreed with the revisions, we adopted this checklist. 1 gave students a written copy of the assignment, which included the introduction, discussion, and conclusion of a report on a cirafting-related topic. Each of three groups was ta choose and prepare one or more of the remaining components of the formal report. 1 instnicted the groups to choose components other than those they had originally researched. Each group used the agreed upon cntena to evaluate the work and passed in the evaluation with the assignment 1 infonned students that each group wouid be using the checklist to evaluate the assignments of the other groups. Group 1 chose to prepare a title page and a letter of transmittal; Group 2 chose to design a table of contents and to insert corresponding headings; Group 3 chose to prepare an executive summary. We then went to a cornputer lab where groups were able to work on their assignments. Students appeared to find the assignment manageable, were generaily on task hroughout the period, and shared work comfortably among team memben. When 1 checked on the groups, one student, who had only attended two classes, did not seem to understand the task. She had corne late to class and had not read her copy of the directions. I reviewed the instructions with her and her group, pointing out the details on their written copies. Class Five As usuai, cl&s began with an outline of the day's pian. Groups then passed their completed assignments to other groups, who used the checklist to evaluate the work of their peers. This did not go smoothly, as one assigament had been passed in at the office and was mistakenly put in someone else's rnailbox. Although 1 was able to locate this assigmnent the next day, it did not receive peer evaluation. The next item on the agenda was the test that students completed independently. When everyone had submitted answer sheets, 1 placed students in groups and directed

each group to complete the same test and to pass in one mwer sheet per group. Sixty percent of the mark came from the individuai test and forty percent came fiom the group test. Students seemed to find this group test fn, and there were sorne lively discussions about choice of answers. Class Six Class 6 began with an introduction of the agenda. As a follow-up to the assignments, the class suggested headings for the discussion portion of the report and a table of contents. Of the three assignments, this task seemed to be the most difficult, and other groups did not seem to notice the weaknesses when evaluating this particular component. I returned assignments and provided oppomuiity for student questions. Although 1 retumed the three checklists to the groups with their assignments, only the teacher evaluation contained a numencal score. Next, 1 returned the tests; students commented that there were no surprises on the test, and they felt no need to go over individual questions. Some laughter occuned over %ho had been nght" during the completion of the test as a group. Only one snident received a higher mark on his individual test than the group test. Next, students grouped themselves according to their interest in the topics explored in two case studies. One case study explored ways of dealing with a supervisor's enon and the other explored challenges facing working parents of young children. Mer each group was prepared, the spokesperson presented the case and the group's suggestions to the rest of the class, and M e r discussion occurred. I asked students if they had ever found themselves in nmilar situations, and if so, how they had handled them. In addition, I asked ifthey would do anything dif5erentiy were the situations to occur again. Students seemed very interested in the topics, and I observed that everyone was involved in the discussion both in groups and when discussing as a class. Students who were parents shared childcare challenges, and others told of situations experienced by niends and families. They discussed childcare options -and the need for "back-up plans for back-up plans." Students aIso told of experiences when they had to deal with a supervisor's erroa and discussed their choices and possible consequences of each. There was a lot of personal identification with the cases. When the case studies were completed, 1 asked students to fil1 out an anonymous questionnaire that focussed on factors that affect their learning achievement and motivation, as well as their comments on my teaching skills and characteristics. Finally, as that was the end of the last class, 1 sincerely thanked the class for their participation,

told them that 1 enjoyed working with hem, and wished them well in the remainder of their program. Mechanical Foundations The mechanical foundations program provides shidents with introductory handson mechanical training in areas such as welding, machining, and automotive work. The program also includes developrnent of employabitity skills, entrepreneurship, and an introduction to smdl business management. Ten mechanical foundations students attended communications class during the implementation of the project, seven classes over 15 days. Classes were Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday f?om 7:30 till8:30 am. AU students were male. One student was between the ages of 36 and 40, whereas the others were younger than 25. Two-thirds were ernployed, approxhately half lived with their parents, and oaly one student had children. The main reason they gave for their decisions to enrol in the mechanical foundations program was "to get a job in a trade that will pay well." Some other reasons given were money (rneaning Iow tuition, 1 suspect) and "rnother." One student expected that this program would help him decide what he wants to do in the funue, and another believed that this program would help him lem new skills. Most students enrolled in this The first class began with my explmation of why 1 was there, bnefly telling the class about my study leave and my focus within the Master of Adult Education Program. i told the class that 1 had taught communications to the mechanical foundations group the previous year. I asked students to pair with someone sitting close to them and to prepare bnef introductions of their partners to me. 1 suggested that students include the peaon's name, recent background, and one other interesting fact about that student. This was a iively and informative activity. 1 then told them some information about myself, such as fmily and interests. I introduced cover letters as our topic for the next number of classes and explained that later they would be writing a letter that they could include with their rsums when applying for work. 1 asked students what they already knew about cover letters, includuig "What is a cover letter?" and What is its purpose?' Moa students seemed familiar with the topic, and some had written them before. 1 stressed that the letter needed to capture the employer's attention and encourage the employer to continue readmg the rsum6. Then 1 asked the students to form groups and choose a leader, recorder, and

reporter. 1 explained each role and suggested that sometimes the recorder and reporter could be the sarne person. 1 gave each gmup a job advertisement for a fictitious company, Nova Scotia Mechanical Ltd., and three cover lettea that could accompany rsums sent in response to the ad. 1 gave students a brief background of this Maginary company and asked them to place themselves in the position of owner. Each group was to decide which letter impressed them the most and why. When groups appeared to have finished the task. the spokespersons reported their fmdings. 1 made two columns on the board, one entitled "Content" and the other "Fonnat." Under the appropnate heading, 1 wrote the students' comments about what they liked about their chosen letter. Students named the foilowing content as important: (a) the position for which the person is applying, (b) the applicant's relevant education and experience, and (c) information that makes it easy for the inte~ewetro contact the writer. Regarding format, they liked the letter to be nicely arranged on the page and to be written in a font size that is easy to read. They commented on the importance of proofieading, especially the spelling of the employer's narne. 1 then displayed an overhead tmsparency that outlined the content for cover letters suggested by several technicai communications writen (Dombeck, Camp, & Satterwhite, 1995; Lordeon, Miles, & Keane, 1997; Pfeiffer & Boogerd, 1996). The tmsparency also displayed full block format. This was basically a summary of what the students had told me. 1 pointed out the various parts of the letter and common formatting errors, such as using left aiignment for the return address, date, and iaside address, then switching to indented alignment for the closing. Finally, 1 summarized what we had done during that class and outlined how we wouid continue the next day. The group was quite cooperative and seemed interested and on task. Eye contact was good. They appeared to enjoy being "ownen" and looking at the sample cover letters Eom that perspective. The best letter was rather obvious, but students were able to be quire specific about ~ h athte y iked and what they disldced. CIass Two Class 2 began with a review of what a cover letter is, its purpose, suggested content, and the full block format. 1 wrote the plan for the day on the board. Then I introduced the modified block format on an overhead transparency and asked students to point out the differences between it and the full block. 1 referred to their text, which included samples of letten with additional parts such as an attention line and a subject line. I explained that these were options that they might choose to incorporate in their

own letters. Next, I passed out a checklist for a cover letter and explained that this would be used for self-evaluation and teacher evaluation when they wrote their own letters. I asked students to critique the checkiist and delete, add, or reword parts as appropriate. No one suggested any changes, so we agreed to adopt the checklist as it was. 1 then gave the students instructions regarding the group assignment. In response to one of three job advertisements that related to the mechanical foundations program, 1 asked groups to write a cover letter. The letters would be put on overhead transparencies and evaluated by the rest of the class, using the agreed upon cnteria Students spent the temainder of the period working on the assignment. At the end of class, only one letter was complete. 1 asked students to have their letters finished by the following Tuesday and reminded them that a guest speaker fkom a nearby large Company would be talking to them on Monday. The group was very sluggish; rnost had straggled in Iate, and they were slow to form groups when writing the leters. When 1 was visiting each group to see if they had any questions, one student cornmented, "We should know how to do this-we did it in grade IO!" 1 asked what school he had attended and if he had leamed this in keyboarding or English. He was not sure about the subject that included cover letters. I commented that his input rnight be valuable for the other students. That student never returned to class. I had anticipated the groups to have more fun with this assignment than they did. One student shared a personal expenence of helping his brother-in-Iaw screen applications to select candidates for interviews. Despite my enthusiasm about this anecdote, very few snidents listened and several taiked amongst themselves. However, the class seerned to recognize the importance of a good cover letter. Class Three As an assignment for the regular communications teacher, a student had previously arranged for a guest speaker from a local industry, and 1 was unable to attend this presentation. CIass Four m e r bnefly looking at the plan for the period, we began the follow-up to the group assignment I had made a transparency of the cover letter completed previously, but the students who had written it were not pressent. Therefore, I read the job advertisement that they had aaswered, and the class examined the letter, noting strengths and a few weaknesses. The letters prepared by the rernaining two groups were

handwritten in pencil, and as a resdt were too iight and difncult to make into transparencies, so a spokesperson read the ad and the group's letter orally. The rest of the class commented on content. I think that this change in plan was dominate, as the students were unable to see the letter's punctuation, formatting, and so forth. Aftsr this iicthity, ~mdentsw er2 asked which par@) of wrihg a cover idter thry found the easiest and which part(s) the most diEcult. Students responded that they felt quite comfortable with the task, but found choosing the wording of the letter to be sometimes tricky. In answer to "What else do you need to know?' one student asked for an exarnple of a sentence to start a letter when no job had been advertised. I tumed this question over to the class and was unable to summon any responses. Finally, 1 suggested an opening sentence. As during the third class, the students seemed lethargic. 1 received very limited responses to any of my questions, though we nistained eye contact for the most part. Next, I explained the individual assignment that 1 would evaluate. Students were to write a cover letter that could accompany their rsums in the job search; they could address the letter to a Company that might have a position for which they should be qualified upon graduation, or they could respond to an a c t d job advertisernent. 1 directed students to use the checklist to evaiuate their letters and to pass it in with the assignment. 1 provided the website for the local chamber of commerce, wtiich has an excellent Iisting of companies, categorized according to type of business. After students had expresseci their understanding of the assignment, we went to the cornputer lab to work. During the haif-hour spent in the lab, very few students worked on the assigament. The website 1 suggested was not working, and most students were more interested in checkhg their email. Class Five Before.my involvement with the class, a student had ananged for a guest speaker from a metal fabrication business to corne on this day. This proved to be an unanticipated but excellent opportunity to discuss cover lettea fiom the owner's perspective and to discuss other writing tasks associated with a metal fabrication job. In addition to mering snidents' questions about the types of work done by his Company and the skills required by employees, the speaker taiked about his preference for a brief, neat, and well organized cover letter and rsum. When the guest speaker had finished, I provided students with written instructions of the cover letter assignment, and we spent the remaining 20 minutes of the class in the computer lab working on the assignment.

Class Six Because the shidents still required Iab time to complete their assignments, we spent this period on cornputers. Most students cornpleted their lettea, but one asked to pass it in on Monday, to which I agreed. One student came to class with his letter complete; he sat between two other students to heip them write their lettea. I reminded him about the checklist and gave him another copy. He filled it out, apparentiy without much attention because he checked off items that he had not a c ~ d i yin cluded in his Class Seven Mer an outiine of the day's plans, 1 divided the cIass into groups according to birthdays; January to Jime were in one gmup, and July to December were in the second. Mer reviewing guidelines for group work, 1 distributed case studies. The case studies explored balancing work and childcare and relating with CO-worken. Good discussion evolved fiom the case studies within the groups. One difficulty arose when one of the smdi groups was presenting its findiags to the class. Members of the other group showed no interest in the case study and were taking arnongst themselves rather than attending to the spokespaon. After 1 remhded -dents that a group was reporting, students quieted but did not appear to be listening. After the spokesperson reported, I asked the rest of the class for their opinions but received little response. Using birthdays as the criterion for groups seemed to add some fun to the task. When a student came to class late, someone asked him when his birthday was. The student, of cowse, responded with a quizzical look. Throughout the classes with this group, students frequently came to class late. As well, only four students attended ail classes. I found this very fnistrating, as they missed crucial parts of the carefully planned, step-by-step progression of my lesson. The final activity was to fil1 out an anonymous questionnaire that 1 had distributed to the clrafting foundations group. Chapter 3 Methods and Procedures -The purpose of this study was to examine the teaching process at the post-secondary level when Internet-related technoiogies were used in the deivery of educational materids, More specifically, the purpose was also to ask the question: how and why do a group of post-secondary instnictors choose

to use the Internet as a teaching tool? As well as trying to discover details about the use of these technologies in the classroom, it was aiso the aim of this study to tq and determine the impetus behind that usage. This study followed investigations (as referred to above) into the area of facuIty perceptions of technology usage in the classroom in studies by Katherine Tetlock in 1995 at the University of Manitoba and by Cynthia Gillispie at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1996. Tetlock examined how the teaching process changed when a curriculum-based, Computer Aided Instruction program was implemented in mathematics classrooms, while Gillispie sought to determine the perceived values and extent of use for instructional purposes of CMC (Computer Mediated Communication) by business fiiculty at four North Carolina universities. This study addressed similar questions and expanded upon the work begun with their research while utilizing di fferen t methods and procedures. Participants The participants in this study consisted of a group of 4 professors from the University of ldanitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. These individuals were selected primarily because of their current use of one or more of the main components of the Internet (The World Wide Web, Email, Newsgroups, Videoconferencing. Whiteboards, FTP, IRC, Chat rooms)- They were representatives of different faculties and departments and were charactenzed mainly by their interest in utilizing these technologies in their classroom teaching activities. These individuals were drawn from the membership of an Internet user discussion group organized by the University Teaching Services unit at the University of Manitoba. Procedures

The data obtained from this study is qualitative in nature and was collected by means of indepth, persona1 interviews and a careful evaiuation of the results of those interviews. A covering letter stating the purpose of the study accompanied a short description of the methodology to be employed and a release form that granted permission to tape-record the interviews. A pilot interview was conducted prior to the actual interviews and this ailowed for adjustrnents to be made to the list of questions ultimately presented to the partkipants. Questions were not presented to the participants until the time of the actual interview so as to guarantee that al1 responses would be spontaneous and unrehearsed. The interviews were conducted with 4 individuais purposively chosen from the rnembership of the University Teaching Services discussion group on the basis of a demonstrated usage of Internet technologies in the classroom. The interview questions gave participants a chance to comment at some length about their classroom activities involving Intemet usage. Audio tape was used to record the interviews and the resulting data was subsequently transcribed for later analysis, The choice of the long interview for gathcring information was decided upon in favour of the more typicat method of sending out a survey or questionnaire as it was felt that the former technique offered the chance to obtain information that was considerably richer in substance and nuance than that which could be gathered with the latter. "In contrast to the questionnaire," stated Gay (1996)- "the interview is flexible; the interviewer can adapt the situation to each subject. By establishing rapport and a trust relationship. the interviewer can often obtain data that subjects would not give in a questionnaire- The interview may also resutt in

more accurate and honest responses since the interviewer can explain and clarify both the purpose of the research and individual questions." (p. 262). Specifically, the "Long Interview" style was described by McCracken (1988) in the following manner: The long interview is one of the most powerhil rnethods in the qualitative armory. For certain descriptive and anaiytic purposes, no instrument of inquiry is more revealing, The rnethod can take us into the mental world of the individuai, to glimpse the categones and logic by which he or she sees the world. It can dso take us into the iifeworld of the individuai, to see the content and pattern of daily experience. The long interview gives us the opportunity to step into the mind of another person, to see and experience the world as they do themselves- - - . Without a qualitative understanding of how culture mediates human action, we can know only what numbers tell us. The Iong qualitative interview is useful because it can help us to situate these numbers in their Fuller social and culturai context. (p- 9) Again with reference to this technique, in a study to determine the communications practices and activities of collcge Webmasters, Beard and Olsen (1999) stated that: "Such a rcsearch approach-in -depth interviews wi th smail, purposive samples of informants-naturally limits the generalizability of the findings. However, a qualitative approach was deemed rnost appropriate for this investigation because the lack of avaiiable research on Webmasters provided Iittle guidance for investigating their role in in a quantitative fashion and using a suuctured survey questionnaire. (p. 203). The data collected through these interviews was summarized in a descriptive rnanner and was anaIyzed in accordance with the guidelines established by McCracken, (see below). lnterpretation of the Data McCracken ( 1988), lists four steps as guidelines for the method of inquiry he has termed the long interview: 1. Revierv of analytic categones - where he insists that the researcher engage in an exhaustive review

of the literature. This "enables the investigator to define problems and assess data It provides the concepts on which the percepts depend-" It aiso, he continues, sharpens the researcher's "capacity for surprise. (Lazarsfeld 1972b). The investigator who is well versed in the litenture now has a set of cxpectations the data cm de&. Counterexpectational data are conspicuous, readable and highly provocative data- They signal the existence of unfulfilled theoretical assumptions, and these are, as Kuhn (1962) has noted, the very origins of intellectual innovation" (p. 3 1). 2. Review of culti~racl aregories - "where the investigator begins the process of using the self as an instrument of inquiry." A "deep and long-lived farnilim-ty with the culture under study" gives the investigator "an extraordinarily intimate acquaintance with the object of study . . . and to provide them with "a more detaled and systematic appreciation of his or her personal experience with the topic of interest." (p. 32). 3. Discovery of Cuitrira1 Categories - where the actual questions to be asked of the participants are constmcted with the intent "to allow respondents to to tell their own story in their own terms . . . to rnove them to talk without overspecifying the substance or the perspective of this talk-" (p. 34). Finally, in step 4, Discovery ofanalytic categonesl the "careful, verbatim transcription of interview data" is anaIyzed in such a way as to "locate the investigator securely in the fine details of the data" by moving "from data to observations ruid from these to meta-observations and from these to still more general observations" and finally on to "general scholarly conclusions,"( p. 48)-

Having completed steps t and 3, and possessing what step 2 calls an "intimate acquaintance with the object of study" by virtue of the fact that 1 have, since the late 1980's, taught college-levei graphic design and journalism students how to design and communicate with print, interactive and, more recently, (since 1993), World M'ide Web applications, the data analysis suggested in step 4 was bepnData was analyzed at length using "close reading" techniques that attempted to examine tex& or statements closely in order to get a more profound meaning from them. A document from The Writing Center at Harvard University described close reading as a methodology used in many disciplines and characterized by multiple readings that analyze a text carefully so as to altow the reader to identify key words and phrases that are of greater importance than others. The document continues: Now examine these words and phrases closely. What patterns emerge'? What ideas recur? You may have to read these words and phrases a few times to discover multiple meanings in the text: words that mean more than one thing, phrases that could yield a literal and metaphorcal reading. After you read these passages a few urnes and have discovered patterns within them, formulate a statement to answer your question. This staternent should reflect your inferences and speculations about the meaning of the text; it should also reflect your abitity to focus on one idea wittiin the text. . A close analysis of a few passages will produce a stronger text than a superficial commentq on many passages- (no date given par, 4-6) Information gathered in this study was analyzed using a combination of the close reading technique sequenced with the methodoloey suggested by McCracken in his description of the long interviewInternet teaching profiles of participants were devetoped with reference to each specific interview and then an analysis of each of the questions as answered provided a cross-reference, Chapter 4 Data Analpis

Part A Profiles This chapter wili analyse the qualitative data resulting fiom the interviews with the four professors. Part A will constnict profiles of those professors whiie part B will analyse each of the basic interview questions and the resulting responses. Professor "A" works in the area of Agricultural Economics- He is a relatively new professor and is just beginning to pian and prepare materials for Internet delivecy- He is quite concemed with providing his students with the best in rems of what he teaches them and sees the Internet as yet another way to do that. When questioned in the interview, (June 15th, 2000). as to why he was planning to au,ment, with Web-based delivery, the lecture, lab, Powerpoint, and email format he had currently been employing, his response was, "well, I'm committed to king the best teacher 1 can be, so I'm not going to let some new technology come along and not give it a &y." He beiieves that Intemet technologies can be useful in this pursuit of teaching excellence: 1 think the important thing in these classes is to have as many kinds of rapport with the students as possible. If they know you are maintaining your website, putting up your course notes, answenng emails-in a sense it's not person to person sometimes -but it is the consensus that there's a give and a take order. You might get more of a flow in terms of developing rapport with the students. In some ways it's a bit frustrating for me at times but it makes me a lot more accessible-because they can ernail me. It makes me more acccssible. 1 set up office hours and I can insist that they just come at that time but it doesn't usuaily work out that way- The students are very comfortable with email-almost more than 1 am. In some ways it increases their ability to learn from the instmctor. 46 Excited about the prospect of Web use as a supplement, Professor A was cautious when he began to

comment on sorne of the things he had heard and read recently regarding the delivery of courses compIetely via this technology: "Independent iearning takes an incredible amount of discipline and one of the things that an instxuctor or professor can provide is what 1 cal1 pacing; where they say, 'this is where you should be now'. Especially for these first year students coming in with al1 of the things they have to adjust to-they need a lot of pacing- 1 can certainly see it [web learning] as an advantage to someone who is in the work force and needs to upgrade and doesn't have a lot of time to attend classes. I do think we may be dreaming here if we think we can deliver university material for a full degree without any professor interaction. I don't think it would work out. One of the reasons why people send their kids in here is they want them to form a network of business acquaintances and friends across the province and they know if they send them here there will be 100-120 quite progressive fanners who will form lifelong friendships and networks. There are a lot of things that happen in education that aren't just courses." When commenting on a question about the changes that Internet technology could bring to the educational process, Professor A's thoughts followed a sirnilar line: Q: Wouid you say it's transfomative? That it changes everything, or changes things dramatically? A: Well there are suggestions Lke this. Actually the end of universities and colleges as we know them. 1 think that's extreme. 1 kind of think of it in terms of other things, Let's say you have a really good web program on coaching soccer. W e don't need a coach, we just want ail the students to get on the web, l e m the system and go out and play. 1 don't think it's going to work. 1 don't think humans work that wayProfessor A does not teach by employing any well-articulated, classical, learning theones. However, he does build his lessons according to an actuai plan for delivery that is based on an almost instinctive knowledge of how people learn: My overall approach is to be transparent. This is what we want to do, then we do, and then 1 say 'this is what we've done - now let's see if we can dernonstrate'. That's my basic approach, The reason why I think this has a lot of potential is that you can get feedback very quickly, even in a large classa That's where I see it working realIy well,

1 have a lecture, a lab, a review and then an online web sort of review and a quizLearn by doing. The more hands-on it is, the more physical it is, and the more they use their senses-the more they're going to leam. I took a course recently that stated that in a straight-out lecture, in the first ten minutes, there's a fair amount of attentiveness but then it starts to drop off after an hour and 15 minutes. They Say that ten minutes after the class (students) cm retain about 10% of what was said and 1 think it goes down faster after that, So, what 1 try to do is first lecture and then in an hour and 15 minutes have some pauses and add some technology or something to try to bring them back into Iine and try to get another 7 or 8 minutes of attentiveness in there. When asked about his motivations regarding his interest in Tnternet technoiogies in the classroom, Professor A was quick to acknowledge that factors such as the media had an effect on his decisions: "The media has a huge effect - - J'm sure I'm iduenccd by the media- . - _ 1 think generally the people who are making the decisions about Facilities are thinking "well, technology is coming' and they get that from the media." As for any departmental or peer pressure involved in his decisions to use this technology, he admits that while there is no formal pressure to do so, much of the drive to "gel wired" comes fiom the department as a whole simply wanting to stay current with the industry For which they provide education and training: There hasn't really been any pressure. Probably in our department, I'm using more of this sort of technology than anyone and we really are free to teach and use what we think is best. In tems of the accounting systems-before we were using a manual accounting system which was developed a number of years ago-rnoving that whole part of my teaching to electronic has been a request of the department- It's something we've wanted to do, and dong with that comes other technology, so ail of a sudden you're saying-no we're not going to use the old farm account book, we are now going to use a computer software application or the Internet. . . . That to a certain extent is department driven because we feel that's where the industry is going. No, there's not really pressure, in fact it's really quite nice. 1 can more or less handle the

classes how 1 want. But they do look at the reviews. They want to look at the reviews. If the students are asking for it then we give it to hem. In tems of a possible downside to the use of this technology, when asked what he felt could be iost by educators as they adopt a more electronic mode of instruction. Professor A looked to his own experiences in the classroom and then related those experiences to a more global conclusion: "The rkk 1 see-and 1 think 1 experienced it a bit in one course where 1 maybe went too Far with technology-is that some part of the focus becomes the technology- Then 1 think you've lost what you're trying to do. The technology becomes the focus rather than the tooI. That's where you stand to lose, You sort of have to push it to a certain extent and then maybe back off a little bitThere's definitely a downside and society as a whole is a bit of an expriment-" In answer to a different question earlier in the interview but with similar thoughts about negative consequences of Internet technology use in the classroom, Professor A stated an opinion that was to be rcpeated by other participants in different ways in the interviews to follow: "Sometimes learning can be fun and there are cimes that this is a great advantage to learning sornething. But there's no easy way to take away the pain of actual leaming other than to work through it. 1 don't know if the Web helps people understand that," In order to re-cap the profile, then: Professor A is a Young, fairty new, energetic educator who strives to be up-to-date, cares deeply about giving his students the best he can in terms of a leaming situation and is willing to try anything he feels would improve his chances for doing so. He is concemed, however, that a wholesaie adoption of these technologies in the classroom could lead to a degradation in the quality of education his students receive and that there is a danger of the technotogy, rather than

the educational process, becoming the prime focus. He freely admits to being influenced by the media and his department in the adoption of these new rnethods of teaching, but finds that influence to be positive in that it leads to his department and himself becoming more responsive to the needs of students and the industry that ultirnately employs them. Professor "B" is a more established presence at the University of Manitoba and has been teaching with Internet augmentation in the field of Anthropology for more than 5 years, (at the time of this interview on June 15th 2000). He cm be chracterized, at ds point in time, as a pioneer in the use of these technologies at this institution in that he has had no real training in their use and has developed his own materials while teaching himself how to consmct them for electronic delivery. He believes that teaching with the internet works best when used as a supplement to traditional modes of instmction, and lists his reasons for using it as follows: There are really a number of different reasons- Initially 1 reaily built it around an area of Anthropology that is difEicult to present in a pnnt form because it really requires a Iot of diagramming (kinship studies). When you're ialking about social relations and biological relations among people you have to kind of see it to reaIly understand ityou have to have it drawn out. And it's hard really to present that stuff in the classroom because you show a complicated diagram-and what are they going to do with it? It's something that they have to be able to take home and work through and stmggle on it. In print fonn it's expensive to put up graphic material-especially when 1 use color coding, or sorne animation with it-you really can't do that in print. You can really get a very effective presentation of space and process and categorization by devetoping the website. So that was the prime area. The other thing 1 like about it is the hypertext structure--essentially to develop cross-referencing between different categones and different levels. 1 find that that's a second effective aspect OF it. Those are the major areas. As 've gone into it I've developed other reasons for using it. One

of the courses that I've just sort of started with and am getting into in my research, is the Internet as Anthropological subject matter. One of the courses 1 teach is called the Anthropology of Cyberspace. Then you're actually looking at social relations, cultural construction and language use and things like that in cyberspace. There's a lot of websites out there Like that take students to research materiais and cbatgroups and virtual communi tiesThe third effective reason is that you can create links to supplementary materiai, and that's very useful. For example, I'm doing a website for a textbook Company and one thing that they want covered there is this sarne sex-marrage thing, So they've got a little box in the text on same-sex mm-age-and on the internet side, 1 want to develop that a littie bit- There's a CBC documentary that's online-so 1 put a link into CBC Documenrary and that gives them a whole other dimension they cm get into fiom the national aspect. And then 1 have another Link that goes back to the Supreme Court decision that forced the province of Ontario to change their definition of spousal responsibilities, so they can go and read the court decision. You can provide a lot of supplementary material and give your studcnts the option of really going into depth. Although Professor B views the use of the Internet as a means to create a more interesting and fuller teaching tool, he has been using the technology for a long enough time to redize that it is not without its probtems. When asked to expand on these he explained: 1 guess the major problem is basically that of time. 1 don't think the university has really identified it as a critical area, and therefore people that do this more or less don't get any kind of teaching break to do it. This is much more time consuming than traditional preparation of lectures so you've got to steal from your research time. I've kind of adapted to that as this has, in part, become part of my research, but there's still a major time problem. Another problem is simply student interest and participation. One of the courses 1 offer is a distance course-a distance session which is delivered solely on the web-that is basically self-study. They get a website designed for them, tiiey've got assignments and things put up on the web and if they want to communicate with me there's email- They do it on their own Ume. 1 started off the first year with 2 students, the second year 1 think 1 had 5 and this is the third year and it's gone back down to 2.1 thought that they'd be jumping to get in but the student response hs not been good, When 1 started this about 3 years ago, 1 wanted to introduce it to my

on-campus class - 1 think there was a class of about 100 students - and 1 told them they had the option to use [web-related materials], so 1 set up this website for them but found the interest just wasn't there. Students, for some reason, don't seem to be jumping into it unless they are forced to use it. In an interesting turn of events, however, Professor B's teaching materiais appear to be appreciated by an entirely different audience than those for whom they were originally intended: Now another experience that 1 have had is quite an informal one that 1 can compare to: i've had a website up now for about 5 years and it's been publicly available, so it's not only my own students that use it but 1 get students at other universities using it as well. And 1 get hundreds of emails from facuity and university students-mostly from the US but also from Australia, Britain, lapan, and Belgium saying how effective it is and that it reaily helped hem learn he material and that it was much better than the usual format and that they really had dificulty studying it in print form but the webbased stuff with the use of graphics and hypextext Iinking was much more heIpfuI. And yet I don't get that response from students in my class. Other probIems that Professor B has experienced as he attempts to develop and deliver the electronic side of his teaching materials involves the matter of basic support from the institution: More time. Mainly training opportunities- I'm mostly self taught on this and there aren't a lot of training opportunities. When 1 first started this they had a programme where they basically gave us, 1 think, a total of 6 hours of training through Computer Services in courses they set up for information providers-and that was very elementary. The rest of it has been on my own and I've had to struggle through some of that -but 1 have it organized now. What I've done is undertaken to teach courses with UTS (University Teaching Services) and that's how 1 l e m . 1 wanted to learn how to do some CG1 programming so 1 said 'I'm going to give a course in CG1 programming' and 1 forced myself to go ahead and do it. That's been my strategy, and that's generally how 1 l e m it. 1 would like to have better training opportunities. The other thing is getting support for attending conferences and things like that. I'd really like to go out to Calgary to a conference there. 1 know they're doing a lot more stuff now than we are and it would be really interesng to see what those folk are doing. I've indicated a number of times in p n t s that L've applied for that I'd really like some funding to attend these conferences-but again, this university is not actively pursuing

this. In ternis of his use of learning theories as part of his general teaching suategy, Professor B offered a response that dernonstrated a reasoned and obviously well-used theory as to how students lem: I'rn noi sure 1 could identifi it as a learning theory or not-but 1 use kind of a strategy or an approach-and It differs according to the specific site I'm developing. With the site on kinship, one of things 1 use is to kind of present things at different levels of extraction. Hypertext facilitates that because 1 can essentially lay down what are three different lines of presentation in different degrees of extraction. One level is Fairly conceptual and theoretical, Another level is concrete case-study material that relates the case-study materiai to the concept and the third level is empirical description. And 1 1ay the material down on those three levels in paraltel. My idea of the presentation is to build it from the top down, Illustrate the concept, and then you have detailed ethnography on the other tevels. It's dso open to the students viewing it in a number of alternative ways depending upon learning styles so you start from the description and work your way up or you can start from the theory and work your way down. . . There is kind of hierarchy there where you go from description to application of concepts to cornparison to conceptualization , . . and 1 think Hypertext Iends itself very well to that. Again, to summarize: Professor B is a pioneering user of this technology in the classroom. He has used it to develop his own teaching materials because he saw, at an early stage, that the Internet was a valuable supplement to traditional means of teaching that allowed him to do things he just couldn't do with other forms of communication. He is concemed about the considerable amount of time involved in the preparation of these Internet-based teaching materials and laments the fact that he must borrow from his research time in order to successfully deal with his own leaming curveHe is disappointed that the institution as a whole doesn't appear to offer much support in tcrms of personal

and professional development time, or funding for conferences. He has, however, solved these problems to some extent by making the Internet itself into a research subject with a newly deveIoped course based on the idea of the Anthropology of the Internet. The influence of the media as a driving force behind his use of these technologies is a nonissue with Professor B as he feels that he was involved in this "long before it became a media issue". Rather, his use of the Internet and the accompanying preparation of teaching materials is based on a desire to better communicate his ideas to his students. Although he employs no specific and overt leming theories in this endeavour, they remain an implicit part of his thinking and he is able to articulate their details clearly and instantaneously when questionedProfessor "C", interviewed on June 15th, 2000, is another "power user" when it comes to the use of eIectronically-mcdiated teaching supplements, but in his case, the learning curve usually associated with hardware and software utilization is mostly absent. His area of specialty is Cytogenetics, plant genetics and Bioinfonnatics and he has been using Internet technotogy as a classroom supplement since 1994. A self-taught computer expert, he adopted these technologies well before they became widely available and continues to develop novel ways of using them to facilitate the delivery of his educational messages. This has not aiways been an easy task in a system that has been traditiondly slow in embracing anything viewed as being outside of the mainstream: It's fun but it's also a lot of work and in many cases it's a lot of pushing uphill to get things that you want. When 1 first arrived here 1 started putting together a centralized computer facility for DNA sequence analysis which is now done in so many areas of research in biology. This was probably around 1991 and 1 wanted to give a serninar to show how to run some of the programs and just to give people an idea of the look and

FeeI of the system, 1 was looking for a cIassroom where they could hook up a simple terminal-just a character terminal 80 characters by 24 wide-and then project that output on to the screen, Even over in Engineering, 1 had to fight to get them to set one up that would work well. Actuaily, this was sornething that 1 did when I was an undergraduate in about 1978. . . . I embarrassed them into it by saying '1 was doing this back in 1978, at least let's do it here in 1991'- So that's an example of the type of fght that you have to get into because you're doing something a little diffrent that people are accustomed to doing. As a resuit of his expertise and because of a desire to provide the best Iearning situation possible in what is a complex and highly technical area of science, Professor C has developed many of his own solutions to the problems associated with electronic teaching, and has recently incorporated the Internet into an existing network that he designed for his department: In the PC world we have what's sometimes referred to as the fat client model-meaning tliat everything resolves on the desktop - the drve, the disk drive, the hardware, the programmes. Everything is physically on the desktop that you're using. The Intemet world is a semer-based world and in that case much more of what you're using is out on a server somewhere . . . In my lab we do everything in Unix with what's called the X-Windows desktop which drives the windows on the server and sends them wherever they need to go. Anyone can do anything fiom anywhere. 1 don? carry a laptop home, 1 have a computer at home and 1 log into my server from there. Lat week 1 was at Corne11 University giving a seminar and the server here was displayed on the computer there, The hternet is fast enough now that L was able to run pro,orams, open up windows in red-time, and you hardly noticed that the machine was half a continent away, It is really no surprise, then that Professor C is a suong supporter of computer and Intemet technologies in the classroom: "1 think the technology done is it's own justification. We need to educate a group of students who are cornfortable working with cornputers and working with the Internet ,..1

think, in the long term, it's better-there are more advantages to giving people more choices than there are disadvantages, 1 think having the stuff available outweighs not having it-" In addition to the pedagogicd aspects, Professor C also cites several practical applications for this technoIogy: Well, one reason is to make it easier for me. It's a bit of work getting the lecture into place the first time, but once you've got it, modification is very easy and reorganization is easy too. 1 have the luxury of deciding that 1 might want to switch around my topics and it's relatively easy to do. Quite frankly, if you corne to class armed with a bunch of artistically drawn overheads and al1 that, you really don't want to have to change the course- So the overhead approach motivated you not to change your course and not to update your content, whereas now 1 update every time 1 teach a course. 1 think especially in the areas that 1 teach, it would criminal of me not to update because in some cases 1 throw away 1/4 to 112 of what 1 taught last time. 1 have to have some kind of a dynamic technique to accommodate this. What might be a surprise, however, is the fact that even a technology user at this level has sorne reservations about a whotesale move into post-secondary learning that is entirely an online experience: 1 think it's pretty limited in tems of teaching a complete course. 1 dontt want to try fo run a full course on the Internet. There's really an important element in being able to look at the actual people and tell whether they are totally lost or that they're reaily getting it. You can do some of this with videoconferencing-though I'm not convinced that it's adequate actually, Mind you, 1 havent tred videoconferencing yet, but what 1 have seen of it hasn't convinced me, Of course this could lead to the question of whether or not we should just have virtual universities and get rid of the classroomsThe answer is an unequivocd no to that. Again, as with Professors A and B, it is a concern for the students, the recipients of his efforts, that convinces Professor C that Intemet delivery is best used as a supplement to traditional modes of instruction. This becomes even more clearly defined when he considers his reasons for using it to

post lecture notes on one of his websites: 1 want to refer to what 1 cal1 the student as stenographer mode1 in which you go to a lecture and your professor is writing equations and chemicai structures on the board at high speed and you just hope that you can get it in the right place because if you miss even one of them, youtll have a completely wrong answer. Not only do you not have time to think in class but you don't always have the certainty that you're getting al1 the right information. So 1 decided that 1 wanted to make the lecture materials available in advance so that people could come to class with them and actually have them CO base their own notes on. . . . [However], in many cases, the students were not going the extra mile to l e m the material the way they would when they twk their rough notes fiom lecture and recopied them later- Recopying notes is a very reliable way of leaming things, and if you have the published notes people don't aiways do that. L would contend that it's still a good idea to have everything avalable for severai reasons. Lf the student doesn't set to class it's a lot better than getting notes fiom someone else. Also, in many of the things 1 teach, you just don't have textbooks, Wth Cytogenetics - the last good textbook was written in the early 1980's and no-one has been able to assemble together the acquired expertise to update the materiai to a modem-day course. Bioinformatics texts are the same way. 1 also say that if you are the type of person who learns best by taking notes and then re-copying them over again-then do that. If you want to get the final notes and pick them up to use for studying-by ail means do that. 1 think that you're giving the student more options, 1 try to state at the beginning of the course that different people have different means of leaming and, by al1 means, do whatever works for you. 1 think in the long tenn it's better-there's more advantages to giving people more choices than there are disadvantagcs. As well, Professor C cchoes some of the sentiments expressed by Professor A with reference to a larger problem associated with the use of a teaching medium that, in the minds of some obse~ers, makes the learning process seem easy: One thing 1 Iike to get on to is that this whole thing [the Internet] makes things easy and accessible. 1 think that part of any learning experience is having to do things that are hard. Part of what you learn with a university education is how to work under

pressure and do things that are hard- There has recently been a heaithy trend towards making education a little more organized and thinking about students when preparing the teaching material, There certainly have been professors in the past who had the attitude that the students were there to listen to whatever they had to say and felt they were under no obligation to organize their thoughts in such a way as to make them understand, 1 think that has changed-which is good. At the same time, perhaps, we may have gone a little too far in the other direction where itts now expected that everything will be just laid out very neatly and cleanly-and maybe we do too much of that. 1 don't really know the answer. Ultimately you get out into the "real world" and you're slapped with problems that aren't well organized for you and if you dont have experience digging through mush and bringing out something of substance you are in big trouble. When asked what professors stood to lose by using Intemet teaching technologies, Professor C expressed concerns regarding the issue of intellectual property and the ownership of marerials created and placed on the Web: "There's always the question of who owns your intellectual property-does the university own it or do you own it-and if you've already put stuff on to a web semer, the university may feel a little less fussy about using it for their own purposes. [As well], anybody can download anything that you have on the Internet- My philosophy on that has been that until such time as I'm ready to put in the work it takes to write a textbook, 'm not going to worry about it, I'm not losing anything until a textbook is in place and then I'11 lose money." In sirnilar statements to those expressed by Professors A and B. the problems of focusing too much on the technology and spending too much time in preparing Internet teaching materials were also a significant factor to Professor C : There is the real temptation to spend far more time on the Internet stuff than you would have spent if you were teaching with the overheads. - . . Many people get so caught up in the technology that they spend less time thinking about the actual subject matter- So the professor has spent a lot of time making little animations, DNA molecules, al1 kinds of cute little anhals floating around or whatever-and it didn't reaily

add anything to the understanding of the topic that they were trying to get across, These probiems seemed to be more than compensated for, however, by the positive aspects of Internet use and die things professors such as himself could ultimately gain because of that use: Wdl, 1 think they gain one of the things that I've gone into it for: convenience. It's ri means of efficiency to be able to solve a problem once and not have to worry about it again and to be able to modiQ things quickly. Everybody wants to save time. And-you get better exposure- I'm always getting emails from everywhere in the world from people who want to use something from one of my websites or who are interested in something 1 had on a website. As far as research is concemed, I've had inquiries from a Company that discovered our research work through a Yahoo search and since then we've been involved in some commercial negotiations with them. I've haii any number of people discover what we're doing and want to interact- If you aren't on the Intemet you're not searchable, If you are on the Internet you are searchable and people are going to find things, In summary: Professor C is an advanced user of electronically-mediated education materials who has sequenced Internet technology into his existing network-enhanced teaching. He is, in his own words, -'far ahead of the curve" when compared to most users of this technology and has pioneered its use in both his department and his faculty, Although he uses the Web and other Intemet applications for their convenience, their time-saving quatities and for professional contacts, he has not lost sight of the fact that the most important uses stijl focus back on the students who ultimately are the recipients of his efforts. He sees these technologies as a useful way to address such things as different learning styles, while at the sarne time wondering if they are not making things just a Little too easy in terms of actual knowledge acquisition and problem solving, He is, as were Professors A and B, a committed

educator who uses this technology as a supplement to :raditional means of teaching, and considers it as yet another tool in the wide varety of those that are currently availabte. Professor "D", interviewed on June 26th, 2000, is, in many ways, the most advanced user of Internet-related teaching materials in this group. His experience with this technology is as wide as some of the others, but the depth to which he has taken its use-combined with the leveI to which he has obviously thought about its impact and pedagogical repercussions-is immediately evident. Much of this connoisseurship stems from the fact that he is a professor of Astronomy who has used computer technology in general for 37 years-the last 7 of which have been focused on the use of the Internet as a classroom tool. In addition, he has recently been associated, through a secondment, with the University Teaching Services group and has organized and taught many serninars and presentations in the use of electronic teaching technology for other university staff and academic personnel. While expressing many of the same concerns as the other interviewed professors about the subject of Internet-mediated teaching, he was ais0 able to provide insights that exhibited a level of understanding that could only come from someone who had been thinking about these matters for quite some time. He will try any new technology that cornes his way when designing his classroom materials and is currently exploring the various modules of the commercial application Web CT. When asked about his reasons for using these technologies, Professor D's answers echoed sorne of the student-centnc comment5 of the earlier interviews: 1 guess initidly because it's there-in the sense that I'm a technophile, 1 like these sorts of things, so 1 try thcm. But gradually 1 am seeing that there are specific supplemental uses. I'm thrilled by the feedback that I've been able to provide via the testing inside Web CT. That's helped me a great deai, 1 also like the calendar tool [in Web CJ. . . . 1 guess my primary reason for using the technology is Finding uses for it

that 1 think are educational, useful and valid for my students- I use it for motivational purposes, to increase learning and 1 also think there are things than can be done for increasing interaction between the students. In answering related questions regarding the things educators stand to gain and lose through the ongoing use of this technology, Professor D's responses followed a similar line of thinking: I'rn hoping to gain-and 1 think many educators could gain-more satisfaction from the students in the sense of giving hem a supplement to their learning; of having more tools available for their learning. So in that sense its a better way of learning, In that respect, From the M e 1 know about how people lem, the more ways we can give them to access information and ideas, the better. 1 don't think we'll ever lose the other options either because a Lot of people learn that way too. 1 think the main thing is to have more tools that are useful to the student and that helps me as an educator in the sensc that my purpose is to try and find ways that will help students leam- Every single thing I get 1 want to use, . . - You lose what you give up and I'm not sure I'rn giving up anything by taking on another tool. The thing that I'm giving up is some tirne. People Say that you [ose contact with individual students but you don't-you only do that if you give it up- I'm not willing to give it up; I'rn using it as a supplement- i'rn hoping it gets me to some of the students that dont want interact with me- 1 honestly dont see that i'm losing anything. Indeed, over and over again and in question after question, one gets the sense that this is an educator who thinks constantiy about ways to motivate. excite and entice his students to l e m ; whether with the Internet or by more traditional means, When discussing the application of learning theones while developing courseware that utilizes Intemet technology, he provided a direct negative response, but then proceeded to offer something equally as compelling instead: No, because 1 don't really know learning theories- 1 do consciously think about the littIe bits I've heard and the things that I've gained in terms of interacting. 1 know a few things that work. 1 know some things that work with some students and over time I've gotten better in the sense that 1 cm deai with more students. There's always students you never reach, that never get motivated or students that are motivated that you just

can't help, We can always argue that they haven't had the background preparationand that's fine, but 1 still have to deal with that, 1 have this intuitive sense and that's why I'm willing to proceed with the designing of an instructional module. 1 have a strong sense of what 1 know will work with a good varety of students, 1 think 1 can design something that would, in some sense, deal with these students in the same way that 1 deai with them when they corne in to see me. That's what my goal is-to be able to constnict or design something that will allow me to interact with a student through a machine, in a similar way to what 1 might do in my office. . . . 1 think those people who are concerned about their teaching do think about what's happening. 1 think very suongly about the interactions with students. One of the things that bothers me about the way we teach is that we don't have enough time to give individual instruction. If we could give individual instruction we'd have a lot more positive results, although with a lot fewer students. Overall 1 think that we'd produce a lot more students who were really good. The design of an instructional module that would allow for true interaction with his students was something that came up severd times in the interview with Professor D. At one point, when he was discussing some of the problems associated with preparing teaching materials for use on the web, his thoughts were as follows: The main thing is time. 1 think 1 have a reasonable handle on what I'd like to do. 1 don't know that I have a reasonable handle on how to do it, Actually. while I'rn on ieave, 1 am going to try to design-with real emphasis on designing-an instructional module on a subset of astronomy called a Hertsprung-Russell diagram- 1 hope to design al1 the background and maybe storyboard it in detail and 1 might use Hypercard. 1 think that might be an effective way for me to organize rny way of doing it- My own feeling, though, is that it is an awful lot to do. The subject appeared again in greater detail when Professor D discussed the ways in which he felt the Intemet as a teaching tool could be transfomative: In a year's time, if I'rn successfuI with designing this module-if that works out to be doable on the Internet-then that rnight change considerably what I would do- The problem is I'm not willing to give my students the textbook and say 'corne back in

December and we'll give you an exam'. Putting notes up, even ampliQing the notes with videos and animations doesn't do it. 1 mean, I'rn not sure lecture does it either, but I'rn more comfortable personally with lectures because I've bcen doing them for years, and for some students it works. Some students love lectures and get a lot out of them and that is interactive in the sense that they are on their own interacting with what's happening, So it does work in that way. The vision 1 have is to try to have some truie interactivity When 1 say that 1 want to design this module, I'm trying to think of designing it with a natural language interface where there's actual responses to reai questions. The reason 1 think it's doabte to a certain extent-it's clearly not doable on a really deep scaie-is that many of the questions I get asked are very trivial and 1 can usually predict what they're going to be. Some of them are a littie deeper, but even those 1 can predict somewhat and my way of deding with questions when a student cornes in is to start asking questions to probe what they know. Usually that's because they either don't know something or aren't secure in rnaking an association-in making the jump, or donut see that these things are just logically consistent and they lead some place. So you're trying to encourage them to do that-and 1 think some of those things cm be built in. It's really tough in the sense that you have to think of al1 the directions that they're going, but what's possible there, what 1 really Iike about doing things by cornputer, is that you can track what's happening, you can read through it and you can see what happened or what you didn't expect was going to happen. The thing about it is that something like the transformation will only occur in my mind when we start getting programmes that truly interact-and we don't just say they're interactive because you've got multiple choice buttons, or you've got different routes you cm take1 would say that most of those are no more interactive than a book. And a book is interactive. I'm not denying that a book is really good and has good interaction and we don? usudly-except in distance education, and we know there arc problems in distance education-we dont just give students a book and expect them to lem, 1 think the transformation will require quite a bit of tirne and some investigation in this direction. So, I'm trying to find some people from outside of Astronomy who might be able to help; who understand these things. F i t of dl, I'm looking to build up a concordance of the language-that is, the language that surrounds the module that 1 want to work with- 1 think there is a concordance programme availabie and 1'11 try to put in as much discussion of these areas and build up fiequency tables and things like

that and then talk to sclme people who have tried some natural language stuff. Although 1 don't know if anybody has been really successful with that. So, it's not transfomative for me at this point-although the vision is that maybe it corrld be transfomative. In detailing his reasons for wanting to develop this interactive teaching module, Professor D's focus again pointed back to his students. When asked if he designed is own teaching materials and either adopted, adapted or invented them outright, he replied: Al1 OF the above. There's an important background to that question in the sense that I'd love to design my own materials-not necessarily because 1 think 1 can do it betterbut I find that if 1 use other people's materials, very often 1 don't think their way so it doesn't fit. . . , What 1 find is the biggest difficulty is in the matter of depth OF concepts. It's hard to find a good textbook. My style of teaching has deveioped gradually over the years to the point where 1 like to do a few topics considerable depth. . . - 1 corne back to topics over and over again and try to go deeper with them. What I find is that there are no textbooks that are written in this style- So I feel that textbooks should be a resource for the students-so that if they don't understand, and dont get help from me directly, that they have another resource- I'd Like to design my own materials where I cm give them a broader view, but of course, the dificulty there is that you can't do it; you dont have the time. So I adopt, adapt and invent. 1 must say, though, that things are growing and I'm hoping that some people wiIl soon be doing really good stuff, There isn't redly good stuff at this point. It might be surprising to some, after reading the above, to find that Professor D has sirnilar opinions to the other professors interviewed when it cornes to the questions of whether or not a quality postsecondary, university-level education cm be delivered via the Intemet aione: My best use of it is as a supplement. 1 have never seen, to my way of thinking, a course that has been only delivered Iive via the Internet, Although I have heard of Web CT courses through UBC online that functioned almost entirely through the bulletin board, discussion groups, forums and assigned projects. So what that is, ir, some sense, is my image of something like a seminar. It looked very much like a seminar class cxcept they didn't meet together in a room. They had discussions, they did presentations,

they broke up into smaller groups, they did projects and they recorded their projects. So that sort of course may work. As another example, the state university in California at Pomona runs courses in international affairs online and again, it appears that it's a discussion sort of thing-project oriented, where you read materials, you discuss them, interact, do a projecr on which you would report online and things like that, And that seems to be effective. Something like what l'm doing, although a little bit tougher- I'm not sure, Ask me in about 20 yearsExpanding upon this idea at a later point in the interview, Professor D continued in a similar vein: I'm not versed in educationai theory, but just fiom rny experience, what motivates a lot of students are personalities- There are a lot of students who fall in love because of the content, because of the ideas, and those students can do it this way [points to cornputer]. The others, who faIl in love because of the way it's presented; the discussion and the actual personality, need this [points to selfl. There are some students who are quite outstanding and look hungrily for interaction or for guidance or something and if you don't have the flexibility of this, that's lost in some ways. 1 think there's always going to have to be live teaching in more of a fnme than just online discussionalthough that's pretty good. 1 mean, online discussion-where you start taking with someone that you can see is really bright-can be reaily good but it's really getting together and sitting and talking face-to-face that very often does it, 1 know 1 don't do it as much as my mentor, who was very good about taking you out for coffee and sitting and talking but 1 do 1 think that it's important- I think there's a lot of students who need that. 1 really enjoyed that-1 thought that was great. 1 found it thrilling to be associated with someone 1 thought was knowledgeable. 1 think that may relate to the courses that 1 think have k e n successful: that there was a lot of interaction. Content courses like the sciences where there's a lot of stuff to memorize and things like that, if you just put ~haotu t, it's deadly. You have to have some personality behind it and provide some background stuff. . . . I feel that 1 know the technology really well and f'm not convinced in the slightest that 1 can do it [teach entirely with the Intemet]- Training can be done reaily weli, 1 think-where you've got specific sets of instructions when you want to do certain repetitive things; where you dont necessarily have to make a decision-one that's outside the scope or the training.

At other times during his interview, Professor D expressed different concems about some of the more negative aspects of utilizing the new technologies in his classroom, and at one point, he referred to problems sirnilar to those of Professor B before him: It suddenly occurs to me that 1 do know what would enhance my current use of this technology- More help and more Ume. And, if 1 could-money to hire people-but 1 don't want to have to chase them. Money, in some senses, should be provided for us to help develop, and again, 1 don't have the time to chase. The chasing of money has these ties to it. You know: we'll give you rnoney if you work in this area to accomplish this. 1 need to accornplish things in the meas that I'm keen about, and that I've got ideas about, and I'm not willing any more to rob [ftom what 1 want to do] and try to build up ideas and enthusiasm in some other area- I've got what I think are a lot of really good ideas and I'm slowly developing them. If 1 could get the money and help- yes, that would enhance my current use. 1 don't vmit any more new technology right at the moment. 1 rnean the stuff I've got, and the stuff that's avaitabie is really tenific. . . . We've got so many new things, new ways of doing things during the last 7 years. The Web, which is an immensely rich tool, has only k e n around in a useful form for 7 years this March and there's no way that we're anywhere close to reaiilly understanding how to use it. One of the things that bothers me is the constant demand for research to indicate what works and what doesn't work- 1 haven't got a clue, and 1 dont think the research is too effective yet because there hasn't k e n time for people with ideas to do things. You know it's important to do the research and it's important to find out, but it's also very important to realize that the research is in the very eruiy stages of devetopment and even though there are a lot of people working very diligently on it, we may not have the few bnliiant ideas yet. The tool is there and there's lots that can be done with it, Unfortunately, the rnanufacturers of equipment and the software producers always want their incorne so they're constantly modifying and changing things so we don't ever get a handle on what we can do. That's why I'm tending to avoid development issues, and I'm tending to avoid going to meetings and conferences where they taIk technology because I've got more than enough technology to deal with with what 1 want to do. I'm now dealing with it in the sense that 1 think dmost anything that 1 could envisage

could, in principle, be done. 1 don't know whether 1 couid get the money or the resources to do it, so my approach now is to think very carefully about what 1 want to teach and what 1 want students to l e m and if I have a way that 1 want to do it, how would 1 go about doing ir, what things would 1 get them to do-and then 1 sort of design that in a rough outline and go in and restrict myself more and more. FinalIy, when asked about whether there was much in the way of administrative or peer pressure involved in his decisions to develop online leaming materials, Professor D continued with this sme line of thinking: 1 think there is pressure from the administration to do things. Not necessarily negative pressure. They're encouraging verbally, they're encouraging very slightly financially but the rest of the encouragement isn't there. There isn't really strong financial help, and the matter of financial help needs to be in the area of manpower support and in time off so that people can leam- This takes a lot of time and 1 would argue that it's not so much the leaming of the computer, it's the leaniing about what have 1 been doing for the last 30 years in my teaching, and how do 1 think about doing that in the context of the new technologies. The administration has verbalIy given support for it, but they don? have money so they don't do it. Now it's hard to say whether itts the administration or my colleagues that are responsible for the lack of support in terms of recognition- For example, for tenure and promotion, something like this would not be recognized very strongly by most tcnure cornmittees. 1 would argue that that's probably because there is not yet general recognition of its worth amongst the professonate. Administration might be able to impose it but that would not be the way to do it. It's really got to be the faculty that says to their colleagues that are interested in this-and unfortunately there is a very small proportion that are interested in thisthat this is worthwhile and to support them in their endeavours. We will work to give you time off, and at the departmental level, you could get a course off in order to do this. But they have to get money in order to be able to do that- In some senses there is peer pressure to not use the Internet. You will probabiy not get promoted or wi?l not get tenure if you spend your time doing this rather than doing your research, 1 would say that compared to other pressures to do other things, department and peer pressure to use the Internet is very small,

Again, in summary: Professor D is an advanced user of Intemet-reIated technologies whose evident skills in this area place him into the upper ranks of educators worId-wide who are experimenting in these areas. He is, like the other professors inte~eweda,n obviously cornmitted educator who belicves that the newer teaching tools are best used as a supplement to the existing canon of traditional techniques. He is willing to concede, however, that since we have ken using this new medium for onIy a short time, things may change quickly. With this in mind, Professor D is currently studying the possibiIities inherent in a teaching module that will attempt, to a moderate degrce, to duplicate the classroom experience of teachedstudent, question/answer interchange in an interactive, computerbased system. He is concemed, as were the others, that tfiere is not enough administrativelysanctioned support for the development of Internet-based teaching materials and questions the current academic climate that rewards traditional research yet pays only lip service to research involving emerging technologies. What stands out most prominently in the interview with Professor D, however, is his dedication to his teaching and the fact that everything he discusses ultimately re-focuses back to its usefulness or effectiveness in classroom and learning-reiated situations. Even though he has no formai educational background, his every thought and action gradually returns to this student-centered, transmissionofknowledge baseline. Although he is as advanced in this area as he is with his technology, he never gives the impression uiat he is in any way complacent about his knowledge or his accomplishments,

One gets the sense, when talking to Professor D, that *&is is someone who will continue his research and development into both the pedagogical and technicai aspects of his profession for some time to corne. In his own words: "1 donrt think we redly know how people learn. Al1 we cm do is try al1 Our tricks." CHAPTER II METHOD Participants Particivating teachers The participants were 13 general education teachers and 329 of their students. The teachers taught Grades 2 through 7 and represented three schools located in a suburban Catholic school system in southern Ontario. The grade levels of the classrooms included both split and non-split grades (Grades 2-3 = 4 teachers, Grade 4 = 3 teachers, Grades 5-7 = 6 teachers). Two of the teachers were male and the class sizes ranged from 20 students to 29 students. Table 1 displays distribution of teachers by sex, grade level, class size, years of teaching experience, highest degree attained, and special education training. Students The student population represented a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Teachers filled out a checklist on which they indicated (a) which students were on an Individual Education Pian (IEP), (b) the category of exceptionality for those students on EPs, (c) which students were using English as a second language, and (d) which students not currently on an IEP were being considered for one. For the purpose of the present study, students were designated as exceptional if they were on an IEP. According to Ontario policy, students do not necessririly have to be identified with a category of exceptionality through formal Individual Placement and Review Cornmittee (IPRC) proceedings in order to have an IEP. However, in practical terms, students who are placed on EPs are exhibiting significant learning difficulties, which would for the most part qualify them for categorization if the PRC procedure was instituted. Only some of the students involved in this study. who were also on IEPs, were deemed exceptional t hrough PRC proceedings. Table 1 Highest Demee Attained, and Special Education Training

Teacher Sex Grade Class Size Teaching Highest Special Experience Education Education 96 split 6/7 split 2/3 spli t 5 6 5 4 3 4 4 3 3 5 B.A./B.E~. SPED m B.A./B.Ed. SPED 1 B.A./B.Ed. -- -B. A./B .Ed. B.A./B.Ed. B.A.TB.Ed. -- -B.S./B.Ed. B.A./B.Ed. B.A./B.Ed. B.A./B.Ed. B.A./B.Ed. SPED 1 Note. B.A. = Bachelor of Arts; B.Ed. = Bachelor of Education; SPED 1, II, and ID = Special Education additional qualification courses (Special Education 1, Special Education II, and Special Education ID); Dashes indicate that data was not obtained. Measures Teacher Behnvior Measures There were two measures of effective teaching behaviors used in this study.

Observers were trained on the instruments as a group, where the two senior observers, who were expenenced in observations such as this, held a training session for four graduate students in which they lead group discussion and gave exarnples and nonexamples of the teacher behaviors that were encompassed by both measures of effective teaching behaviors. Further training took place dunng the first few classroom observations, where it was decided with the teachers' permission that more than two observers could sit in for the purpose of a training session. This type of observation training continued until each trainee was able to attain a reasonable interrater reliability with the other two observers. The approximate amount of time spent in training time was 11 hours: two hours spent in group discussio~i and usually about nine ho~irs (three observations) of in-class training until reasonable interrater reliability was attained. Adaptive Instruction Observation (AI01 The Adaptive Instruction Observation (AIO) was designed to measure effective teaching behaviors at the individual student-teacher level of instructional interactions as a form of adaptive instruction. It consisted of three items, two derived from Roach's (1998) 7-point scale and one derived from the adaptive instruction dimension of' Stanovich's (1994) Classroom Observation Checklist (see Appendix A). The AI0 consisted of three sections. The first section was the scoring sheet for the instrument. Prior to each observation, observers were required to fil1 in their name, the date of the observation, the time of the observation, the teacher being observed, and the name of the school. Upon completing the observation, each observer recorded his or her allotted rating for each of the following observation items on this page. The second section contained a space at the top of the page, where each observer was required to write in the name of the first lesson (math, spelling, etc.), followed by three observation items that observers rated for the first lesson observed (Lesson #1). On Item #l, observers were required to circle a rating of I through 7. based on the predominant style of individual student-teacher instructional interaction that the teacher demonstrated with students who were not designated as exceptional and at-risk during seatwork. On Item #2, each observer was to assign a rating of 1 through 7, for the predominant style of student-teacher instnictional interaction that the teacher demonstrated with Target Student A and Target Student B during seatwork. The target students were two students designated as exceptional and at-risk, who were randomly selected by observers for the purpose of this measure. The individual student-teacher instnictional interactions that were rated for Items #L and #2, were scored according to

the following 7-point scale (see Appendix A for examples of in teractional exchanges: 1: No interaction with students on lesson content during seatwork. If any interactions occurred, they were non-academic (conceming organizatim or classroom procedures, behavior management, status of the task at hand, and affective or personal (Jordan et al., 1997). 2: The teacher circulates, checking work briefly and moving on (brief and cursory) - inconsistenth (one or two times). 3: The teacher circulates, checking work bnefly and moving on (brief and cursory) - consistcntlv (three or more tirnes). 4: The teacher circulates, transmitting and directing lesson responses (tells students what to work on, how to correct it, and moves on) rare interaction - inconsistently (one or two times). 5: The teacher circulates, transmitting and directing lesson responses (tells students what to work on, how to correct it, and moves on) rare interaction - consistently (three or more times). 6: The teacher elaborates (asks students questions about lesson material concepts that require responses; frequent interaction requiring student participation) - inconsistently (one or two times). 7: The teacher elaborates (asks students questions about lesson material concepts that require responses; frequent interaction requiring student participation) - consistentlv (three or more times). On Item #3, observers were required to record "yes" or "no" for each target student, for each observed !esson, indicating whether or not the teacher included that target student in large-group instruction by calling on him or her or taking up his or her responses. The third section of the AI0 followed the same protocol as the second section, but observers lled in the nme of the second observed lesson (LRsson #2), and assigned ratings to Items #1 through #3 as they were observed in Lesson #2. Classroom Observation Checklist (COQ Stanovich's (1994) Classroom Observation Checklist (COQ was used to measure effective teaching behaviors at the teacher-class level of interaction (see Appendix B). Observers were required to rate the observed teaching behaviors on the checklist that organized 3 1 items into four dimensions of effective teaching behaviors: (a) classroom management, (b) ii me management, (c) lesson presen tation, and (d) adapti ve instruction.

The observations consisted of anywhere between one and four lessons that took place during a three-hour pet-iod of time, or half day of instruction. Upon completing the observation the observers were required to allocate a rating of "consistent," "inconsistent," "not in evidence," or "no opportunity to observe" for the first 27 items and a rating of "yes" or "no" for the remaining four. However, because the provision of instructional adaptations was addressed by the AIO, the scores from Items 28 through 3 1 of the classroom observation were not used in the analyses for this study. Measures of Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs Pathognomonic-Interventionist Interview (PU) Teachers were interviewed using the Pathognomonic-Interventionist Interview (PD; Jordan et al., 1993; Jordan-Wilson & Silverrnan, 199I), which is a semi-structured interview designed to elicit teachers' beliefs about service delivery to students designated as exceptional and at-risk (see Appendix C for PD coding criteria, interview questions, and sconng form). During each interview, which lasted approximately one hour, teachers were asked to descnbe their practice with one or more students they designated as exceptional and atrisk, including specific interventions. Each interview was recorded on an audiocassette tape and subsequentl y transcri bed. Two researchers independentl y rated each transcription across five topical areas: (a) referral and assessment, (b) programrning, (c) review, (ci) communication with staff, and (e) communication with parents. For each of the 20 items, a rating of "pathognomonic," "middle," or "interventionist7*w as given. Attitude Toward Inclusive Education Scale (ATES) For the purpose of the present study, the Attitude Toward Inclusive Education Scale (ATIES) was adaptedhpdated from the Attitudes Toward Mainstreami ng Scale (ATMS; Berryman & Berryman, 198 1) that Stanovich (1994) and Roach (1998) used in their studies as a measure of teacher attitudes, other than the Regular Education Initiative Survey (REITS; Sernmel et al., 1991) and the PI measure. The ATIES was a questionnaire that consisted of 16 statements with which teachers were required to rate their level of agreement, based on a 6-point Li kert-type scaIe (ranging from 1 = stron~lv disamee to 6 = stronclv a~ree)T. he ATES was designed to mesure attitudes by eliciting teachers' level of agreement about whether certain students, based on their special needs or specific leaming diffculties, should be in general education classes. An example statement from the questionnaire is "Students who use sign language or communication boards should be in regular classes" (see Appendix D for the ATES questionnaire).

The ATIES was similar to Stanovich's (1994) and Roach's (1998) adaptations of the ATMS in that teachers rated their agreement with several statements about mainstreaming/including students with disabilities in genera1 education classrooms. However, the ATIES was designed to elicit teachers' attitudes toward inclusive education by having teachers rate their agreement with statements that were based, not only on specific disabilities, but that included specific inferences to the extent of instructional adaptations that are required for the effective inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Also, as Berryrnan and colleagues (Berryman, 1988, 1989; Berryman & Berryman, 1981; Berryman & Neal, 1980; Berryman, Neal, & Robinson, 1980) noted in the development of the ATMS, teachers, parents, and members of the general public tend to have more negative attitudes toward mainstreaming students with behavioral problems. So, the ATIES was adapted to include more items (than the ATMS) that address attitudes about including students with specific degrees of behavioral problems in general education classrooms. The terminology used in the ATIES has also been updated, from that used in the ATMS, in order to reflect more acceptable usage of language when refemng to individuals with disabilities, which avoids equating individuals with their condition (Arnerican Psychological Association, 1999). In following, this updating of language, including the use of the terrn "inclusion" on the ATIES as opposed to "mainstreaming," reflects the change in the nature of special education services over the past decade (Brice & Miller, 2 0 ) , as mainstreaming and labeling have been identified as ineffective strategies for students who receive special services (The National Association of State Boards of Education, 1992). The use of the REITS was discontinued for the purpose of the present study because it did converge with the ATMS in Stanovich's (1994) and Roach's (1998) studies to form a composite variable. The ATMS and the REITS appeared to be tapping in to a similar construct. Teacher Efficacv Scale (TES) The Teacher Efficacy Scale (TES; Gibson & Dembo, 1984) used to measure teaching efficacy in Stanovich's (1994) and Roach's (1998) studies, was a 38-item questionnaire, that was adapted by Johnston (1993) and also used by Kircaali-Iftar (1992). However, as Gibson and Dembo (1984) found that acceptable reliability coefficients only resulted from 16 of their original 30 questionnaire items, suggesting that further research be conducted with a revised 16- to 20-item questionnaire, those 16 highest loading items

were used to measure teaching efficacy in this study. Therefore, the adaptation of the TES that was used in this study, consisted of 16 items, seven of which addressed generaf teaching efficacy and nine of which addressed personal teaching efficacy (see Appendix E for the TES questionnaire). General teaching efficacy is descnbed as beliefs about what teachers in general can accomplish and reflects how teachers' beliefs about teaching efficacy is influenced by external factors such as the home environment or the emotional needs of students (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). An example of a general teaching efficacy item from the TES is "The hours in my class have little influence on students compared to the influence of their home environment." Personal teaching efficacy is more specific and is a belief about teachers' efficacy which is influenced by intemal factors such as their own ability to impact student leaming because they feel they have the knowledge and skills to do so (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). An example of persona1 teaching efficacy from the TES is "When a student gets a better grade than he or she usually gets, it is usually because 1 found better ways to teach that student." Each of the 16 items on the TES was a statement, similar to the previous examples, for which teachers were required to rate their agreement based on a 6-point Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = stronglv disagree to 6 = siron& amee). Due to this study's focus on teacher characteristics that influence inclusion successfulness, only the items that make up the personal teaching efficacy subscale were used for analysis. According to Guskey and Passaro (1994). the intemal factor of personal teaching efficacy "appears to represent perceptions of personal influence, power, and impact in teaching and learning situations" (p.639), whereas the extemal factor of general teaching efficacy "relates to perceptions of the influence, power, and impact of elements that lie outside the classroom and, hence, may be beyond the direct control of individual teachers" (Guskey & Passaro, 1994, p. 639). Therefore, only the ratings from Items 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15 were used for analysis. Procedure The teachers and students involved in this study were voluntary participants and were recruited as part of a larger research project. Recruitment of teachers took place via phone calls to their principals, information letters, and meetings that were arranged during the first half of the school year. Recruitment of students took place via information letters and consent forms that were sent home to their parents or guardians through their

teachers. Participation was contingent upon return of consent forms. Data collection for this particular study took place in three phases. During the first phase, teachers were interviewed with the PII at the beginning of the second half of the school year (January/February). The PII took place in private, while two or three other graduate students administered student outcome measures (as part of a larger study of which this study is a component) to the students in that teacher's class. During the PII, each teacher was asked to nominate those students in his or her classroom who have formerly been identified as exceptional, and those who they felt might be at risk for school difficulties in the foreseeable future, requiring special education assistance. The second phase of data collection involved a visit to the classrooms in which the two observation measures of teaching behaviors, the AI0 and the COC, took place simultaneously. Each teacher was observed over two lesson periods in one half day, which took approximately three hours. Two core lessons (Le., language arts, math, science, social studies; not gym, art, li brary) were observed wi th al 1 students present (none withdrawn). On the day of the observations, observers randomly selected rwo students who were previously designated as exceptional and at-risk by their teacher, for the purpose of the adaptive instruction observation measure (e.g., Target Student A and Target Student B). During the third phase of data collection, teachers completed the TES and the ATIES at the end of the school year. The two questionnaires were left with teachers to complete at their own convenience, which took approximately 20 minutes, and were subsequently retrieved by researchers before the last day of school. Chapter Three - Conduct of Research Study A- Researh Methods Of the two approaches to systematic inquiry within organizations, I have chosen to use action research for my project. The linking ofthe terms 'action' and 'research' highlights the essential feature of the method: trying out ideas in practice as a means of improvements and as a means of increasing howledge about the curriculum, teaching, and leaming. (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1982, p.5). My choice is based on the following assumptions: teachers and principals work best on problerns they have identifed for themselves; teachers and principals become more effective when

encouraged to examine and assess their own work and then consider ways of working diffkrently; teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively; working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development. (Watts, no date, no page). But more importantly, Observational studies help the teacher understand the student's world fiom the student S point of viav r a t -th an fkom that of the teacher's own culture. Students are the informants in teacher research, helping us learn both the recipes for behavior in their cultures and the learning strategies that they ernploy. (Etubbard and Power, 1993, p.1). Since this project involves identifymg and improvuig my teaching practices with the goal of improving the Iearning environment in my classroom, and since 1 am in daily, personal contact with my students, they are the obvious and best source of information on my teaching practices. For planning and implementing my action research project 1 have chosen to use Kemmis & McTaggert's (Kemmis & McTaggert, 1982) action research spiral. The spiral consists of four fundamental aspects of the process: to develop aplan of action to improve what is already happening, to act to implement the plan, to observe the effects of action in the context in which it occurs, and to reflect on these effects as a basis for further planning, subsequent action, and so on, through a succession of cycles. (p.7). 1 have chosen to use a qualitative data collection strategy. Hitchcock and Hughes (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1989) state rather than collecting quantitative data through quantitative techniques like surveys and structured questionnaires it is argued that social researchers should collect qualitative data by means of techniques which are designed to reveal the actor's perspective. In educational research the debate over quantitative or qualitative data and techniques is reflected in the move over the last two decades, to consider what is going on in particular schooIs and classrooms. (p.25). 1 have chosen to use a case study methodology as a means to study myself.

McFarland (McFarland, 1998) states: A case study methodology can be invaluable to education researchers who are attempting to gain an indepth understanding of an issue, behavior or event and its meaaing. (Merriam, 1988; Yin, 1994). . .Case study research is explanatory, inductive, emphasizing process; there is no predetennined hypothesis, no overt treatments, no manipulation of variables, or expected outcornes. Using case study, education researchers are given the chance to observe, intuit, and sense what is occurring in a natural setting.. . (pp- 47-48). B: Data Gathering Tool - Group Instructional Feedback Technique (GIFT) The purpose of GIFT is: to provide instructors with a quick, rough summary of the most fiequent responses to three questions: (1) What do students think is helping them learn? (2) What is hndering their leaming? (3) What specific suggestions do they have for improving learning in the classroom? (Angeto and Cross, 1993, p.334). Using GIFT- the step-by-step procedure: 1. Decide exactly how you want the GIFT questions worded, how much class time you will allow for the process, and whether you are willing to invite someone else in to conduct the assessment (If you choose to collect the data yourself, skip to Step 4). 2. Invite a msted colleague, teaching fellow or faculty development consultant to visit your class to conduct the GIFT assessment. Schedule a mutually convenient date and ask the 'visiting assessor' to corne during the last fifteen or twenty minutes of class. Make sure that your visitor knows the questions you want asked and that the two of you agree on the assessment procedure and the follow-up steps. 3. Prepare the students for the visit by letting them know who is coming, when, and why. Stress that your purpose is to fnd out how you can help them improve the quality of their leamkg. Instructions for the person who collects the data: 4- Introduce yourself and remind students of the purpose of your visit. Review the assessment procedure and write the questions on the board - or display them on an overhead projector to Save time.

5. Allow students three or four minutes to write answers, and another three or four minutes to compare their mwers with those of two or three students nearb y. 6. If you are leadhg this assessment with your own students, this is the time to collect written feedback. If you are visiting someone else's class, you may ask students to volunteer common responses. Write those common responses on the challcboard or overhead. 7. If you are visiting, and if tune allows, ask students to raise their hands to indicate agreement with common responses. Count or estimate the percentage of the students agreeing each time. If you have polled the students and obtained rough percentages of agreement on certain terms, you will gain details by reading written responses. Tally the most common written responses, particularly the suggestions, for the teacher you are assisting or for yourself. List the cornments if possible. You may want to give students feedback on only the three most common responses to each question. (Angeto and Cross, 1993, pp. 336-37) C. Study Conduct 1 began my research study in September by developing the three feedback questions listed below: 1. Give two or three examples of specific things Ms.Laidlaw does that redy help you lem physics. 2. Give two or three examples of specific things Ms.Laidlaw does that makes it difficult for you to l e m physics. 3. Suggest one or two specific, practical changes Ms-Laidlaw could make that would help you improve your leaming in physics class. My teaching assignment for this school year included three physics 1 1 and two physics 10 classes. I considered which of these classes I would do my action research project with and chose only the three physics 1 1 classes. From this point on, these classes will be referred to as A, B, and C. The reason I chose not to use my grade 1 0 classes was that they nui on a term rotation. This means I work with a particular group of students for only three months before they move on to study biology and then chemistry. Due to the timing of the rotations, 1 felt it would be difficult to complete the four fundamental aspects of Kemmis and McTaggert7s action research spiral, and thus chose

not to use these classes. Once 1 had detemiined which classes 1 was going to use in the study, 1 began developing an information letter for the students and a separate one for their parents. The purpose of both information Letters, which can be found in the appendix, was three-fold: to inform the student and h i s k parents of my research project; to invite each student to participate; and to inform the student and hisher parents of the potential benefits of participating in the project. It is recommended when administering a questionnaire to select a sample group and conduct a pilot test. AIthough GZFT is not a questionnaire per se, I selected a sample group (one of my physics ten classes) and did a modified trial m. In this trial 1 had the students answer the questions individually, and then form smail groups and discuss their opinions. Each group had a data recorder who recorded the common responses. These responses were handed in, at which time I analyzed them. 1 reported back to the students and provided them with the opportunity to dari@ any responses. We made a few immediate changes to the learning environment. The procedure appeared to nui smoothly and the students were engaged by the questions and discussions. The data collection took approximately twenty minutes. It was at this time that I realized 1 had quite a few boarders in my classes. SMUS has a large boarding comunity, boarders being students who live on campus during the school year. 1 proceeded to speak with the school's director about how a boarder wouid obtain consent to participate in this project. We discussed whether or not a boarding house parent wuld provide consent. The director deemed it necessary to have the boarding student 's parent sign the consent letter. 1 provided the boarding students with several ways to obtain consent: email, fax, or telephone. During a class in late October, 1 spoke with al.l three grade eleven classes regarding my degree and my proposed research project. The students were provided with the parent and student information letters. The next day 1 began receiving the signed consent forms. Throughout the following weeks I reminded the students to return the form if they wanted to participate in the study. At this point 1 needed to decide who would facilitate the data collection. It appeared to me that my peer partner would be an ideal candidate, as a peer partner may be involved in a variety of activities including classroom observations, feedback on strengths and weaknesses, and/or suggestions for improving teaching. The Director of Academics

approved my peer partner as the facilitator. As the data collection day drew near, I had received eighteen out of twenty-three consent fonns Erom class A. In classes B and C, 1 had received about one-third of the forms. 1 then scheduled a meeting with my peer partner to agree on the assessment procedure and a mutuaily convenient date for the assessment. The dates were as follows: class A - November 30,2000; class B - December 4,2000; and class C - December 5, 2000. On November 30,2000, the facilitator administered the three questions to class A. That evening 1 analyzed class A's responses. The following class, I thanked the students for participating, for being honest, and for choosing to voice their opinions. 1 then began addressing and clarimg the feedback with the students. The latter was completed over a period of several months. The data collection for class A took fifty minutes instead of the recommended twenty to twenty-five minutes. 1 was concerned by the amount of time required, so 1 tried to reduce this for classes B and C. 1 did this by collecting and correlating the smd group data before the facilitator's visit. 1 then decided not to use class B or C in my study. There were several reasons for this: only a small number of students returned consent forms; and the data that was collected and correlateci before the facilitator's visit indicated very similar responses to class A. 1 chose to address the feedback fiom classes B and C but did not include their data in my study fndings. A few weeks d e r the data collection, 1 met with the facilitator to evaluate the assessment process. To this day, 1 continue to work on practicd suggestions for change and study recommendations with classes A, B and C. Methods The present study is one that seeks meaning and interpretation of a distinct geographical and cultural area rather than one that seeks generalizability. For this purpose, a qualitative research methodology was chosen as the most fmitful for eliciting responses. More specifically, the case study approach appeared to be the best-fit rnethod for this thesis' objective: Rather than using large samples and following a rigid protocol to examine a limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, Iongitudinal examination of a single instance or event. It is a systematic way of looking at what is happening, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. The product is a

shqxned understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might be important to look at more extensively in future research. Thus, case studies are especially weli suited toward generating, rather than testing, hypotheses. (Davey, 199 1 ) The results of this thesis were generated from two case studies. The first exarnined a governrnental body, the Ministry of Education for Ontario. It was a longitudinal study, in that it collected information at different points of time in order to examine changes over these periods. The second case study was cross-sectional in that it explored eight schools over one geographical area in a short period of time. Ultimately, these two studies did rnuch to compliment each other. Ontario educational society is presently made up of several levels of decision-making and activity. In a descending order this hierarchy includes the Ministry, school boards, schools (each with a principal and staff), and classroorn (this is, at least according to Fleming, 1972). These two case studies may, therefore, be seen as two interlocking pieces of a puzzle. They show both the theoretical (Ministry) perspective and practical (classroom) perspective of cumculum integration. While this research study was done through the use of histoncal and qualitative data, it must be stressed that the methods employed cannot be termed as traditionally historical or qualitative research. Strictly inductive methods were not used in this study. Rather, as recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994), a conceptual framework based on existing literature (see pp. 13-30) was predetermined before the study began. Themes and issues did not solely arise From spontaneous conversation and events (although they did occur). Instead, a bulk of the data took the form of answers to pre-constnicted research questions. Instrumentation was also constructed before the two phases of this study began rather than letting it emerge fi-om the research. Again, Miles and Huberman's (1994) arguments for the use of a lot of pior

instnimentation were quite pertinent in this situation. First. they state that "if you know what you are after, there is no reason not to plan in advance how to collect the information" (p. 35). In searching out a situational definition, this was indeed the case. Second, they observe that: If interview schedules or observation schedules are not focused, too much superfluous information will be collected. An overload of data will compromise the efficiency and power of the analysis. (p. 35) As pertaining to this point, there was a double wony in this research project. The documents of phase 1 and the interviews of phase II, without some guidance, could stray into many unintended areas and extremely long descriptions. As most interviews were of only a 45-minute duration, any wild divergences could have been disastrous without some guidance. LastIy, Miles and Huberman (1994) argue that: Using the same instruments as in prior studies is the only way we can converse across studies. Otherwise the work will be noncomparable, except in a very global way. We need common instruments to build theory, to improve explanations or predictions, and to make recommendations about practice. (p. 35) A universal instrument was, therefore, necessary in enabling a discussion between the various peiods of history of phase 1 and participants in phase II. Any conclusions reached were largeiy based on the abiiity to relate the mass of grounded information in both phases. The remainder of this chapter will relay how this research project was undertaken. It will examine the specific nature of the sample, instruments that were used, procedure and analysis. Phase 1 - The Ministry's Profiles of Curriculum Integration Directed by the first research question and the conceptual framework described in the Review of Literature, this phase examines documents that explain the Ministry's definition of the term curriculum integrarion, and the role it sees itself playing in the promotion and implementation of such an innovation. Sample Because the Ministry's view on this subject has varied dramatically over time, an ideal

taken from the exarnination of a single document or Ministry official would have been too narrow in perspective (according to Schwandt, 1997). Al ternativel y, an exhaustive search of al1 Ministry documents, past and present, would prove to be too time-consuming and monumental in scope. 1 had originally desired to pursue the more traditional historical approach of amassing al1 possible "thick data*' (Geertz, 1973). While cornmittee members had warned me against this during the eariy stages of the proposal, 1 conducted a preliminary search of materiai at the Archives of Ontario, the depository of al1 Department/Ministry material (1938-1970). There 1 found the existence of thousands of mernos, memoirs, oficial and unofficial studies, fact-finding reports and a myriad of other related documents. Outside of their dates of distribution, al1 documents were stored in a relatively uncategorized state. Conceding defeat at this point, 1 realized that my study had to be bound one way or another to bring some control to the collection of data. The first approach could have been to confine the study to a certain era of history (1938-1949, for example). If 1 had decided to do this, 1 would have continued this study as a tnie piece of historica1 research. However, 1 would also have to abandon my main desire to find definitional linkages over time in relation to the present situation in Ontario. Instead, 1 decided that the best way to proceed was to limit the type of documents under study. 1 fcrzsed solely on the programmes of study (curriculum guidelines) and course requirernents (i.e., Curriculum I:I, 0S:iS) that the Department (and subsequently the Ministry) has issued since 1937' concerning the grade levels 7 and 8. These specific policy documents were chosen for two reason: First, it was felt that these guidelines would most accurately reflect the Ministry's perspective of curricular concepts and issues; Second, it was felt that while internal memos, resource papers and other internal documents may give additional insight into the workings of the Ministry, it was the guidelines that would relate its' official policy. Data Collection and Trustworthiness of the Data The specific documents that form the basis of study for Phase I are named in Appendix

A. Each document is accompanied by its individual quotation codes (explained below) and corresponding page numbers. One of the benefits that 1 assumed would be derived from studying published cumculum material would be the ease with which 1 could obtain access to reading them. For many of the guidelines listed in the appendix, however, this did not prove the case. 1 began my search for these documents by acquinng the authorized programme of studies that was presently in place, the Cornmon Cumculum (1 began this search in 1996). 1 downloaded the entire document kom the Ministry of Education and Training's officia1 website and printed a copy. In the sections that mentioned cumculum integration, it made acknowledgements to the Hall-Dennis Report of 1968 for promoting this approach as well. At first, 1 thought 1 had found the root of C U ~ C U i~ntUegr~at ion in Ontario cumculum policy and planned to begin my study in the 1960s. However, upon reading the report. 1 noticed that they, in turn acknowledged an earlier programme of studies, issued in 1937, for its innovative child-centred form of cumculum integration. 1 then researched this particular programme through secondary sources (primarily Fleming, Stamp and Fiorho) who al1 agreed that it was a fairly important document in prornoting cumculum integration and stood in stark contrast from al1 previous elementary guidelines. 1 then made the decision to trace the Ministry's view of cumculum integration back to this document. ' This date was chosen because it was the first year that the Department of Education initiated what would be considered an "integrated" cumculurn policy (see Period 1. Part 1). To find al1 authonzed cumcula From 1938 to present day, 1 referred to the Minister of Education's Annual Report. It contained a short synopsis of the advances that the Minister had felt had been accomplished for that year, as well as a list of al1 authorized guidelines disibuted to the Ontario education system. From this 1 compiled a list of documents that are presentIy

displayed in Appendix A. To obtain the actual texts, 1 began from 1996 and worked backwards. 1 started with the peripheral documents to the Common Cumculum and continued to arnass al1 the OSIS material located at the University of Ottawa library. Unfortunately, the university did not have documents before 1980. 1 searched the university library system and found that McGill had a complete collection of Ontario cumculum documents from 1965 to 1980 on microfiche. Material before 1965, however, was impossible to find in Eastern Ontario. Through an intemet search, 1 was able to confirm that the Ontario Institute for the Study of Education (OISE) had one copy of al1 the earlier programmes of study. Making the trip to Toronto, 1 first found a bound copy of the 1942 Programme of Studies on the reference shelf at the Robarts Library at the University of Toronto. Unfortunately, the remaining material (documents lA, 2B. 3A-3D, 4A-4F) were kept in a special collection at OISE'S Jackson library. The room in which this collection was maintained was open at odd hours a few days of the week, and 1 was escorted to it only on the third day of rny visit to Toronto. 1 was not permitted to make any on-the-spot photocopies of the documents, or bring any writing material in the room Save an HB pencil. It was immediately apparent that the public had not looked at these guidelines in some time. One of the libranans had, in fact, pushed a desk up against the bookshelf in which they were contained. The piece of fumiture king too heavy to move, 1 could only reach the material by crawling under or around it. After finding al1 remaining documents, 1 placed a request for photocopying to the librarian who was assigned this task. After a great deal of debate, she agreed to photocopy 1A. 2B and 3A-3D in its entirety (as they were approximately fifty years old). However. she refused to photocopy any more than 10 percent of

documents 4A-4F7 fearing repercussion for breaking some pubiishing law. In the end 1 wound up transcribing the pertinent parts of these documents by hand. The photocopies took two weeks to complete and awaited my return (1 retumed for them two months later). 1 read al1 documents through once to familiarize myself with the use of language, the general objectives and methods that the Ministry desired to put fonvard to the teaching community. 1 then retumed to programme LA and conducted an extremely close read of the text. 1 circled the areas that pertained to cumcuIum and crossed out al1 areas that did not (such as teachers' duties in cleaning the school, procedures dunng fire drills, etc). 1 then transcribed the circled areas into Word format to be ready for data analysis (see below). This procedure was then performed for al1 the remaining documents (2A-8D). By the tirne 1 had read and transcribed the eighth period. the newly installed Conservative govemment had begun to distribute the latest set of cut-riculum guidelines (9A. 9B. 9H in 1997, then 9C. 9D. 9E. 9F, and 9G in 1998). It was to my great relief that the guidelines from the last two periods were kept on the Ministry's website as either Adobe or HTML files. This greatly sped up the transcription process. In total. this process took six months of fairly full-time labour. Instruments for Phase 1 Two instruments were created to examine these documents and to obtain some meaning as to the Ministry's definition of the term. Displayed in Appendices E and F, the first instrument took the form of a guide with questions derived from Case's modified typology (see pp. 1331). The second instrument (whose use is shown in Appendix C) was created to judge and calculate the level of importance that the Ministry has placed on Case's dimensions. In order to do this

most accurately. the concepts of "innovation profiles" (Leithwood & Montgomery, 1987) and of "process evaluation" (Scheirer, 1994) were taken as models. Two multi-dimensional profiles were constructed for this study - one that dealt with the definition of the term "curriculum integration" and a second that exarnined the irnplementation of this approach. The method was chosen as the best means of creating some uniformity across the phases and thereby allowing possible comparisons. Scheirer (1994) explains that how a program (or in the present case, curriculum) is defined will effect the evaluation of its de1iver-y or implementation. In other words, without a clear theoretical fiamework that detineates the dimensions of the program, onsite evaluations "risk assessing non-events or activities very different from those intended by program developers" (p. 42). Therefore, as Scheirer insists, "a full description of program components [again, this thesis takes this to mean "curriculum components"] is the foundation for assessing program delivery" (p. 45). To create the first profile, therefore, Case's dimensions were placed in a matrix formation and graded as to importance (see figures 0.2 to 0.6 below, and Appendix B for decision rules concerning pnority levels). IIIIII Medium Priority 1 I I 1 Priority I I I I 1 1 I Figure 0.2 - A blank matnx representing Profile 1 - Dimension A "Elements Used During Integration" Social Skiils ManuaVPractical Skills High Priority LOW Pnonty Negligible , Individual Develo pment

Content Underiy ing Principles Academic skills IIII To promote a studentcentred curriculum To promote soda1 continuity High Pnority Medium Priority 1 1 Low Priority Negligible Priority To promote a political change To promote the unity of the Cuniculun (SubJect Cenred) 1 1 Figure 03 - A blank matrix representing Profile 1 - Dimension B "Objectives of Integration" Medium Priority Low Priority Negligible Pnority Figure 0.4 - A blank matrix representing f rofile 1 - Dimension C "Loci of Integration" Hiph Priority High Priority Medium Priority LOW Priority Negligible Minkmy Figure 0.5 - A blank matrix represen :ing Profile 1 - Dimension D "The ReIationship of Grades 7-8 to the Other Grade Levels" The final dimension in Profile 1, "Integration Methods/Approaches" will be displayed in more

Board CWmmrn detail. After sarnpling the documents, it was noted that the methods appeared to change School somewhat depending on the course guideline. The matrix (shown below in figure 0.6) was then edited to show individual subject areas, as well as the sub-dimension. Priority Ievel was displayed by a shading scheme (explained in Appendix B). E@ih 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Math 1 Science 1 I I 1 I I I 1 Health Cran Home Economics EIumonlaUaa Agriculture 1 1 1 1 t 1 ! 1 1 Pluri Iiiuroa Trams Preamble 1 Social Pudon Region 1 Nedcd Croa Multi TbcmnUc Figure 0.6 - A blank matrix representing Profile 1 - Dimension E "The Integration MethoWApproaches 1 Comktlan 1111111 The second profile, consisting of two dimensions, was created based on the planned change literature outlined earlier (pp. 24-30). This is displayed below (figures 0.7 and 0.8). Teacher -Related I curriculum-R -- .-mBjus - spdy work Bilhn- -la ..

Hisn of AwF~Dqprcd AVagucEvldaico of Ammmesm No Evidemx of Awarraess . Figure 0.7 - A blank rnatrix representing Profile 2 - Dimension F "Awa Impedirnents" .enes of Implementation Analysis of the Data The Guidelines The collected and transcribed excerpts from the guidelines were grouped into a number of histoncal periods based on changes in courses of study. curriculum integration and its Figure 0.8 - A blank matrix representing Profile 2 - Dimension G "Aids to implementation" A&pt ebEUty OpaiPdky implementation mentioned in the Minister of Education's Annual Report. As stated in the data SMau .-= mMnt A collection section, these sources are outlined in Appendix A and more precise reasons for the m - Prindpei -port category decisions are explained throughout Part 1 of this study (see especially the context Tcschr Swgort Board spppart sections). This information was then coded based on Period, Document. and excerpt from the Activdy Rovides Activdy

Encou~pltcs -Y -uROcs NO E~S~GZLOC document (usually between one sentence to one paragraph per excerpt). As shown below. for Rd. Porrat.l f(=animunity Ikv. Slipport Add'l - SapporC example, code 2A-3 would represent the third excerpt from document A in the second historical period (1942-1948). These coded data were then transferred to the innovation profiles (one profile for each period), based on their matches to the specifications found in Case's modified typology. An example of a typical subdimension of this profile is shown below in figure 0.9 Social Skills ?A-3 - Eduution for Social Living: Educators accordingly atuch great imponance to the development and exercise of those qulities t h t enable the individual 'to work with 0 t h people.' 'to get along with others.' 'to act in a socially acceptable manner.' 'to develop a socially satisfactory personnlity.' 'to be a good citizen.' ... Such standards do in fact exist: and in our society. thcy derive fmm the eihics of the Christian religion and the principles of democntic living. It is. therefore. a major concern of the school that the children entrusted to its ure shall leam to live in a manner that is socially effective in a democntic society. which bases its way of life upon the Christian ideal. (p. 5 ) 2A4The teacher must be clear in his own rnind about the qualities of the person who will play his part atisfactorily in such a society. and about the way in which the school should proceed in order that the "socially satisfactory personality" m y grow. The penon "who gets dong with others" is courtrous and pIeasant in mrinner. He abides by the decisions of the majority. He has respect for rhe opinions. the privileges and the pmpmy of others. But it is not enough for him to be agreeable and to refrriin fmm infringing upon the

rights of his neighbors. The socially satisfactory person must tefer his way of acting IO what the others are doing. and m k e it fit in. That is to uy. he is cooperative in his attitude. and by his coopention he contributes in a positive manner to the welfare of the group. In order to make a positive contribution he must have ideas. be able to make hem known. and be able to u r r y them out. Coopention in a democntic group requires self-control. intelligent self-direction, and the ability to accept rcsponsibility (p. 5-61 2A-12 Nor has ruiy anempt been made to outline the tmching of citizenship in a dernocncy as a subject. The schools of Ontario exist for the ducation of democratic citizens. To this end. reliance must be placed upon the principals and teachers to m i n their pupils for dernomtic living. Canada will always need citizens who have a thomugh knowledge of ideals of good citizenship. The inculution of these ide& - through the penonality of the teacher. through the administration of the classroorn. through the subject mtter of the Programme of Studies. and through the rnethods of teaching employed - is accepted by tachers today as their rrsponsibility to a far greater extent than ever before. (p. 8) I2A-14 The school must assist the pupil to mrister those skills that are essential to humn intercourse in modem socieiy. n i e development of many importrint skills involved in cornmunicating i d a s and emotions to others may be furthered by the suggested activities in English. Mathematics. Art and Music: skills in the conversation of materials to serve human purposes may be developed through activities classed as Agriculture. Home Economics. Manual: Training and Cnfts; actual experience in the social techniques of CO-opentive action is specifiully indiuted under the heading "Corporate Activities". The resourceful teacher will amngr his work so rhat many of the activities of the school. whether rrnsing in the field of Science. of English. o r o f Social Studies. will be organizcd to provide lhis type of social experience. (p. 9) And so on Figure excerpt Raw frorn the Subdirnension "Social Dimension

Used During Integration" for Period 2 After al1 the coded excerpts were placed in their respective innovation profile subdimensions, each sub-dimension was reviewed as to its importance in relation to the Ministry's definition and uses of cumculum integration. Importance, for this study ranged from a "Negligible" priority, to a "Low", a "Medium" or a "High" priority. Each of these pnorities was assigned a numeric importance (O to 3). The operational definitions of these terms are described in detail in Appendix B. Finally, to aid the reader in comprehending the choices that were made, and to get an overall feeling for the Ministry's position conceming the sub-dimension, quotations were combined and distilled into one or two explanatory sentences. These are accompanied by a listing of the code numbers included in the sub-dimension. For example: Social S kills One of the main objectives of education is to be a good citizen and abide by the decisions of the rnajority (2A-3.2A-4.2A-12) Social interaction is necessary (SA-5.2A-6). Peace through cooperation (2A-3.2A-4.2A-48.2A-5 1.2A-83.2A-89.2A- 104) Be socialfy acceptable (2A-4. 2A-8.2A-IO, 2A- 13.2A-49.2A-14) Must leam rights and responsibilities (2A-9, 2A-62.2A-76.2A-45. 2A-47, SA-5 1, 2A-52. 2A101, 2B-6.2B- 1 1, SB- 12) Utilize the "Enterprise rnethod", coqmrate activities and courses in socialization (see 2A-14, 2A- 1 20.2A-2 1.2~-23;2 A-24.2A-26.2~-28.2A-30.2A-35.2A-37.2A-39.2A-42.2A-44) Figure 0.10 - Final Subdirnension "Social Skilis" in Dimension A "Elements Used During Integration" for Period 2 The corresponding page numbers for each code is included in Appendix A. The find profiles for the Ministry (one profile for definition, the other for implementation) were then used as the basis for decisions as to the Penod's perspective on the term. The actual profiIes are included in Appendix C, while detailed descriptions and conclusions for each period are shown in Part 1.

The Context Sections for Periods 1-9 Hargreaves et al (1996) do point out that Case's approach has some weaknesses: narnely, it does not explain how and why particular aspects of integration usually cluster together in particular ways, or what it is that accounts for these patterns. It also makes no explanation as to why some methods of integration are more commonly used while others are considered too dificult. They conclude that "conceptually open typologies of this kind can, however, be useful maps for empirical study and practical improvement if they are also combined with sophisticated understandings of how and why particular patterns of integration emerge in particular ways."(p. 102). Receding the profiles in each period, therefore, the study includes a context section that relays some of the major underlying political and social forces at work during each historical penod. It will also explain the pertinent actions taken by individuals within the Ministry to bring the cumculum documents to fruition. It should noted, however, that while an earnest attempt was made to reconstruct what happened during the nine periods of time as accurately as possible, this can never be fully accomplished, since information from and about the past is always incomplete. The research that was performed in context areas of this study was accomplished in alignment wi th Fraenkel and Wal len's ( 1990) interpretation of "Historical Research" (pp. 432440). Four steps were involved in this process. These included: . ..defining the problem or question to be investigated; locating relevant sources of historical information; summarizing and evaluating the information obtained from these sources; and presenting and interpreting this information as it relates to the problem or question that originated the study. (p. 434-5) After the historical periods Rad been set by the cumcula, I began the task of finding the main forces and persons that were involved in guiding the documents' creation and tenor. Initially, 1

consulted the most readily accessible secondary histories of the Ontario public education system in the twentieth century, namely the works of Fleming (1972) and Stamp (1980). They directed me back fo the Archives of Ontario, indicating specific markers to look for (especially key numbers of untitled boxes). The archives proved useful for the years 1936 to 1970. An especially large amount of material clustered around the periods Ieading up to the Hope Commission (1 950) and the Hall -Dennis Report ( 1968). After 1970, however, special permission had to be obtained to access matenal. As this appeared to be an onerous and lengthy undenaking for an area that may prove to be less than completely germane, I chose to reconstruct the subsequent periods from more readily accessible locations. For Periods 6 and 7, 1 retumed to OISE and made use of its collection of official memos, speeches and contemporary media sources. For Periods 8 and 9, 1 supplemented these references with press releases and other documents displayed on the Ministry's officia1 website. After corning to some general understanding of the entire "story" of the 1938- 1999 era, 1 finally conducted an updated review of secondary sources to compare the specific actions of the Ministry to the wider forces at work. Phase 2 - The Ontario Teachers' Profiles of Curriculum Integration This phase involved a case study of multiple sites for the purpose of determining actual practice of cumculum integration in the contemporary Ontario school setting. It was guided by the second research question. Sample Grades 7 and 8 hold a singular place in Ontario's cumculum integration initiatives. Poised uneasily between elementary and secondary school levels, these "Years of Transition" have been a cntical area of dispute and transformation for the better part of this century (as will be seen in Part 1, Dimension D). At different periods, this level has reflected the integration issues of both higher and lower grades. As well, numerous researchers (e.g., Arnold, 1985; Brazee, 1989; Lounsbury & Vars, 1978; Stevenson 1986)- and most noticeably the work of James

Beane have maintained that the Middle School Years should be thought of as the "natural home" of cumculum integration (see especiaily Beane, 1975, 1995, 1996; Beane & Lipka, 1987). It is for this reason chat the proposed research has singled out the Grade 7-8 years as its focus of study. Today, grades 7 & 8 are generally distributed in two separate fashions throughout the province of Ontario. They are either encompassed as a slightly distinct entity within a larger elementary school (K-8) or exist as an entirely separate rniddle school. Most school boards oversee both types of arrangement within their boundaries. The sites for phase two were chosen from a diversity of each type based on separate/public and urbadrural distinctions - inevitably, 8 schools (and 43 participants) were singled out. It should be noted that together they are seen as components of one case study (Eastern Ontario) rather than 8 multiple case studies. As such, there will not be any rigid, systematic cross-case analysis (although some will be made occasionally). Rather, the intent of this sample was to maximize the variation of schools at this level. Instmment Two instruments were constructed for phase 2, essentially deriving from the same source as the instruments for phase L. These were, however, modified to accommodate a field investigation rather than a document study. A semi-structured interview protocol was developed as the primary instrument in this phase of the research. Using the questions asked by Case and associated scholarship, it posed a series of questions that were answered by teachers and administrators at the selected schools (see Appendices E & F). Before these were administered, they were subrnitted to the supervisory oFficials at each chosen school board for feedback and criticism and changes made accordingly to fit the Eastern Ontario situation (see below). The second instrument was the innovation profile created in the first phase. Rather than consisting of nine periods and guidelines, however, profiles were completed on behalf of the 43 participants.

Data collection and Analysis i School Board level A package was sent in August 1998 to the relevant superintendents of the proposed sampIe of schools. It contained a request for permission to interview principals and teachers at specified school types under their junsdiction, a letter of introduction from my supervisor, a copy of wntten sanction from the University of Ottawa's committee of ethical procedures in research, and a copy of the instrument 1 would be using. The request ailowed these officiais to determine the precise schools based on the given criteria. In total, five school boards from Eastern Ontario were contacted in order to meet the proper specifications: 1 . Urban Public Board - gave permission in October 1998 to interview one elementary (school 8) and one middle (school 3). 2. Urban Separate Board I - gave permission in December 1998 to interview one elementary (school 2) because this was the oniy mode that contained Grade 7-8. 3. Urban Separafe Board II - gave permission in January 1999 to interview one middle (school6) because this was the only mode that contained Grade 7-8. 4. Rural Separafe Board - gave permission in October 1998 to interview one elementary (school 4) and one middIe (school 1 ). 5. Rural Public Board - gave permission in December 1998 to interview one elementary (school 5) and one JK-OAC (school 7). As well, these board level oficials were asked to review the instrument for validity and merit. They returned them with only minor changes to certain phrasings. ii. Contacting the Schooh Along with their permission and modifications to the instrument, the supervisory officers sent me the names of the chosen schools, their telephone numbers and the contact persons (in al1 but one instance this was the principal). 1 then contacted principals in the order that their telephone numbers came into my possession. The first was school 3 (henceforth known as the "Open Option" for reasons which will become apparent), which I visited first in early November, 1998. The pnncipal immediately and happily accepted, saying that he felt my research was very

interesting and important. 1 perfomed the first interview with him within two weeks, and he said he would recruit the teacher-participants and organize their interview dates. 1 visited schook 1 (the "Charitable"), 2 (the "Forces Base"), and 4 (the "Lone Scholar") in mid-Decernber and made initial contact with the leaders. Like school 3, they also volunteered to recruit participants and organize interview dates. However, their enthusiasrn concerning my presence varied considerably. In school 1, the vice-principal said that she and her teachers were extremely pleased to participate in any way. They saw it as a bit of an adventure, a taste of the outside. The School 2 pnncipal was rather more pragrnatic - he viewed this as a cheap fom of professional development as the questions would help his teachers think about the education process. The principal at school 4 was a littfe more reticent about the whole process. In fact, 1 got the distinct impression that she viewed her aIlowance of my research in her school as a favour to the supervisory officer. At the initial visit, she refused to meet with me and 1 was directed by the secretary to allow one of the teachers to organize interview times and pick recmits. This pattern of allowing the principal to organize and recmit participants continued for the next three schools. 1 made initial contact with School 5 (the "Gemini") in late January, school 6 (the "tearn leaders") in mid-Febmary and School 7 (the "Retrospective") at the beginning of April. Once I met with these people face to face, there was very Iittle doubt that the interviews would not take place. Once they realized that each interview could be fitted into a 45-minute break in the teachers' schedules, and that the interview questions were rather benign, they seemed quite willing to participate. AIthough none mentioned it, it almost appeared that they wanted my "easy" research project now. In this way, they would have credibility to reject any future research projects that may entail more elaborate and time-consuming work. The school type that I had senous trouble in iocating was the urban-public-elementary. After 1 received permission from the urban public school board and was given the name of a school, 1 telephoned the principal in October, 1998. The principal said that he was interested but

would need time to organize a meeting. He stated that now was not a good time but that he would get back to me. 1 waited a month and then telephoned him again. He repeated his previous staternent - he was interested, but that now was not a good time, and that he would call me back soon. 1 waited yet another month and called him in December. This time the principal was nowhere to be found, so I left a message. Finally, in late January 1 niade one final telephone call. Seemingly flustered, the principal stated that he had sent me an e-mail the previous month stating that his school was not interested in my research. 1 re-contacted the head of research at this urban board, who gave me the name of a second school. and asked me to wait two weeks to give the principal time to read the package. After the appropriate waiting period, 1 called the principal who promptly said her school was too busy for this research project that particular term. This was now mid-February. The procedure was then repeated with another school. This tirne the principal initially agreed if she could convince her teachers. Afcer ihree weeks of discussion however, the principal then informed me that the teachers had taken a vote and unanimously agreed not to do the research project. By this time it was mid-April, and 1 was becoming increasingly concerned that I would not find an eighth school before summer break. The procedure was repeated one final tirne. 1 made first telephone contact with the principal of what was to become school 8 (the "Inner-City Innovators") in early May. She said that she was very interested in the project as their school had tried various experiments with cumculum integration. 1 was invited for a visit, and conducted interviews up to the end of May. iii. School Level Collection, Codijkution and the Trustworthiness of the Daa The data collection within the eight schools followed a two-step procedure. First, key

personnel (including teachers and administrators) were given a space of time, usually two weeks, to review and formulate responses to the questions. Unlike most research studies, which provide no advance organizer, it was felt that this protocol would help participants prepare and recall in greater clarity their definition and use of integration in practice. It was hoped that this would increase useful responses in the limited time allotted for the face-to-face interview. The participants were interviewed on the bais of the guide with sufficient flexibility to allow unperceived issues to emerge. A portable audiocassette tape recorder with a built-in microphone was used to record each interview. As it was thought that this process would more accurately reflect the details and context of each site, the actual words of the participants (rather than researcher field notes) formed the basis of study. Dates of interviews are listed in Appendix G. The entire span of interviews was transcribed over a period of 3 months dunng the summer of 1999. These interviews were then coded based on School, Participant, Quotation (a chart of the coding systern is shown at the beginning of Part II on p. 292). MPU/a-5, for example, would represent the fifth response fiom Participant "a" in the Middle, Public Urban school. Each transcript was then mailed to its corresponding participant in September 1999 for verification and feedback. This allowed me to conclude that the participants' responses were beliefs held over a period of time and not momentary whims given on the day of the interview. Once returned, these coded data were then transferred to the innovation profiles (one profile for each participant), based on their matches to the specifications according to Case's modified typology. As mentioned above, the data alone were used as the basis for the matching process - no field notes or interviewer opinions were added as it was thought that this might corrupt the findings. As in Part 1, each sub-dimension was reviewed as to its importance in relation to the participant's definition and uses of curriculum integration. Again, importance ranged from a "Negligible" priority, to a "Low", a "Medium" or a "High" priority. Each of these

priorities was assigned a numeric importance (O to 3). The bais for these priorities is outlined in Appendix D, and the coded numbers of responses are listed in Appendix H. The final profiles represent an aggregation of the participants' perspective (one profile for definition, the other for implementation) and were then used as the basis for decisions as to the case study's perspective on the term. Other methods to insure reliablility such as inter-rater agreement on the assignment of codes to segments of qualitative data could have been used (Bergan, 1980, Tsui, 1983). However, as 1, myself conducted al1 the interviews, transcribed al1 the data, segmented it, codified it and placed it within the matrices, I believed that a sufficient amount of validity could be maintained. As well, it was believed that this study's relatively small sample size would offset the need for these more complex approaches. To determine actual events and use of language at each site, a certain amount of tiangulation was employed. For exarnple, in one instance (MCR), one teacher discussed the reasons as to why the local Science Fair was abandoned as a mandated student activity. In an unsolicited response, the vice-principal verified this cause. At another site (JOPR), one schoolwide project was described by various participants, but from different angles. It was found that whiie al1 engaged in the sarne event, they had different objectives for participation. Lastly, it should be mentioned that while a follow-up exercise involving a group meeting of ail the participants within each site was tentatively ptanned, it never came to fniition. While 1 initially felt that it would have helped to establish a greater contextualization of the terni, 1 inevitabiy decided that this might also prove counter-productive. WhiIe some shared definition would no doubt be established, it was my fear that stronger voices in the group would prevail and the numerous weaker ones swept away. 1 concluded, therefore, that the basis of study would be the individual teachers rather than the school. A second, more pragmatic banier also kept me

from pursuing this angle. By the time a second round of interviews was made possible, many of the participants (especially the administrators) had moved on to other schools. This had created drastic and unreconcilable differences to the dynamics that had originally been in place. Post-Phase Analysis Guided by the third research question, this analysis endeavoured to determine what comparisons can be made between Phase 1 and Phase II, along with what factors may be influencing the relationship between the Ministry's perspective on cumculum integration and its implementation, and actual practice or the school's and teachers' perspective. This anal ysis will compare the schools' profiles with the Ministry's and interpret discrepancies based on instrument data and context. The results are displayed in the Conclusion section. Context of the 1938-1 942 Curriculum The first period of this study is dominated by one document: the Programme of Shidies (1938). It has been called a "revolutionary" step in Ontario educational policy. both in terms of its approach to teaching and in its philosophy of education in general (Fiorino, 1978; Fleming, 1972d; Phillips, 1957; Stamp, 1982; Staniford 1938). ' Of most importance to this study. the 1938 Programme represents the Ontario Department of Education's first active foray into the promotion of curriculum integration. To understand how radical a shift this was for the provincial education system, a brief overview of the historical context may be relevant. Between the creation of the Ontario Department of Education in 1871 and the mid- 1930s the main t h m t of its officia1 cumculum changed very Little. It adhered to a formalized, discipline-based approach to education involving rote-learning, drill, and memorization. Guidelines were created by a handfui of subject specialists working under the Elementary Education Branch of the Department. A sizable number of inspectors were then charged with the enforcement of the curriculum at the school level, simultaneously evaluating and guiding teacher performance in an effort to secure uniform standards throughout the province. Finally, to test

students' capabi l ities of basic ski 11s and factual knowledge, standardized departmental exams were given at almost every level of the elementary and secondary systerns. Special emphasis was placed on the Grade 8 exam as a basis for promotion to the high school leveLZ 1 At the time, McCutcheon (1941) siated that "the school is no longer merely a place of f o d instruction. It is rather an environment which stimulates growth in the widest sense. growth in the capacity for selfdirecuon and self-dependence, in understanding and appreciation, in emotional controL in social adaptability. in wi11-power and character, and in the ability to sense values." (p. 121). Even the Demis-Hall report (1968). written thiyears Iater paid tribute to the document which it saw as far in advance of its time for Ontario. "The simple but startling tmth is that virtually every idca in it. with only one immediately noticeable exception [religionl. might have been ek~ressedb y educationaiiy enlightened and advanced authors today." (p. 70) ' See Gidney's From Hope to Harris for an outline of the role of the inspectorship, provincewide esaminations and the importance of Normal Schools in the enforcement of government policy (1999. pp. 19-21). Through policy-making prerogative. Gidney e.xplains that the Department "esercised supervisory responsibilities direcil' and emphatically" (p. 19). Piecemeal additions to the curriculum (e.g., manual training and household science) and occasional changes to the textbooks were introduced as a result of outside pressure3 but untii the late 1930s, Ontario undertook no wholesale revisions of the cumculum. The educational historia W.G. Fleming (1971~m) aintained that the slow Pace of reform in Ontario was in large part due to the inability of dissenting voices to be heard in the hierarchy of the education system (pp. 23)"

At this time, the structure of the Ontario Department of Education consisted of a very centralized directory, in which decision-making concerning changes to the curricuIurn followed a strict topdown flow (see Manzer, 1994). Unless petitioned, the Department received little feedback fiom the lower levels of the hierarchy. This centralized bureaucracy was allowed to flourish largely due to the relative isolation of teachers within the educational system. Gidney (1 999) points out that, In 1948, for example, Ontario had sorne 6800 elementary schools, nearly twice as many as there are today, and that despite a population a third the size. Forty-four hundred of them, or 71 percent, had one teacher and a single classroom. Another 600 had but two each. Only 853 had six classroorns or more. and there were just 150 elementary schools which, in modem mode, had twenty or more classrooms. (p. 1 1) Within these schools. it was quite normal to see the same teacher instructing a11 elementary grade leveis on ail subjects. Students were grouped into age levels and given a special row or area of the room. They were then expected to cany out a great deal of quiet seat-work while teachers employed a monitorial system, moving fiom st-udent to student as time prevailed. In her vivid recoilections of the one-room school, Jean Cochrane (1 98 1 ) explains. in detail. the ubiquitous nature of this teaching method. Stamp (1982) concluded that this fiequently led to a mindduihng process which "often killed any natural curiosity young minds might have had about these subjects" (p. 57). To maintain control over the students, more advanced Ontario teachers tried a 3 As early as 1890s there had been push for reform. James L. Hughes. the inspecter of public schooIs for the city of Toronto. for esample fought for kindergarten and manual training (for details and numerous other e.uamples. see Patterson 1986. pp. 62-65). number of normative experiments such as the issuance of merit cards (Houston & Prentice. 1988, pp. 264-266) or a bel1 system. However, well into this cenhuy, corporal punishment endured as

the most effective means of keeping discipline (Axelrod, 1997 pp. 58-60). In retaliation for what Axelrod (1997) described as "primitive conditions", a number of teachers' groups in Ontario placed continued pressure on the Deparment for educational reforms that they felt would better serve society. This could be achieved by making a greater effort to respond to the students' need for activity and with subject matter that "more closely related to [their] persona1 expenences and social environment" (Law & Gidney, 1973, p. 105). This new "child-centred approach to education" was not an unfounded technique but rather based on a particular school of thought. Early experiments in this method had been undertaken in Europe by Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Herbart in the first haIf of the nineteenth century, and adopted in the United States by "Naturalist" philosophers like Emerson and ~ l c o t t . ~Fo r most of the century. however, this approach Lay dormant in North America, praised by a small number of isolated intellectuals. It was only in the century's last decades that it managed to gain wider acceptance as more and more educational associations were persuaded of its benefits. Both the Ontario Teachers' Federation and the Ontario Education Association, for instance, formally adopted aspects of the child-centred approach following a visit to Canada by Colonel Francis W. Parker in 1 884.6 After 1900, the work of Amercan philosopher John Dewey and the organization that he helped found, the Progressive Education Association (PEA), added to this impulse for ' A visiting British inspector, E.G. Savage. further commented upon the e.xtreme centralization of the 1920s period. See Mosely (spring. 1968. p. 3). 5 For a fuii overview of the "Naturalist" and "Transcendentai" school of educational philosophy. see Bowen & Hobson ( 1974). Downs ( 1975). and Buder ( 1968). " Cochrane (1950) discusses the ovenvhelming influence that child-cenued spokespersons like Parker had on instruction in Ontario Normal Schools and the study of chiId psychology as the 20th century progressed @.

203). However, she does admit that much of this approach was limited to the veq early years of education (such educational reform. Dewey argued that every hurnan innovation had resulted fiom curiosity, cognizance and experimentation, and that the intuitive interests of the child should be used as the starting point of instruction. The teacher's task was to motivate children to work COoperatively on these activity-oriented projects. and to link the child's irnmediate interests with the problems and concerns of the larger world (Dewey, 1 900; 19 1 6). Ln Canada by the late 1920s, many provincial departments of education began to embrace the major tenets of "Progressivisrn" (as espoused by the PEA) that had already been accepted by many States south of the border and by Great ~ritain.' The Ontario government, however, did not join this movement. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, newspapers and printed political debates made scathing cornparisons between the cutting-edge of educational thought rn the Western provinces and the mired conservatisrn of Ontario's educational system (see Wilson, Stamp & Audet, 1970, pp. 377-78). One of the members of the Alberta governrnent, CL. Gibbs (1 928), reflected the sentiments of many westerners when he expressed the hope: that when the [Alberta] Deparmient mountain had finished its labours there would not issue forth some little rnouse, grey with Ontario dust and heavy with Ontario prejudice, but that we would have an Act that would really meet our particular needs and be in harmony with progressive ideals now becoming current in the educational world (p. 3). If the Ontario Department of Education resisted such change, however. the majority of Toronto-based educational scholars al1 promoted "progressive education"."e Ontario branch as kindergarten). See aiso Campbell ( 1975) for the impact of Parker on North Amencan "Natural" education methods. "Progressive" cliild-centred programmes of study werc adopted by British Columbia ( 19251935). Saskatchewan (1929). Nova Scotia (1930) and Alberta (1930) see Phillips (1957. p. 536). For an in depth

account of the sprcad of progressive thought in Western Canada between 1900 and World War II. see Patterson (1986, 1990). This circIe included such prominent educators of the t h e as J.P. Puinam J.G. Althouse (principal of the Ontano College of Education). C.C. Goldnng (Director of education of the Toronto School Board). and Thornton Mustard (director of the Toronto Normal School). For a complete overview of their lives and work see Stamp (1982), Wood (1985). Guillet (1960) relates their speeches given at the annual meetings of the OEA throughout this period. The progressive agenda of this forum is very evident in the rhetonc as eariy as 1922 (in which the majority of the conference was given over to KiIpaick7s "project rnethod). of the New Education Fellowship (the equivalent to the American PEA), the Ontario Education Association, the three teachers' federations, the trustees' association, and the Home and School Federation ail openly disparaged traditional, disciplinary curriculum with its rote-leaming, and actively promoted an "inquiry" approach to l e a n ~ i n ~B.y~ 1 934, these associations had merged their resources to form the Ontario Educational Research Cornmittee; their united goaI was "a revision of the curriculu m... that it may specifically be adjusted to growth needs and experiences of the social group for which it is intended" (Morris, 1934, p. 10). Until 1934, the Department adeptIy avoided responding to such demands for change. This may have been due to their rigidly centralized system or to the three-decade perpetuation of Conservative governance (Patterson, 1986, p. 63). With the ascension of a new Liberal govenunent and the appointment of a new Minister of Education, Leo J. Simpson, however, it became more receptive to the calls for educational reform. Ln 1936, the Department of Education announced that a comrnittee would be appointed to create a new Programme of Studies for the

elementary system. Whether influenced by his senior departmental officia~st~h~e ,c ontinued pressure by the Ontario educational elite and other provinces, or simply by the spirit of the times, Simpson insisted that the new curriculum would be based on more "progressive" rnethods. To facilitate this process, Thomton Mustard and StanIey A. Watson brincipal of the Ottawa Normal School), both sympathetic to the progressive movement, were appointed as CO-chairs of the programme -9 For a more in depth overvierv of the progressive movement in Ontario. see Gidney (1999. pp. 3 1-32). Kach et ai (1986. pp. 6247). 1 O Both Simpson and his deputy MinisterKhief Director. Duncan McArthur seemed to have been rvell versed in the Arnetican British and Canadian innovations brought forth by the philosophy of "progressivism" (see Fleming, 1972). in fact. McArtliur occasionally met with J.H. Putnam at the Royal York Hotel in Toronto to discuss issues in ducation. in a Ietter to McArthur after just such a meeting. Putnarn wote to him with the hope "that you are planning some really progressive school legislaime and believing that you and Dr. Simpson are sincerely desirous of doing something wotthwhile for the Province." He ended the letter urging McArthur to establish a decentralized system. giving local boards more responsibility. particularly in maintenance and equipment of elementary schools ( s e AO. RG-2. P-3. J.H.Pu tnam to Duncan McArthur. Ottawa. 16 November 1934, pp. 1. 5,6). cornmittee (Fleming, 1972a). When the Programme of 1938 was issued." the new ideas it expressed reflected the trend seen in other provinces' guidelines. Like the Alberta programme, the Ontario "little blue book" for grades 7-8 extended great praise for the progressively inspired,

British "Hadow ~ e ~ o r t sa"s 'w~e ll as lengthy quotations of the documents in its introduction (see 1 A-2 to 1 A- 17). It was Hadow's 1926 report on "The Education of the Adolescent" that, in fact, fonned the basis of Ontario's new cumculum in 1938. Two distinct approaches were recornmended in this report that may help to explain the new direction taken in Ontario education: 1. A belief that students could be educated more effectively if they saw the relevance of what they were learning, if they were educated through enjoyable experiences. and if they were treated as individuals. In other words, a comrnitrnent to "child-centred" education. 2. A new conception of human development segregating 12 to 15 year olds as a singular group, adolescents, with specific needs. Feafures of the Period: Sources for this period consist of one document: the Programme of Studies for Grades 7 and 8 of the Public and Se~arateS chools. While a committee of teachers was seconded to create the document, Fleming (1 972a) attributes sole authorship to its CO-chairs, Mustard and Watson (p. 184). The 124-page, blue-covered booklet begins with an introductory preamble section (8 pages) outlining the general philosophy behind the changes made to the curriculum and the consequences that they will have in the classroom. This is followed by more detaiied descriptions of the 7 obligatory and 3 optional subjects (reduced fiom 15 mandatory disciplines) I I The Programme of Studies for Grades 7 and 8 ("the little blue book) was an estension of the Programme of Studies for Grades 1-6 ("the littie grey book) that had been released in 1937. '' Consisting of 20 leading English pedagogues under the direction of Sir W.H. Hadow. the Consultative Cornmittee of the British Board of Education was mandated to perform ongoing assessments and recornrnendations of post-World War 1 educational issues. The committee issued several pivotal reports between 1926 and 1934. that were to be offered at al1 public and separate schools within the Ontario education system.

These subjects consist of Social Studies, English, Mathematics, Science, Health, Music and Art (obligatory) Cr&, Home Economics and Agriculture (Optional) The final 17 pages list the authorized textbooks and recordings allowed for use in the classroom. In accordance with the views expressed in the document, the Liberal govemment abolished the standardized Departmental lower and middIe school exarns in 1940. Schools were now given the responsibiiity of creating and applying individudized evaluation methods deemed appropriate to their location. Analvsis of Dimension A: Eiements Used Durinq Inteqration The general pattern that emerges in period 1 clarifies the revolutionary intent of the Department in creating this new curriculum. Obviously abandoning the view of education as a rote process of content and skills attainment required to meet the utilitarian aims of society. the Department now envisioned a more complex role for the public school system. Paramount was its responsibility to inculcate the philosophy that the needs of the individual and of society should be balanced. Yet, to facilitate the enhancement of such indefinite qualities, the Department relied primarily on CO-curricular Corporate Activities, and on a healthy dose of practical and manual tasks included as part of almost every subject area (1A-61). The former was intended to demonstrate the efficacy of social participation as well as providing valuable training in social values and skills (lA-55). The latter was expected to provide concrete opportunities for each student to explore and develop his or her own special aptitudes and interests, thereby facilitating persona1 growth (l A-5 1). It was also espoused as a compliment to strict academic skills training as a "stimulus to higher intellectual effort (1 A- 15). The new cumculum. therefore. applied the first. hesitant steps to a broader integration of elements within the cumculum. Minimal integration of content and skills aligned with

substantial integration of practical work, social skills. and individual development al1 supported by a well-defined underlying principle. However. the Programme relied heavily on the prearnble to assert its new direction to teachers and the relevant stakeholders. There was no consistent repetition and elaboration of each form of integration in al1 subject areas. This holds especially true for the more ephemeral elements of Individual Development and Underlying Ptinciples. Chart 1.1 - Dimension A (The Importance of Elemens used durhg Integration) Note: A more detailed description of Dimension A for al1 periods are available in Appendix C (pp. 489-6 18) Analysis of Dimension B: Objectives of lntegration Student-Centred Integration Paramount Following the beliefs outlined in the Hadow report, the authors state explicitly that the primary reason for integrating the curriculum was "...inspire& not by an attachment to conventional orthodoxies but by a vivid appreciation of the needs and possibilities of the children themselves" (1A-4). In alignment with the balanced emphasis on the Social Skills and Individual Development forrns of integration, the primary objective of the 1938 Programme was to provide equally for the child's needs for i) self growth and ii) a desire to adapt to his social surroundings (1A-7). As such, the authors recommend that "uniform schernes of instruction are out of the question if the best that is in the children is to be brought out" (1A-8). This objective was to be met by a three-fold approach: First, the cumculum should recognize that students only l e m when they are actively interested and engaged (1A-37). What is needed is: something more than a passing interest. We attach much importance to this last point. An interest which stimulates the pupil's curiosity, and urges him to put forth serious efforts to acquire further knowledge, obviously leads to a steady advance in the standard of attainment and an increasing degree of accuracy and

thoroughness. Once the pupil's interest is genuinely aroused, nothing but the best, according to his insights and capacities, will satisfy his aspirations. There are few teachers who have not seen, in one connection or another, the remarkable excellence of the work which is done by pupils when the subject has gripped their imagination and aroused their interest and enthusiasm ( 1 A- 1 1 ). The subject areas do follow this appeal. Social Studies entreat teachers to look at world events within the students' interests and capacities (1A-24) and to take an interest in inquiring into past events (1A-20). while Mathematical problems accordingly relate to the child's actual interests and experiences in the school and home (1A-29, 1A-3 1). By reference to easily observable phenomena al1 around them the children may be led to discem and respect the operation of other such principles in the ordinary happenings of everyday life (1A-33). In Science, for example, the conditions of student's ability and interest caused the guideline to direct teachers to tailor the course "...as largely as possible by the children's actual evident interests rather than by an adult logical arrangement of the subject matter*' (IA-35). Second, the curriculum had to be adaptable to the student's natural bent. This meant more than just trying to relate subject matter to things that should interest students. It required teachers to actively seek out and encourage student's interests, in al1 their diversity: But we would not be understood to suggest the possibility of interesting every pupil in every subject in al1 its aspects, or to imply that there is no drudgery to be undertaken. On the contrary would urge the recognition of diffenng interests. Pupils should be encouraged to follow, within reasonable limits, any special bent which they may possess (1 A- 1 t ). It was hoped that in most subjects, like Science, students would find their own approach to solving problems. The teacher was to "...expect the children gradually to build their own generalizations of science - arnending, correcting, confirming, and enlarging their ideas, as knowledge grows from more to more" (1A-35). Art especiaIly encourages this process (IA45). Cnticism of their work by the teacher is bluntly discouraged (1A-46). In Crafts, students are to

take initiative in selecting their own projects and completing them independently ( 1 A-49, 1 A-54). Third, the Programme States that al must be in accordance with students' capac 34; 1A-38; 1A46; I A-53). Therefore, in defined as: work, regardless of its type (academic or practid) ties and abilities (1A-10; IA-11; LA-15; LA-24; LAPeriod 1, the curriculum is primarily child-centred, 1. Relating subject matter to the student's own life and experiences; 2. Encouraging the student to develop special aptitudes and interests; 3. Limiting content and exercises to the student's capabilities. The authors of the 1938 Programme relied substantially upon cumculum integration as a tool for enabling the 3-fold approach to be reached: it was a way of learning that could be understood by children, whereas the disciplinary approach was beyond their comprehension. Subject-Centred a Distant Second While the central objective of the new cumculum was to meet the needs and abilities of the child, the curxicular reforms led to a certain degree of subject integration and a unifying of knowledge. if only as a by-product. The designers of this cumculum were emphatic in their opposition to the sub-division of subject areas beyond its uses as a tool to break large amounts of information into eficient groupings. They maintained that this approach had only Iimited applications when teaching elementary age students. Unless the learner could fit the subjectrelated knowledge into some Iarger and more comprehensive picture, s h e would simply become bewildered, and the objective was to avoid "confision in the mind of the pupil" (1A-12; see also 1A-13; LA-18; LA-27; 1A-35; iA-51; 1A-57). The Programme did not go to the furthest extreme, however: the aboiishment of subject areas altogether. Rather, it struck a compromise. Subject areas still existed but would be broadened and more interrelated (LA-12). Subdivisions like grammar and literature or biology and physics were thereby annulled in favour of the comprehensive core subjects of Science,

Mathematics, Social Studies and English. (1A-13). The reasoning behind this was to meet the changing needs of the students, to reduce overlap caused by isolation of subjects, enabling "a definite economy of time" (1A-12), and making a more flexible time-table. Aside from the designers main intent to reforrn the approach to adolescent education in general, therefore, there was a perceived need to reduce the complexity of and subdivisions in the cumculum. Thus, the new Programme split the tirnetable into 7 obligatory and 3 optional subjects (LA- 18). Within the subject areas, the related disciplines were to be grouped incidentally as the opportunity presented itself rather than given a formal structure (1 A-34, 1 A-35). Moreover, natural connections were to be reinforced, such as those that existed between Health, Science and Home Economics (LA40). The Addition of Social Continuity and Political Change The Programme is fairly specific about the social aspects it wished to integrate into a cumcul~m that had, until this point, been fairly academic. It states that students must be educated in a way that reinforces the "claims and needs of the society in which every individual citizen mut live" (IA-7, IA-14). Students are to learn about the past so that they may fit themselves into society today (1A-19: LA-20: 1A-21). They must lem the proper attitude towards the present government (1A-25) and family Iife (1 A-%), lem how to communicate (1 A26), and appreciate past creations (l A-52). The Programme expresses great hope that through the integration of certain key issues into the cumculum, society will receive a better, more skilled workforce and citizenry, thereby strengthening the character of the nation (1 A-5; 1 A- 16; 1 A-29; 1 A-30; 1 A-32; 1 A-4 1 ; 1 A-43; 1 A-%; 1 A-6 1 ; 1 A-62; 1 A-63; 1 A-65; 1 A-67). Nevertheless, the Programme also displays a hope to promote substantial changes in society by educating students in a different way. The new integrated method was intended to cut away "the dead wood of a formal tradition," and "an attachment to conventional orthodoxies"

(1A-4; 1A-6). It also states its desire to make students more progressive through "humane or iiberak education" that wifl try to balance the individual and society (1A-5; 1A-6; 1A-7; 1A14; 1 A-63; 1 A-64). LastIy, seeing that leisure and enjoyment of free time was becoming pertinent, the Programme applies significant integration of practical work to teach students ways of using that time wisely (1A-5; I A-16; 1 A-26). Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntearation CIearly, the great inspiration of this document was the Hadow Reports and little else. Based on the ideals set by the British example, the small Departmental cornmittee created this programme with little stakeholder involvement and expected their orders to be carried out with the expectation of little feedback. Much of the relationship of ~um~uludmev elopment was a one-way process between two parties - the Department and the teachers. This may be seen as merely an extenuation of the traditional arrangement. The subject areas themselves were arranged and fused by the Department itself, and al1 other integration approaches left up to the teachers' discretion. Little mention is made about the role played by either board or school, which is logical for a penod where both were practically non-existent in tems of curricuIum development. Analysis of Dimension O: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other Grade Levels Influenced directly by the Hadow Report, the Department viewed students in grade 7 and 8 as somewhat different from earlier or later grades. This is clearly indicated by its choice to create a separate cumculum for grades 7 and 8, distinct from the 1937 Elementary Programme. As the Grade 7-8 level embodied the heart of the adolescent years, it was felt that a cuniculum had to be specifically tailored to meet the needs of this special age group." However, the Department also created the "IittIe blue book" as a natural extension of "the little grey book", signaling its belief that adolescents were still closely related to children in many ways. l 3 In fact. the document goes as far as advocating the creation of a separate school for the Grade 7-8 level (LASa). Primary Mode of Integration

The pnmary form present in this Programme of studies is Fusion. The committee took 15 separate subjects and merged them to create 7. English. which had formerly been taught in three different courses as Grarnrnar, Literature and composition, is now taught in one large block of time. However, for the teachers' clarity, the English section is broken into reading, creative expression, oral communication, communication in writing and corrective teaching. These are to be cornbined in a natural format and to be instnicted as the opportunity arises. The same appiies to Mathematics. in which arithmetic, mensuration. algebra. and geometry are fused (1 A-1 3, 1 A27). The sub-disciplines of botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, physiology and hygiene combined to be taught under the umbrella subject Science (1A-34). The subdisciplines are addressed only when they may be of help in answering a question related to a general situation (i.e., in the kitchen). Finally, the long separated subjects of History and Geography, and a new addition, Civics, are fued to create "Social Studies" (1 A-19, 1 A-20). As seen in Dimension C, this process was solely created at the departmental level, and teachers were simply expected to follow these dictates. Secondary/Localized Modes of Integration Although pursued in a rather haphazard way. Correlation plays an important form of integration throughout this period. With the unwavering belief that "there are subjects which share together an area of common ground" ( 1 A- 12). the Programme encourages teachers to make connections between subject areas so that students may see relationships. However, most reference to this take the form of suggestions put forth in each subject description in the curriculum. Harmonizdon, h i l e treated in a rudimentary way, also plays some importance in particular subjects. English States that it should form the backbone of any curriculum (1 A27) Art (LA-15) and religion (LA-17) state the same thing. Yet. none are mentioned to any

significant extent anywhere else in the document. What does appear throughout the Programme. however. is the underlying importance of "practical intelligences": the use of real life applications in Science and Math, the introduction of hands-on courses (such as crafts, agriculture, home economics. art, and music). and the application of current events in Social Studies. Left implicit is the harmonized belief in the student-centred education. Chart 1.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of Integratioo MethodsIApproaches) ' Negligible Im~entnl i Localizcd !a lncidenwl Scsred Cross Muki Corrclat Plun lnxn Fusion Thcrnritic Ham Trms Integraiion Methods/Approaches Used to a much lesser degree is the thematif approach. It is seen especially in Science (1 A-36). An (1 A-49) and Crafts (1 A-54, LA-55). which begin each lesson with a situation or problem that must be solved bnnging in disciplines as needed. While the first two seem fairly interdisciplinary, Crafts tend to deal with solely material problems (i.e., fixing a chair). Incidental Modes of Integration: The remaining integrative approaches are quite inconsequential. The one fairly concrete and interesting suggestion is made conceming the Muuidisciplinary approach. It is suggested that Physical Education and Music fom some sort of coordination to study "eurythmics" - a form of exercise with music quite popular in the early part of this century. This is mentioned once, however, as a suggestion and is not discussed again. Analysis of Dimensions F & G: lmplernentin~C urriculum lntegration If the inconsistencies in the Programme's definitions of cumculum integration indicate how unfamiliar this educational approach was for the Department, i ts hesi tant guidelines for implementation dramatically prove it. From the prearnble, through the subject-area descriptions, to corporate activities, the Programme shows a lack of comprehension regarding the dificulty teachers might face in applying this cuniculum. In addition to the newness of cumculum

integration and a childcentred approach, this charactenstic of the Rogramme may also be explained by the sharp directional flow of cumcuium design. As illustrated in Profile C (see Appendix C. p.501). the Department fomulated curricular refonn with no reference to its subsidiary Pamiers in the schools system. Once the Programme had been created, the Department appears to have blithely believed that teachers would simply enact its pnnciples with little effort. Regarding the Departmen t's awareness of potential implementation impediments (see Profile F, p. 504). mention is made only of subject attachment, specialized course structure. and the possible inappropriateness of traditional testing. The Department, as indicated by their assertions that subject specialization caused overcrowding of the tirnetable, appears to have some understanding of work overload. However, the impact of the teacher's new role as a social, practical and individual talent mentor seems to have generated no concern. Such pressure was exacerbated by the Department's strict time limitation that demanded al1 schools implernent the new Programme within a year or face suspension of their right to certificati~n.'~S imilady. the physical resources that would be required for the new courses and activities were simply assumed to be easily attainable. The new Home Econornics course, for example, demands the purchase of iceboxes, stoves and other equip ment; practical/manual tasis integrated into almost every subject area lay a heavy emphasis on crafts that would also require new rnaterials. While the Department did allow schools a degree of latitude, it made no effort to establish a fund for resources or to grant extensions on full implementation. l5 Relatively meager assistance was thereby proffered to schools by the Department to assist the implementation process. Even fewer steps were taken to encourage response from parents or the cornrnunity to the proposed curricular changes. The wider school administration was also largely ignored. This, of course, may partially be attributed to the more minor, political role

played by school boards at this point in the history of Ontario education. In short, the Department appears to have considered both the board and the principal of little consequence for the successfbl irnplementation of their new program. The one specific reference made to the principal in the entire document States only that the principal and teachers should take the initiative for religious training in the school. Where the Department does exhibit a degree of sensitivity is with regard to the teachers' and students' involvement in the new curriculum. The document rnakes the effort to enlist teacher support by carefblly explaining the benefits that should result fiorn the changes. It also includes helpfl suggestions for teachers scattered randomly throughout its subject-area - -14 Although never acted upon there are sevcral esamples of veiled threats made by certain departmental officiais. More moderate superior oficers in the hierarchy countermanded these foms of intimidation when petitioned by the coerced schools. See Central Registry Files. RG-2. Series P-3. Bos 207 (files 2-993 to 4-87) Ontario Archives. 1s Esamples abound of memos sent by schools and boards asking for more time to raise resources for kitchen and shop equipment. See Centrai Registry Files, RG-2. Series P-3. Bos 207 (file 3-183) Ontario Archives. descriptions. Nevertheless, the Department seems to perceive teachers as qualified professionals who require no additional training to constmct and deliver courses based upon these new principles. Perhaps the greatest assistance the Programme gives to teac hers (and another recognition of its belief in their capabilities) is considerable latitude in adapting the material for their own particular circumstances. While open policy creation is minimal at best, it does allow for adjusting the order of topics and pennits teachers to omit material when necessary. Encouragement of student participation and involvement in their own education is by and Iarge a by-product of the philosophy that governs this curriculum. Shifiing fiom a disciplinary,

subject-oriented system to a progressive, child-centred approach meant taking students' views of the educational process into some consideration. The entire thnist of the Programme is a heightened interest and acceptance on the part of the student. Therefore. it 1s necessary for students to be encouraged to take a certain possession of the work and activities they perform during the course of the school year. Student participation in choosing some themes and projects was requested by the Department, and it was suggested that students should assist in the maintenance of discipIine and the school as a whole. However. it cannot be inferred fiom the Programme that students were given fieedom to choose their courses, nor were they asked to assist teachers in determining the overall design and structure of the new curriculum. Overaii Remarks on Period 1 From the information gleaned above, certain inferences can be made about the integration process during this period. Specifically, the curriculum integratlon approaches (as described in Dimension E) chosen by the Department, and the process it chose to implement them (Dimensions F & G), reflect an amalgam of new philosophical premises (Dimensions A, B, D) and certain traditional Departmental structures (Dimension C). As shown graphically in diagrarn 1, this study's major assertions are as follows: 1. Integration p hiloso phy and im plementation process inherently incompatible The 1938 programme preamble accepts wholesale the philosophical prernises of the Hadow Report. This includes a belief in their newly defined concept of "Adolescence" which identifies it as a special phase in hurnan development with particular needs and aptitudes pimension D). To accomplish this would entai1 a decentralization of responsibility to the teacher and students themselves as well as the abolishment of any standardized approaches to pedagogy. In short, to be successful, the Department would have had to enact a complete overhaul of the existing structure of education that reflected the changes in the curriculum. While certain self-contained changes could be made (such as the abolishment of Grade 8 exams), endemic reforrns appear to have been largely out of reach of the Department at this time (Dimension C). The curriculum change was, to a great extent, treated in a traditional, top-down process

throughout. Although made in response to local pressure. solutions were sought out from a foreign, elite source (solely from the Hadow Report) rather than from any local stakeholders (teachers, parents, etc). The resulting programme appears to have then been disseminated to the teachers fete accompli rather than implemented collaboratively (Dimensions F & G). Furthemore, while espousing the benefits of unity, certain traditional "disciplines" were still viewed by the Department as having great ment when orpnizing the curriculum. Therefore, while the newly adopted concepts of adolescence and pedagogy were the deciding factors in dnving the Department in their choice of integration approaches (Dimension E), its traditional perceptions of centralized bureaucracy and disciplinary education did much to colour its execution of these reforms. 2. 'bFusion'' approach a successful amdgam of the inherently conflicting philosophies One of the Hadow Report's major findings was that adolescents are characteristically confsed by subject divisions (Dimension D). abstract concepts and too rnuch content (Dimension A). The report recommends the drastic reduction of separate subjects. based on the teacher's discretion. in fact, it goes as far as recommending that teachers view the curriculum as a whole, with subject areas melting away (Dimension B). As examples, it sugested that teachers thernselves may want to fuse a certain number of subjects to sirnpli@ the curricufum. While the report recornmended the creation of large subject areas like "English". "Social Studies", "Mathematics". and "Science". it leaves the choice up to the individual teacher. The Department appears to have accepted this premise in theory. However, it could not bring itself to allow schools or teachers the ffeedom to dictate the organization of the cumculum in reality. As a compromise, therefore, it adapted the aforementioned "fused" subjects fiom the report and mandated that al1 classroorns should follow this approach to education. This gave teachers more leeway in the classroom within wide subject boundaries, while allaying the Department's fears in regards to accountability. Therefore, while it must be acknowledged that the use of this approach

was a great step (in the long m) in fieeing up the teachers from the previous 15 separate courses, it feil short in the Hadow's report original reason for it - to empower the teacher and student. Time has borne out the validity of this approach - 3 of the 4 "fused" subject did not splintered again for the next 60 years. 3. Manual Skills Harmonized It appears that the recommendation the Department took most seriously fiom the Report was the importance it placed on Manual Work- For the adolescent mind, the report argued, practical prob lems are the most efficient steppingstones to higher, abstract thought. Holding this premise as true, the departmental conunittee apparently resolved that concrete examples and problem solving must becorne the highest priority of the curriculum. To ensure that this was inculcated in the students, the Department mandated that "practical intelligence and work" should be harmonized throughout every subject area and included as essential tasks whether the course was English, Math or Science. Ln this instance, it accepted "harmonization" as the necessary approach because of the percerved symbiotic relationship between concrete. abstract and individual skills (Dimension E). 4. Social Skills Segregated The Report recommended that the curriculum should include the defining and understanding of adolescents' own social relationships (Dimension A), as this will interest them greatly at this stage of their lives (Dimension D). It also saw the importance of teaching social continuity as a necessary function of education (Dimension B). However, in reading this over, it appears that the Department interpreted the learning of good citizenship as a proper end in itself. rather than a steppingstone to something else (Iike manual skills had been). Therefore. to them, harmonization was not the answer. Rather they chose the more traditional means of education. making it a separate subject for study (albeit the hsed subject of Social Studies). Active learning of social skills was also relegated to a separate part of the day - "Corporate Activities" (aiso

known as after-school or extra-curricular Activities). 5. Vague Correlation a result of a "fuzzy" view of subject-centred connections Lastly, the Programme repeatedly rnakes several suggestions that certain comrnon areas between subject areas should be noted. However, these ideas rernain largeIy undeveloped (i.e., a correlation is mentioned between Math and Science in one subject, but not the other). This uncornfortable, almost incidental approach seems to stem from a loggerhead created by two opposing philosophies. On the one side, the Department tries to follow the Hadow Report's recornmendation that the curriculum should be linked as a whole to combat isolation. while on the other it tries to follow its traditional assumption that content and ideas should be severely segregated to promote efficiency and clarity. In this case, this stalemate has created a rather lacklustre approach that may or may not have been used by the teachers. The first Ontario curriculum to espouse integration as an educational approach does evince certain characteristics that illustrate the originality of this concept. Where the preamble is very definite about the progressive, practical and child-centred objectives of the designers, these principles are not systematically carried into each subject-area description (see analysis of profile E). Furthemore, certain recornrnendations for integration that appear in one subject area are not reinforced in the others: Art, English, Religion are each described as "beyond subject boundaries", but there is only one passing mention of the importance of reading and comprehension skills in Mathematics. There is also some derailment of basic principles. Social Skills and Individual Development are balanced carefully in the preamble and in rnost subject area descriptions. but in Music. lndividual Development fails to receive even implicit mention. Aside from such rninor inconsistencies in the document, the Programme presents a carefully planned and coherent blueprint for substantial educational change. Its arguments follow a logical course and are substantiated by references to child psychology. philosophy, and educational

methodology. Curriculum integration is not the goal of this Programme. Rather, it is the most viable tool the designers could envision for achieving their objectives. Impetus for Change Inspiration for Direction of Change Phi losophical Prernises Conicni overload & specialization has siifled imagination and self-devclopment need a more blanccd education so ihe siudni 1 can sec "the wholc" 1 Reac tionary Depart men ta1 Assumptions Libcnl Mandate IO crcate a new programme of Studies Ongoing criiicism of prescni cumculum discipline-biised educaiion inefficient use of school lime, tirnetable overcrowded roie lcaming i s ineffeciive approach Io ieach elementary siudents (they leam litile) Emphasis too high on facis, low on oiher aspects of thc "whole penon" Coercion only meihod Io aid Icarning. and has proven ineffective v Adolescents are confusrd Adolescents lcarn Adolescents are mosi Social Skills musi lx iriughi hy ioo many ahstnct k s i ihrough pnciical susceptible IO the bencliis by schools to cnsure bctter subject arcas & conieni - applications of social leaming pcople, better civilizaiion this hindcrs ihcir curiosiiy and naiural abiliiics Approach Used to enact the philosophy I Findings from the Hadow Report l Corrclair naiural areas of cornmonaliiy shared by subjccts -

when possible (Suggestive) larger subject areas, bui still mainiain tndiiional boundaries (Mandaied) Harmonization of PnciicaVManual Skills (Mandaied expectations. suggested apprmch) Social interaction shall be integraied inio a Social Studies (fused subjeci), and in corporate activiiics (Mandated) Formal Disciplines are a valid way IO organize ihe The process of cumculum developmeni is s i i l l a one way process from curriculum Departmeni io ieachcr (board and schoot play negligible role). Diagram 1. Assumptions Linking Philosophy to Curriculum Integration Approach The creators of the 1938 Programme had expected that the document would be disseminated to a largely young, well-educated generation of teachers who knew the scholarship surrounding its progressive spirit, and could apply the various approaches needed to reach its goals.1 The older teachers. it was expected, would simply retire. However, this belief was shortIived, as the declaration of War threw this pattern into disarray. War demanded military service fiom almost al1 young males (as well as a sizeable chunk of young females) in the profession, to be replaced by significantly older teachers, brought out of retirement (Starnp, 1982). Throughout

these years, therefore, i t was not surprising to find numerous archival records dispiaying teac hers' apparent ignorance of (or steadfast refusal to teach) any approaches to education that were not tried-and-me.' Evidently. the new program was not to be aied under the most favourable conditions or even by the most informed practitioners. Even without the strains of war, however, the implementation of a "progressive" format had proven difficult to al1 who had attempted it in North America. While at the policy level, it appeared to permeate al1 facets of education (at least according to Lawrence Cremin, 1962). there seemed to be considerably more discord at the school level as to its uses. In Alberta "while the ideas and terrninology [of progressive education] gained popularity, they did not gain a strong hold in the schools" (Wilson, 1970, p. 378). In fact, just as the movement achieved its most suength in Canada during the late 1930s, it was in the process of rapidly losing popularity in the rest of the world (Kach et al, 1986, p. 62). Patterson argued that this disillusionment was due to a generally poor realization of "progressive" ideals: -- ' The teacher population had steadily grown in the pre-war years and. more importantly. they had ken subjected to more rigorous training and qualifications (See the Minister's Annual Report for 1937, p. 2). Gidney (1999) points to the "progressive" ideas that were taught by many teachers at Ontario NormaI Schools (p. 32). Examples of this Iasted throughout the war years. See "Correspondence to the Superintendent of Elementary Education" RG-2, P-3. Box 244, File 4-8 151816. Ontario Archives. Unfomuiately in al1 provinces practicing teachers were poorly prepared for the changes. Teachen expressed an urgent need for help as soon as the new curricula and rnethodology were introduced. Generally, the reforms were the work of an educational elite wtthin the departrnents of education and the normal schools. Practicing teachers were ill-prepared for the changes which were thrust upon them. dernonstrating the need for a program of education and populanzation. (p. 73) If the reformers are to be faulted, the criticism should be directed at their failure to adequately educate the practitioners. Their efforts resulted in confusion,

misunderstanding and. of course. misapplication. The fault was not necessady in what was conceived nor even in what was formally introduced, but in the failure to orient and convert the practitioners who were key figures in determining the ultimate success or failure of the venture. (p. 75) By 1942. it had become apparent to the Department that the new Programme was untenable in its present state, and a revision of the 1938 Programme was created. First, accommodation had to be made (due to the rnyriad of cornplaints fiom teachers) for guidance concerning approaches to reach the new goals of education. It did so by adding a section entitled "The Enterprise Method that detailed the progressive approach.~econdi.n response to medra demands for assurances that al1 efforts were being made to win the war and maintain the "Canadian" way of life, changes were included in the 1942 revision that reflected the new atmosphere of patriotism. Shortly after this new programme was disseminated, the Ontario Liberals fell fiom power. to be replaced by a minority Conservative government in August 1943. Quick to realize the tenuousness of a minority position', the new premier, Col. George A. Drew decided on another 3 Fust introduced by the progressive scholar W.H. Kilpatrick (19 18; 1930. 1934). the "activity method" or "project method" was designed to change the pupil From passive recipient of information. to an active participant in CO-operativelys olving a problem in which he himself was interested. It required a change of role for the tacher as well. demanding more flesibility of tirnetables and classroom facilities. It also called for group work. oral reports. individual researck and critical thinking. By the mid-1930s. this method was adopted by Britain and the western provinces under the titlc "the Enterprise Mcthod". It was no doubt added to the new Ontario curriculum in 1942 with the hopes of prornoting an increased spirit of democracy. "eing from a rnilitay background (he left army in 19 18 but continued to hold the rank of Lieutenant-colonel in the militia). Drew knew the hazards of a weak government during wr-the. He e.xplicitiy States this several

tirnes in his officia1 addresses and unpublislied mernoires (see Drew Papers. Ontario Archives). vote that would definitively decide who would rule Ontario for the next four years. Of great importance to Drew's platforrn was the maintenance and prosperity of education, one of "the main pillars of Ontario society" ("Addresses, 1943-1944", File 146 (3b), Drew Papers, Ontario Archives). To Drew, it was what stood between a victorious country and a defeated country. So strongly did he feel about this chat he took on the dual portfolio of Premier and Minister of Education. Clearly shown in their "Twenty-Two Point Plan" (1943) for re-election, the Conservatives saw certain ills in Ontario society and, if elected, the concrete steps they would take to arnend them. Chief among them was a promise to refonn the educational system which, the pian said, was lagging behind that of the rest of the Western world: Our educational system will be completely revised so that every child in this Province will have an opportunity to be educated to the full extent of their mental capacity, no matter where they live or what the financial circumstances of their parents may be. Vocational training will be made a more important part of the schoolwork so that children rnay be prepared to earn a living by practical vocational instruction. The important place of our teachers in each community will be fully recognized. (p. 5) Based partly on these promises, Drew's administration was elected back into office with a substantial rnajority. For the remainder of his stay as Minister of Education, Drew continually rnaintained in his speeches that it was the school's responsibility (along with the family and church) to instill certain strong beliefs in the Young. These pnmarily included the inculcation of patriotism, Christian principles, self-discipline. the nuclear family, ethical values for freedom and democracy, as well as basic reading and mathematical skills.' A sizeable discrepancy remained between his rhetoric of reforrn, however, and the actual changes that he made to the cumculum. While Drew did manage to include certain add-on courses for "Religious Education" and "Cadet Training" to the 1942 Programme, he made no other changes throughout his 6-year tenure as Minister. This could be due to two main reasons:

1. By the time Drew's government was solidly in place in 1944, the two Programmes of Study (1938 & 1942) had become fairly entrenched in the educational community. They had set a tone, Pace and focus which seemed to be most palatable to an administration caught within the strains of an escalating and costly war effort. To insert revolutionary changes would have been to send in unneeded chaos during a time of great dismption. 2. Drew and the Department supporting him (with many bureaucrats who had a hand in the creation of the original documents) appeared to have very Little disagreement with the bulk of the material. It stressed demoracy, Christian principles, an adherence to the British Empire, basic skills, etc. Despite their attacks against poor education in Ontario in general, the Conservatives appeared to have no argument with the major premises of what were king taught and the methods recommended by the revised 1942 Programme. Promises had to be kept, however. To fulfill the government's electoral pledge for reform, Drew created a Royal Commission on Education through an Order-in-Council. Chaired by Mr. Justice John Andrew Hope and consisting of 21 commissioners, it was to be an allencornpassing study of the Ontario school system with recommendations on how the government should clarify its vision of what shape post-war education should take. Of pnmary concem were the issues of universal education. irnproved facilities. vocational training, and cumculum design.' Most importantly for Drew. it allowed him to take a promissory approach in his role as Minister of Education for the rest of his terrn. For the next four years he was able to speak with conviction that solid educational reform based on the Hope Commission's findings would be undertaken when the Report ws submitted (see vol. 308, file 267 (3b), Drew Papers, Ontario Archives). Until that time, the Department undertook only cosmetic cumculum policy changes (such as Examples of his educational views can be seen in his staternents to the Legislature ("Addresses". File 146). in his radio broadcasts ("Addresses, 1943-1944". file 146 (3b). file 3 14 (3b), and in his speeches to various institutes (Files 249-27 1) in Drew Papers, Ontario Archives.

6 The reasons for suiking the commission are outlind in great detail by the Report it submitted in 1950 (see especially pp. 23-33). textbook replacements and content updates). In other words, Drew maintained a strict policy of non-policy (see Bachrach & Baratz. 1962; Boyd, 1978).' Features of the Period: There are two sources used dunng this penod. The first is the Promamme of Studies for Grades 7 and 8 of the Public and Separate Schools (1942)- and should be viewed as merely a revision of the previous 1938 document rather than as a separate initiative. It maintains most of the features of the previous programme, and in fact, does not change much of the wording in many sections (such as in the subject areas and corporate activities). Only the introductory section (8 pages) is significantly changed, while a new section entitled "The Enterprise Method" is added, showing the new spirit of pedagogy from the previous document. Like the previous document, these sections are followed by more detailed descriptions of the 7 obligatory and 4 optional subjects (Manual Training king a new addition) that were to be offered at al1 public and separate schools within the Ontario educational system. The revisions, done by Stanley Watson himself, are said to derive from inspecter's observations and teacher's comments. The second source, the Promamme for Relig- ious Education in Public Schools (1944)- can also be attributed almost solely to Watson. Recalled from Ottawa in the Spring of 1944, he was given the task by the Director of Education to create the document for September distribution. Basing the programme heavily on the Cambridgeshire Syllabus (1940), he fieely admitted to the novelty of the exercise, and the hastiness in which it was ~ndertaken.~ 7 In fact, the Grade 1-6 Programme would rernain solidly enuenched until the late 1960s while grades 7-8 awaited the ascension of a new administration.

In reponing to the Hope Commission on Decernber 18, 1946. Watson outlined the specifxcs of the creation of this cumculum: "1 came into the thing cold. and the books were entirely new to me. 1 made a study of them .. . and 1 arranged topics to form a tentative course of study to be submitted to a number of church leaders. One week after 1 had that in form to send on to religious leaders ... then began the preparation of the manual whose proofs were sent by July 24 to 35 to 40 religious leaders. The programme as finally amended was presented to the Minister on the 17 of August. ... That went to press the next day. It w u distn'buted without changes. (Proceedings, Wi tness No. 452, Briefs to Royal Commissiort Vol. 2, pp. 5258-5259, Ontario Archives). Analysis of Dimension A: Elements Used Durinq lnteqration Chart 2.1 - Dimension A (The Importance of Elements used during Integration) Content Ac. Skills Manuai Social individual Underlying Elemenls Any changes in the importance and tenor of the Forms of Integration for this period must be seen as merely revisions to the 1938 programme. changed to reflect the bellicose atmosphere of the time. Practically no changes were made in the first three foms of Content. Academic Processes and Manual Skills beyond slight modifications. The only dramatic change that took place was the unbalancing of the earlier "Social Individuaiism." Individual development was greatly de-emphasized. the vacuum replaced with a heavier accent on social skills training and the adoption of a new set of underlying principles stressing "sacrifice," "responsibility," and "respect" for the welfare of society. This change in mentality is understandable for the time Individuaiism was felt to lead to dissention, which in turn could Iead to defeat. Analysis of Dimension B: Objectives of Integration Student-Centred Integration Reinforced Student interest still remains the primary reason for the integration of the cumculum. In fact, the new prearnble and Enterprise sections do much to boost its importance. The authors clearly lay out their philosophy, obviously highly influenced by the Progressive movement:

Learning takes place most efficiently when the interest of the lemer is aroused. Interest (which mus& not be construed to mean "diversion" or "amusement") is the foundation of learning. When interest becomes attached to an imagined future accomplishment and the will to achieve it is aroused, a purpose results. When the pupil's actions are directed by a continuing purpose, external motivation becomes less necessary. The immediate and transitory interests of pupils should be transforrned into enduring purposes. Learning is more eficient and takes place with the greatest economy of tin~ea nd effort when pursued in connection with a worth-while purpose and then related to a real situation. (2A-15) This sentiment is repeated throughout the subject areas. Social Studies (2A45, 2A-50), English (2A-53), Mathematics (2A-60, SA-61, 2A-62)- Art (2A-84, 2A-85, 2A-89). Crafts (2A94), Home Economics (2A- 10 1 ), Religious education (2B- 18,2B-23) - al1 describe the arousal of student interest as the starting point for the cunicuIum. They are also emphatic that students will not be interested by passive means but through active participation in their own learning: participating in informally-planned activities such as dramatization (2B-19). experimentation (2A-70, 2A-7 1, 2A-7 1, 2A-76), or self-appraisal of their work (SA-2 1, 2A-37, 2A-38). To this end, the programme recommends that adult strictures must be sacrificed to allow a certain arnount of freedom to the students so that they may organize themselves and work in an unsupervised way. Goals must be accessible to students and there must be lax time-limits on them in getting the job done to prevent suain on the child's mental health (2A-7, 2A-77, 2A-94). This can be accomplished through the use of the Enterprise Method: Children engaged on an enterprise may not know what "subject" they are studying nor in what "period" according to the time-table. It matters little to the learners whether an interesting item of knowledge or experience is properly called geography, history, dramatization, or literature; the important thing to them as learners is that it is interesting, and is useful for them in the life they are living as boys and girls (2A-25). The authors argue that this is a "natuml way of learning" (2A-22, 2A-23) because it teaches students how to "learn to do by doing" (2A-24).

Subject Unity Remains a Low Priority Subjects are included in the programme, therefore, not for the students' sake, but to provide some structure for teachers. In fact, it states that once teachers becomes more adept at working with the enterprise method, they will be able to keep the subject lines in their heads, invisibly weave them together, and adapt it to the students' way of learning. Eventually, it is hoped that students will learn how to tap into the many subject areas to aid a project - writing dialogue and invitations, creating costumes and scenery, calcuiating the cost of materials, learning songs and dances - yet remain unaware of the disciplinary divisions (2A-25). This will help them think in terrns of unified wholes rather than isolated sub-divisions. While the Enterprise Section implicitly advocates the destruction of al1 subject boundaries, the broad subject areas descnbed in period 1 are retained in this programme? As well, integration is again rnentioned frequently (if in passing) by the authors as a way of heiping reduce overlap, tirnetable complexity and increase efficiency and clarity (2A-70, 2A-79, 2A95). This is seen especially in Science (2A-71) and Health (2A-78, 2A-82), while teachers are encouraged to combine classes for Music, Art, Crafts, and for many of the activities outlined under English. (2A- 17). Manual Training, although doing much to isolate itself h m al1 other subjects through its specialized course of study, makes an appeal to integration as a way of "fitting in" to the curriculum and to show its importance to the teacher. It states that: 9 Only Social Studies is mentioned as a fusion of previously separated subjects, however (2A47). It is essential that the classroom teacher and the Manual Training teacher recognize that Manual Training has an educational as well as a practical value. The classroom teacher should be familiar with the facilities of the shop, and the shop teacher shouid be in touch with the work of the grades. Manual Training will only achieve the best results if the cooperation between the general work of the school and the Manual Training room is of the closest possible kind. (2A-99) Similarly, the Religious Programme maintains that whether spintual, intellectual or physical, "education is one and indivisible" (2B-10). thereby affinning its pIace in the curriculum. More specifically, it draws connections between religious education with other subjects, especially history, geography, and English to show its importance (2B- 17.2B-2 1, 2B-25).

Social Continuity Buoyed by Wartime Activity In a meteoric rise from the previous penod, the creation of the "socially satisfactory personality" (2A-4, 2A-5. 2A- 10) with socially valuable skills (2A-8. 2A- 14. 2A-62) becomes an overwhelming emphasis, integrated into alrnost a11 aspects of the curriculum. The programme's explicit purpose is threefold. First, it States that students learning cooperation with others will help society achieve common goals and peace (2A-3.2A-4, 2A-23. 2A-48. 2A-5 1. 2A-83.2A89. 2A-104). Second. for a society to prosper, it is necessary for students to be knowledgeable of their rights, duties and responsibilities (2A-5, 2A-9, 2A-12. 2A-13, 2A-28. 2A-62, 2A-76. 2A44. 2A-45, 2A-47, 2A-5 1, 2A-52, 2A-83, 2A- 10 1, 2A- 104, 2B-6, 2B-9, 2B- 1 1, SB- 12, 2B29). Last, for the present political system presently in place (Le. the commonwealth) to floutish, it is necessary for students to leam respect for it (2A-48. 2A-52, 2A-68, 2A-69). and the "pnvileges and the property of others" given to them by the system (2A-4). It is quite obvious by the tone taken by the programme that this aspect of the cumcu was written during a time when social continuity was greatly threatened. Indeed, in 1942 Allied powers were at a nadir and their whole way of life seemed under attack. , lum the No Political Change Promoted There is no indication in the text chat any attempt is being made to try to change society through the education of the Young. Rather, there is a desire to reinforce the "Canadian" way of life. Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntegration Clearly, the 1942 programme musc be seen merely as a revision of the previous guideline, not as a revoiutionary document. SimiIarly, the structure of the Ontario school system and the integration process have not greatly changed from the last period. Most of the amendments made, however. can be attnbuted to the Department's response to teacher cornplaints (as related by inspectors in the field). It is keeping with government protocol that the Department did not

return to these local educators for suggestions as to how to solve their problems. Rather, it sought out British sources, yet again, to find a solution. 'The Enterprise Method" was taken quite precisely from a British progressive theory (not unlike the Hadow Report). and distributed to the teachers as the correct way to educate students. To the authors' credit, however, teachers and students were given much leeway within the approach. Schools and school boards are again rarely mentioned and play insignificant roles in the integration process. Analysis of Dimension D: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other Grade Levels According to the 1942 Programme, the Department's view of the Grade 7-8 years' relationship with the integration process has not significantly changed from Period 1. Primary Forms of Integration Of greatest impact on the new progamme, in regards to integration, is the Department's introduction of "the Enterprise Method". Although it is explicitly mentioned only in a separate section (see 2A-20 to 2A-43), it is described in great detail and appears to faII under the The& Approach category for Dimension E. It is broken into three phases: the planning stage undertaken by the teacher and to some extent the students who determine the parameters of a chosen project to undertake (2A-26, 2A-31, 2A-32); the work stage done by the students to solve the problem (2A-26, 2A-27, 2A-33, 2A-34); and the culmination activity that brings their work to an end, like a production or a concrete object (2A-30 to 2A-33). The time students have to do this is also judged by them - it does not go by bds, but by the length of their visible interest (2A25) it can go for minutes, hours, days or months. From the highly child-centred nature that the Enterprise Method takes, it can be infemed that the Department is also making fairly strong leanings towards the Transdisciplinary Approach, as well. However, beyond this theoretical rhetoric, the approach is only hinted at in al1 other subject areas. Specific projects and problems are mentioned individually throughout, but the spirit of the Enterprise Method (most specifically,

its child-centred aspect) are left undeveloped. Students are given some Iimited freedom to pursue interests, but the time-table is too welI-guarded and bounded to give them much leeway. Also suffenng fiom a lack of elaboration are the strong underlying principles outlined in Dimension A. The authors specifically state that these should imbue the cumculum - that they should be included in each specific area and that they should not be taught in a specific time period. It is inferred, therefore that these ethics and values should be harmonized throughout the cumculum, that a definite plan should be created beforehand by designers and teachers to include these values in. However, as can be seen from the chart, while it is emphatically discussed in the preamble, this approach is stretched a little thin in places across the programme. Secondary/Localized and Incidental Forrns of Integration AI1 other approaches appear to be simply continuations from the previous programme. Again. correlntion plays an important, if unorganized form of integration in this penod. The programme puts forward virtually the same general recommendations to teachers - none are prescribed, and it is unknown whether any of these were acted upon. While it is obvious that English and Mathematics do not change from the previous cumculum. no mention is made of them as being a fusion of any sub-dimensions. Social Studies and Science, however, state in passing that they are a combination course of smaller subjects. Chart 2.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of lntegration MethoddApproaches) Nested Cross Multi Correlat Pluri lnsen Fusion Thematic Harm Trans lntagratlon MethodilApp~heS Again. rnultidisciplinary methods are generally encouraged, but not exploited to any noticeable degree. The programme mentions that teachen of different subjects should meet to share their ideas (2A-18). but only vaguely followed up in Manual training. and a repeat of eurythrnics. Beyond this. there is some mention of cross-dkciplinary activity. namely "religious history" (28-25) and "scientific drawing" (2A-87). and Inseriion (2A-5 1, 2A-58, 2A-68. 2A69) but barely worth mentioning. The Nested approach is vaguely broached, in that teachers are told

by the designers of the programme that they shouid organize their courses in some incremental way. But, this remains very rudimentary. Analysis of Dimensions F & G: lmplementina Curriculum lnteqration Remaining very rnuch within the same bureaucratic structure of the previous period, the Department does make some revisions, obviousiy based on teachers' compiaints. The new "Enterprises" section is perhaps the most friendly towards the integration process - it makes a great attempt to counteract subject attachment, by subjugating subject lines to a specific project (2A-20, 2A-23 to SA-32, 2A-37 to 2A43). Furtherrnore, the Enterprise is most radical in its attempt to include much student control of the learning process, and acknowledges that the changes required for implementation will take time (2A-40, 2A-44d). In the abstract, these sentiments are reiterated throughout the programme (2A-7, 2A-8, 2A-57, 2A-71, SA-73, 2A77, 2A-78, 2B-9, 2B-17, 2B- 18). However, certain concrete actions taken by the cornmittee make this an unfeasible prospect. Few connections are drawn between subject areas, and the newly added courses of Religion and Manual Training both require specialists to perforrn the job (2A96,2B-3,2B-4,2B-16,2B-17). Beyond a doubt, both the Department and the teachers of the time knew that the additions to the cumculum were going to mean an additional load to the 1938 revolutionary programme. This is recognized especiali y in connection wi th the Enterprise (2A-40, 2 ~ - 4).l'O Religion, 'O The document clearly States that this approach was not a replacement for more "familiar" teaching methods, but a mandatory supplement (SA-29). At this time, the Department received many responses from teachers voicing their frustration over the increased work load and unfeasibility of the new programme (see Tomplaints to the Superintendent of Elementary Education" RG-2, P-3, Box 244. File 4-8 15/8 16, Ontario Archives). Manual Arts and civics, as well as new content are also added (2A-11 to 2A-14, 2A-96 to 2A100, 2B). However, nothing is removed from the programme. As before, it was aIso expected

that teachers would implement this within a one-year time limit. The suggestions the Department gives to counteract this problem are meager. They recommend teachers rearrange or doubleup on topics so that they make efficient use of time, and make coursework it adaptable to fit the allotted space (2A- 16, 2A-7 1,2A-72, 2A-73, 2A-78,2B-30, 28-36). For the first time, the Department mentions professional development for the teachers. However, it maintains the belief that this is the bailiwick of the teachers themselves. It was expected that they would take responsibility to hoId discussion groups (2A- 18) and to search out sources of enlightenment (2A- 19, SA-43, 2A-65, 2B-2 1 ). Occasionally, it mentions that teachers of different subjects should meet and discuss common linkages (2A-99), but curiously enough, the Department discourages teachers from sitting in other classes, stating that it would be impractical (2A43). Testing is the one area where vast changes had k e n made to the implementation of the cumculum. By this time formal examinations had completely given way to IocaI testing. Alternative assessments were now recommended to test for pupils' capacities (2A-7, 2A-50, 2A85), while the Enterprise section promoted class collaboration in the culmination phase of a project as a way of observing the student's capabilities (2A-37, 2A-38, 2A-39). This is taken one step further in Religious Instruction where no forma1 testing whatsoever was allowed (2B14). Certain aspects remain unchanged from the previous period. Schools and boards are, on the whole, ignored in the implementation process, the onus being left on individual teachers. This also holds tme for parents and the community, who's roles are left abstract (2A-9, 2A-10, 2A- 14, 2B- 12), except for a few miscellaneous activities (SA-44g, 2A-95, 2A- 100). Overall Remarks on Period 2 The integration process of period 2 contains certain inconsistent qualities throughout the cumculum documents. These appear to be caused by the Department's changing perception with new, outside influences while trying to "stay the course" from the previous period. Most

specifically, this study makes the following inferences (seen graphically in diagram 2). 1. No Radical Changes in Philosophy/Governmental Structure The Departmental structure had not changed significantl y from Penod 1. remaining qui te centralized (except for its abolishment of standardized testing). In fact, many of the members who had created the 1938 programme sat at the cornmittee to revise it in 1942.' ' It cm be little surprise, therefore, that the new document maintained much of the content and tone that had been established in 1938. The committee retained a11 the discrete discipline areas it had created (including the 4 fused subjects), as well as the fuzzy correlation approach (see Period 1 for reasons). Therefore, while this is technically a "revised" programme, many areas of the document difTer little from the original. Thus the curriculum integration initiated in 1938 is fully entrenched in the 1942 cumculum and even more highly developed. The four outstanding alterations that were made can be seen as "add-ons" rather than any attempt at endemic change: a new preamble, the introduction of the "Enterprise Method" section, and the creation of separate classes for "Manual Training and "Religious Instruction". Al1 appear to have come about due to the bellicose atmosphere of the time rather than a desire on the part of the committee. 2. The Enterprise - an Elite Response to Broad-based Cornplaints It may certainly be inferred from the changes made that one of the major complaints received from teachers and inspectors was chat the original document failed to give enough particulars about the innovation. The first response to teachers' complaints was to follow a " Except, of course, Thorton Mustard who had died the previous year. procedure resembling that of the previous period - consultation with scholarly sources. 'The Enterprise Method" section is almost wholly taken from the work of Drs. Donalda Dickie and Freeman Macornber. This should be seen as a fomalization and extension of the Department's approach to cumculum integration in an effort to match with its conception of the philosophy of education created in the earlier period. From the poorly defined "practical tasks" of 1938, it has turned to the more established Project Method, the "Enterprise", as a means of effecting natural,

student-driven, "seamless" instruction. While "practical work" still plays a part. subject integration is more directed towards inculcation of social skills. Furthermore, the Enterprise formalizes practical work making it's requirements clearer to the teacher. This is emphasized by the Programme's detailed 6 pages of description devoted to the new approach. 3. Bellicose Spirit Inculcated through Weak Harmonization The government's response to the crisis was that not enough had been done to encourage people to "pull together" to win. Womes about industrialism and the fully-rounded individuai al1 but disappeared by this penod, therefore, to be replaced by a reinforcement of social skills, social responsibilities, and traditional values. The committee appears to include them randomly throughout the document. placing them where it feels the greatest impact will occur - the social studies and the preamble. This is obviously not a driving force for the committee, as can ken seen by the weak harmonization shown throughout. brought about solely by the crisis at the time. 4. Separate Periods taken more Seriously The "Manual Training" and "Religious Instruction" courses are given special periods in the timetable, in a special room, by a specialized teacher. It can be inferred that the Department felt that these courses were far too important to be scattered across the cumculum. Drew, in fact, criticized the way religion had been taught in the past and through his sheer will had brought the separate course about through government edict. Surely, the govemment concluded, during this period, that only a clearly defined period on the timetable would ensure accountability that the subject would be taught. While some correlation is included - the more intense forms of integration like fusion could not be trusted. Manual Training, seen as advanced craftwork, is relatively uncoordinated with other subjects, and represents a tirst move into vocational training. 5. Cut and Paste Programme leads to some Integration inconsistencies It is obvious that the committee, believing in the sound reasoning of the 1938 programme,

chose to keep most of its sections, cut others, and insened new material when they thought it was necessary. While it does not lead to wiid inconsistencies, there is a lack of uniform reinforcement of integration approaches across the document. For instance, the new Enterprise section is extremely strong in its own defense, but is not heard fiom again. Projects are, in fact, used not that often elsewhere (except for Science experiments), leaving the approach quite disembodied. Lastly, while the Department's phi Iosophy of education (child-centred, teacher professionalism) and integration approach (cIassroom, teacher-student directed projects) align, the method the Department enacts to implement these changes remains soiidly centralized and unidirectional. With no field-testing or feedback, the Enterprise became the mandated approach to be used by al1 teachers. This would inevitably lead to a mixed reaction fiom the educational community sorne would embrace it, other fiercely attacked the bind that they were placed in (see Stamp, 1982). It rnust be acknowledged, however, that the 1942 cumcufum provides considerably more direction to teachers. It breaks new ground in acknowledging that a degree of professional development, concrete teaching aids and resources may assist implementation. These include iibrary facilities and suggested readings for teachers. The Department also promotes the creation of ad hoc discussion groups. In short, while the 1942 Programme was still a fairly prescribed, centralized document, the Departmen t went much further than the previous period in acti vely soliciting teacher support at the local level, providing some assistance for effective implernentation, and a1Iowing considerable freedom within the integration method. lmpetus for Change Inspeciors reporiing ihai tcachers nccd Conscrvativc (iovemmeni, Media Manual Skills have guidance in approaching the 1938 dcsire IO win ihe War, comc IO tcrms importance for social wellprugnmmc. Specific meihixls nceded for wiih whot causcd ii 1 king, noi rcachine iis coals. jusi sieppingstone v

Inspiration for Direction of Change Uriiish Sourccs on Hesc way of Approaching Cambridgcshirc Syllabus of Religious Progressive Philosophy (Ilim C) '1 Tcaching for Schools ( 1939) Philosophical Premises Approach Used to enact the philosophy Reactionary Depart mental Assumptions The Enicrprise Mcthod is the superior way IO tcach studcnis any subjcci - kcausc dirccicd by siudeni intcrcsr. lcaming occun Whilc the icachcr should plan the Enicrprise. masi of the projeci work should k undcnakcn hy the studcnis. Loyaliy io ihc siaic, "Canadian values", love of democncy, Chrisiianity mus1 bc reinforced through cducaiion of ihe voune The use of ihe Enterprise Mainienance of Fuscd Harmoniritiion of Mcihorl (Thcmatic disciplines with Correlation of Ciiizcnship, Approach) a mandaied iradiiional boundarics naiunl areas painoiism (Mandaicd addition Io disciplinary (Mandatcd) mainiaincd expccrarions, teaching (Suggestive) suggesied approach) , / The process of cumculum developmcnt s i i l l a one way proccss from Deparimeni Io icachcr (board and school play

negtigible role). Teachcrs may play role in PD, ihwgh. Scpnic Religion Class (mandaied) wiih correlaiions. Crosses ro othcr subjrcis (SHPPZF~VI~& \ Sr Scpanic Manual Training Class (mandsied) wiih corrclations,to oiher subjccis (sii~~rtciivel Philosophical Uasis of the 1938 Formal Ilisciplines arc a valid and accounuble f'rognmmc sound way IO organize ihe umculum I i Diagram 2 - Linking Philosophy to Curriculum Integration Approach Cf0 - a * - 4 of Educatiorr- ,& : h- flp Context of the 1949-1959 Curriculum The Porter Interlude (1949-1951) To the end of his term as Minister of Education, Drew managed to "keep a lid" on any seminal changes to cumculum design and implementation. However, even he had to admit that protests were "bubbling up" in favour of a reformed, decenmlised public school system. Most vociferous were media sources sympathetic to teachers and school boards (see Fleming, 1974; Goulson, 1966; Pullen, 1955). Criticised as unresponsive to local issues, lacking in vision, and unaccountable to the public in general, Drew had a progressiveiy harder time defending his

Department's non-actions as the wait for the Hope Commission findings dragged on, year after year. Inevitably, the deadlock was broken in late 1948 with the threat of an election loss looming in front of the Conservatives. To lead the party unencumbered, Drew gave up his dual portfolio and parachuted a new member of his cabinet, Dana Porter into the position of Minister of Education. The new Minister had two qualities that virtually guaranteed changes to the curriculum within a year. First, Porter had a reputation for being a fairly ambitious politico, eager to make a name for himself as a reformer. Second, having had little previous contact with the field of education. and given double duty within the cabinet', he was forced to rely heavily on the departmental bureaucracy for support, direction and day-to-day tasks. Within an instant, therefore, unofficial policy-making power shifted down the Department structure to the recently resurrected p s t of Director of Education, changing it's incumbent, John G. Althouse, from a position of peon to informal commander-in-chief.' And this particular man. it so happened, had First elected to the provincial legislature in 1943, Porter served in a great variety of portfolios throughout his career - Minister of Planning and Development ( 1944- 1948). Minister of Education ( 1948195 l), Attorney General (1949-1955). and ended his career as Chief Justice of Ontario (1958). ' He had originally been hand-picked by Drew for political reasons - as a member of the educational elite (principal of the Ontario College of Education). Althouse was expected to act as a liaison with this group and dedicated his life to the decentraiization of the school system. Initially, Porter mantained Drew's stance that al1 answers woufd be given to the educational community by the Hope Commission. However, after his first few months, with the continued absence of a report from the slow and costly venture, Porter quickly realised that his

honeymoon period with the public would soon be over. Rurnours came in daily that teachers throughout the province were taking cumculum matters into their own hands, forming informal groups to create their own revised guidelines, implementation approaches and professional de~elopment.~T o Althouse, this was sornething to be harnessed as a means to achieving a decentralized, humanist educational system. To Porter, this indicated the stirrings of an educational revolution and, Hope Report or not, he wished to become known as the lightning rod for refonn (Fleming, 1972d p. 89) Drawn up by Althouse and the Department, Porter announced a number of extensive changes to the educational system, dubbed 'The Porter Plan" at an address on November 3, 1949.' The plan contained three major elements that pertained to the Grade 7-8 curriculum. First, Porter announced that the 13 grades would be reorganised into 4 divisions of Primary (1 -3), Junior (4-6)-In termediate (7- IO), and Senior (1 1 - 13). He maintained that this would break the primary/secondary deadlock, and go a long way in easing the students through the levels. Second, the Intermediate Division cumculum would be changed to allow a more "roundedout" education so that students leaving school at the age of 16 would "feel a sense of achievement respond to their fears. The role of "mouthpiece" proved difficult. however, as he found himself increasingly hemrned in by the Department's centralized bureaucracy. Fighting a continual uphill battIe under the Drew administration, he undertook to decentralize the systern through changes allowed within his jurisdiction. He advocated board-related inspection, more local freedom to select textbooks and hire teachers. and the allowance of teachers' colleges to set and mark their own exams (Repon of Mittister. 1947, p.4). 3 In 1942, the Department had, in fact, initiated this movement by encouraging teachers to turn to the each other for support, inspiration and validation of their teaching methods and content (2A-18, 2A-99). Pullen (1955)

descnbes the many local initiatives that had evolved in local school-systems prior to Porter's announcement. rather than failure" (Porter, p. 2). Last, and perhaps most important, Porter announced that "the responsibility for the outlining of courses in elementary schools wiI1 be placed as much as possible at the local or municipal level, particularly so in the fieIds of social studies, science, art and related subjects" (p. 4). This would entail a major shift towards decentralisation of the curticulum process from Toronto to local curriculum teams. Specifically, Porter envisioned teachers, working under the supervision of a cumculum CO-ordinatingc ornmittee, having a great say in revising earlier Departmental courses, or creating and implementing their owm5 Immediately, 82 committees were set up around the province by local authorities to fulfil this mandate. The tuming point in the drive for decentralization appears to have occurred with the submission of the Hope report in December, 1950. Continuing to hold meetings right up until October of that year, the commission humedly distilled the 27 cubic feet of matenal it had collected, and then sent it to the printer. The base of the Commission's findings, however, proved somewhat anti-climatic, paralieling much of the "Porter Plan" to the letter." When presented to the house by the new Premier, Leslie ~ r o s ta. ~fu rious debate arose over the issue of Separate '' This address. made before the St. Thomas and Elgin teachers was Iater transcribed and distributed in a govemment bulletin, See Ontario Govenlnierir Services. Vol. 2, No. 17, pp. 1- 3. 5-8. Toronto: Queen's Park. November 15. 1949. ' This address was followed up by a number of circulars and a segment in the Minister's Annual Report of 1949 that reflected the same progressive spirit: 'The substitution of primary, junior and intermediate divisions for the older classification is a deliberate attempt to free the school system frorn the shackles of the one-grade, onebook,

one-year organisation. Experiments with the new organisation are in progress in many centres throughout the province. The freedom it permits should help solve some of the problems of retardation of the pupils held back because of weakness in one subject or another. A free organisation should permit progress in each subject at a rate suitabIe to the capacity of the individual, and the provision of subject matter related to his interests and needs" (1949, p7). Reflected in his many speeches, Althouse undoubtedly shared this feeling. See especially Althouse (April 10, 1950). 6 As most of the Department's actions seemed to foretell Hope's recommendations, it seems quite probable that Porter and Althouse had been privy to most of the report beforehand. FIerning ( 1972b) went as far as saying, "the new [Porter] plan was worked out by those who knew what the Commission was going to recommend" (p. 189). 'While the Conservatives were returned to power, the election proved a personal loss for Drew. who withdrew to Federal politics. schools and the obsolescence of many of its recommendati~ns.~ Similarly, interest waned considerably within the educational cornmunity conceming "personalised" cumculum. By 1952, only 2 new local committees were created, while over 50 had disbanded (by 1960 only 6 committees were left). This may have ken, in part, due to the incredible demographic changes that were occuning at this time in Ontario. To cope with the unexpected baby-boom and skyrocketing student enrolment after the war, the Department was forced to lower its teaching standards in order to hire as many new educators as possible.9 It can be little surprise, therefore that a 1955 poll indicated that while teachers did support local control over the cuniculum, few expressed a desire for exclusive teacher control over the curriculum (Pullen, 1955). Indeed, many new teachers stated that they were merely scrambling to get

themselves prepared for the upcoming school year, and desired more concrete directions from the Department. Creating the cumculum by themselves was out of the question - most felt that this was something to be left to the experts. The Dunlop Period (1951-1960) Faced with indifference from the teaching community, an unstable student population, and daily criticisms from the floor of the Iegislature, Frost soon realized that Porter's reforms had become a losing proposition. A return to conservative, centralized control of the cumculum was necessary, he surmised, to help restore the public's confidence in the government. Immediately. he shuffled the cabinet and moved Porter to another position, replacing him with a longtirne The Toronto Globe and Mail remarked that "...the votuminous Hope Report on education. a 500.000-word volume that was five-years in the making, was tabled in the Ontario Legislacure yesterday. It prompted joking and laughter among MPP's but no serious comment" (February 3. 195 1). 9 Between 1945 and 1968, the population nearly doubled from 4 million to 7.3 million (Ontario Department of Treasury and Economics, Ontario Stritistical Review, 1968, (June 1969) p. 31). while the number of students enrolled in the Ontario school system almost quadrupled frorn 664.780 in 1945 to 1,986,796 in 1970 (Reports of the Minister of Education of Ontario). To compensate for these dernographic changes the Department became engaged in a series of recruitment initiatives to lure in as many teachers as possible to Ontario. At the height of the teacher shortage, high schools graduates were allowed into the classroom with only a summer's training. For specific see Fleming ( 1972a. pp. 434-437). Department bureaucrat, Wil liarn J. Dunlop. The complete an ti thesis of his predecessor, Dunlop

viewed decentralization as a farce. Rather, he put forward a rather paternalistic view of education: Ontario teachers' sworn responsibility, he maintained, was to incukate a uniform body of knowledge, promulgated by a cenbalised Department, based on the will of the populace and established thought.10 His inuansigence on this issue did much to create a cumculum deadlock as the 1950s wore on. While Dunlop repeatedly voiced his antipathy towards the recent refoms, stating that it was his intention to remove from the cumculum "every vestige of progressivism,"" he was thwarted by elements within the Department itself (namely Watson and Althouse), the media, and the educational elite. In retum, he systematically blocked alrnost al1 initiatives that did not reinforce the top-down structure of the Departmental bureaucracy: school board amalgamation, added funding to cumcuIum cornmittees. and schemes for Iocally instigated professional development were discouraged as disruptions to the Departmental structure. By the end of the 1950s a sense of ossification had appeared to set over the Ontario education system. Departmental bureaucrats, nervous about bearing the brunt of any media or teacher onslaught, erected layer upon layer of policy barriers and office walls to defend themselves. Reporters, frequently meeting little more than siIence and secrecy in their attempt to see what new initiatives were in the works from the Department, nicknamed Dunlop "Mr. Status Quo" (Foley, 1966). A pervasive feeling spread among the academic community that the government had once again become completely unresponsi ve to any outside initiatives and Io His biographer, Foley (1966) concluded that Dunlop's paternalistic view may have been due to the fact that because he had not actively taught since the 1920s. he could never quite understand or appreciate the changes chat had been made during the past three decades of curriculum reform. Dunlop was 70 and retired from the University of Toronto when he was asked by Frost to replace Porter. A neophyte in politics and reluctant to

accept the position. his onIy flustered answer was "How do you go about that?" (p. V). " When called on by the leader of opposition Farquhar Oliver "to exercise much more control over. and direction of, the cumculum in Our elementary schools than they do now," Dunlop agreed with him. saying he was of sarne rnind. "For the past 25 years the cumculum was just not al1 that we would want it to be. 11 takes some time to get it back. and we are getting it back to fundamental education, getting it back to stress the subjects that are really essential, in order to equip young people for the work they have to do." See Legislative Assembl y. Debates, 2~~ leg.. 4' sess., 12 March 1958. p. 777. unwilling to experiment in cumculum or teaching techniques." Beyond a dogged resistance to change, Dunlop's administration was judged by many scholars as displaying no real policy directions. In consequence, very little cumculum reform ensued from the Ministry during the fifties. While almost every Annual Report of the Minister does mention the tem "refonn", it appeared more as a catch phrase than as something actually engaged in. Between 1950 and 1960, the suggestive guideline "CumcuIum 1: 1". initially disseminated to the local committees as an outline for curriculum development, becarne a monoli thic document, wi th only minor changes being added. The sentiment of Porter and the reality of Dunlop hit the researcher hardest when looking at the 1959 Minister's Annual Report: while it States that local coordinating committees continued to exercise powers granted them in 1950 to make adjustments in existing courses to meet local requirements, it also admits that divergence of these courses must be tied to the use of prescribed textbooks issued from the Department (which never changed). Features of the Period: While the Porter era (1949-1951) was only a srnall opening segment to this period, it was also the time of the most intense dissemination of curriculum related material. This study will include, as a source, Porter's initial address outlining his plan (November 3, 1949), as well as three Departmental memos further demarcating the changes that were king made to the cun-iculum (December 10, 1949; March 30, 1950; May 15, 1950). Perhaps the most important

document for this study is Curriculum I: 1 (1 95 1 ), written by a small cornmittee of Deparmienta1 officiais. While it is praised as less prescriptive than earlier guidelines, at 289 pages it is undoubtedly as detailed as its predecessor. Like the previous programmes, it consists of a " Dunlop did have several supporters among many Ontario teachers, who did not seern to mind the return to centralized curriculum design. Foley claims that many of them referred to Dunlop as the "Great White Father" ( 1966, p. XXX) prearnble followed by separate sections devoted to English. Math. Social Studies. Science, Physical education, An, Music. Home Economics (for girls) and Industrial Arts (for boys). A separate guideline is devoted to the new Guidance course. Between 1951 and the end of this penod. no further documents of any mention were issued by the Department. Analysis of Dimension A: Elements Used Durinq Integration In many ways. penod 3's Dimension A appears to be little more than an evolutionary, mutated variation of the previous two. The foms just seem to be falling back to the mean: Content and Academic skills become more weighty throughout the subject areas: Manual and Social Skills retain their towenng importance as elements to be integrated into the cumculum; Individual Development and Underlying Principles still struggle to find out where they should fit into a unified programme (see chart 3.1, 3- 1 E). What is important is the increased recognition on the part of the Department of each elernent. Rather than choosing one element over another (like social skills versus individual development as in Period 2). Curriculum 1: 1 appears to make more room for them al1 without sacrifice (see pp. 520-527 for details of each element). Chart 3.1 - Dimension A (The Importance of Elements used during In tegration) Conient Ac. Skills M anual Socral Indivtdual Undcrlyinp Elrrnrnts Student-Centred Integration Becomes More Passive In decentralizing cumculum design, the Department appears to have shown a genuine

concern in creating a system that was more sympathetic to the needs of the local situation and to individual differences among al1 students. While this standpoint is not a great change from the previous periods, it is based less on British theory and more on a concern for the continued student dropout rate and apathy in the clas~room.'~T he Department repeatedly advises local cumculum cornmittees to make the "programme of instruction more realistic and of more immediate interest" (3B-7). The purpose for this is clearIy laid out in the main document: 'The development of good study habits is accelerated when the pupils have a genuine interest in the subject and are convinced of the value of mastering it" (3C-37). Guidance further develops this premise by stating that when "subject matter reiated to the student's immediate needs is immediately realistic and helpful, there will be little difficulty in gaining acceptance later in the course for material related to more distant needs" (3E-8). In other words, the Department hopes that teachers will capitalize on the students' interests and use thern effectively to develop subjectrelated skills and attitudes. While Curriculum 1: 1 uses the quotation by educationalist Mark Van Doren "Teaching is the art of assisting discovery to take place" (3C-47) as a central rallying point, it may be more accurate to say that teaching, in this instance, is the art of assisting interest to take place. It is hoped that this would bridge the gap between what students are interested in and what they must leam. Rather than being encouraged solely in the preamble, as was the case previously. however, teachers are encouraged throughout the guidelines to make the courses within the students* grasp (3C-3). Specifically, English literature is made more relevant (3C-23, 3C-32, 3C39, 3C43, 3C-5 1, 3C-52, 3C-53), while the Mathematics section bases many of its problems on practical issues, meaningful to the pupi1 (3C-86, 3C-87. 3C-93, 3C-95. 3C-96, 3C-97). The document further explains that there should be room made in every course for each student to

have some outlet for self expression, be it in writing (3C-49). music (3C-1 15), artistic expression (3C- 10 1. 3C- 109, 3C- 1 1 1 ) or physical education (3C-60). Home Economics perhaps makes the greatest effort to mimic students' natural lives so that they may see the uses of the course (3C123, 3C-124, 3C-125, 3C-130. 3C-133, 3C-138). This course stands out from the others in its honest attempt to make the student's interest a keystone of program evaluation." Home Economics aside, it appears that the Department is beginning to present a far more passive view of "child-centred" education than existed in the previous period. In its discussion of "meeting of needs of the student" a rather abstract tone is taken. It is inferred that the students themselves will only have a nascent suspicion of what their real needs are (as opposed to their wants) - identifying and satisfying them should be left up to experts. While outright overteaching or "spoon-feeding" (3D-1) is discouraged, teachers are given strict veto power over most activities within the cumculum. This ambiguous "limited freedom within slowly tightening boundaries" approach can be observed especially in English (3C-42. 3C-47. 3C-71). Social Studies Activities (3C-77 to 3C-84), and Industrial Arts (3C- 1 19). Subject Unity a Growing Concern It can only be assumed therefore. that while the Department was quite sincere about the decentralizing direction it was taking, it was also fearful of the ramifications for loosening its grip of power. No longer prescriptive, documents put out From the centre could represent only general fields of study in a given subject, leaving teachers' committees to interpret and adapt the cumculum at will (3C-2). This could mean better, more adaptable courses of study - but this l 3 According to the Minister of Education's Annual Remrts, the percentage of those proceeding to secondary school had risen from 8% in 1901 to 18% in 1937. However. this ratio did not change until 1950. could just as easily mean chaos as a once unified programme is dashed into a thousand pieces, interpreted on the basis of personal opinion. To counteract this potential dilemma, the

Department put forward many ways in which there could be a "coordination of courses of study into a unified and continuous programme" (3B-2, 3C-3). They also hoped to maintain some semblance of control through the centralized control of textbook selection. While the Department did mandate the removal of what it saw as artificial barriers, including the unifying of Grades 7-10 into an "Intermediate Division" (see Dimension D) and the complete elimination of external examinations (see Dimension F), it stnctly maintained that certain subject areas with "natural" links existed. Cumculum cornmittees were forbidden to tamper with this natural order, therefore, and set up by central authorities along subjectrelated lines. This "unity of the cumculum" is made especially clear in Social Science (3C-62, 3C-70) when it is mentioned that al1 the various sub-disciplines of History, Geogaphy and civics be brought together. Similarly, in Science, the authors state that "an effort has been made to unify the various topics into a relate whole" (3C-100). The Department did set up a number of programmes that can be seen as interdisciplinary, but none were considered "core". For instance, within Cumculum L I , teachers were told that Guidance "should not be considered as a separate subject for which one or two teachers of the staff are responsible, but rather as a purpose which integrates the whole school programme and a service for which every teacher assumes a share of responsibility" (3C-13, see also 3E-1, 3E3). It was recornmended that it should be spread across English, Social Studies and Health courses (3C37, 3E-14, 3E-18). each subject focusing in on specific areas of guidance.'5 Similarly. Health is said to t>e a concern of al1 teachers and that it should penneate the entire curriculum as a way of t 4 It bluntly asks teachers, "Does the programme provide experiences which take into consideration the characteristics, interests, and needs of adolescents?" and "Are the experiences so reaI and lifelike that the pupils

are stimulated to use their new knowledge and skills in their personal, family. and social living?'(3C-136). " It must aIso be noted that Guidance was soon made into a special pend with specific content (3D-3, 3E-16). reinforcing and uniting itself (3C-14). However, there is acknowledgement by the Department that "some of this instruction will be given incidentally as suitable opportunities arise; much of it will be part of the regular units of the various courses." Some subjects are just naturally drawn to Health - namely, Physical Education, Social Science, Science and Home Economics (3C-16). With al1 its mandates, however, the Department had to admit that the actions of teachers would be the most pivotal in unifying the cumculum. As the information and skills had become more specific after the war, a general tendency had occurred among North Amencan schools for the subject areas to become more isolated, especially in the later grades. The Department, therefore proposed to solve this problem with the creation of "Home Room Teachers" to bring some organization to the core subjects. The Department suggests that they teach naturallyrelated core subjects like English, Math and Social Studies (3C-11). Specialist teachers wouid then teach the more fringe subjects like Manual Training or Music. This would keep a natural unity to the curriculum and would smooth students' minds when they made the leap from grade to grade the school experience would then be seen as a unified whole (356). Regardless of subject specialty, therefore, teachers would have to be aware of what was going on in other courses and grades to aid this at the local level (3B-3, 3C-124). Coordinated planning is especially recommended by the Department as a way of reinforcing and combining skills and information across the curriculum (3B-5, 3C-19, 3C-34, 3C-35, 3C-36, 3C-73, 3C-90, 3C-94, 3D-6). Home Economics is emphatic about the need for subject-centred curriculum integration with certain natural

connections: "Correlation of Home Economics with such other subjects as Art, Physical Education, Science or Social studies is essential in the planning of an integrated programme for the general education of the pupils" (3C- 13 1 ). Social Continuity an Important Post-War Issue As in the past, Cumculum I:l States throughout that it is the teachers' responsibility to inculcate a sense of social continuity into the students. Students should be made to understand the community and nation to which they have been born into and that each one should know the position that they must fill. This is explicitly accented in the Social Sciences, (3C-69, 3C-75, 3C77, 3C-79, 3C-8 1, 3C-64), Art (3C-108, 3C-109), and Guidance (3E-2, 3E-5 to 3E-19). Home Economics takes a new twist on this premise, it's raison d'etre being to teaching young women the importance of the home in relationship to the functioning of a democratic state (almost as a microcosm). For a society to flourish, so must a home life (see specificaily 3C- 121 to 3C125, 3C- 130, 3C- 132, 3C- 141) otherwise known as practical citizenship (3C- 133). Even boys are supposed to take the odd week of home economics to show them what girls will do, and therefore appreciate their role (3C- 135). This cumculum goes beyond general overviews, however. Here, the Department makes concrete statements about specific ways of becoming a good member of society. First, it promotes the teaching of basic skilk so students can get dong as better citizens (3D-6). English skills - reading and handwriting - are necessary to become a functioning member of society (3C19, 3C-20, 3C-58), and in running organizations (3C-55). Math skills (3C-85,3C-94) are needed to compute accurately and apply to everyday problems (3C-93, 3C-95, 3C-96)- while Science skills (3C-98) should be iearned to be knowledgeable citizens. Fractical group leadership, craftsrnanship and the running of a household are al1 cited in Physical Education (3C-61),

Industrial Arts (3C- 1 17, 3C- 120) and Home Economics (3C- 137, 3C- 140) as precursors to good citizenship. English is perhaps most outspoken in its attempt to promote proper attitudes and behaviours among students. Repeatedly, the English section tells the teacher to try to promote "good taste": The main objectives in the study of literature are the cultivation of a taste for good reading, the enlargement of experience, the stimulation of the imagination, the enrichment of knowledge, and the development of character. The pupil develops a richer and fuller personality by association with great minds and through wholesome vicarious experiences. An imagination stirred by Kipling's art in the pages of "Captains Courageous" will be less likely to respond to the cheap sensations of the crime thriller. But teachers should avoid fulsome praise of classic wnters. Let the author speak eloquentiy for himself. (3C-28) Through constant exposure, students will eventually deveIop good taste (3C-29) and have the ability to "distinguish fine literature from shoddy writing" (3C-40) - to make sure, the Department includes what it considers paragons of good Canadian writers (3C-44). This good taste also extends to the proper way of conducting a conversation and behaviour (3C-45, 3C46, 3C-54, 3C-56-3C-66 to 3C-68). The Department States that Pupils should be Ied to recognize that language varies in different circumstances and for different purposes. Language has social significance; it is governed by the rules of good taste as well as good usage. Thus, the language of the bal1 game is one form of appropriate English, whereas the language of the class discussion is ano ther (3C-30) Cumculum 1: 1 reminds local committees to design each programme so that it reflects the outlook of the community and the nation (3C-6, 3C- 1 18). A Steady, Conservative Approach to Change While not appearing that important in the actual words of the curriculum, the Department's actions in relation to decentralization clearly show that they are trying to force society to change, and are using the cumculum process to do it (see Dimension C & D). Within the cumculum, the Department also endeavored to raise the consciousness of students (and thereby future citizens) tfirough the introduction of two new issues relevant to

society. The first to be introduced was a new area of study called "Conservation" with the hope of teaching students to respect natural resources (3A-7, 3A-8, 3C-91, 3C-92). While earlier memos state that information about this topic should be dispersed throughout the cum~~lu(3mA 7, 3A-8), Conservation appears to fa11 into the Math and Science areas of the guideline (3C91, 3C-104, 3C-105) as well as Social Studies (which takes the strongest ideological stance): Social Studies shouid heIp the pupiIs to understand and to improve the democratic way of life. At present our material progress has outstripped Our social development. We must define and meet our responsibilities to society more effectively if we are to live on good terms with our fellow men. (3C-63). Similarly, new "Guidance" content is also encouraged to be taught by al1 subjects to reinforce its importance (3C-13, 3C-37, 3C-68). Like the progress of the previous "Religious Instruction", however, Guidance is quick to receive a separate slot on the course time-table (see 3E). One aspect that does filter into each course is that of the changing "world of work", making students aware of what awaits them in the future, and how to prepare adequateiy for it (3C- 132, 3C133, 3C-135, 3C-136, 3E-5, 3E-13, 3E-17). Special manual training is also taught in the increasingly subjugated classes of Industrial Ans (for boys) and Home Economics (for girls) (3C-117, 3C120, 3C- 126, 3C- 129, 3C- 136. 3C- 138). Unlike the 1938 programme, however, little mention is made of what students will do in leisure time (3C-10). Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of Inteciration Perhaps the most radical changes that took place within this period were those effecting this dimension. While Period 1 had put forward a new philosophy, and Period 2 a new approach, Penod 3 reconsmcted the Ontario educational system in an effort to deal with this progressive agenda. To accomplish this, the balance of power in regards to cumculum construction had to shift downward from a centralized, dite committee to include more broad-based tearns of designers.

On the surface, it looks like the Department had allowed just such a revolution to occur, giving away much of its authority (see 3A-1 to 3A-6, 3B-1 to 3B-7, 3C-7, 3C-8). By abolishing any prescriptive programmes and replacing them with more general course outlines, it seems that the Department is making the process much more democratic (3C-2). However, as indicated in a report by H. Puilen (1955). the Departmental sponsorship of these committees was not compIetely altntistic. Informa1 teacher groups had existed for several years, creating their own cumculum designs and ignoring the outdated 1942 programme. Pullen maintains that the Porter Plan was a way for them to be officiaily sanctioned, Iegitimized, and resubjugated back under central power. While teacher empowermen t in curriculum development may have been a key issue in the rhetoric, Pullen points out that this proved difficult in reality. In creating a new cumculum, a strict chain of command had to be followed. Teachers could voice their opinions and criticisms to a school committee, which in turn responded to a district comrnittee. The district committee would then respond to a city wide subject committee. Each of the three citywide subject committees consisted of 17 appointed members.I6 This committee would then create a new cumculum, operating under the supervision of a central coordinating committee, which had the abiiity to veto these subject-centred committees if it so chose. Ironically enough, the Department assigned Stanley Watson (the man who had ken so seminal in the creation of al1 documents during the previous two periods) to chair this central body. In surveying the committees throughout the province, Pullen found that much initial work was accomplished, and that over 1200 revised courses were being implemented by 195 1. Fleming (1972) later added that these "courses of study did not, however, break much new ground" (p. 189). Rather, they seemed to be variations of a booklet entitled "Cumculurn 1: 1 an expenmental outline of courses" that the Department had issued to the various committees as a

"suggestive outline of courses of study in the subjects for Grades VII, VIII, IX, and X" (p. 3) to aid cumculum creation.17 Once Dunlop became firmly envenched in power, the document 16 In the Ottawa area at least, one was chosen from a central coordinating committee appointed by the Depanment. eight were chosen by the public or separate school inspectors. and eight were appointed by the Superintendent of SchooIs. 17 The documents States that it had been the product of "Recommendations from the Ontario Teachers' Federation and the Ontario Educational Association". "Committees of the Ontario School Inspectors' appears to have changed from merely "an example and a basis for discussion", to a programme as monolithic as the previous ones. The change in attitude is clearly demonstrated in a 1952 Memo from Dunlop entitled ''The Progress of Cumculum Revision" sent to the school board authorities. It stated that those boards who had not directed any experimental programmes "will be required to direct their schools to follow the course of study issued by the Department for the various grades and divisions" (p. 4). Despite protesting that these were outlines intended to be adapted to local conditions, the new attitude was clear in the final warning. 'The Department's supervisory staff will examine the local adaptations with a view to ensuring ample provision for the mastery of 'the three Rs', flexibility of promotion, and the recognition, in the secondary grades, of the requirements both of those pupils who will leave school as soon as che Iaw dlows and of those with the ability and determination to attempt longer courses" (p. 4). While slightly more power was given to locaI authorities within the Ontario school system (narnely boards and school administration through the use of committees), it is apparent

that the Department did not whole-heartedly promote a "revolution" in education. The traditionai Iinkage of Department to teacher still remained strong - the former creating broad outlines of material, and the latter choosing the best approach to transmit that information to the student. Dunlop's 1952 memo, in fact, congratulated Intermediate Division techers for their effective use of their new powers: "an unprecedented measure of cooperation has been achieved by teachers of public, separate and secondary schools, to the immediate benefit of the pupils concemed" (p. 3). Teachers were sti1I considered the persons of prime responsibility for educating the student. Throughout Curriculum I:1, it is up to the teacher to use the teaching (and integration) approach that will interest the students the m ~ s t ,to' ~ k eep a "mentally healthy environment", free Association and Representatives from the staffs of the Normal Schools and the Ontario College of Education", and "the Department of Education." '' Seen in English (3C-26, 3C-37. 3C-41). Social Science (3C-72). Science (3C-98. 3C-99). Music (3C-I 14). Industrial Arts (3C- 1 17). Home Econornics (3C- 133). and Guidance (3E-5.3E- 12. 3E17,3E-7,3E-l9). from anxiety, frustration or work overload (3C-17, 3C-88,3C-90, 3C-53). and to address student differences (3C- 134, 3C-32,3C-2 1, 3C-22, 3C-4, 3C-5. 3C-9). The clearest voice of the progressive philosophy can be heard in the Home Economics section: To make the programme purposeful and stimulating to the pupils and to relate it directly to their daily living, it is desirable that the pupils share with the teacher in planning, carrying out, and evaluating the learning experiences. The role of the teacher is one of motivation and guidance. At first the pupils' share of responsibility will be limited, but as the pupils grow in experience, and as the teacher and pupils become better acquainted, the pupils will gradually assume a greater share of responsibility (3C- 126).

It then calls for the joint student-teacher creation, irnplementation and evaluation of the course (3C-126 to 3C-128). However, this is very much the voice in the wilderness, and it is unknown whether it was ever put into practice (increasingly unlikely as this period proceeded). Analysis of Dimension D: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other Grade Levels The Porter Plan made a significant change in how Grades 7 & 8 were viewed by the educational community. Whereas earlier programmes had viewed this time as the natural ending to an elementary education (and in many cases the closing of formal education, period), this penod clearly breaks away from that tradition. Well aware of the drop-out rate, the Department recreated these grades as part of a larger. upward-looking "Intermediate Division" encompassing Grades 7-10 (3A-3, 3A-6). This would ease the students' transition from elementary to secondary schools. Even if many still dropped out, the Department hoped that this new arrangement would extend students' time in school. and make them better participants in society when they leave (3C-3,3C- 10). Analysis of Dimension E Integration MethodsIApproaches Primary Forms of Integration The Thematic Approach continues to be used as a prime teaching tool in this period. However, this is a far different approach than the Enterprise. Rather than child-centred, studentchosen projects, these themes are divided into units, and almost without exception, chosen by the teachers on strong suggestion by the Department. The point of these themes seems to be different as well. Rather than trying to make students into CO-designers or team-players, the point of the exercise is to masquerade the information and skills in projects and themes to interest and enthuse the students. Furthermore, these units, unlike the previous period, appear to stay within the boundaries of their subject areas and time schedule. Only science brings in other areas (3C104,

3C-105) and no projects are encouraged to last more than a few hours. So, although this is a primary form of integration used in the cumculum, it is far less interdisciplinary than the previous Enterprise. Another form of Integration that mns through the entire cumculum is Hannonitation. It too should be considered a fairly "watered-down" attempt at the approach. In the preamble and accompanying memos, much is made about the cenuality of the three basic skills of reading, writing and aithmetic, as well as the promotion of the democratic way of life, conservation, guidance and health. AI1 are purported to "imbue" the curriculum, to permeate into each course. However, in reality, each one is slotted into one or a number of subject areas (making it resemble Insertion). English skills are highly promoted in English, but only seriously dealt with in one other course - Social Science (3C-19, 3C-77 to 3C-84). Otherwise, they only receive a bnef mention in Math (3C-90, 3C-94) and Science (3C-98). Math and Science skills fair even worse, not being n-ientioned outside of their specialized subject areas. The harmonized Health, actually shrinks from the previous period to being shared between Physical Education and Home Economics, while Guidance (although there is a faint protest that it permeates the cumculum) seems to be relegated to one special course ear-marked for isolated study (3E). The one issue that remains as tmly harrnonized is the belief in democracy and citizenship, which is mentioned in almost every course. Perhaps due to the Department's fear that a decentralized curriculum may degenerate into a chaotic curriculum, it does encourage the Nested Approach in almost every subject area. Each course is organized in such a way that it should follow some sequential order to form a unified whole. SecondaryLocalized Forms of Integration The programme continues to advocate a great amount of Correlation between subjects (3C-73, 3C-77 to 3C-84) in a general fashion across the cumculum. English makes mention of other subjects in general and Science and History in particular, simply as material to read and research in the process of leming English skills (3D-36, 3C-44, 3C-53). In turn, English skills

are promoted in Science to help them make connections - but only weakly (3C-102). English is especially correlated to Social Sciences in this period: "for exarnple, with English through dramatization, discussion, vocabulary study, writing stories, reports, diaries, and by using Social Studies subject matter in English compositions" (3C-73). Numerous exarnples are given throughout the Social Science section (3C-77 - 84). Vague mention is given to most of the subjects in relation to each other. The Department States that Health instruction will be given incidentally (3C-16), but then retracts this in the next statement saying that insertion is the integration method of choice. Art hints that some connections should be made to West-coast artisans, and French puppeteers when staging a play for marionettes that the students have created (3C-112) - thereby bringing in English and Social Studies - if only by serendipity. The one subject actually explicitly making mention of correlation is Home Economics. Stating that it should factor its relationship with other subjects into any planning processes (3C-124), the guideline declares: "Correlation of Home Economics with such other subjects as Art, PhysicaI Education, Science or Social Studies is essentiai in the planning of an integrated programme for the general education of the pupils (3C- 13 1 ). Insertion is a strong, if rarely used, approach throughout this period. The new content area "Conservation" is handled this way. Equal portions of matenal are insexted into the Social Studies and the Mathematics sections (it king most evident in the latter, getting a whole subsection - 3C-9 1 to 3C-97). Likewise, Health is supposed to be siiced up and given equally to PhysicaI Education, Social Science, Science and Home Economics (although Phys-Ed. takes the brunt throughout this period. See 3C- 15, 3C- 16, 3C- 123, 3C- 140). While the cornbining of Science and Agriculture could technically be considered fusion, it seems more like a hostile takeover. With Science gaining in importance and Agriculture losing (due to the deciining rural population), the former appears to just swallow the latter up, agricultural issues being inserted into the Science curriculum at appropriate moments. Lastly, and perhaps most interesting, Guidance begins this period as a fiee-floating subject that is said to be inserted in each subject

area. However, in short time, it is removed from the hands of the regular subject teacher (except to tell the student the occupational potential of the field), and given to the expert counsellor. This is an example of "dis-integration". Incidental Forms of Integration Mention is still made that Social Sciences is a fusion of History, Geography and Civics, but this is oniy stated once now (3C-62). and the premise is beginning to appear shaky. The set up of the section almost seems to be a precursor to a fission of its requisite parts, as each are given a certain arnount of independent maneuverability. Lastly, the Multidisciplinary Approach is mentioned quite enthusiastically, if very broadly in the introduction of Curriculum I : l . However, few concrete steps are made to bring teachers of different subjects together for joint projects or team teaching. It is true that this was the era of the teachers' cornmittees and the collaborated curriculum. However, little reflection of this is felt throughout this period at the guideline level. The only subject area that makes more than a passing nod to this method is the Home Economics guideline. which encourages student exchanges and some joint planning with other teachers. students and the community. Chart 3.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of Integration MethoddApproaches) : Negligible Im~enu;il i jm~acalized j Incidental j Savd Cmss Yulu Conrlar Pluri Inxn Fusion Thematic H m Trms Intepntion MethocWApproriches Analysis of Dimensions F 8 G: lmplementing Curriculum lntegration To a large extent, the Department appears to have believed that the arnendments made to the cumculum structure would do much to alleviate any problems of implementation or maintenance of the reformed programme. First and most importantly, the Department made a

real link between teacher ownership of the cuniculum and the ease of which it would be implemented and accepted by the teachers. If they were involved in the process of creating the document, if the creation was an open policy where al1 stakeholders can have a say, then everyone would work harder to irnplement it and feel part of a team process. However, this belief rapidly disintegrated as more and more interest groups were allowed into the process - because so many voices were allowed into the curriculum creation process, it becarne a cacophony. No clear opinion could be heard. As such there was little resistance when Dunlop emerged to put an end to the open policy and reestablish much cenaaiized control. At the classroom level, the Department appeared to take a more benevolent view. it encourages teachers to keep a wide view of the cumculum by creating a home-room teacher, trying to encourage teacher interaction, and leaving expectations fairly broad. As in the past, the Department ignored any active role in aiding teachers. However, what it did do, initially was to free up restrictions so that many aspects of implementation (like professional development and resources) could be downloaded to local committees. As these local pools of succor began to dry up. however, Dunlop did very little to buttress the sagging state of teacher-aid. Overall Remarks on Period 3 It cannot be denied that a radical change happened to the Department's perception of Cumculum Integration during this penod. However, with al1 the rhetoric about "decentralization" and "individual differences", it is rather surpnsing to view the shape that this new definition took. In essence, this philosophy of integration appears to be one that is more rigid in form and subject-centred in objective. For this study, the following inferences can be made about the integration process dunng this period: 1. Grades 7-8 Grow up In tying Grades 7-8 to the Interrnediate Division, the Department had made a crucial decision to distance them fiom the elementary system (see Dimension D). As such, the adolescent was no longer equated with the end of childhood but more with the beginning of adulthood. Suggested teaching approaches now had to be applicable to 4 grade levels, with an

emphasis on more mature forms. Approaches are chosen for two purposes: their ability to efficiently synthesize and make use of the growing amount of information and skills; and their ability to instill in students interest and meaning long enough to help them retain this knowledge. While teachers are instructed to meet individual cases, the days when the cuniculum's concern was the "mimicking of children's thought processes" has retreated into more abstract discourse than concrete examples. It is more concemed with preparing the student for the "world of work", and the things to know as a citizen (Dimension A). WhiIe the Department attempts to create a balance between the various objectives (see Dimension B), the growth of "subject-centred integration" is unmistakable in this period. This will do much to mutate the approaches that, on the whole, are the same as the previous period. By Period 4, however, this change in perception will have a staggering effect on the approaches taken. 2. Thematic Approach Mutates While the thematic approach to integration is applied as heartily throughout Curriculum 1: 1 as ever it was in the past (see especially Social Studies, Math and Home Economics), it cannot be seen as serving the same purposes. The Department no longer felt that tme Iearning could come simply from within the students put in the right environment and given the right activities (as had been the belief of the Enterprise Method). Rather, an idealist philosophy is prornoted. Material exists that will help students get by in life - it is the responsibility of the thematic "units" to organize this information in an interesting and meaningfui way to the students. Therefore, while themes remain, responsibility for its direction was almost completely removed from the hands of the students (indeed, outside of Home Economics the student is rarely even ac know Iedged) and gi ven to tex hers. 3. Harbingers of a Splintered Curriculum It can be inferred that many changes made to the programme of studies at this time were based on the Department's assumption that the cumculum should be viewed as a growing "body

of knowledge" and that there were certain ways for it to be taught efficiently. a) A Homeroom Teacher - with the creation of this role, the Department is implicitly stating that the entire curriculum cannot be taught by one teacher. No longer overseers of activity. teachers are now envisioned as purveyors of knowledge. And, as the arnount of information relevant to students' wellbeing is growing astronomically throughout this period, it is reasonable that this body of scholarship called the cumculum should be cut up into more digestible chunks. In the mind of the Department, the natural bailiwick of the Homeroom Teacher should be the related (and general) subjects of English. Math, and Social Studies. b) The Encapsulafion of Vocaiional Studies - Consistent with the trend seen in the previous period, practical work and skills were even further distanced from the "core courses". Encapsulated into Industrial Arts, crafts are al1 but excised from the previously coordinated cumculum. Art, Music. and Physical Education also became more distanced from the more "general courses". Although not formally forbidden, Homeroom teachers are discouraged from teaching these subjects as they should be left to "specialists". c) Mechanistic Insertions - Another phenornenon that begins to make an appearance is the way in which the Department begins to include new information and topics. When it is given the mandate to inctude more "Conservation", it does so by merely inserting sub-sections in Curriculum 1: 1 where it feels appropriate. These are fairly isolated chunks - no effort is made to relate it to its surroundings. It can be inferred that this is done on the basis of efficiency rather than any desire to create 3ny unity across the cumculum. d) Guidance Swallows up Individual Development - The last example of the imminent victory of an efficiency-based disciplinary system can be seen in the creation of a new Guidance programme. m i l e early attempts are made in this period to resurrect the importance of individual development across the curriculum (as it had ken suppressed during the last period), it becomes obvious that for it to survive a specid course must be dedicated to its study.I9 ~ e rrees ted the dichotomy of this period - a special class had to be created to deal, in an accountable, concrete way with a particular aspect of the Ieaming experience. However, in creating a separate course to zero in on this one aspect, it did little to promote integration (3E1, 3E-5,3E-7, 3E-8.3E-19, 3E-4,3E- 13). 4. Without Support, the best Intentions of the Period Dies Perhaps the most radical facet of the period was the introduction of IocaIly created cumcula. The hope was that with enhanced stature, the teacher should be encouraged to greater professionalism and activity. Individual teachers and teacher committees would have the new

ability to transfonn the cumculum to fit their specific needs. Moreover, the teachers committees and overseeing cutricuIum cornmittees could supply concrete training and resources. Educators would no longer be alone in dealing with the curriculum but could draw upon many stakeholder groups: Principals, boards, federations, parents and the community. It seems that the Department (at Ieast under Porter) expected autonomy and responsibility to go hand in hand resulting in more successful implementation. This is indicated by C U ~ C1: 1U's r~ep eated mention of the teacher as fundamental role mode1 for pupils and the educational approach. Greater coordination between teachers also enabled the Department to introduce a mu1 tidisciplinary approach for the l9 In fact, with the secuiarization of education after the war, Guidance appears to have replaced the course in Religious Instruction. certainly in relation to individual development. first time - and on a very large and ambitious scale. Teachers were encouraged to coordinate their activities and topic selection in Science, English and Social Science. Despite these flamboyant beginnings, however, local control bore meager fruit. This can be tentative1 y clarified when observed through the perspective of the "Hygiene-Motivator" mode1 put forward by Herzberg (1959, 1966). Initial change was driven by a certain amount of coinciding needs wi thin the educational communi ty: Many teachers needed a new cumculum that reflected changes since the War (+). Some educational groups called for grassroots involvement in cumculum design (+) Porter was arnbitious to make a name as an educational reformer (+) Althouse had a desire to realize his dream of a humanist, decentralized system (+) The bulk of the teaching community were neutral on the subject (O) However, as the 1950s dragged on, these overwhelmingIy positive motivators began to disappear to be replaced by more neutral, hygiene elements and de-motivators: A new and generally satisfactory cumculum (1: 1) had been introduced (O)

Continued neutrality by the bulk of the teaching cornmunity (O) Very difficult for individual voices to be heard in the new local cornmittees (O) Educational groups still cal h g for grassroots involvement (+) Conservative media and scholarship cal1 for a return to centralized accountability (-) Dunlop thoroughl y opposes any decentralizing or progressive changes (-) Althouse puts up continued stmggle to decentralize (+) Because of the almost perfect balance maintained throughout the 1950s. it is not surprising that a mired feeling of apathy ensued. Neither side could exert power without a concomitant countermove. Indeed, the pendulum would only swing in Dunlop's favour after Althouse's untimely death in 1956, ieaving a vacuum within the departmental staff. As well. it appears that teachers in general were unready to apply the more intense foms of integration such as the multidisciplinary approach. y-=#;* - r - i r " .,+a .-+ . , .--- iC --' . > & S . . .F ,-+ A. . Ci- " ;+ , *- -" J- . r . , .9 bc*---" -& f&qr"* .,@ 4 + , - -,cm s/O'*-* , -*L, +- # - "-.;-," -: -*& "A./@ .-.% fl- / *$ ;.- a - . . a .' "- . .. w-,; -r 4 ".y.f.' l ,- -. 4 p - .. ~ ' . Vast changes took place in North Amencan society after the Second World War. While periods 1 and 2 had been marked by austerity, the 1950s experienced an unparalleleci time of prosperity and growth (seen especially in the incredible surge in the birth rate). The scientific community. supported heavily during wartime by govemment fnding, maintained that this continued economic success rested upon the expansion and development of technology and science. Furthemore, they believed that this could only be achieved systematically through sustained govemment promotion and Of primary importance for this study. two recommendations were repeatedly submitted during the decades following the War. The first was that a "scientific mentality" should be inculcated in students: It was felt that Science. Technology and Mathematics should become the paramount subjects of study in or&r for contemporary youth to be t~ainedfo r the workforce, and the world of tomorrow. The second was that a "scientific mentality" must be

inculcated in school administrators: Modem mechanistic and human relations models had to be used in modem schools systems so that they could eficiently deal with the influx of new students. Of most importance, it was necessary to centralize schools into more regional units and to break the school ciay down into srnalier subjectcentred components, with specidized teachers for the system to be more accountable. While some state govemments did follow these recommendations. most school systems felt that no changes were necessary and did very linle to update their programmes. The Ontario Department of Education was a shining example of this complacency throughout the 1950s. Remarkably little innovation took place throughout the &cade. and the changes accomplished were done in the spirit of atavism. As shown in Period 3, the object of study in both the Mathematics and the Science sections had more to do with practical applications than any fundamental principles. Dunlop systernatically ignored these areas of study (as well as any vocational subjects) as he spent his term in office advocating a return to a "classicai" education for the Ontario school 7 system.By 1957, Dunlop could defend his position no longer, as the two issues of student population and the technological revolution coincided to create critical policy concerns (see Fleming, 1972a, pp. 12-15, 29-31, ch. 1 & 2). Just after the first wave of baby-boom children entered the intermediate level in 1957, the USSR launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik. With heightened perceptions of the Cold War, North Amencans feit that they had been beaten by the Communists due to their own complacency in their education system and a disregard for science and technology (see Gidney, 1999, pp. 39-42). In Ontario, critics once again lambasted the outdated programme (this time the old C U ~ ~ C1: 1U) as~ inUcap~ab le of providing cutting-edge education. Dunlop's only response, however, was a Iacklustre proposai to fom a new science

cumculum cornmittee (Kinlin, 1966). Reticent to the end, he managed to hold any more comment at bay until his retirement in 1959 due to health problems. As in 1951, Premier Frost found a replacement that mirrored the spirit of the time. He chose John Robarts, a man who stood in stark contrast to his predecessor. Young, ambitious, with unbounded talents as a shrewd statesman, Robarts made no effort to hide his intentions of fulfilling the aforementioned "scienti fic" recommendations and modernizing the Ontario school system. Through cunning diplomacy he managed, in his short stay, to perform a complete volteface in the Department's educational stance. This was accomplished by his reliance on skillful ' In a watershed report, Science: the endless frontier, (1945)- the acclaimed scientist Vannevar Bush pointed out the fundamental importance of Mathematics and Science in helping the Allies win the war. He maintained that these two subjects should play an increased role in the grade school and university cuniculum. Dunlop found ample support for his continued battle against progressivism, from the hugely successful book So Little For the Mind by Hilda Neatby (1953). Following her recommendations, his chief plans included the subdividing of Social Studies into History and Geography. and the addition of Latin back into the cumculurn. Rule (1975) argues that Progressivism should be seen as a "bogeyman" at this time. In fact, be argues that "due to a host of problems peculiar to this period. the ultimate impact of the [1938. 19421 revisions upon the provincial systern was negligible" (p. 9 1). maneuvering, and balancing the aspirations of one interest group off another. In doing so he politicized the position of Minister from senior bureaucrat to that of foremost spokesperson for educational issues in ~ntario.~ His initial action was to gain some financial leverage in creating this vision. He felt strongiy that while Canada had benefited tremendously fiom the economic boom of the past 15

years, government spending on education had not kept pace. His job, he believed, was to rectib that situation. Beginning with the annual C.E.A. meeting in 1960, Robarts spearheaded and chaired the Standing Committee of Ministers of Education (Fleming, 1972a. p. 161). The end resul t of this was On tario's participation in the Federal-Provincial Technical and Vocational Training Agreement of 1961 whereby the Federal government would pay for 75% of any technical/vocational projects embarked on by the Province. Robarts' background as a lawyer seerns to have been very successful, for Ontario was to receive the largest financial support of any of the Provinces under this Act. The vast insertion of funding was channeled into massive building projects, mostly large regional schools.' In a speech to the Ontario Urban and Rural School's Trustee's Association, he reminded his audience of the population growth in the Province's schools since 1946: . . .88% of the elernentary school pupils [were] educated in schools of 3 rooms or less ... The Department of Education is aware that many fine scholars and leaders received their education in the Little Red School House, but it is aIso aware that rural elementary education in this Province is changing, as are other aspects of our life. The Department encourages Boards to provide central schools wherever they find it possible to do so. (Robarts Speeches, 1962-69, pp. 2-3, R.G.2, p.3, Ontario Archives) The strength of Robarts' personality is seen throughout these adjustments. J.R. McCarthy. who served as Deputy Minister of Education, recalls hirn as a "statesman and a politician -- over and above a politician." (Interview, 1982). 4 Before becorning Minister, Robarts had been involved in several local school building projects. He reported to the Sbnford District Teachers' Council in Niagara Falls, Ontario: "In 1958. we were able to say that we had built a new building or a major addition to an old building in this province every day for ten years and this was taken to be a fairly dramatic figure. In 1960 we have passed this rate of consmction for we will construct 557

such buildings or additions to accommodate 96,825 pupils at a cost of $90500.000 (Robarts Speeches, 1959-61, R.G.2. O.A.) Too savvy to use any coercive means in achieving his goal, Robarts used funding as an incentive to boards. First, the money was specifically earmarked for school centralizing projects; as a means of making administrative units more efficient and accountable. Second, expansions were to include a host of new machine shops, science laboratones and technological additions. In short, projects were contingent on the active promotion of science and technology. Schools that chose to promote the old format of humanities-based education received nothing. Changes were made to the Interrnediate program to reflect what Robarts saw as a changing reality. These were outIined in his numerous speeches and interviews. Duhg a televised CBC provincial affairs program on April 4, 1962, Robarts reported that "at the present, 6 out of 100 students go on to university," and that, while he expected that number to increase in the next 10 years, "it is doubtful if it will exceed 15." Emphasis on the Sciences, Mathematics and job-oriented programs were needed to meet an unprecedented school popuIation and technological world. And this meant that students not going on to university must be trained in school to meet the world. He continually reinforced the ". . .realization that the available pool of immigrant manpower from European and other sources was drying up and that consequently Canada would have to depend more and more on her own people, trained and developed in this co~ntry."~R obarts used these facts as a spnngboard for revising the Intermediate and Senior level school system: entitled the Reorganization Plan, it was officially announced on August 28, 1961 and scheduled for incremental introduction in September 1962. Phased in over 5 years from Grade 9 to Grade 13, the plan streamed students into one of three branches: "Arts & Science",

"Business and Commerce", and "Science, Technology and Trades." The cumculum for Grades 7 -- Fleming (1972d) devotes an entire chapter of his massive tome to showing the decline of the one room schoolhouse and its replacement by a regional school over the 1950s and 60s (pp. 396-422). An especially big leap was made under Robarts: "expenditures for the construction of secondary schools rose from $39,169,000 in 1960 to $81.61 1,000 in 1963" (Fleming, 1972a. p. 20). See also Gidney (1999, pp. 49-52) concerning the advent of the consolidated school boards and larger etementary schools of this era. and 8 were also to be rewritten to prepare students to fit into any of the three branches when they reached grade 9. To create and implement these new guidelines, Robarts again broke with the precedent of isolationism set by Dunlop. He was too politically savvy to ignore the shadow committees rising out of the ashes of the Porter Plan. Growing in strength and resolve, several university and teachers' committees finally united with the founding of the Ontario Cumculum Institute in 1961. With this body. the Department faced the threat of an independently controlled agency (on which the Department had minority representation) which was making ovenures at usurping official responsibilities (see Fleming, 1972e. chapters. 11, 12 and 13). One of the first OC1 sponsored reports in 1961 indicated a deep dissatisfaction with the way the Department had constructed and revised the cumculum in the past. The report, edited by Northrup Frye, claimed that the existing method consisted of "slow deliberation by Departmental off~cialsin terspersed with sudden and humed consultations of an ad hoc group of active teachers" (p. 84).7 Well aware of the Department's exclusive C U ~ C U d~esUig~n p olicies of the past, Robarts attempted to pour oil on the water by seconding educators, university scholars and educational

critics (many of whom were members of the OCI) in the creation of the new subject guidelines. Numerous courses were created in a fairly short span of time related to science, technology and vocational training. The creation of the new Math course was an especial success. J.F. Kinlin (who became responsible within the Department for Mathematics) wrote that this was because Robarts alIowed the creators to think of the elementary and secondary system as a whole. As the From an address at the official opening of the George Henry Secondary School in North York on January 27, 1966. ' This assertion is supporteci by the Fleming (1972d) who noted that "curriculum changes initiated by the department during the late 50s and at the beginning if the 60s were numerous enough in one sense, but they tended to be of a rather minor nature. The lack of emphasis placed on this phase of the work was demonstrated by the fact that a much larger proportion of staff time was devoted to supervisory activities than to curriculum development. New courses of study were often assembled in a very brief period of time with no pretense at the kind of research or development work that might have led to real innovations" (p. 193). decade wore on, KinIin mentions, his position became the lightning rod between the Department and many outside associations in the curriculum field. Specifically, he sited his negotiations with the Ontario Math Commission to enable Department agents to be members.' Winning great acclaim for his financially beneficial relations with the Federal Government and politicai savoir-faire, Robarts was offered the post of Premier in November 1961 when Leslie Frost retired. Soon realizing that he could not effectively run both positions, he chose one of his tntsted supporters, William Davis, to replace him as Minister of Education. For the first half of the 1960s, Davis closely followed and extended Robarts biueprint. Over these years cuniculum design soon ceased to be an activity engaged in by a handful of departmental

oficials and created over a weekend as it had been in the past. Rather, it became a more widespread and democratically engaging activity. To accomplish this, Davis surrounded himself with like-minded Directors of the newly created Program branch, each strengthened by a growing staff group who shared the sarne outlook. By 1964, the Department seconded 225 participants to sit on 19 curriculum committees to compIete course outlines (Annual Report, 1964, p. 11). According to Fleming, Davis had worked out a plausible line of demarcation between responsibili ties: The OC1 was to work out basic principles of cumculum and conduct only limited experiments to test the feasibility of certain ideas. while the Department was to retain the sole power to prescribe courses of study and to determine when, where. and to what extent an innovative procedure was to be adopted. The line of demarcation was, however, thin, and to some off~cialsth e department seemed in danger of being reduced to a position of issuing prescriptions in a mechanical sort of way. Departmental officiais made sure that this danger did not materialize by performing their functions in a much more thoroughgoing manner than had charactenzed any previous period. (Fleming, 1 W2a, pp. 195-6) Perhaps the most influential change in this period was the Department's outlook on "change" itself. While under Dunlop. departmental courses of study were developed to last for a -In 1966, Kinlin wrote in the Ontario Mathematics Gazette ("Eight years in mathematics with the Department of Education", iv, 2 March, 1966) that although there was much previous discussion under Dunlop. a change generation, by the early 1960's the idea became accepted that guides would be for a short duration only. Indeed, one of the pillars of Davis' program becarne "the establishment of procedures for continuous cumculum reform" (Fleming, 1972a, p. 232). Guidelines were henceforth to be subject ro continual examination, trial and revision. Features of the Period: Unlike the earlier programmes of study, no unified document exists for this period. Rather

subject guidelines emerged in a piecemeal fashion to gradually replace C U ~ ~ C1U: 1.I TUhu~s. a new Science and a new Guidance programme were released in 196 1, History and Geography in 1962, Math in 1964, Physical Education and French in 1966. The English cumculum was a continuation fi-om the previous period. Analysis of Dimension A: Elements Used in lntegration This Dimension A stands in stark contrast to any previous periods, both in its singieminded choice of certain elements and in its total disregard towards the existence of others (see Charts 4.1, 4-1E). Unlike Period 3, no balance is achieved or even attempted by the authors of these cumcula? Simply deciding that the transmission of content and academic skills was the sole purpose of education, the Department makes only incidental mention of practical/manual skills, social skills, and individual development. While they may be facets of life, the Department had obviously corne to the conclusion that it is not their responsibiIity to deal with them. As a biproduct, Underl ying Principies is artificiall y boosted during this period due to the authors' almost zealous promotion of the "scientific mentality." only happened in cumculum construction, distribution and implementation since Robarts had become Minister. 9 It crinnot be calIed a "programme" or even a curriculum ris no atternpt is made for a unity of the subjects. Chart 4.1 - Dimension A (The Importance of Elements used during Integration) Contenr A c . Skills Y anual I -Social Individual U ndcrlying Nrgligible 1 'IigHh a~ edium mtow Analysis of Dimension B: Objectives of lntegration Subject Unity Finally Paramount

Throughout this period, the Department appears to see the course of studies as a unified, bahnced system of Arts, Humanities and Sciences (4D-3). However, in their minds, unified does not mean highl y "inter-disciplinary" . The subject areas are considered by the cumculum designers of this period as consisting of fairly separate bodies of knowledge, each with a distinct flavour that must be maintained for it to work properly (4C-15, 4C-16). Fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle, the curriculum then becomes a whole, interlocking system. Cross-over of content and skills does happen at points of contact and must be exploited for efficient teaching, but to keep the system of dissemination flowing effectively, separation of subjects must be retained and enforced. WhiIe to students, connections might seem unclear and subjec ts areas isolated (see 4A, 4H, 41)- al1 the pieces will fa11 into place - theoretically - by the time of graduation. Student-Centred Integration Lost Although some lip service is paid to student-centred education, by and large, students, their individual difference and their interests do not figure into the cumculum equation. The school's purpose is to disseminate a body of knowledge in an efficient manner. To give students any control of this process would simply impede this objective. Robarts expressed this view to the Legislative Assembly in April 1962 when he said it was his own persona1 opinion that there should be a "stiffening" of the course of study. While not as vehement as Dunlop, he attributed the lack of challenge co "a hangover from what might be refemed to as Deweyism or progressive education." With the load getting heavier at the secondary level, he concluded that elementary students could no longer "teach thern~elves".'T~h is continua1 juxtapositioning of illusion and reality is played throughout the cumculum documents. WhiIe maintaining the Front that students are important, the Department eliminates or mutates most of the child-centred activi ties used in

the past. For exarnple, while experiments are promoted in Science, they bear no relation to the chi id-centred enterprise. They are merel y the repIaying of experiments preplanned by cumculum developers and the teacher (4C-13 to 4C-22). Similarly, while the "discovery approach" is promoted in Mathematics, it is highly regulated (4E-6). Drill and over-learning are promoted in French (the only concession the document makes to student interests is that teachers should try not to make it too monotonous). It States clearly that school is there to challenge chiidren not to entertain them (4H- 10,4H-11.4H- 14,4H- 16). The reader is momentarily stunned by Guidance's assertion that each child has ininsic worth (4B-2), so out of step with this period's philosophy. However, the authenticity of this statement is immediately thrown into question when the document further asserts that there should be a "recognition of the child as an individual with problems" (4B-4),a nd that it is the Counsellor's responsibility to be in charge of finding solutions (4B-7). This mentality is seen in 'O Ontario. Legislative Assembly, Debates, 26th leg.. 3rd sess., 10 April, 1962, pp. 2165-6. alrnost al1 guidelines. While the History/Geography sections tell teachers that students should reach their own conclusions and generalizations, they also Say that it is the teacher's role to carefully shepherd the students to "proper ends" (4D-4, 4D-8, 4D-9, 4D-28, 4D-3 1). Similarly, the Department encourages Music teachers to guide the student to enjoy musical experiences for its own sake, not for feelings of self-expression (41-2). The biggest tumaround can be found in the Home Economics course. Whereas in the last period, students were allowed to collaborate with the teacher in designing and evaluating the course, al1 student choice has been efiminated in the present document (see 4F). The Faade of Social Continuity Although there is some mention of the importance of social stability and the role that students should play in the community and the nation, these staternents remain as general

admonishments. usually at the beginning of each document. Outside of this, however, there is no real effort on the part of the Departrnent to integrate this sentiment into concrete expectations or examples within the coursework itself. Change Underlies the Department's Actions Although the importance of social change remains implicit in the language throughout the documents of this period, it rests under the entire cumculum Iike an iceberg. In actuality, the whole purpose for reforming Cumculum 1: 1 was in reaction to perceived changes that were going on in the world at the time. The creators of the guidelines, especially in Mathematics and Science, felt that new knowledge was surfacing every day, dispetling old ways of thinking. Alongside these new visions of science and technology was a "wider dissemination of knowledge by al1 the media of mass communication" (4C-3, 4E-1). So much new information was now entering the common sphere fiom al1 angles that the Department felt it necessary to find some way to properly decipher the importance of that information and ways that it could be channeled eficiently to the student. Firstly, it changed the ~ u ~ c u l u mp'hsi losophy to meet the important beliefs of the day - to include new math and science skills at al1 levels of school to prepare students to live in a "mathematized (4E-1 to 4E-6) and automated culture (4F-2, 4F-3). Secondly, the Department dissected this new information into special ty baili wicks so students could readily digest these sizeable chunks (4C- 1 TO 4C-6,4C-8 TO 4C- 15). Another new change, that of cultural inclusion, is barely visible in some areas of the curriculum. Physical Education tries to promote an understanding of culture through FoIk dancing (4G-3), and French endeavours to promote bil ingualism (4H-4, 4H-6). These two sentiments may be seen as harbingers for future revolutions in later penods. Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntegration With al1 of Robarts' reforms to the cumcuIum, the general pattern of Dimension C did not change greatly fiom the eadier periods. The Department continued to believe that there existed a

direct relationship between the Central authority that created and distributed the guidelines and the individual teachers who canied these policies out. The roles piayed by both the School boards and school administrators remained secondary. What Robarts did accomplish (for whatever original reason prompted it) was to extend the number of voices being heard at the Departmental level. Up to now, cumculurn design had always been undertaken by a handful of generalists. At the beginning of this period, with the programme king splintered into various subject areas, a large number of experts (mostly from the OCI) were seconded to more accurateIy reflect contemporary thought. In the past, most curricula had been created tiom theoretical constructs and distributed to teachers. What was indeed revolutionary about the work of these specialists was that they applied more inductive methods. In the Mathematics guideline. for example, "some informal experimental work" was undertaken in 1959 and 1960, whereby 36 schools used it in a pilot project "to determine the value of this modern treatment of Mathematics". A success. Robarts announced that "future years will almost certainly see the continuation of this experimental work in high grades" (p. 11). By the end of this period, the Departmental structure had burgeoned to include many new substructures to systematize the curriculum process. Yet. it remained the policy of the department to keep the deliberations of cumculum committees confidential until the courses of study were actually distributed to the teachers. Analysis of Dimension D: When Is lntegration possible at Grade 78 years? Dunng the opening of George S. Henry Secondary School in North York Township in 1966, Premier Robarts stated that 'lit is our declared policy, as you know, to integrate the elernentary and secondary aims of our schools system into one process which itself will be projected in a continuous sequence to embrace post-secondary education both in universities and in other directions" (John Robarts Speeches. R.G. 2. p 3. Public Archives). It is true that more than ever. Grades 1-13 were seen as a lock-step process. However, certain barriers were maintained. The cumculum set-up of Cumculum 1: 1 was not only maintained but strengthened. Many prescribed facts could only be taught at a certain grade level. Lastly. the tone of the new

documents was obviously geared for an audience that was heading for higher levels (and certainly not reminiscent about earlier childhwd grades). Analysis of Dimension E= lntemration MethodsIApproaches Prirnary Forrns of Integration The first and foremost approach to integration throughout this period is Nested. It is the only choice that meshes with the philosophy of the Department at the time. With the belief that al1 subjects must be seen as separate entities within a system, they cannot logically be combined in any other way. Within each subject, the authors instruct teachers to organize the course in a sequential, logically built fashion, going from known to unknown. This is especially seen in History (4A-7, 4A-9, 4A- 1 1, 3A-12, 4D-22 to 4D-26, 4D-30, 4D-38)- which is organized in a chronological manner, trying never to repeat itself. Similarly, Mathematics is said to fit into the grand scheme of things within the cumculum and must take an important position (451). Because of the specialized information and skills to be transmitted to the students, however, it could not be integrated with other subjects, and it did not even enter the minds of the designers to broach this issue, Rather, they recommended that teachers must use the time allotted to them more efficiently, combining Math topics together or pushing down grade levels (4E-3). Subjects, therefore, are to be taught in a unified progression over the grade levels, known to unknown. (4C7, 4G-6, 4D-23 to 4D-26) Reminiscent of earlier programmes, Science is said to be an umbrella terrn for several sub-disciplines (4C-2,4C-4). However, little is said about this aspect. Localized Forms of Integration Whiie bearing little resemblance to earlier attempts, the Thematic Approach is used in a few subject areas. Physical Education, History, Geography and Science make use of themelike units to drive forward the momentum of the course. However, unlike the now defunct Enterprise

method, these units have al1 been pre-designed by the Department. Teachers seem to be instructed to just carry out the instructions, allowing students to undergo the transmission of knowledge. Any Student-centred activity around this method is sharply curtailed. Crossdisciplinary activities are used at a more implicit level and the more general English-Across-the-Curriculum approach is not really mentioned. Rather, English is used for more subject-related purposes. Each subject seerns to have a dialect - Geographical English (4D12), scientific English (4C-15), and mathematical EngIish (4E-5). A few other cross-overs exist such as geographical history (4A- IO), but little else. Chart 4.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of Integration MethoddA pproaches) . Nrgligiblc i ;.csnrn~ ~ ILocnlizrd : ,~lncidentalI Sested Cross Multi Correlai Pluri lnsen Fusion Thcrnatic Hum Trans Integration Methods/Approaches Incidental Forms of Integration Correltrtion is vaguely mentioned as a way of linking the now dismembered social studies sub-disciplines. As well. some attempt was made to juxtapose certain course materials as part of a grand scheme: Home Economics is said to fit between Arts and Sciences (4F-5), Physical Education is shown in relation to other areas of the C U ~ ~ C U(4~G-U3)~- S cience to Agriculture (4C-20), and it is instructed that Health should not be isolated but taught across the curriculum (4G-6,4G-10). However, these are mentioned in almost an off-hand way and are not followed up with any concrete suggestions. Because of the Department's general and nebulous use of language, it is unclear if it is suggesting that teachers should organize some way of linking their courses for team teaching or

team organizing purposes in dealing with Health (4G-IO), thereby making it rnuidisciplinary (a similar situation mentioned in History/Geography). It cm also be interpreted as a Health program, making it more of a pluridisciplinwy approach. This situation, therefore, must be left in a Iimbo-like state. Analysis of Dimensions F & G: lmplementing Curriculum lntegration For the first time in its history, the Department tried to systematically test and implement its new guidelines throughout this period, rather than merely disseminating them to the teacher. If the Math cur~iculum is any example, the new documents were constructed by a group of experts, and then pilot tested in schools for feedback and adjustment. In announcing each new guideline, Robarts reiterated his policy that broad time limitations (or in sorne cases no limits) would be given to individuai principals, school boards and inspectors for the impiementation of new course guidelines. Incremental introduction of new material (Le. beginning in Grade 7 in 1961, Grade 8 in 1962, etc.) was intended to further ease the new content requirements. Special in-servicing was offered to Inspectors so they might help teachers in understanding the subject. Moreover, investigative cornmittees were established to review proposed cumcular revisions and to report upon the reaction to their implementation. While it must be acknowledged that the process prescribed by the Robarts Administration to implement the guidelines was quite effective at the time in disseminating the guidelines with little complaint from the teachers, it did not do much to aid cumculum integration. In fact, because of the Department's belief in the specialized subject cumcuIum, it actively encouraged factors that would inhibit any form of integration beyond the nested approach. The problems associated with Subject Attachment and Balkanization are not considered an issue, while it is implied that the new efficiently dismembered cuniculum would ease any overload (because each teacher would focus on their own particular area of expertise). Compared to each of the earlier cumculum innovations, this approach was considerably more open and sensitive to potential

implementation problems and did more to facilitate successful adaptation to the new curricuium. However, the focus of the Department is to generate a greater understanding of the guidelines by al1 stakeholders so that they may be more eficiently transrnitted to the student. This is demonstrated by the Department's choices in Dimension G. All central factors chosen had to do with increasing the efficient flow of information from the Department to the teachers and an acknowledgement that they had received it clearly. However, al1 factors related to increasing a voice arnong the various stakeholders were de-emphasized or ignored. Overall Remarks on Period 4 The changes to the cumculum during this period can be seen as a natural extension of the Department's new philosophy foreshadowed in Period 3. It had become clear that "cumculum" was now defined as a body of knowledge generated by departmentally seconded committees to be inculcated to students. Based on this premise, the following inferences can be made in regards to the Departrnent's actions. 1. Shift from Humanifas Model to the Scientific Model of Integration The changes of this time can be viewed as a microcosm of events that had been taking place in Western society through the greater part of the century. Until this tirne, educational philosophy had always been most highly influenced by the humanities and Liberal Arts. TO this mentality, the C U ~ C U ~waUs ~see n as almost an organic body, one and indivisible. integration was more than just finding connections, therefore, but in bnnging the body together to find meaning and purpose for the student. The ultimate objective here was to create the paideia the all-round "good" person and citizen. The changes that Robarts made allowed the ScientificCartesian Model to usurp this worldview. In doing so, child-centred education ceased to be the guiding force (see Period 3 & 4, Dimension B), the vacuum filled by a desire to see the school system run with efficiency and acco~ntabilit~." No longer showing any great concern for

individual development or social skills (see Dimension A), what becomes important is that the student know a certain amount of information and skills in a prescribed amount of tirne (13 years - see Dimension D) so that he will be properly trained for work (presumably in a scientifically related profession). 2. Most forms of Integration and Accountability Don't Mu Based on the Cartesian Model, therefore, the Department viewed the Ontario School System in a mechanistic way with the curriculum king the input and educated students the output content was the medium with which to work. In an effort to ensure quality and pinpoint where problems lay (e.g. students having trouble with writing), the content was subdivided into small courses (with even smaller units) to be delivered to the student at specific times. To do so, it widely dis-integrated cunicular programs. The new guidelines for Math, Science, History, Geography, and French were framed in an almost completely disciplinaty manner. Guidance, Home Economics, and Physical Education (the Health component) admitted a degree of integration with other subject areas. However, compared with earlier guidelines, even these subjects were more entrenched in their own specialty bailiwick. To cross the information l ' This is borne out by much of the administration literature of the time. See Simon (1957). Gouldner (1954). Ha11 (1962). between the periods on the time-table was just to "muddy the waters". This can be seen in some of the most dramatic changes made to the curriculum at this time: Guidance is a good exarnple of the trend toward disciplinarity. No longer are guidance duties shared by al1 teachers, but delegated to a trained counsellor. Teachers are encouraged to specialize in their own area of expertise and disseminate guidance information only when it touches their area (48-4, 4B-5). The counsellor has her/his proper place in the body of the C U ~ C U f~orU vo~ca tion, teaching how to study the other subjects, etc (4B-7,4B-9.4B10). The Dismantling of Social Studies best represen ts the Department's intention to disintegrate the programme. Concluding that the course was too vague a combination of subject areas, and that its aims had beccme muddled, the Department returned to the pre-1938 practice of

separating History and Geography into two distinct disciplines, each with their precise area of interest and aims. While the authors of the two guidelines still tried to reassure teachers that the two subjects would run in parallel (4D-27), it becornes clear even with a brief scan of the document that neither History nor Geography are designed to interlock in many ways (4D45). 3. From Generalist to "Factory Worker" Alongside the changed cumculum, the teachers' job description had to be transforrned to meet this new paradigm. With the new importance placed on content (and such an increased amount of it), and the "transmission" mode1 for teachers promoted by the Department, it was no longer acceptable for a teacher to simply be a generalist. It was not the teacher's responsibility to be concerned with individual development (uniess you are the guidance counsellor), social skills, or practical skills (unless you teach a vocational subject). It was much more productive for a teacher to specialize in one aspect of the cumculum and teach that (Dimension C). By the end of the decade, Lloyd Dennis referred to this arrangement as a "pickle factory" (see Gidney, 1999, p. 77) 4, The 66Specialized"S chool For specialization to occur, schools had to becorne enlarged to accommodate 8 specialist teachers. To enable this proess to happen, of course, the small schoolhouse system had to be destroyed and replaced by the more efficient regional system. For even more eficiency and accountability, the strict grade system was instituted (Dimension D). The one area where integration and efficiency overlapped was in a multi-grade nested approach - specialized teachers could spread their knowledge over several grades and teach many levels. 5. Effkient Implementation Robarts' methods allowed this new philosophy to be accepted by airnost al1 stakeholders over the span of this period. This was first due to the spiritus mundi of the time - most educational scholars, academic theorists and the media considered the scientific mode1 de rigeur

by this time." It was therefore much easier for the Minister of 1960 to sell "new and improved" to the public than it was for the Minister of 1955 to sell a return to the ancients. The success of these new documents can also be attributed to Robarts' (and Davis') politically savvy maneuvers. Instead of one monolithic change to the Programme of Studies, reforrns were made piecemeal, subject by subject over several years. Such an incremental approach to cumcular reform allowed the Department to install a more organized and detailed approach to implementation, and a feeling among al1 members of society that steady change was happening (but not at breakneck speed). Gone were one-year deadlines for implementation and coercive evaluation techniques. Instead, the Department granted more authority and leniency to principals, school boards, teachers, and inspectors in an effort to gain their support and to avoid superficial, temp0rar-y implementation. Overal 1, a broader spectrum of stake holders was pinpointed for active (or at Ieast passive) solicitation of their support. Students (being viewed as the finished product), - -- - -- I2 In the late 1950s and early 1960s. organizational theorists were driven to create more scientific methods for business and educational administration. The seminal works of this 'Theory Movement" include, in particular, however, had iost al1 opportunities for selecting or directing topics and themes in their courses. While the Department was extremely sensitive to problems that might arise From lack of proper resources etc, one does get the impression that it viewed the system more as a machine that was king tinkered with. The overaIl success of the Robarts vision in reforming Ontario education was a qualified one. The new courses appear to have been effectively and thoroughly implemented in a fairly brief span of tirne. New, bigger schools were built across the province and training in Science and Technology expanded manifold. This was perhaps the bleakest period for curriculum

integration. While examples of certain forrns existed (specifically the nested), the setup and implementation of the guidelines in fact promote a dis-integration of the curriculum. However, resistance would aise fiom parents and other interest groups to protest the infl exibiiity and oneway transmission of a stiI1 essentially centralized system. Thus, by the mid-1960s it became evident to the Department of Education that further curricular change would be necessary, and that such change would have to embody a renewed concem for the rights, interests, and needs of the child. The almost exclusively subject-centred approach would have to be tempered in future programmes. Halpin (1957). Griffiths (1959, 1964). For a short history of the movement, see Chapter 3. 'The Theory Movement: Past & Present" in Evers & Lakomski ( 199 1). Irnpetus for Change Inspiration for Direction of Change pressure on school sysiem New Phi losophical Prernises Approach Used to enact the philosophy compatible approach Technological Rcvolution and a esire by many sectors IO increase Science and Mach in thc classroom A geai increase of new inexperienced ieachen who need more direction Reactionary

Depart mental Assumptions The revised Cumculum 1: 1 rewriiicn by kpanmcnbl officiais and specialisis A greaily Accounbbiliiy cnsurcd * increased ihrough disciplinary Social Skills & Very litcle opposition io Kobns agenda wiihin h c Depanmenr - allows the above prcwess Io occur in a shan pcriod of timc Diagram 4 - Linking Philosophy to Curriculum lntegration Approach accent on new approrich Individual kvclopmcnt Student interest musi not a mandate for take a minor content and role as skills compared IO the outside informaiion they musi ahsorh A dcsire for "coniinuaus rtform" of cumculum and the education system v classes or ieachen jusi "muddics the warer" Coniinued ex perimenlal testing of cumculum for generalizabiliiy and in-servicing 9 - .. C.. *. > - .. . YJ L ,. = * A- .. L,. C d , & ut' -- A -5.' .* 3' .. :. , -0 Context of the 1967-1 974 Curriculum

Student revolts in Paris, protests across the United States, and the sudden influx of a multitude of alternative schools al1 demonstrated the changing mood of the public towards education during the second half of the 1960s.' This heightened social awareness promoted democratic freedoms and egalitaianism for al1 sectors of society (even its youngest rnembers), while a myriad of books emerged at this time resurrecting and adapting the benefits of the childcentred approach to education. Scholars such as Piaget (1967) and Bmner (1963) disputed many of the previous held daims of traditional education in favour of "themes", "interdisciplinary units," student-directed learning, the development of affective as weIl as cognitive learning, and other revolutionary concepts. Again, events acted out in the Ontario educational system make sense in relation to these changes. Public opposition to the Robarts' reforms focused on its "undemocratic" aspects, especiaIly the strearning of students into certain courses of studies, and then segregated them for the rest of their stay in school.' Closed policy creation limited to "specialists in their field" further offended principals, teachers, and schooI board officiais. In short, there was increased demand for individual freedom of choice, flexibility and participation. The Department, li ke most public education bureaucraties in Western Europe and North America, now had to make concessions to these new ideas and methods if it intended to rnaintain its reputation with the tax payers and its students in the public education system. The swiftness of change that took place in Ontario, however, can be greatly atmbuted to the abilities of the new Minister of Education. By 1965, Bill Davis had found his sealegs and proved to be unlike his predecessors. While A.S. Neill's Summerhill (1960) entranced many people in Europe and North America, privately funded Open and Free schools were founded in ever increasing numbers throughout the last 1960s and early 70s. Media figures were especially vocal in their disapproval. One of Robarts' greatest gadflies was the Globe and

Mail columnist J. Bascorn St John. See especially "A proper job in revising the Curriculum," (3 December 1962) and "Piecemeal Course Revision" (4 December 1962). Drew and Dunlop had been charactenzed by their inactivity and intransigence to change, while Porter and Robarts had had varying degrees of success at pushing through rapid solutions and then retreating to their own political ambitions. As described by Fieming, Davis appeared to strike a balance: Davis is profoundly convinced of the importance of education - and education of a particular kind. He encourages every move to give pupils and teachers more freedom, more responsibility, more chance for constructive initiative. He backs every development that promises to make schooI experiences more humane, more stimulating, and more in tune with the positive features of modem life. .. . Although he displays far more sympathy with student activists than many officiais particuhly appreciate, he tells the extremists among them with firm conviction that society, despite its defects, is not rotten and cormpt. (Fleming, 19728, pp. 28-29) While earlier administrations had caiIed for a further strengthening of the Department's control over the various aspects of a highly segrnented educational system (especially in terms of curriculum), Davis, in accordance with his philosophy, felt that this had led to a popular perception that the Department was remote and unresponsive. As Gidney (1999) mentions, this new philosophy and the actions that brought it to reality must be attributed as much to a number of newly appointed bureaucrats (especially J.R. McCarthy) as to the Minister himself (see especially pp. 66-67 concerning this issue). In particular, the Department began to recognize an underutilized but very important stakeholder base - if teachers and local administrators felt no ownership in the education process, it was surrnised that there would be a general apathetic malaise overlaying the entire system. Davis' first act to fulfil his vision was to restructure the Department in January 1965 to more accurately reflect his "three guiding principles: integration. reallocation and decentralization" (Report of the Minister, 1 965-6). Most importan tl y, Davis announced the creation of several regional offices to deal with local issues and provide resources in the field?

Fleming (1972a) saw this as indicative of "his determination to transfonn the Department from a pnmarily regulatory to a service agency" (p. 80). This is also refiected in Davis' decision to withdraw from the Department's offices in the Mowat Building and move to Queen's Park. This wouId almost completely extricate the Minister from the routine duties of head bureaucrat, mutating his role wholeheartedly to educational statesmanship (as the Hope Commission had recornmended 15 years previously). His absence would be supplemented by the creation of three new Assistant Deputy Minister positions (in charge of "Instniction", "Provincial Schools & Further Education", and "Administration" respectively), whose jobs would be to coordinate the various branches and work of officiais, interpret policy, make decisions on certain matter. and pass some on to the deputy minister. New branches were further created to ded with the expanded role of the Department. To overcome this burgeoning bureaucracy, Davis advocated a substantial increase in the Govemment's "investment in communication"^ During this penod the most crucial decision-making powers in regards to curriculum became the purview of the newly created Program branch (a sub-division of the Instruction division). However, it was made clear from the start that it would act as a director of cuniculum creation rather than as the sole designer. Making this change explicitly clear during a speech in the Legislature, Davis stated: The &y has passed when cumculum revision can be considered a matter of assembling subject specialists to issue new courses of study. The 58,000 teachers in the Provincial system, who are the key to the implementation of any course of study, must be involved at several stages. The Department has made a beginning in providing leadership in this process. During the past year workshops and familiarization sessions were held throughout the Province in the subjects of Mathematics and in History and Modem Languages -- projects that involved the cooperation of several Branches in the Department. It is expected that this phase Specifically. regional offices were established in Port Arthur, Sudbury. North Bay, London, Waterloo. St

Catharines, Kingston. Eastview and two in Toronto in the years 1965-6. To rectify its public image and to disseminate the newest ~un-ic~luimnf ormation for teachers, parents. and other interested parties, the Department created an In formation Branch (under the direction of Administration). It came to be in charge of press reieases, publications, and a newsletter entitled Ontario Education News (changed to Dimensions of Education in 1968) of cumculum development will receive increasing emphasis in the future.' Further described in Dimension C, the Davis administration instated numerous and active cumculum committees, which included a wide range of people from professors, teachers, supervisors and inspectors, to teacher's college staff and departmental officials. The Instruction Division (later narned the Curriculum Division) was responsible for coordination between districts. for research and for assistance in the form of consultative services. proposals and new ideas for cumculum developrnentP Under the influence of a new "progressive" staff of curriculum specialists7. Davis became convinced that alongside the new policy of decentralized curriculum creation, sweeping and comprehensive reforms were necessary to the general philosophy of public education. To this end, the Provincial Committee on Aims and Objectives of Education in the Schools of Ontario, was struck on June 2, 1965 with a mandate to assess the state of education in Ontario and to recommend methods for revising the elementary division. In the spirit of collaboration. the twenty-five rnember commi ttee met with nurnerous interest groups, parents and teachers over the next 2 years. While these various stakeholders acted as good sounding-boards and did much to temper the more radical proposals of the cornmittee, it should be noted that many of the report's 5 Legislative Assembly, Debates. 28" leg, 4" ses. 21 February 1965, p. 913. This is reiterated by H.E. Elborn (an Assistant Deputy Minister) in an address to the Thunder Bay Teachers' Institute on 22 October 1965 ( s e

R.G 2. File 175. Ontario Archives) This was hailed by local media as a much needed reform to the system. A good example can be seen in the Sarnia Observer (10 June 1968). 7 In 1966, Davis appointed J.R. McCarthy, a protegee of Stanley Watson (CO-creatoro f the 1937138 Programme of Studies) as Deputy Minister. McCarthy had been well trained in the progressive approach by his mentor and was a strong advocate for teachers' freedom in the choice of curricula and textbooks. He denounced the tyranny of external examinations and, in general, opposed the imposition of unnecessary restrictions and regulations of a11 kinds. He favoured decentralization of departmental powers and the maximum encouragement of local initiative and responsibility. See especially his address "cumculum crossroads" to the Ontario Association for Cumculum Development (Proceedings - Conference on Educarion, Windsor. Ontario November 196 1, p. 90). Other departmental officials such as M.B. Parnall, J.K. Crossley, and J.F. Kinlin shared similar views and rnanaged to actually play strong roles on the Hall-Dennis Committee (see Gidney, 1999). basic premises stemmed from fact-finding missions abroad. Of especial importance were memos that pleaded with the cornmittee to make changes that reflected the philosophy of Bntain's Plowden Report (please see Dimension C for more details). Surrounded by much fanfare, the HaII-Dennis Report was publicly submitted in June, 1968 (see Gidney, 1999, pp. 75-82 for a detailed summary of the report's main findings). In brief, the Report called for a refinement and elaboration of the 1937 Programme of Studies. It advocated an "individualized programme of instruction for the development of the potentialities of the child", the "removal of corporal punishment", and the "de-emphasis of cornpetition in the classroom". SchooI, declared the report, should be "viewed as a place of persona1 growth and

development based on a learning process of self-discovery" (p. 9). Finally, the Report formalized the Department's incremental return to a centrally integrated cumculum, both honzontall y and vertically. It called for the replacement of the present system based upon rigid expectations. segregated grades and subjects with the introduction of a system of education revolving around the individual needs of the student, with a minimum of supervision and guidance. As such, the process of education was seen by the report as a continuum, and for the first time since 1949, grades 7 & 8 were reintroduced to elementary concems (see Dimension D). While the public sat back to digest the Report, the Department readily applied its recornmendations with enthusiasm and ngour.8 Anticipating the cornmittee's findings as early as August 1967, the Cumculum Division delegated cumculum creation to committees around 4 broad areas of study (rather than subject-specific): Humanities (English, modern languages, classical languages); Math and Science; Social Sciences (History, Geography. social studies. Reaction was rnixed. Some newspapers were quite unbridled in their praise of the document see the Toronto Daily Star (13 June 1968). the Telegrant (13 June 1968). the GIobe and Mail (13 June 1968) and the Montreal Star (15 June 1968). Given tirne IO think on it, others were more resuained and in fact disparaging of the report. The Ottawa Journal declared the report to be nothing more than "the philosophy of John Dewey, warrned over and revised by his latter-day disciples" (June 18, l968), where the Hamilton Spectator regretfull y feared that the report's abstract theories could never be applied in the real world (August 17, 1968). Daly (1969) further expresses these sentiments in his derisive text. government and economics); and the General Group (Art, Music, Physical Education, Industrial Arts and Home Economics). Fleming (1972b) asserts chat "The new arrangement was intended to meet the need for integration of certain aspects of certain subjects and to lay the foundation for

a more flexible grouping of options in school programs" (see pp. 31-38). To encourage this, the Curriculum Division began distributing course outlines of a more general nature than in the past. These outlines would be merely intended to serve as a framework within which teachers working with their students and programme consultants could develop their own courses based on local needs. By 1969, this new "integrated" system was consolidated and fully linked. Four assistant supenntendents on the Cumculum staff were hired to coordinate education as a continuous process through the present 4 tevels of schooling (PJIS). In total, over 70% of the Cornmittee's recommendations related to cumculum were impIemented within the next few years. After two years of experimenting with this approach, Davis pronounced it a success - in the future, he stated in his annual report, the vision of the department would embrace ''.-.a decentralized cumculum, individualized programs and a rnultidisciplinary approach of learning." (Annual Report, 1969. p.2). For the next 5 years the Depment embarked on a series of projects along these lines. Program consultants in the regional offices helped teachers with individualized programming, and as will be shown throughout this chapter, guidelines remained generalized to permit local adaptation. In fact the Department even funded a nurnber of experimental school configurations. Experimental Free schools were opened in Hillsburgh and Toronto, while Open Concept schools were being constnrcted across the province in attempts to find new ways of meeting the demands of the student? For the remainder of this penod a feeling of excitement and verve swept the Ontario educational community, pushed fonh by a feeling of liberation From a prescri bed cumcut um. Like Robarts before him, Davis reaped persona1 reward from successfulIy engineering

this revitaiization of the education system. In 1971 he accepted the premiership of Ontario, and appointed first Robert S. Welch (197 1-2) and then Thomas Wells (1972-1979) as his Minister of Education. However, Davis' shoes proved difficult to fil1 as the initial high of "cumcuiar freedom" began to be replaced by a sense of aimlessness and unaccountability. Features of the Period: Like the documents of the previous "Robarts" period, the guidelines of the "Davis" period were implemented in an incremental rnanner. Composed by larger cumculum committees than in the past and following the general findings of the Hall-Dennis Report as a guide, they were also much more abstract in nature. The order of appearance followed thusly: Guidance (1968), An (1968), English (1 969), Latin & Greek ( f 969), Basic Business Typing (1 97 l), Consumer Studies ( 1 972), Informatics ( 1972), Science ( 1 972), Man, Science & Technology ( 1 W2), Music (1 W2), History (1 973). Geography ( lW3), Physical Education ( 1973), Environmental Science ( 1974), and Family Studies (1974). As the distribution of these documents were targeted for a wider audience (namely parents and concerned citizens), they becarne more aesthetically pleasing pictures and photographs were inciuded portraying harmonious studentheacher relations, various learning activities in which students played an active role, and student artwork. It had become obvious that the guidelines were no longer merely prescriptive instructions but broadcasting sales pitches for the public education system as well. The philosophy of Marshall McLuhan had been perhaps adopted - the medium becomes the message at this time. *note - the Mathematics guideline is a continuation of the previous pend In the early 1970s. the two "Free Schools" even prduced a magazine entitle This Magazine is About Schools which outlined their philosophy and gave reminiscences about life at the school. As shown in Part II of this

study, one of the schools, founded in 1973, is still based on the Open School concept. Analysis of Dimension A: Elements Used Durinq lntegration Clearly, the authors of these guidelines were concerned with one form of integration above al1 others - Individual Development. While other forrns are present, they must be viewed as secondary. Content is largely ignored or downplayed throughout, while the integntion of academic skills in areas beyond their subject-related courses is not highly prornoted. Manual skills, especially its sub-component "relevance". has made inroads due to its interrelationship with Individual development. However, Social Skills and Underlying Principles tend to suffer for the same reason. This is due to the fact that both represent a certain amount of indoctrination - the first involves the socialization of the student, the second involves the inculcation of an extemal value systern. Both are anathema to persona1 freedom and independent thought. Chart 5.1 - Dimension A (The Importance of Elements used during Integration) Content Ac. Skills Manual Social Individual Undcrlying Elements Analysis of Dimension B: Objectives of lntegration The Return of "Natural" Subject Unity Written like a passionate rebuttal to the preceding period, Science is characteristic of the Department's belief in the "natural" integration of the subject areas: A curriculum should have unity resulting from a coherent structure and continuity. Scraps of knowledge have nothing to do with education. There must be some sort of structure in the planning and in the deveiopment of the program. Any unifying influence need not be totally consistent across the province, nor even throughout a local jurisdiction. The cumcular frarnework, however, must be cIear to each teacher and logical to the boys and girls. (51-1 7) Unless they are diverse, new courses will only perpetuate the current pattern of specialized courses in high school described by Leopold KIopfer as a "pale refiection of the traditional organization of science for the purpose of research, and of the departmental fragmentation established in colleges and universities for the purpose of training scientists in specific fields." Al1 categones of knowledge should be taught and studied as interdependent, each with its own contribution to the web of insight, knowledge, and experience of youth. (51-1 8)

Clearly, the tenn "unity", mentioned in almost al1 guidelines, has little to do with any artificially manufactured "programme of studies" by a centralized authority (as the later Curriculum I:l documents had ken). Indeed, the Department appears to have embarked on the destruction of the last vestiges of the rather rigid and outdated Cumculum I:1 (to be replaced by a set of 16 loosely constructed, independent guidelines) for just such a reason. While revolutionary, the new curriculum designers at no time endeavour to erase the lines between subject areas. To them. a truly integrated and meaningful cumculum can only stem from "natural Iinkages" between subjects, discovered and exploited at the primary stakehdder ievel. While the notion of "Natural Linkages" had existed as rather vague notions in both pe60ds 1 and 3, it is dunng this period that the Department refines and solidifies the premise, making it endemic throughout the cumculum. The basis of this philosophy was not dissimilar to Adam Smith's "invisible h a n d of the marketplace, in that natural laws were believed to be at work. This is stated most succinctly in Art: "we have corne to acknowledge the interdependence of al1 fields of learning" (58-6). and the "trend towards the correlation of al1 areas of learning" (5B-10). In Iine with this reasoning, subject cornmittees designed the course as a h e w o r k rather than as a prescribed text. This was supposed to give much latitude for interpretation at the local level. It is further recommended by most guidelines that while interna1 consistency is important, courses should be organized into broad areas (51-9, 51-12, 51-28, SB-5, SB-9a 5K8, 50-6). English even warrants the mandating of large blocks of time to enable "teachers to examine the possibilities of melding a11 facets of the program into an integrated whole" (SC9). In allowing for these wide parameters, the Depamnent appears to have beIieved that certain subjects would be attracted to each other, thereby wiping out the perennial problems of "hitless repeti tion" (5N-2),a nd the creation of a unified paradigm. While each guideline does share in the belief that subjects should be linked, there is also a

bit of a wobble in the opinions they formulate as to the specific linkages and the strength of one subject's pull over others. Physical Education makes fairly benign mention as to how it can help reduce overlap and enrich resources with Farnily Studies and Science (SP-6). Science takes this one step further. Based on its universal skills (51-6, 51-23}, the guideiine boasts that "Science overlaps al1 the other disciplines, hence allowance for some form of integrated study in the total school cumculum provides for a more natural development of an area of study" (51-9)- At the furthest end of the spectmm are the courses that discuss their pivotal roles in enabling a unified cumculum. Geography. for example, says that it holds a unique place as a lynchpin between the social and physical sciences (5M-1). while also having a foot in the arts and humanities (5M2). Similarly, Family Studies believed it "can serve as a unifying force integrating elements of many disciplines within the curriculum" such as Art, History, Geography (50-8). Finally. Art bluntly States that it is the one discipline that can effectively illuminate the interdependence of subjects (5 B -6). With al1 the varying degrees of "natural" mentioned above, there remains genuineness in their attempts, for they al1 do seem to adhere to the acid test described in the underlying philosophy: "the criterion of successful integration is its unforced quality" (5K-2). Some of the new optional courses appear to be driven more by political survival, however. They seem to make an especial point at showing sorne relationship to the core subjects. This can be seen in Infonnafics ' strained lin kages to unrelated areas of study (5H-5, 5H-Sa), and in Latin 's repeated arguments about its connections to modem society and other languages (5D-1,5D -2, 5D-4, 5D4a, 5D-4c, 5D-44. A hint of desperation appears in both Environmental Science (SN-La) and Consumer Studies (5G-5a, 5G-Sb) as they state that even if they cannot stand alone as

independent courses, some of its messages may be integrated into core courses. Student-Centred Integration Returns to a Central Position While the Department makes a strong argument in defense of subject unity, its most convincing statements can be found in the various guidelines' promotion of child-centred integration. Again, Science is especially eloquent in justifying the approach: Education can becorne a iifelong search for a comprehensive understanding in which there are no artificial comparbnents of school subjects. At times the subject Science should melt away completely so that a student may be able to study segments of his real world in a natural fashion. How can a student feel that he has freedom to do a scholarly study of Holland Marsh if he must stop at ethnic origins because that is history, or neglect contour lines because that is geography? (51-16) At the basis of this statement is a deep-seated belief in individuality. Al t students are unique (SA2) - they al1 learn difierently and should be allowed to master different talents depending on their situation (linked with their own development - 5C-4). It is anathema in this period, therefore, to enforce any uniform mode1 of education. Rather, the objective of the education process rnust be to stimulate the student towards an interest in the development of and participation in his own experience. The designers of the guidelines decided on certain paths to achieve this end. I, Teachers should create each program so thal it meets students' needs and interests. The intensity of this objective varies from course to course. Certain subjects like Informatics (5H-2), and Latin (5D-4d) give a simple nod in its direction. Others like Guidance (SA-9) and Art (SB-9a) make a more sincere effort to utilize integrated teaching methods in an effort to "answer needs of the adolescent" (SB-1). In the core courses this objective becomes more central. EngIish, Science, History and Geography al1 make the ieap and state that curriculum design should be created around students interests, differences and demands, and that teachers should experiment with new approaches, gauging them by student interest (SC- 1, SC- 12, SC-14, 51-3, 51-1 1, 51-24, 51-25? 5L-5, 5L-9, 5M-3). At the furthest end of this spectrum is Physical Education, which States that teachers should make personal assessments, then

individualize the course to each student (5P-4). 2. Teachers should relate the learning experiences to students ' lives The belief in the correlation of student performance to relevance is one that hearkens back to period 1. In fact, a few course guidelines are more adamant than the 1938 programme ever was in promoting this link. Both Art and English warn the teacher not to expose the students to works of art or literature that may be out of their league (SB-4, 5B-8,5C-7a, 5C-5; 5C-8, SC-6, SC-7b). The most zealous outlines remain Consumer Studies (SG-5a, SG-6), Science (51-8, SI13a, 51-7, 51-8, 51-3) and Physical Education (5P- 1 1, 5P- l5), however. Each entreats teachers to set up the course and classroom to simulate real life and mimic students' lives outside the school. 3. The Link between Activity and Interest This is another cany-over from the first period. If students are kept busy working on hands-on projects or other visually stimulating activities, the likelihood that they will become bored decreases and more learning is achieved. To accomplish this there must be enough flexibility built into the tirnetable so as to allow these projects to be completed uninterrupted by course and room changes. This admonition can be explicitly seen in Guidance (5A-f), Family Studies (50-6, 50-7), and Art (5B-2, SB-7, 5B-8, SB-7, 5B-9b). Science likewise places great emphasis on the discovery method, allowing the students to expriment with active participation (SI- 15,SI- 19, 51-20.51-2 1, 51-22, SN-3) 4. Students should be collaborators in planning the course This extreme aspect of the student-centred approach has not been explicitly seen before. Even the most liberal of periods in the past would not allow students such power over their own education (for fear that no learning would be achieved as a result). In this period, however, there seems to be a mandate by most outlines to attempt just that. The reasoning behind this command is that by allowing the students some control over the creation of the course, they will have

greater interest and a sense of ownership. The Department, of course, does not open the doors too wide, and in many individual guidelines the steps taken are quite tentative. In some courses. a core of matenal remains with optional electives being offered to the student (SC-13, 51-3 1, 5N3). Guidance goes a little further, simply stating that the direction of the course should be dictated by student problems (5A-4) and interests (SA-1 1). Similarly, the Art course resurrects the old enterprise method, but replaces teacher assignments with student interest (5B-9d) - "he should be encouraged to discover his own line of exploration within the boundaries of the art program" (SB-2). However, certain course ou tlines are qui te radical in relation to previous penods. English bluntly States that student collaboration should be the backbone of the course: "This inter-disciplinary approach necessi tates much cooperative planning by students and teachers" (SC-10). This accent on joint pIanning is repeated in Latin (SD-4b), History (5L-12, 5L-14). Geography (5M-7). and Farnily Studies (50-3.50-4.50-5,50-8). What is tmly unique in this period is the Department's ability to reconcile subject unity and child-centred integration together in one cumculum. Rather than considering them as inherently at odds with each other, the documents display how the two paradigms can COexist within the sarne framework, each with strengths and weaknesses. The sarne can be said about the integrated-disciplinary dichotomy: "We need a wisdom that integrates rather than a learning that divides. Clearly, there shouId be a place for interdisciplinary thinking as well as a place for studies arnong the tradi tional lines of the disciplines." (51- 169) Social Continuity at Odds with the Mandate of the Period Although weakly displayed, some of the curriculum documents point out that certain beliefs should be integrated into the program to promote social continuity. Many of the recommendations deal with the local situation, such as Guidance and Physical Education's plea that the courses should refiect the community's needs (SA-7, 5A-11, 5P-7, 5P-8). Other subjects make a wider, if more general case for promoting values that reflect Canadian society or that

study cultural heritage. This is seen in most of the traditional Arts-Humanities related courses Art (5B-3, SB-9), Music (5K-2, 5K-3, 5K-4), History (5L-1, 5L4, 5L-1 l), Latin (SD-2a, 5D3. SD-3a), and English (SC-6). On the whole, the general silence of the Department on this issue seems to be reflective of its stniggle to corne to grips with individual freedom within a society that no longer displays one unified culture. The Curriculum Tries to Keep Pace with the "Changing Times" Like in the previous period, the Department saw that society was going through a cime of great upheaval. However, changes no longer included the isolated advancements of technology and science (although this is mentioned in Typing (5F-1)-In formatics (5H-15,H -4, 5H-5, 5H8), Man, Science and Technology (5J- l), and perhaps most importantly Science (51- 1, 51-2, 5110, 51-13b, 51-13c, 3-14, 51-27). It also encompasses the realization that society itself is changing, becoming more complex. This is pointed out in Guidance (SA-5) and Consumer Studies (5G1 to 5G-4) when discussing the changing world of occupational and purchasing choices. In keeping up with changes to private life Home Economics is repIaced by Family Studies: It is thus apparent that Family Studies is an outgrowth of Home Economics in the schools of Ontario. The change in name is intended to convey the evolvernent of Home Economics as it has responded to changing modes of fulfilling farnily functions and to changing roles of farnily members. (50-2a) At the sarne time, certain courses attempt to change students' mentality towards certain facets of the world around them. History says it will help the student deal with the changing cultures of Canadian society (5L-3, 5L-4a, 5L-LO), while both Geography (SM-3, SM-5) and Environmental Science show the student ways to "derive not only knowledge of his environment, but sensitivity

to the relationships within it and a feeling of responsibility for the whole: in short, harmony with his surroundings" (5N- 1 ). Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntegration Perhaps the most revotutionary aspect of the changes to the curriculum during this period was the shift of decision-making power over the cumculum down the educational hierarchy. Ironically, this can be related to the Department's reawakened infatuation with British-style curriculum reforms. In fact, this renaissance can be largely attnbuted to one man in particular M.B. Parnall. the head of the Program Branch. Unabashed in his admiration of the recently instated Plowden Report, 'O he assigned two of his under-agents J.F. Kinlin and Phillis Moore to investigate its effects in the hopes of giving some guiding principles to the recently stnick HallDennis Cornmittee. Upon the submission of their reports. a flurry of intemal memoes ensued, remarking enthusiastically on the positive reforms Britain had undertaken. Each report focused on an area of education that would later play a central issue in the Hall-Dennis Report. Kinlin's 10 In the same vein as the Hadow Report, a new commission was appointed. under the chairmanship of Lady Bridget Plowden, to study primary education. For three years the commission conducted an extensive investigation. In 1967 it issued a detailed report in two volumes, which enthusiastically endorsed the informa1 approach to education. 159 report (L965), submitted directly to Davis himselfi', pointed out the Britons' use of concrete tasks (i.e. Iab work), hands-on activity as providing the "basis for an integration of math with science (biology, rnechanics, electricity, light, etc.. .) with geography (areas, maps, mapping, etc) with crafts (study of shapes) and with art (study of designs)" (p. 51). Textbooks are not used to gIean

concepts in a transmission format. "English education", remarked Kinlin, "develops them from observations and recordings from the real-life situations*' Departmental mandates, Kinlin applauded Britain's use of group the disciplines." Moore's reporti3 (based on interviews between June (p.52). Also foreshadowing later large areas of studies or themes to 4 and July 22, 1965), dweit more on the collaborationist aspects of British education at the time. The neo-progressive argument is explicitly expressed throughout: "Real education comes from learning not teaching."; "children learn most effectively when motivation comes fiom within - curiosity, desire to know fiom recognition, from joy of constructing, From joy and exci ternent of discovery"; "education through experience"; [Many schools have] "adopted the term "Language Arts" to emphasize the "Searnless robe of learning" (pp. 2-7). Moore saw the benefits of this system as applying to both teachers and students. Teachers seemed more professional and independent because they were required to formulate and apply concrete philosophies to their teaching. The atmosphere in classrooms seemed very relaxed, and demwracy between teacher and studen t was facilitated. I I Accompanying the report on October 8, 1965, Kinlin wrote to Davis: "Enclosed yoti will find a copy of the bulletin 'Education in England - Report #4'. which at Dr. Phimister's suggestion has been supplied to the principal oficials of the Departrnent 'for their interest and information. and for discussion Iater on. As the title indicates. this particular report represents a summary of special features that I consider worthy of note. The other 3 projects were on projects suggested to me by Mr. Parnall, and were submitted to him in documented form" (National Archives: R.G. 2-62 Acc. 1162 8. Box 1 - "Approvals for Innovative Course Files").

12 Primary school studies are grouped into studies of environment (clusters of science, geography. history and math), activities (physical education, music, art, drarna) so that the traditional subjects do not appear separately but are organized into groups (p. 54). t 3 Memo of 13 August 1965, from Phyllis A. Moore to M.B. Parnall (National Archives: R.G. 2-62 Acc. 1162 8, Box 1 - "Approvals for Innovative Course Files"). II However, she did envision problerns if these changes were introduced in Ontario. First, the level of skill and These reports (and others) submitted to the Dennis-Hall cornmittee in its early stages, had a towering effect in infiuencing the final report's leanings towards cumculum integration. However, it must be realized that, unlike Penods 1 and 2, the British refoms had impact on just the integrative philosophy adopted by the report (and subsequent Period 5 documents). No Ionger would the Department simply Iift whole sections fiom other documents, cut and paste. Perhaps m e r to the spirit of collaboration, guidelines would now be constructed through lengthy meetings with many stakeholders groups. By 1967, Davis announced that the Cumculum division was maintaining liaison with over 70 institutions whose activities and projects had direct bearing on the programs of Ontario ~chools.'' Closer links were also maintained with teachers' federations and they were regularly consulted in the construction and dissemination of the curriculum documents. Davis stated the Department's intentions quite clearty at a speech to the Legislature: The time has passed when courses of study can be written by 2 or 3 experts and then handed to principals and teachers to cany out in the classroom. A new course of study should not come as a surprise, nor shouid it corne to teachers who are unprepared to implement it. Effort is king made to involve the teachers themselves in the formulation of the new program and to acquaint them with its pattern as it takes shape. (Davis Speech Files, 1962-1969, R.G. 2, p. 7, Ontario Archive) In Iine with this more democratic cumculum, the committees mandated to create the new documents were specifically instructed to leave them as fairly wide frameworks, open to

interpretation at the school and classroom level. These courses were then assessed in selected classrooms and discussed arnong teachers, students, interested parents and businessmen. It was expected that teachers would modify, clarify, and add detail to the cumculum on their own. The training demanded in teachers was much higher. Such integrated activities required teachers who could create a Fulfilling environment. accurately assess the educational value of each activity, and also ensure the progress of individual students. Second, "integrated activities" and 'environmental studies" require very careful planning to create balance and to have a sequence of concept development. IS This included such groups as the Canadian Association of Physicists, the CBC, and the Canadian Institute of International affairs (Ontario, Legislative Assembly, Debates, 5th session, 17 May 1967, p. 3536). Department encouraged teachers to "explore the possibilities of inter-disciplinary planning in which subject boundaries are blurred" (SC-9). This would entail meeting and collaborating with other teachers within the school - perhaps in a team-planning or team-teaching setting. Most dramatically, teachers were also specifically advised to engage in collaboration with their students in designing the specifics of the curriculum. In undertaking these changes, Davis refomed the reason for the Department's existence. Whi le the Department was responsi ble for ensuring proper educational opportuni ties for all, it was not to act as a centralized authonty dictating policy, while supervising and evaluating the other levels (i.e. teachers). As such, its hierarchical structure began to crumble. In 1967, the existing 11 13 Inspectors were reassigned as Program Consultants attached to regional offices. Before, these offkee had been responsible for both inspection and consultation on implementing new cumicular prograrns. Now they were restricted to visit schools only on invitation of local authonty and made no reports on the quality of teaching they observed during visits. By 1970, the consultants had ken reduced to 150 in regional offices, and most were now king trained as subject generalists or were assuming special responsibilities in matters of school organization.

Analysis of Dimension O: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other Grade Levels While the Davis administration maintains Robarts' sentiment that the Ontario educational system should be seen as a continuum, the Grade 7-8 level finds a more specific home in the Intermediate division. Within this vague barrier, however, much leeway is given. The guidelines make a point of not slotting any particular information, etc in any earmarked school year. Rather, the teacher is given the authority to put it in any order desired - so long as the objectives were fulfilled over the four-year period. This is quite in line with the flexible, individualized intentions of the overalI program, and lends itself readily to a vertical integration between grade 7 and 10. Analysis of Dimension E: lnteqration MethodsIApproaches Primary Forms of Integration The documents of this period weave a number of forrns into a fairly cornplex web - At the heart of this network sits the Thematic Approach (as it has been so often seen in earlier periods). Under the pseudonyms 'Topics", "Themes" and "Units", the approach is used extensively to "naturally" relate subjects and ideas within one course. Because of the Department's abhorrence of the cycloptic vision of the traditional disciplines (in that only one perspective is shown at a tirne), it is almost mandated that facets of other disciplines must be brought in. Depending on the topic, the teacher must consult other disciplinary experts to bring in al1 the "appropriate" perspective to aid the investigation (5L-4). The strength of thematiccentred courses, explains the Department, lies in the opportunity to integrate knowledge From many traditional disciplines, thereby giving the student a richer educational expenence than she wouId gain otherwise (51-29). 'The thematic approach brings together factual information and underlying concepts in a unique relationship as the study of the theme threads its way across traditional boundaries of organizational patterns" (51-30). At this point, the approach used during this period is very similar to Penod 2's Enterprise Method. However, the Department then recommends that teachers take this one step further.

Many documents echo Technology's admonition that "it would be contrary to the spirit of this document if planning and presentation were to be limited to the resources of a single subject or person" (55-3). Broad references. in almost al1 guidelines, extend the thematic approach beyond the classroom to bring in the Multidisciplinary Approach. As such, teachers are instmcted to make liaisons with teachers of other "naturally related subjects to create team-teaching, teamplanning situations or even cumculum policy committees. Links are mentioned between Physical Education and Health, Family Studies, and Science (5P-14, 5P-6). Dance is another prime exarnple - it can be CO-planned between teachers of History, Geography. Family Studies, Theatre Arts, English and Modem Languages (5P-10). Science, Environmental Science and Consumer Studies expand on this suggestion. They recommend that certain topics can be sliced off from specific subject areas and, through a coordinated study, scattered as a broad theme into many niches of the curriculum (51-6, 51-9, 5N-la, 5N-4, 5G-5a, 5G-Sb). This procedure is even given the special label "interdisciplinary studies" at this time. Secondary/Localized Forms of Integration In an effort to democratize the cumculum, even students were given the ability to have a certain amount of Say on its creation. To accomplish this, more credence was given to the iIlusive Transdisciplinary Approach in this period than ever before (or since as a matter of Tact). In relation to the above approaches, students were allowed great decision making power over the themes used, and were allowed voices in the team-planning sessions. Many guidelines even recommend that students should take control of segments of the course period and engage in selfdirected independent study. The Nested Apprclach makes a drop from the last period, in that the layout and information of each subject area is not spelled out precisely. However, this method is still endorsed - just in a more general way. The Department sees unity as starting from within the subjects themselves. The one switch is that it leaves the arrangements of this unity up to each

teacher to decide. This is why the guidelines are left especially broad in scope. A certain arnount of Harmonization retums to the curriculum in this period. However, there appears to be more rhetonc than actual action at this stage. As can be seen in figure 5.1 on page 542, English, Science, Music, Guidance and Health al1 state that their corresponding skills should permeate the entire cumculum. But they are not mentioned much beyond their own guideline. Incidental Forms of Integration As seen above, the remaining approaches are mentioned frequently, but in very vague tems. English is a good exarnple of the arnorphous treatment given to some forms of integration at spots: "topic might also be introduced through art, music, history, economics. and any other appropriate area of interest" (SC-10). While it could mean a theme or implicitly require relations with other teachers. it could just as easily be the cross-disciplinary approach. This type of phrasing, vague in reference. is peppered throughout the documents. Chart 5.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of Integration Methods/Approaches) Ncsted Cross Mdti Correlat Pluri lnsen Fusion Thematic H m Tms Integration MethodsfApproaches Analysis of Dimension F & G: Immlementina Curriculum Integration Two factors contributed most to the changes in the Department's implementation policy the added leeway given to cumculum interpretation and the evoIution of the Department itself from a regulatory to a service body. As can be seen in profiles F and G (see pp. 554555). it was the Department's sincere belief. at this time. that the cumculum would be applied onIy if people had some intrinsic connection to it. As such, the addition of more stakeholders to the design and irnplementation process (not increased centralization) was considered crucial. Accountability - at least from the preceding authoritarian stance - was considered a chimera. Who could Say what is important and what is not? Certainly not an ivory tower. The actions taken by the Department at this time. therefore. can be seen as an attempt to remove any impediments that might hinder the democratization (and hence tme integration) of the cumculum. No specialized documents are

issued. Rather the guidelines are left fairly vague and adaptable. and any fom of systematized testing was discouraged to enable as much freedom as possible to the local level. Teachers were encounged to meet frequently in attempts to reconstitute the course of studies. while facets of the educational community long dormant (namely the community and the students) were brought into the fold of decision-making. While the Department still maintained its powers of curriculum creation. these became far more watered-down, replaced by a more open policy. Departmental duties were no longer typified as prescription, dissemination. supervision and evaluation. Rather. Davis did his utmost to make it a supportive body. This is borne out by the incredible arnount of funding earmarked for regional offices, created specifically to help local teachers through professional development. The genuine intentions of the Minister can be seen in his proud statements throughout his Annuai Reports (1968- 197 1) as to the amount of in-servicing in which these offices were engaged. These included ongoing courses for teachers in Art (1968). Business and Commerce (1968). Guidance (in which 1200 were enrolled in 1968 and 2000 in 1970), Mathematics (involving 6 school boards in 1969), French (1970), Home Economics (1970). Of most interest was the creation of a particular in-service course devoted to Integrated Studies in June of 1968. The program was said to "look at recent curriculum developments with a view to funher examination of suitabte areas for CO-ordination and integration of the three subjects" (Annuai Report, 1969, pp. 4-5). For the first time, summer courses with the title Integrated Studies were given to help elementary school teachers use the everyday experiences of children to broaden skills and concepts traditionally

associated with individual subjects. The teachers had opportunities to work together and plan an integrated cumculum. Alongside these new courses, Davis announced the increased amount of educational resources that the Department was now willing to place in the han& of the teacher: Being centrally located, the Department is also specially quaIified to be a resource centre for new information and a clearing house for worthwhile ideas emanating from within and outside the province" (pp. 3-4). Accompanying this was the publication of Dimensions in Education that was sent out to teachers rnonthly to keep them abreast of changes to the curriculum and innovations to teaching in general. It cannot be denied. therefore. that a great change of heart had corne into the Department and was manifested in the sweeping improvements it made to Department-teacher relations, and to the implementation process. However, this change of heart cannot be blarned on any miserly behaviour in pst periods. Rather, this incredible generosity on the Department's part during this period may have had a lot to do with the greatly increased arnount of funding it was receiving from the govemment.l6 The question remaining. however, was just how long the enthusiasm and the money would last. '' While the Department showed a rise in expenditure from $400 million in 1964-5 to $1.1 billion in 1970-1, this is in line with the 250% rise in revenue received through increased taxation (see Ontario budget 1965-1970). The sheer rolling mass of changes during his period do much to blur the intentions at the core of the Department's actions. To the unsuspecting it may appear as nothing more than chaos - cectainly to Dunlop it wouId have looked Iike education in Ontario had been cut from its mooring and gone adrift. However, if the various threads of logic are pulled apart, the basis of curriculum integration during this period can be traced back to certain fundamental shifts in philosophy and economics:

1. Individual Freedom Drives the Curriculum Process Fed by the overwhelming influence of contemporary scholarship (from acadernic theorists, the British sources, and the Hall-Dennis recommendations), the Department decided that the most important aspect of the educational process was the development of self-actualized, selfreliant students (Dimension A & B). As it was also believed that only the individual student could motivate and teach this to himself, choose hidher own path, and know how fa. to go, the curriculum process must be turned upside down (or right-side up depending on the view). Rather than the top-down structure of period 4, student interest must once again be the driving force. As such, the ones who can be of the most aid to these students are the ones that are closest to them the teachers. While guidelines are brought out, based on a wide view by those representative of educational thought in Ontario, the tnie cumculum can only be achieved through the collaboration of the teachers and students in particular (Dimension C). 2. Natural Links arnong Traditional Core Subject The Department returns to its belief that natural relations exist between certain perennial subjects. However, the twist in this period is that only those at the operating core (the teachers) would be qualified to pick these out. 3. "Human" Forms of Integration Therefore, because no uniform system can be imposed across Ontario, yet must be opened for natural links chosen by the teachers themselves, the Department is fairly strapped for mandating any distinct integration approach at this time. Certainly any authoritarian forms, such as those seen in the last period, are out of the question. It is broadly rnentioned as "thematic". However, wide accommodation is given for local interpretation as to the uses and specifics of these themes.

To encourage teacher interaction, the "multidisciplinary approach" is also suggested. This interdisciplinary approach necessitates much cooperative planning by students and teachers. Again, specifics are left up to the teacher. Lastly, while the most extreme form of integration, the field trip, is mentioned fairly frequentIy, the one downside to this is that teachers may make the mistake of isolating "relevance" into one day a term. 4. More Political Reasons for Options Certain courses seem to have mutated to become more acceptable to a wider audience. In doing that, they also include many more elements within the course structure. This is especially true of Environmental Science, which replaced Agriculture during this period.17 The new courses of Latin, Consumer Studies and Informatics go quite far in ingratiating themselves to the core subjects and try to show their indispensibility to the cumculum as a whole. This is a saained retationship, however, and must be seen as pragrnatic-political-machiaevellian integration. 5. Money Allows the Realization of this Scheme It is only through the large injection of funding at this time that aiIowed Davis to bring reformed vision to life with little negative reaction. If this had been enacted with no money, the theoretical steps would have been to close down the Department completely, and just divide the remaining funds among a11 teachers with the faith that they would know what to do with it. However, it 17 The change to the name "Environmental Science" met with considerable interest, a much wider acceptance than the previous course and appeared to rernove some of the stigrna attached to agriculture. See "Airns of Agricultural" Science" (Ontario Archives: R.G. 2, 1-2 1, p.5). would aIso have caused a public uproar from the tax-payers. As it was, he was able to strike a compromise. While much more freedom was given to teachers, and they were able to get more direct help from program consultants rather than king inspected, the public was made to feel that

the Department was still quite visible through its 10 regional offices. As well, this new accent on a more "qualitative" forrn of education was a lot more costly than the oid standardized forrn if the economy had been tighter, taxpayers may have been a little more cntical of any revolutionary approaches or experimentation. As it was, a baiance of freedom and authority was maintained during this period. Impetus for Change dccenuali7xd sysiem returns with vigour Inspiration for Direction of Change New Phi losophical Premises Approach Used to enact the philosophy Depart men ta1 Educaiional scholarship promoies studcni-centrrd approriches IO educate ieachers, as closesi IO the operaiing core. should have sav in what thcv teach Recommendaiions of the Hall-knnis Rcpart llisciplines impartimi as Assumptions caich-al1 bins for cflicient epartmeni now sees iiself as a service organimiion organimtion nther than a rrguhiory MY Deceninlizcd Accouni;rhiliiy a cumculum a chirncn - cach perjon is The most importani . ncccssity - hrmd di ffcrcni and can only element of educaiion is The curriculum should bc dnven by Studeni iniercsi - Integraiion can only

documents c.o bc be sccn ai the siic Individual Dcvelopment musi relate to thcir bc accomplished by created enperiencc and even lei ieachers themselves thcm help in crrration integraiion - ieachcrs musi staying wiihin disciplinary meet and work iogeiher formai Massive influx of funding allows great number of siakcholder inclusion and experimcnts Diagram 5. Linking Philosophy to Curriculum Integration Approach Context of the 1975-1 983 Curriculum By the Mid-1970s, the Department had reached the apex of its prosperity. It had achieved the designation of Ministry, and had expanded over the past 10 years to include a much more complex infrastructure and a presence in the educational community as a service agency. Reflecting this augmented role, in 1972 the Program branch fissured into three distinct sections dealing with the development, the irnplementation and the research of future cumcula. Unlike the bureaucracy, however, the creation of new documents proceeded at a fairly leisurely pace. A new Intermediate program was said to be underway as early as 1972, and was mentioned in every Annual Report up to 1975. Nevertheless, nothing more seemed to come from this activity (at least in the public eye as no core documents were published between 1973 and 1977). This may have been due to the vastly expanded process that curriculum creation had become. Based on a 6-year cyclical process recommended by the Hall-Dennis Report, each guideline was now going through several phases of input, initial creation, validation, field-testing and revision.

Committees of seconded teachers and specialists (see Dimension C) camied out each step. As mentioned in the previous period, the Ministry mandated that these documents remain as mere frameworks for courses. The Minister of Education, Thomas Wells, promoted this vision up to 1975. Speaking at a teacher's conference, he stated that the Ministry: . . .leaves it to school boards and schools and teachers to specifically devise actual programs for use in the classrooms. In this case, the onus will be heavily on people Iike yourselves to take the lead in making sure that prograrns are as relevant as possible to the real needs of today's youth. In this day and age particularly, this is no small responsibility (Wells, Proceedings of the Heaith Education Conference, 25 April 1975, p. 2) This was backed up by annual submissions of 1500 locally developed courses that fell outside the scope of the Ministry's cuniculum guidelines (See Annual Reports, 1972- 1973). It was perhaps inevitable that this optimistic vision of an individualized school system would eventually come under increased scrutiny. With the loss of Davis' magnetic personality and the inability of the system to regulate itself, the list of critics grew every &y. By the mid70s the Ministry couId no longer ignore the conservative elements calling for more accountability. The Peterborough Examiner (January, 1975) was representative of the backlash: it criticized the Ministry's program as a "Cafeteria Cumiculum" that allowed students to "graduate with a superficial impression of a helter-skelter of unrelated subjects." Similar comments came in from several key educational associations, each calling for a return to "core courses" where "the basics" would be taught.' The initial response on the part of Wells to these critics was that of apology. While he still maintained the primacy of child-centred education,' in a press release he bluntly agreed "...that the elementary school cumculum is facing a sort of credibility problem in the eyes of many people" (9 November 1974). At the heart of the problem was the decentralization of the curriculum. While he defended the Ministry's policy of broad and generalized outlines in the past as an aid to innovative cour~eworkh.~e had to admit that: ' For example, the Ontario Secondary School Teachers' Federation bulletin maintained that "Ministry staff will

have to increase their curricuIum development activities in order to produce effective practical descriptions of required sequential skills. methods of development and supportive content materials, for the core subjects in particular" (At Whar Cost?). The Ontario Federation of Home and School Associations officially petitioned the Ministry to estabtish a "basic core of content" in certain subjects. The Ontario Secondary School Headmasters' Council stated that it "supports the concept of a core program of a core of required skills within the Ontario secondary schools." Finally. the Ontario Public School Trustees' Association recently petitioned the Ministry to, "develop core curriculum guidelines of a more detailed nature in al1 areas of studies that, on the one hand. provide specific direction to teachers on the work to be covered on a core body of knowledge and. on the other hand, leave room for the inclusion of optional topics at the local level" (see the address by Thomas L. Wells to Ontario Association for Curriculum Development "Major Change in Cuniculum Development", 12 November 1976). Further commentary regarding the backlash against 'cafeteria-style education" is detailed in Gidney ( r 999. pp. 88-9 1 ). In his Annual Report (1974-5) he stated: "the most important component in the educational systern is the student. whose existence creates the need for the systern. There is no such thing as "the average student": each one is an individual with his or her own special needs and expectations. For this reason, the Ministry has long had a policy of endeavouring to provide great diversity of programs in an attempt to satisfy as rnany of these individual needs as possible" (p. 6). In a press release. Wells supported the system designed under Davis: 'To be sure, some considerable good has

corne out of this approach and this policy. There are hundreds of instances around this Province where the challenge has been picked up enthusiastically by local educators, and the result has been excellent courses of study in thousands of classrooms. Many school boards have spent thousands of dollars doing this at the Minisuy's direction. Teachers and subject specialists have spent rnany fmitful hours devising teaching programs of high quality" (Wells.. 12 November 1976) Looking at the overall situation, Province-wide, in some respects things haven't worked out as well as expected. In some crucial ways, the cumculum in our schools has become Iess cohesive, less directive and possibly in some cases even less challenging and demanding than ought to have been the case (12 November 1976, p. 1). To this, his penitent response was thus: We are now convinced that, in our enthusiasm for cumculum flexibility, we may have gone too far in decentralizing the responsibility for the preparation of courses of study at the elementary and secondary levels. In championing the concept of local autonomy in cumculum development, 1 believe that we have relinquished to too great a degree the elernent of central direction and central expectations and standards of student achievement, One is left to ask the obvious questions. Have we been truly providing teachers with the kind of practical assistance and direction which they need, and which indeed they have been asking for? Or have we left teachers too much on their own to struggle with guidelines that have been too vague, too broad and inadequate in their guidance?" (p. 2). To remedy this situation, Wells made the assurance that the Ministry was "going to take a much firmer grip on what is actually being taught in the elementary and secondary schools of the province." This would include the creation of guidelines that would be considerably more prescnptive and descriptive than had been seen in the previous penod (see Gidney, 1999, pp. 9596). In doing so, Wells hoped that it would give school boards and teachers more practical direction and assistance than before. As well, he was emphatic that the Regional offices would

also "play a much more active and aggressive role in monitoring cumculum trends across the Province, and to ensure that courses of study being used in the schools are of the highest order." Wells further acknowledged that "of the many charges levelled at the schools today, few have been more prevalent or difficult to refute than the allegation that "the basics" are being neglected" (9 November 1974). However, on this point he proved cagier. In speeches throughout Ontario between 1974 and 1977, he reiterated again and again that the new Intemediate program in the works would ensure that al1 students got a solid grounding in the essential basics basics included of education! In the same breath. however, he would also a host of various "life skills" (see Dimension A), not just a point out that the retum to the 3Rs. While he agreed that the pendulum of change in education swung a little too far during the 1960s, he also believed that "this is no time for some kind of hasty reactionary retreat -- and I would not want to be party to a sweeping backward swing of the pendulum." According to Wells, little would be accomplished through the wholesale eradication of Davis' cumcular reforms, and any radical changes made in the cause of "back to basics" may eventually be detrimental to pupils. He hoped, therefore that the new curriculum would do much in "easing the pendulum back to a more balanced position that wilI benefit the vast majority of students" ( 12 November 1976). Changes were made systematically, starting at the Primary-Junior level (the Formative Years as it was renamed). In 1975, a two document program was released - The Formative Years and Education in the Prirnary and Junior Divisions. It contained a series of precise statements of expectations for the elementary school program and stressed various approaches to best achieve an integration of these expectations. It hoped, thereby to create a system that ensured the

teaching of certain basic skills while retaining a great deal of flexibility for teachers (see Fiorino, 1978). This mode1 was then adapted to the Intemediate level in the following year. The new policy, outlined in the Minister's Annual report, explained that each curriculum would have a "core" of expectations accompanied by a number of options (Annuai Report, 1976-7). As changes were being made to the curriculum, the Wells administration appeared to go into a penod of retrenchment. Concerned for the loss of funding caused by declining enrolments in the Ontario school system, the Ministry appointed Dr. Robert Jackson of OISE to study the 4 Two examples include: "...we have taken decisive steps to underline again and again the overwhelming importance of the basic skills -- the knowledge and skills upon which al1 Iater Iearning is based -- in the early years of schooling" (Wells. remarks to the Rotary Club of Burlington. 21 April 1976. p. 10). "1 believe that in sorne respects the pendulum of change in education al1 across North America swung a little too far during the 1960s. Today, in mandating a basic core of required subjects, we are easing the pendulum back to a more balanced position that will be to the advantage of the vast majority of students" (Wells. The New Core Curriculum in Secondary Schools. 6 October 1976) effects and implications of the problem. The resulting Report of the Commission on Declining Enrolrnents (1978) indicated that the trend would continue unabated into the foreseeable future. To overcome the losses incurred by this phenornenon, it was recommended that the Ministry should streamline its operations and download certain services to other agencies across the province. Wells anticipated this counsel, and reorganized the Ministry again in 1976, fusing the 3 branches of the Cumculum Division into one unit. While he made the argument that this was the first step in a program of major cumculum improvement (in that the process would be seen as a

unified whole), it could not be denied that it was a "downsizing" action. More and more decisions were allocated away from the permanent staff and funneled into the broader-based host of Ministerial Advisory and Task Force cornmittees in the latter half of the 1970s. Even more telltale was the shutting down by the Ministry of 3 of its 9 regional offices at the end of 1977.' Again, the Annual Report protested that it would "in no way affect the level of service that the Ministry provides to the boards through its regional services programs" (1977-8, p. 16). Lastly, due to the declined enrollment of student teachers at the end of 1978, the Ministry closed the OTE College and sent the remaining students to faculties of educationS6 In the last two instances, responsibilities were farmed out to external (or at least arm-length) agencies - the school boards and the universities. This would prove to be a harbinger of their growing power. In late 1978, a permanent (or at least a temporarily permanent) solution was found to the Ministry's cash-strapped problems by merging it with the rather more affluent Ministry of Colleges and Universities. Bette Stephenson (Minister of the latter) replaced Wells and with less concem for finances than her predecessor, entered the scene with an agenda of her own Bilingualism. Finding an almost 1irnitIess amount of funding from the Federal goverment The Kingston office was folded into the Ottawa centre, Waterloo into London. and St Catharines into Toronto. In February 1978, the Minisuy revealed that only 818 teacher trainees were enrolled at the CoIlege during the current year and that projections for September only showed a total of 450. emarked for this area, the new Minister embarked on a period of unnvalled spending to promote French and FSL education. Like Robarts' approach to introducing science so many years before, the Ministry allocated $44 million for incentive grans to school boards to improve and expand French as a second language. The grant formula was fairly straightforward: as the students' hours of French instruction increased. so did the per-pupil grant.' In addition to these gants, the Ministry allocated $23 million over the 3 years of the program for a wide variety of

support programs, including teacher education, curriculum and learning materials development and student exchanges. Additional money was also set aside for the publication of new Frenchlanguage textbooks, and the translation of al1 Ministry documents into French. The jewel in the crown for Stephenson (and perhaps the zenith of her career as Minister) was the inauguration of the new Core French course in 1980, narned the best FSL guideline in al1 of North ~ r n e ~ c a.~ Features of the Period: Still created incrementaliy (one subject document at a time), each guideline was actualized through a multi-phase process. After a preliminary study was completed, a wnting tearn was seconded to create an initial draft. This then went to a validation committee, and then returned for revisions. For each cure subject, a separate committee created a number of support documents. In all, the number of stakeholders involved in the cuniculum development process had risen by a substantial number, and becorne more heterogeneous. 7 Although it must be acknowledged that this phenornenon had been started before her arriva1 (announced by Wells on 18 Apnl 1977). it cannot be denied that she latched on to it as a raison d'erre. See the two editions of Educarion Onrario. (Fall, 1981, p. 1 ) and (March, 1984. p. 1). Analysis of Dimension A= Elements Used During lnteqration In a speech at the Ontario Association for Cumiculum Development (November 9. 1974). Wells stated that the new cunicuIum would endeavour to teach "the basics": "1 believe that the basics -- however one tries to describe them -- can be subdivided into 4 essential components (even though they actually consti tute an individual whole): --the fundamental premise is that education must develop and preserve the confidence and self-worth of the individual child. From that foundation, one can move on to Say that each child, to the limit of his or her potential, should: --becorne proficient in the skills fundamental to future leaming --acquire knowledge & attitudes leading to active participation in

Canadian and world society. and --acquire the moral and aesthetic sensitivity necessary for a complete and responsible life." In other words, Wells was quite concerned about keeping al1 the balls in the air at one tirne. As is shown in table chart 6.1. he did accomplish the most crucial balancing act - that of maintaining the vision of individual development (component 1) while trying to integrate in the 3Rs (Component 2). Less successful (though still quite a good job) was the re-introduction of social skills (3) and lastly underlying piinciples (4). Chart 6.1 - I)imension A (The Importance of Elements used during htegration) Content Ac. Skills Manual Social l ndi vi dual Underl ying Elemnts While the objectives remain much the same as the previous penod at their roots, the Wells administration felt that certain revisions were necessary to achieve a more balanced and harrnonious cumculum. Interna1 Consistency First, then Subject Unity As in the previous penod, the Ministry believed that the cumculum should consist of balanced bodies of knowledge (subjects) that cm be readily interrelated to enhance meaning and coherence. In fact, it believed that the previous period had done much to undermine this, the very philosophy that they had promoted. Emng on the side of flexibility and individual fieedom, the Davis Administration had turned courses into merely "large catch-al1 bins". Without this proper base in each subject, it had promoted higher levels of integration (such as multidisciplinary, intersubject themes, etc.), thereby placing the cart before the horse. In an atternpt to reestablish a sense of cohesiveness and solidity in the curriculum, therefore, the present tearns of writers forcefully reemphasized fairly subject specific documents with interna1 consistency. Anything

beyond the scope of the immediate subject should be undertaken only when the program is in place. This is seen especially throughout the English document. The writers take pains to tell teachers to create an "lntegrated English Program" - that is, one that blends the four language componen ts of reading. writing, speaking and listening into a unified, balanced whole. Similarly, the Science document insists that if a logically sequenced and objective-reIated program can be created, a "unity of science" will be achieved (6E-18, 6E-24, 6E-29. 6E-30). General comments are made in many documents conceming the ways of bringing these bodies together and unifying the curriculum once the core of the course is in place (see Dimension E), but few concrete instances are given. Not for the first tirne, this is considered a daunting event and something that shouid not be tinkered with lightly. Generic "Adolescent Needs" Dominate Student-Centred lntegration Again As in the past, the Ministry links students' success with the realization of their interests. However, unlike the documents of the previous period, which displayed a desire to keep student interest at al1 costs while attending to their idiosyncratic needs, this cumculum takes a more universal and prescnptive approach. Drawing upon the work of educationd psychologists, the Ministry reasoned that students did not Iose interest in the subject at hand because it was not entertaining, but because the work had not been tailored to their level of adolescence? With variations, this change in mentality is refiected in almost every guideline - al1 demand that the organization and objectives of each course must be within the adolescent's grasp, and "mut cake into account the emotional, social and intellectual needs, abilities and development of the students (6E-15). Computer Studies goes as far as stating that if the level of study does not match the students' capacity, darnage to self-confidence could ensue 65-12). Once again, the student lost direct controi of the curriculum replaced by a professional perception of ubiquitous adolescent needs. While somewhat reduced, active student participation still remain as mainstays of childcentred education in some classes, and are used as indicators that the course is going in the right direction. Gone are the freewheeling, student-led activities of the previous period, however now

there is a more formalistic feel to it. In English, for example, the guideline demands that teachers allow students to spend half of class-time actively reading and writing (6B-3, 08-15). While the guideline admi ts that students learn best through interactive expexiences (6B-37), little mention is made whether this will interest the students or not - beyond the rather terse statement "to a large extent, leaming success in these intervening years will be measured by the student's preparedness to continue with their education" (68-24). Furthermore, it does Say that teachers should encourage student collaboration in the learning process - but only at the secondary level after they These are included as resources at the back of the Guidance guideline in particular (see pp. 40-41). have been properly trained (6B-2). The concession made by French to student-centred activity is that teachers should accept an arnount of "productive noise" (6H-28). The only other classes that promote activity as a means of stimulating student interest are the traditionally hands-on subjects. Science, as it has in the past, places great emphasis on student-performed experiments (6E-5, 6E19), while Cornputer Studies says that students should explore their interests through the computer (6J-9). Drama, as to be expected, says that experiential Iearning through acting, spontaneous activities and verbally responding to readings will stimulate greater leaming and interest (61-5, 61-7, 61- I 1, 61- 13, 61- 14, 61- 18). It is quite obvious that the curriculum designers of this period went to great pains to balance subject- and student-centred objectives. In doing this, however, the greatest casualty was student ownership of their education. While a few vestiges remain in History (certain optional units can be CO-planned by students and teachers - 6C-28, 6C-29) and Physical Education (which

makes one brief reference to "contract teaching" for some of the more troubles students - 6F-1 l), it seems that the Ministry believed this approach to be too great a risk to the balance. Continuity Largely Ignored The integration of material for the purpose of social continuity continues to play a small role, and appears mostly in the core subjects. This usually takes the form of exposing students to past heritages (6A- 1, 6A-3 6A-5, 6A- 12, 6A- 14, 6E-4), civic responsibilities (6C- 13). the promotion of social unity (6G-8, 6G- 10, 6G- 15,6G- 16, 6F-20), fi tting into Canadian society (6F7, 61-6), career planning (6G-19) or constructive leisure-time pursuits (6G-20). Otherwise, little mention is made of this purpose. Weak Cal1 for Change While not as highly charged as other periods under study, this cur7-i~ulumh as a few social problems that it wishes to solve through the reeducation of the province's youth (see 6B-2, 6B-3, 6B-4, 6E-9, 6E-11, 6F-2, 6F4, 6F-5). On the whole, the integration of these beliefs tend to be quite subject specific: French promotes an acceptance of the Francophone presence in Canada and a protestation of past stereotyping; Cornputers Studies tries to make everyone computer literate; Guidance wants children to have a knowledge of the changing of sex roles in modem society; Science, echoing a belief held since the early 1960s, States that students should be exposed to ieading edge changes in the scientific world; Physical Education tries to promote an emphasis on exercise, love of activity (6F-7, 6F-8, 6F-26 to 6~-28).1 The two attempts at social change that have some cross-over are the Ministry's Language Across the Cumculum policy (6B4). and the promotion of environmentalism in Geography (6B-30), Science (6E- 12, 6E- 14. 6E22), and Physical Education (6F-2 1). Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntegration In the previous period, cumculum creation had not been considered a difficult or timeconsuming

process. Outlines were purposely left in a vague state so that the teachers could adapt them to their surroundings. As such, the Department believed these front-line workers to be "innately wise." By the mid-1970s, however, this had led to a multitude of comments frorn parent and beginning teachers calling for more precisely delineated documents (seen in context section). Connelly and Greenfield's 1976 report on the conditions of cumculum implementation sums up the root of the criticisms: Without better support for school-based cumculum development, it seems likely that the C U I T ~ C U ~.U..~ will be only as good as successful and dedicated teachers and principals can make it. What they are actually doing in these circumstances and how successful it is remains largely a mystery. (p. 38) What had become evident to the Ministry is that while much local autonomy should be maintained. more guidance had to be given to teachers through the documents, and a system had to be created whereby there could be some accountability to the public. To enable that, Wells 'O This is quite in league with the Participacrion program that was king promoted in Ontario at the time. announced that "there wiII be a more aggressive Ministry presence in the cumculum partnership" ( 12 November 1976). Curriculum creation proved costly and time-consuming. Although Wells knew that certain prescribed skills and content (narnely a retum to the 3Rs) were being called for on the part of the public, he could no longer create a small writing cornmittee of departmental officiais to write these documents. Any detailed guidelines would be highly criticized and possibiy rejected by much of the educational comrnunity due to their "idealistic" and elitist" development. It woutd seem that after opening the door to inclusion in the previous penod, no wholesale return would be ailowed. Indeed, the only way to accomplish this was to second a greater number of representatives, with more checks and balances. Divided into a series of phases, the Ministry initiated a cyclical process, initially recommended by the Hall-Dennis Report. The first phase consisted of research and study by the Curriculum Development Branch staff and program

consultants: In preparing such a guideline, the branch would weigh the views of parents, trustees and administrators in the light of new trends in education in Canada and abroad. ... In al1 cases, viewpoints From Ontario's educational community and results from al1 current research would be considered and merged into a coherent policy (Annual Report, 1973, p. 8). In the second phase, cornmittees, made up of seconded assistant superintendents, program consultants, teachers and related stakeholders, would meet to develop guidelines that could be adapted to local needs (Annual Report, 1977-8). As soon as the writing team had completed an initial draft guideline, it would then be put through a validation process. In going through this process, Wells hoped that it would bring much more credibility to these new "affirmative" documents. He mentions in his address to the OACD: "This is not going to be a theoretical exercise, removed from the front lines of teaching and learning; we plan to make the best use of educators both within and outside of the Ministry of Education" (1976, p. 4). The crucial element of these guidelines was the teaching of certain "core" expectations. The approaches used to rneet these objectives were still left up to individual teachers (as long as the integrity of the course was maintained). A number of suggestive resource documents, entitled "Curriculum Ideas for Teachers" were also specially created to aid teachers in organizing coursework. As wiIl be seen in Dimensions F & G, boards and school committees were also given credence for involvement in the adaptation of the guidelines. Wells (21 April 1976) goes as far as stating "We put the onus on Iocally elected school tnistees and their principals to develop recommended core programs for their pupils because that is where the responsibility belongs." (p. 13). Clearly, in this period the C U ~ ~ ~ C dUoIcuUm~e nts cease to be a one-way transmission from Ministry to Teacher - their creation becomes only a starting point that may consequently involve many stakeholders down the line. Analysis of Dimension O: The Relationshim of Grades 7-8 to Other

Grade Levels While the Ministry has put a few more time limits on the fulfillrnent of certain expectations, it still leaves a lot of leeway during the Intermediate level. It continues to see the Prirnary, Junior, Intermediate, Senior continuum as a suitable structure. There is no attempt to relink Grades 7-8 back with the elementary system - however strong warning is also given against the preparing of students for higher Senior levels too early. As mentioned in Dimension B. the Ministry believed that it was important to meet certain adolescent needs at specific times in their schooling. They should neither be pushed forward, nor held back. Analysis of Dimension E Intecrration MethodsIApproaches In paralie1 to almost every dimension, the Ministry again tries to balance the approaches that should be attempted when integrating the curriculum. While every method of integration is not highly promoted, each one is mentioned at least once. This shows an awareness on the part of the cumculum designers of the variety out there (as noted in the Review of Literature section, this was also the time when theonsts were beginning to explore the subdivision of this dimension). Primary Integration Approach As mentioned in Dimension B, the documents of this penod display a great concern for the interna1 consistency of each subject. Each course is organized into a number of units or components. Taught in a logical sequence or blended together, the expectations must be constructed in such a way that there is coherence and unity to it. In the end, this Nested Approach is used so that the students will think of each course as a "body of knowledge." With such an emphasis on intemal integration, there appears to be a concomitant drop in higherlevel integration ventures. No barriers are placed in the way of teachers who wish to try this, and several points of contact between subject areas are surfaced, but the Ministry makes no pretence that this should only be attempted after a coherent, subject-centred program has been developed first.

Remaining from the previous period is the belief in "Natural Linkages." However, curriculum designers feel more at ease now with making specific connections. Whenever they see any overlapping between subject areas they make the Correlation on the spot to enlighten teachers. While this method still remains an ad hoc approach (in that the connections are merely sprinkled throughout each guideline), it is applied systematically in almost every document. It appears chat the Ministry considered this a good transition approach in that it gives some direction, but does not smother the teacher with a prescribed method. The Language Across the Cumculum policy represents the first time that a ski11 is actually harmonized across subject areas. This represents a growing arnount of sophistication in cross-subject integration techniques not seen since the programme was united under one document. In fact, because its creation was the product of at least 12 separate committees over a 5-year period rather than the older 1-committee, 2-month period, it represents a much more complex process. This may be seen as a trendsetter for the OSIS documents in the next period. Localized/Incidental Integration A While "the unit" has now pproaches 2ecome a mainstay of each cuniculum, it should not be automatically considered a mainstrem thematic approach. It should be seen as more of an outlier to this method, and more ciosely related to the nested approach. Like in the Robarts period, it is promoted more as a way of keeping an orderly sequence than for student group work. Al1 other methods are referred to in greater or lesser extents. However, as seen in figure 6.5 (Appendix C, p. 567) most of these remain as undeveloped suggestions. Chart 6.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of Integration M ethodslApproaches) Ncrtcd Cross Mulii Correlai Pluri Insert Fus~on Thernaiic Hnrm Trans Elemrnts Alongside the degeneration of cumculum development in the 1960s. reports came in that the entire educationaI system had been decentralized to the point of unaccountability. Again, Connelly and Greenfield (1976) bring the situation to light:

The organizational structure of the system appears to militate against a clear, comprehensive, and coordinated process for cumculum. Specialized or functional responsibilities are dispersed among many people in the administrative structure. More strategic massing of personnel and resources might produce the overall policy and approach to cumculum problems, which are now lacking in the system. Coordination and communication among different schooIs and teachers on cun-ic~lum matters does not appear to be strong. (p. 38) They concluded that, to a large extent, teachers were left alone to implement a cumiculum, neither helped nor hindered by any level of the educational hierarchy. To remedy this problem, they suggested that a massive insertion of funding must be given to support staff and a coordinated set-up must be implemented to deal systematically with al1 changes to the program. They proposed that a balance of accountability and decentralization could be reached: A comprehensive policy for cumculum process would not interfere with a desire to base curriculum development in schools, but it would ensure that such development occurred within a framework of aims, that it was informed by a meaningful assessment of needs, that it received adequate support for implementation, and that it was subject to cntical evaluation. ... what these sarne dedicated and successful teachers might do with more effective support for needs assessment, implementation, and evaluation must remain unknown until the system recognizes that such support is both practical and necessary. (p. 39) Many reports like this, submitted during this period, hit the Ministry with the realization that a greatly increased infrastructure was going to be needed to stnke this balance. However, these reports also invalidated the older method of implementation taken by the Department of the past narnely, a centralized inspectorate system. Besides, to be a tnily representative system the cost would be prohibitive. What was needed was a great deal of coordination between an expanded number of stakeholders who were already part of the educational system, but had been perhaps underutilized. Until the Mid-70s the Curriculum Services Branch was assigned responsibility for assisting teachers and administrators in the development of educational programs, implementing

the Ministry's professional development courses for teachers, and obtaining reaction to Ministry programs and policies. As seen in figures 6.6 and 6.7 (Appendix C, pp. 573-574), the M i n i s ~ realized that it was not enough and began to download responsibilities (and accompanying informa1 control over the curriculum) to the school boards. They were given increased funding to tailor guidelines for the Local level with more detail, were encouraged to handle professional development, and to perform a certain amount of limited program evaluation." Principals were now king expected to act as chief liaison with board member in coordinating these activities. Even parents and member of the community were being solicited for consultation and volunteer activities during this period. There appeared to be great determination on the part of the Ministry '20 achieve a closer liaison and rapport between those involved in the development of cumculum matenals and local educators on the firing line" (12 November 1976). Again, therefore, the Ministry of this period wished to reach a balance. Much leeway was stiIl given to teachers' Freedorn for the development and implementation of the curriculum. They were continually wmed against becoming attached to any particular subject, and told the paramount importance of teacher interaction with pers and with students in the use of integrative activities. What seemed to be happening, however, was that while wide latitude was still given in adapting the guidelines, the door was closing on "open creation". Because the documents were more specific and prescriptive, wider interpretations also became less acceptable when dealing with core expectations. Furthemore, to teachers who reveled in the unbounded freedom of the 1960s. the load of new material may have seemed a little more heavy, and for the first time since Davis' reforms in the mid-60s, time limits were king placed on the implementation period.

Lastly, Wells made mention on a few occasions that he wished to tighten up the evaluation " This had been one of the chief recommendations of Connelly & Greenfield (p. 5) system and make it more accountabIe. Choosing his audiences carefully (he spoke mainly to the taxpayer groups on this issue), he discussed the importance of creating a balanced system whereby students could compare their grades to national or provincial noms, while not king brought down by any competitive referencing (21 April 1976). By 1977, the Ministry had appointed a 13-person work group to study and recommend better methods of pupil evaluation and better ways of reporting pupil progress to parents. However, Wells reiterated repeatedly that this would not entai1 any radical shifts: We will not return to a rigid lock-step cumcuIum of the kind that existed in the 1950s and earlier - because in those days the vast rnajority of young people dropped out of school prematurely mainly because they were unable to cope with a cumculum that was geared mainly for the academic crearn-of-the-crop who were headed for university. We wiIl not go back to that (6 October 1976). Overall Remarks on Period 6 The Ministry's definition of cumculum integration during this period can be traced to its desire to achieve a delicate balance between diametrically opposite forces that were exerting themselves on the educational system. 1. The Davis Period's Philosophy of Education Found to be Sound At the core of the Wells administration was a solid belief that the philosophy of Education created under the previous Minister had great merit (it must be remembered that Davis. as premier, still exerted an enormous influence on Ministry decisions). At the heart of this was the premise that instructional methods had to be left to each teacher's discretion, based on the students' individual needs and interests. As such, the Ministry felt that it did not have the veracity to make general statements of approach with the expectation that it would be carried out ideally. Rather, it was predicted that teachers knew best what to do in their locality. While the Ministry extended its available educational/cumculum services, it also felt that as professionals, teachers would corne for help of their own free will when in trouble.

2. Petitions for more Accountability Heard As to be expected in a system that is run on faith, many criticisms were made by many segments of society. Parents complained that they did not know how well their children were doing because there were no standards. Educational scholars pointed out that there was no accountability in the system, so the Ministry would not know where to target aid. Finally, teachers themselves (especially new ones), feeling that too much freedom was not such a good thing, pleaded for more guidance. Reaction From these elements of the voting population appears to have changed the Minister's mind considerably. The loss of trust in the wisdom of local educators can be clearly heard in a 1976 address by Wells - "we cannot leave it to chance that young people get the fundamentals. We have to ensure it" (6 October, 1976). Teacher's professionalism of the previous period has now turned into chance! 3. Fear of Radical Change Wells knew well the consequences of a conservative backlash. As a protg of Davis, himself, he did not want to be the leader of such a counter-revolutionary movement. Rather, he wanted to see evolutionary changes to perfect the system in place. He stated (2 1 April 1976) that "we won? be making any radical changes. We've ail had enough of that. We are in a penod of refinement and we HAVE been for the last 2 or 3 years. We are building on what we have and we are not afiaid to admit mistakes and make alternatives where necessary." (p. 14) 4. The Outcome = "The Golden Mean" The result of al1 the above concerns led to modifications (not changes) to the philosophy of the cumculum, the control of its implementation. and recommendations of its teaching methods. As seen in Dimensions A and B, the Ministry struggles throughout this period to reconciIe past conceptions with present considerations, giving credence to both. Similarly, while trying to give as much fieedom and autonomy to teachers as possible, the Ministry also endeavoured to create a system whereby some feedback can be attained. Also, due to a steady decrease in funding, the

Ministry realized that it was to its advantage to involve many more stakeholders. It would also do a lot to aid teachers who are now asking for it. 5. Tentative Ideals for Curriculum Integration In earlier periods, the cumculum designers had either been completely confident in the generalizable success of the particular integration method (like Period 2 and the Enterprise), or had thrown out rather flip recommendations knowing that the teacher would have to take their own path (like in period 5). At this stage, however, while the designers seemed to feel that it was incumbent upon them to make concrete recommendations, they also felt that it was not quite their place to make dictates. To balance these two opposing beliefs. only tentative steps were taken in defining the tenn and explaining its implementation. Because it was most called for. each designer confidently promoted some form of intemal coherency. Beyond that, however, most of the highly recommended forms of integration tended to be quite unintrusive (correlation being the best example). 6. Language Across the Curriculum The one seeming success in integration is the Language-Across-the-Curriculum policy. Spurred on by a host of research in academic and popular educational journals at the time. this seems to have been relatively safe ground politically with teachers and university researchers. It was also what the public had been crying for. However, it was only because "natural links" could be shown in a11 the courses (pointed out in the specific support document and in the guidelines themselves) that this skill could be promoted. As seen during this period, Math, Science or French skills could not make this same transition. Indeed, the creators believed that the attainment of a separate course, dedicated strictly to the study of French. was a powerful symbol of it newfound status within the cumculum.

Context of the q984-1991 Curriculum After spending the 1970s exarnining the elementary system, resulting in the Formative Years and "rigorous" Intermediate documents, the Ministry now turned its gaze on secondary education (which had remained largely untouched since 1969). In 1980, Bette Stephenson, fearful of the closed planning process and the federation intervention that had marked cumculurn creation in the past, appointed a series of extemal panels under the group name "Secondary Education Review Project" (SERP). It was to undergo a broad consultation fiom the Ontario population and retum with recommendations to the Ministry concerning the best policy directions for the new decade (for details see Gidney, 1999, pp. 97-99). Submitted in October 1981, reworked by Ministry officiais, and published in November 1982, the resulting report entitled Renewai of Secondary Education in Ontario (ROSE) recomrnended that a more unified system be installed. This would include the distillation of the approximately 100 scattered Interrnediate and Senior guidelines into 20 linked documents (Annual Report 1983-4, p. 8). As such, for the first time Grades 7 to 12 would be grouped as a continuum (Gidney, 1999, pp. 99-100). Out of this report, a draft of the new policy requirements entitled Ontario Schools: Intemediate and Senior Divisions (OSIS) was circulated to the teacher federation affiliates, schools, boards and special interest groups between December 1982 and February 1983. The final version of Circular OSIS was distributed to the schools and school boards in September 1983 with the instructions that implementation was to take place incrernentally, one grade Ievel per year starting September 1984 until 1988/89 (Leithwood et al, 1987, p. 64).l Along with its accompanying circular Schools General, 0S:IS became the basis for cumculum planning and for a unified educational philosophy. ' At the Secondary level, this replaced the old Circular HS 1. While a revitalization of the curriculum was said to be on its way, a growing feeling of pessimism and unease seemed to grip the voting population in relation to the economy, the changes in the labour market, and the efficacy of the government in dealing with this problem.

After Davis retired as premier in Febniary 1985, this disconcertment rose to a fevered pitch resulting in the election of the Liberal party to office in June of that year. In terms of educational policy, however, this had little effect. OSIS had ken put solidly in place the previous year, and al1 the cumculum committees had been formed to bring the subject documents in line with its policy. To the Liberals at the time, it would have been political suicide to cancel an already costly undertaking, onIy to begin a sirnilar process. The path set by the Conservatives, therefore, would be the path they must tread. Instead, the new ministerial incumbent, Sean Conway endeavoured to generaily refocus the educational system along a more "planned change" approach, in line with Liberals' belief and contemporary educational scho~arship.I~n January 1987, he announced the Ministry would again be reorganized "to promote increased emphasis on corporate policy and planning as well as to recognize government priorities such as human resource management, the education and care of young children, adult and continuing education, and program implementation and review" (Annual Report, 1986-7). To accomplish these new functions, the Ministry was further subdivided into an expanded number of divisions and branches, each given specific tasks. The Corporate Planning and Policy Division was created with the responsibilities of systematizing operational planning and reporting, priority setting, strategic planning, corporate financial planning, policy development and analysis, research, educational liaison, legislative planning and legal counsel. It was hoped that this division would do much to aid an integrated management In fact, a guide put out by the Ministry describing the ideal evaluation and implementation process, reserved great praise for the work of Kenneth Leithwood. See Curriculum Management (1988). approach, and help senior staff more closely reIate long-term educational objectives with policy development and budgetary priorities. The formerly unified Education Rograrns ~ivisiodw as once again separated into a Learning Programs Division (further split into two "Centres" responsible for the creation of cumculum documents for Elementary [JK-81 and Secondary/Adult Education) and a Learning

Services Division. This latter Division became responsible not only for assisting boards and schools in working through the cumculurn, but also for the effective delivery of Ministry programs and policies, and for initiatives designed to improve accountability for both Ministry prograrns and student learning. A sub-unit of this Division was the new Program Implernentarion and Review branch specificall y "commi tted to monitoring current programs in Ontario SC hools and keeping the public inforrned about the effectiveness of the educational system" (Annual Report, 1987-8). Specifically, it recommended an ongoing cyclical process of curriculum review, development and implementation phases (CRDI) to assist supervisory officers in local jurisdictions in the development and refinement of local curriculum management procedures. As foreshadowed in the previous penod, the Ministry began to take an increasingly intrusive role into various areas of schooi-related activities over the 1980s. This was reflected in its reactions to the SERP committee's cal1 to combat dismptive behaviour, chronic absenteeism, vandalism, cinig abuse and alcoholism among students (see Annual Report, 1982-85): However, due to the Ministry's desire to avoid a policy of elite decision-making, the result was a continued expansion of committees, task forces, and bureaucracy in general. By the third year of Liberal rule, there was no less than twenty standing committees to deal with various aspects of school In 1983, the Minisuy fused the Elementary, Secondary and Continuing Education branches into one curriculum unit for efficiency and cohesion of focus to meet the more complex role it was supposed to fiII. 4 These issues were dealt with through an increased use of task forces and committees. Updates of these groups are detailed in the Minister's Annual Report throughout the 1980s. See especially the ones on Drug Education. FSL, Guidance, the Linkage Program, Multiculturalism, Native Education, Persona1 Life Management, Sexpolicy,

and the Ministry explicitly stated its intentions of extending the circumference of stakehoider involvement to include the community and the private sector (Annual Report, 19878). As part of the Liberals mandate to put more money into the educationaI system, the Ministry began a number of new initiatives entitled Partnership in Education. This included such projects as a Transition to Employment Fund, Industry-Education Councils, Adopt-a-School Programs, and a Grant-Eligible Microcomputer Systems (GEMS) program. Al1 were based on a system of funding from ptivate enterprise. This system of change, however, proved aggravating to the public at Iarge. Year after year, the OSIS document committees dragged on (see next section for tirnelines). The Ministry's Annual Report gave constant assurances that change was happening, but deadlines seemed to consistently run over or be left vague (Gidney, 1999, p. 185). Public criticism began to emerge that the Ministry's objectives were becoming hazy and esoteric. It was feit that the Ministry had needlessly watered down definitions and terms to such an extent ttirough "cornmittee thinking" that there was "no single definition of what constituted basic knowledge and skills" (Lawton & Leithwood, 1987, p. 16). Leaders of the private sector, feeling that this continued debate had just muddied the waters, began to raise questions about the relevance of education, quality and cost of elementary and secondary education. Rote Stereotyping, SGIS. and Values Education. The reaction of most of these committees resulted in a number of booklets or additions to the OSIS code of behaviour. Features of the Period: In total, 12 subject guidelines and the Circulars OSIS 1 & II will be reviewed as

representing this period. AH cornmittees were begun at the end of 1982kginning 1983 and concluded as shown below. Each document was based on the 13 premises put forward in Circular OSIS. Analysis of Dimension & Elements Used During lntegration More than any previous penod (or indeed any later period). OSIS endeavored to pay due attention to al1 the elements (with the exception of content). Each OSIS document consolidates and tries to build on a set of ideas, skills, and values. There are only two drawbacks to this undertaking, however. The first is that to reach across the curriculum and include al1 stakeholders' opinion, the definitions of these elements becomes far more widened and generalized. The second is that because so much more must be included, each document runs into a hundred pages, resulting in a thousand-page integration and synthesis effort on the part of the teacher. Graph 7.1 - Dimension A (Importance of Elements used during Integration) Undtrlying Analvsis of Dimension B: Objectives of integration Systems Approach Results in Strong Subject Unity During this penod, the Ministry clearly viewed the cumculum as a unified system. Not dissimilar to the philosophy of Penod 4. it nevertheless displays a far more sophisticated handling of subject interaction and overall coordination. At the centre is Circular OSIS. which lays out what courses were to be taught. how they were to generally interact, and what skills. values and ideas were to pemeate throughout the program. It is from this hub that al1 subject specific documents emerge, each to play a certain part in the education of the student. Rather than treating subject areas as wide "grab bags" (as seen in Penod 5, for example). the Ministry breaks the various disciplines into two categories. Certain subjects (namely Mathematics, Technology, Business, History, Science, Art and Geography) are viewed as fairly specific bodies of knowledge that should be taught in a specific course-time. They are also considered branches of

larger groupings. History and Contemporary Studies, for exarnple, are considered part of a larger Humanities/Social Science field (7G-2, 7G-3, 7G-7). Art is also seen as an integration of studio, design and art history (7H-4, 7H-15)- while Technological Studies and Business Studies see themselves as "programs" rather than mere courses. To draw connections, enhance meanings and avoid overlap, a certain amount of integration is promoted by the documents themselves. The second group of guidelines appears to view each subject as both a course that rnust be taught in a specific class time, but also a process that should pervade the entire curriculum. This can be seen in English skills especially - reference is made in the Language document itself (7K47, 7K-52), Circular OSIS, and each subject outline. A similar balance is attempted in Guidance with career education, in Music, and in Family Studies. These do not have the backing of the other course documents, however, and appear to have less effect than English. Student-Centred Unbalanced As to be expected with the acceptance of a systems approach, the human elernent has begun to taper off. While the Circular OSIS makes recommendations that students should participate in cumcutum creation to help shape it to individual needs (7A-9), the enthusiasm for a student-centred (i.e., controlled) approach varies between the specific guidelines. Some courses are highly sensitive to student collaboration. Basic English and Guidance go so far as to let students choose their own goals (7B-9, 7B-13, 7B-14) and help plan the course (7J-33, 7537), while English encourages the methods of "interactive" and "Independent" learning (7K-56, 7 K67). Science, Geography and Music also promote student-centred programs through individualized instnic tion (7L-28), the inquiry me thod (7L-54,se l f-direction (7L-64, 7L-65) and self/peer assessrnent (7L-7 1, 7M-40). To a large extent, however, the beliefs from the previous

period concerning adolescent needs are perpetuated in OSIS. Each guideline expresses a desire to attend to students* level of aptitude. to show the relevance of the subject matter, and to sequence the learning appropriate to student developrnent. The English document does the most to explicitly reveal that Ministry's hope - it States that teachers should train students to pas gradually from dependent to independent learning as they go through the education system (7K67) Social Continuity Left Vague While "values" becomes a much talked about issue throughout OSIS, very few solid beliefs are actually referred to in any detail. Occasional nods are given to the maintenance of the status quo, keeping good social relations and respecting authority (7A-5, 7A-8, 7B-20, 7B-21, 7G-9). However, the Ministry still obviously feels that the inculcation of these beliefs should be kept out of their reaim of concern. Politicai Change a Planned Process The one realization that gripped the Ministry throughout this penod was that the world was changing. To adapt to this, it recommended that new skills had to be integrated into the school system. These would include learning about new technologies (narnely cornputers), learning how to read the media, leadership training, and how to be adaptable enough to hold several different types of jobs. New policies, put out by the govemment, also reinforced sex equi ty and mu1 ticul turalism throughout the guidelines. However, each are usually given separate sections in each document rather than integrated into the body of the text. Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of Intesration Due to the Ministry's attempt, in the previous period, to create a system that could be accountable while king inclusive, stakehoider involvement in the curriculum design and implementation process mushroomed throughout the late 70s and 80s. OSIS can be viewed as a natural evolution of this phenornenon. For the documents to reach the hands of the teachers, a rigorous and fairly Iengthy process had been instituted to make certain that the sentiments,

content, and teaching approaches reflected valid contemporary and scholarly thought in Ontario. Based on recommendations from the SERP and ROSE reports, Circular OSIS was the first module of the new program to be created. Cumculum committees were then mandated to use this document as an inspiration (especially the 13 goals of education) for each guideline. Each subject then went through a fonnalized process of curriculum review, draft, validation and revision before it was ready for distribution to the school boards and schools. As shown in the "features" section, this process included an unprecedented arnount of CO-creators tiom a varied background. It also took an unprecedented amount of time to go fkom draft to final revision (in the case of Music, 8 years). Through the guideline, the Ministry mandates that certain objectives must be taught, a certain amount of integration must take place (7A-36, 7A-42) at certain times (7A43). Once received, each school board then has the authority to rework and adapt the guidelines for their localities. This may include the introduction of new expectations, the clarification of the documents, the creation of resource guides, or the selection of concrete material and teaching approaches that may best fulfil the Ministry's objectives. It may even include the complete reworking of the document to create a new course outline altogether (7D-4). A sizeable staff was needed at the board level ro help realize its new role. As well, boards were now expected to take on important positions for implementing these changes at the local level (see Dimension F & G). The Ministry recommended that they use the CRDI mode1 in order to treat the board's jurisdiction like a system in order to get proper feedback and how to react accordingly. Although implementation is primarily a board responsibiIity, the Ministry's regionaI offices were also allowed to give support. This included clarification and interpretation of policy, monitoring of board's review, development and impiementation processes, provision of direct

services in the areas of cumculum, supervision and business and finance to small boards Iacking such services. Schools were also expected to re-interpret the incoming guidelines. Programs were to be set up (namely English programs, guidance programs, computers, multicultural and sex equity policies) as a shared responsibility of students, teachers and parents (7A-3, 7A-4). Coordinated by the principal, cornmittees were given the authonty to plan the cumculum in even greater detail. At this level, integrative possibilities between subject areas may be discussed and larger theme-based activities may be planned. Of paramount importance, however was that the school (and its sister schools as organized by the principals) had a certain arnount of objective alignment between the subjects and teachers. What had been created during this period, therefore was a sequence of concentric layers of cumculum policy going from the outermost, general layer (the Ministry) and getting more detailed as it reached towards the most specific inner layer (the classroom). However, this change also did much to topple the preeminence of the classroom teacher as chief integrator. While the individual teacher was still considered an important figure as a "front line" worker, it was also hoped by the Ministry that a great deal of the guess-work has been removed from the cumculum by the time it reached that level (through mandates. policies. committee decisions, and so on). Viewed less as lone scholars and more as a tearn players. teacher were now expected to look towards integration practices that would involve them in school activities or at least bnng them more into contact with the worid outside the classroorn. Analysis of Dimension O: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other During this period, Grades 7 and 8 align themselves along an Intermediate-Senior continuum. While separate sections are given for the certain penods of adolescent development around the grade 7-8 years (7A-27. 7A-37, 7A-40), there is an overall tendency of the OSIS

documents to simply have expectation build upon expectation beginning in grade 7 and ending at grade 10. This then acts as a steppingstone for Grades 11 and 12, allowing flexibility for the teacher in dealing with individual classes and students. Little reference is made to the ealier PJ Divisions, as the Ministry now appears to view Grades 7 and 8 as a beginning, not an ending. Analvsis of Dimension E lntegration MethodsIApproaches Almost every fom of integration is represented throughout this curriculum. However, the emphasis and uses of these forms Vary widely across the subject areas, and indeed within the guidelines thernselves. Some subjects, such as Science heavily promote almost every form, while Math and Technology take a more vague, tentative stance. This divergence in opinion may be due, in large part, to the increased stakeholder involvement: each person in the committee appears to have their own point of view of how the cumculum should be connected and what form it should take. Space dedicated to the specific approaches appears to becorne a political issue. Prirnary Forms of Integration The two foms that run throughout each guideline are Hannonization and the Thematic Appruach. In al1 likelihood, this is because they are so highly promoted (almost mandated) by the Circular OSIS. Al1 other guidelines appear to fa11 into line under this directive. The Ministry's especial emphasis on Harmonization can be seen as a natural evolution from the obvious success of the previous period. Now, as the Ministry no longer worries about balance but more about the delivery of a cumculum unified in vision and approach, this method becomes their obvious and overwhelming choice. Being a little more experimental, themes are treated by the various cumculum cornmittees with a little more hesitancy. While the method appears in almost every course document, it is most fervently advocated in those subjects that have used this method in the past (such as Art, English, History, Science and Family Studies). Other courses such as Math, Music, Technological and Business Studies make more of a nodding reference to thematic uni ts.

Secondary/Localized forms of Integration Without specific guidance from Circular OSIS, the many forms become slightly hazier and scattered across the various documents. Most ubiquitous at the classroom level are CrossDisciplinary and Correlation, which try to show concrete ways that teachers can juxtapose elements from various courses. Perhaps, more telling of the period are the ways the documents try to promote school-wide integration endeavours. In an ad hoc fashion, teachers are encouraged to use the Multidisciplimry approach, namely tearn teaching and joint planning as a way to coordinate the individuai classes to reinforce meaning and efficiency. More radical. the Pluridisciphay approach is seriously mentioned for the first time. To accomplish more uniforni and systematic coordination of subject matter, schools (usually through the principal) are to create several linking mechanisms of the disparate subjects. In particular, this would include the development of language "programs" (as opposed to simply courses) and departments. The Ministry recommended, specifically a Technological Studies program (7E- 13, 7E-2 1 ), a Department of Business Studies (7F-6,7F- I7), a History and Contemporary Studies program, an Allied Arts program (7H-2 1,7H-40). Incidental Forms of Integration While the remaining forms are still mentioned throughout the guidelines, they are usudly alluded to in passing. The most important of this category is the Nested Approach. Like the previous period, OSIS is concerned that the courses do not degenerate into a vague potpoum to be deciphered at the individual level (leading to a myriad of interpretations). However, the Ministry believes chat this can be overcome through the use of block thematic units - the exact sequencing of these units then become less of an issue and can be retumed to the teacher's purview. The only concem is arranging Grade 7-8 so that a continuance of knowledge results. Beyond this, the details are left vague. This can also be seen in the cumculum committees' use of Fusion. Mile asides are made concerning ways to combine certain subjects (7A-27, 7A-40,

7H-40, 7M-23), the phrasing leaves this form nebulous and undeveloped. Two forms simply do not fit into the scheme of things during this penod. The first is Insertion. This is because information that is deemed important enough to be included in the cumculum is dealt with in a more systematic way. To simply "stick in" content or values at random would be impossible - by this stage there are too many voices on the committee to aIIow this to happen. The Transdisciplinary Approach, as well, is treated very gingerly so as to give the student some extremely regimented freedom through certain independent study (7A41, 7H47, 7K-27) and cooperative planning initiatives (7F-22, 75-33). However, this is downplayed throughout this period. Chart 7.2 - Dimension E (The Importance of Integration Methods/Approaches) Scsud Cmss .Mulit Conda Plun Inxn Fusion Thcrniic H;rrm f rans Intepiion Methods/Approaches Analysis of Dimensions F & G: Implementinq Curriculum lntegration During this penod, the Ministry built an incredibly complex network to deal with the implementation. maintenance and evaluation of the curriculum. While the assistance of teachers in classroom techniques was a concem, the ovenvhelming purpose of this system was efficiency and effectiveness, while not reinstating an elitist power base. As such, the Ministry tended to focus much of its time on manipulating the giant mechanism to increase its proficiency. As shown in Dimension F, most documents pay only minor consideration to the more human related problerns - subject attachment, speedy implementation, work overload, and feelings of being threatened. What becomes paramount is the Ministry's concem with open communication and interaction among the various levels of the educational system. Almost al1 guidelines express serious anxiety that teachers may isolate themselves from the mainstream of the school, shutting their classroom doors (see balkanization, on figure 7.6, p. 590). To combat that, OSIS exhorts them to work together, share their experiences and engage in informai mentoring as a way to keep the curriculum alive and unified. To buttress the system frther, other stakeholders are brought

in. Both principals and schooI boards are given the responsibility to coordinate local program cornmittees, provide assistance to teachers, and to perform continua1 program evaluations to make certain that the system is running srn~othl~L.~as tly, the Ministry even extends a certain arnount of authority to parents and students as part of a feedback loop. Students, especially, are encouraged to collaborate in the creation of specific course activities (although their participation is highly regulated within the OSIS design). This vastly expanded network of communication does not lead to an opening of cumculum design, however. Unlike penod 5, OSIS documents were not really open for change once they had passed the rigorous design phase and had been distributed to the boards and schools. They could be adapted, rearranged added-on to, and accompanied with more expectations, techniques and so forth (see Specialized Cumculum and Adaptability, p. 589). But the root documents were to be followed, not questioned. In fact, as the 1980s wore on, a greater emphasis was placed on accountability, especially in relation to testing. While the original OSIS documents, under the Conservatives, emphasized a wide range of personalized testing techniques, the Liberal party began to dabble with standardized examinations. In 1988, it was announced in the Minister's Annual Report that three levels of evaluation were undergoing experimentation. First, it had engaged 28 school boards to participate in a pilot project whereby a representative sampIe of student achievement levels in specific subjects could be obtained. It further stated that "some of the instruments used for the assessment of student achievement will be chosen from the Ontario Assessrnent Instrument Pool. Questionnaires will also be used to gather information on This is outlined in the Minisny support document Cumculum Management (1988). instnictional practices and resources fiom teachers" (Annual Report, 1988-9). The same year,

Ontario took part in the creation of a National Indicator Program at the request of the Canadian Council of Ministers of Education. Lastly, Ontario took part in a project that made international comparisons of Math and Science. The Ministry appears to have stepped back almost completely from any sort of direct funding or aid to teachers or schools (not that they were ever that strong on this issue in the first place). Instead, subsidies were given to school boards and earmarked for certain projects, professional development and the purchasing of resources, assistance or plant renovation. An exampIe of this can be seen in monies that were tagged to accompany the new science curriculum at both the elementary and secondary levels. in 1988-89, the Ministry introduced the first stage of a 3-year, $13 million plan to assist school boards with the implementation of new science guidelines for the Intermediate Division (Grades 7 to 10). In the first year of the plan, $3 million was provided to school boards for the training and professional development of teachers and the purchase of science teaching aids and facilities, laboratory equipment and supplies, and leming materials other than textbooks. Along with this added responsibility, therefore, the Ontario boards became star players in the field of curriculum development and implementation during this period. In line with OSIS' interest in the private sector, most documents also recommend that teachers and schools could find assistance and resources from the community at large. This may take the form of libraries, public pools, and greenspaces. In most cases, this would entail the use of field trips and volunteer work. Overall Remarks on Period 7 Two elements are responsible for the form and implementation of cumculum integration during this period. Both can be seen as naturally evolving out of the change of mentality during the

previous period. 1. Systems Approach to the Educational System Foreshadowed in the previous period, the Ministry now firmly entrenches a unified educational system in an effort to ensure accountability and feedback from the various tevels. This can be seen in Dimension B, where the Ministry appears at great ease with the object of subject unity but is more shaky when discussing student-centred integration (this actuaily seems to be a carry-over from the previous period). To avoid the elitist format of earlier periods, however, a greater number of stakeholders must be involved. To design the cuniculum, a large number of people from the various educational levels are seconded, To implement and maintain the system, more authonty and responsibility are given to school boards and principles. As well, the lines of communication proliferate during this period. 2. Expansion of Issues to be Dealt with by the Curriculum As seen in Dimension A, the Ministry now feIt it incumbent upon itself to deal with issues that had not previously been its concern. Almost al1 elements are now highly represented as important facets of the curri~ulum The results of this change in mentality can be infemed as follows: Circular OSIS acts as a prime directive - Because Circular OSIS mandates a certain code of ethics and baseline skills, harrnonization becomes the towering form of integration. However, because no concrete details are given about how to implement it, it is left rather vague. As well, the Thematic Approach becomes the dominant, concrete method to apply these skills in an organized way. It meets the Ministry's need for efficiency while giving the information some meaning. It must be acknowledged, however, that the themes are pre-made at the Minisry level and have little to do with the earlier child-centred Enterprise method. Other Integration Methods Scatered - Because so many people were involved in the creation of the cuniculum documents with no direction beyond harmonization and themes, the remaining methods become scattered and vague. Each person seemed to have had their own definition of what integration should look like, and what should be included in the documents. This unfortunately resuited in guidelines that took a painfully long time to produce, revised again and again. No doubt, integration was seen as a way to aid teaching, but it seemed that its concrete

definition was left much more general than in the pst. When disseminated, it is obvious that many of the variations of the term were cut, mutated or left undeveloped. Growing Accent on Group Integration - The one variant that begins to rise during this period is in relation to integration involving two or more people. The reasoning behind this is twofold. It brings teachers into contact with the rest of the educational community around them to give assistance in their teaching method, while allowing them to be informally evaluated by their peers. It is thereby used as a check that the OSIS documents are king properly implemented. Impetus for Change value issues, updated iechnology, etc .... now deimnds an u@te of the SeniorIntermediaie levcls Inspiration for Direction of Change Approach Used to enact the philosophy Reactionary De partmen ta1 Assumptions New Philosophical Premises OS IS Computers of Morals & Eiliics Senior-Intermediate Language skills of great should bc taughi To ensure Subjecls now seen as levels tied togeiher grat imporunce impomnce in schoot objectives - they progmrns subjeciccnired perspective takes orecedence * Subjeci Cenirrd Multi- & pluriMandaied Themes dixiplinary approachrs Harmonizaiion of promoted as rhe sysiem manv elements I A becomes more comnlex I

Language-Across-the- ldcal virw of lncreased amouni of Curriculum was a adolescence stakeholder involvernent from SUCC~SS pcrpttt uaied al1 levels of the education svstem Diagram 7. Linking Philosophy to Curriculum Integration Approach Context for the 1992-1996 Curriculum When the Liberals entered offke, they ignored or disbanded the cornmittees that the Conservative party had set up to investigate the problems plaguing Ontario public education.' To replace them, the Liberals appointed former Toronto Star editor George Radwanski to review the system, especially focusing on the dropout rate. When his report was submi tted in 1987, it gave a scathing denunciation of the Ontario government's management of the cumcuium: My strongest impression fiom the work of this study is that, in terrns of educational philosophy, the systern has increasingly ken mnning on empty. Educators and education officiais know that the premises and prionties set out in the Hall-Dennis Report 20 years ago have ken overtaken by contemporary reality, but no coherent new strategy has been agreed upon to take their place. Instead, there is drift, in the form of an endless succession of improvisations, half-measures and compromises to bridge the gap between competing ideas. (1987, p. 1) Successive governments, Radwanski said, had fiddled with the system without endorsing a clear vision of what the final product should look like. Legitimating much contemporary and past scholarship on the reunification of the cumculum, he wamed that only a more holistic approach would increase student retention (for a detailed summary of the report see Gidney, 1999, pp. 172To respond to the problems that the Radwanski report surfaced, the Liberals struck an All-Party Premier's Council. Its first report proposed that the Ministry recreate the grade system to help students make a smoother transition through their education and foster life-long learning.

Most concretely, the report strongly recommended that a common cumculum to grade 10 should be in place by the year 2000. Furthennore. it stated that "Ontario should emphasize educational standards and evaluation by introducing: a sampling system to monitor educational standards; province-wide benchmark evaluation to cover basic skills; comprehensive profile assessments for students [and] a report card to the public to identify achievements and progress annually" (1989, I One of the studies was being carried out by Ken Dryden. which he later published as In School (1995). pp. 4-5). This reflected calls by the public for provincial standards assurance and nationaVintemationa1 testing programs, the strengthening of public accountability, and a review of the overhead cost structures for education. Based on this and other simiiar reports, the new Minister of Education, Marian Boyd announced in April 1989, that the government was planning to reforrn the education system and create a renaissance in educational thought. In order to more closely reflect the stages of student development, she proposed to split the grade levels into 4 distinct periods: The Early Years (Kindergarten); The Formative Years (Grades L-6); The Transition Years (Grades 7 to 9); The Specialization Years (Grades 10-12). To validate the Liberals' new plan for change, she further stated that major policies wouId be determined in consultation with educators and the public. In an effort to provide some leadership to this proess, the Ministry established the Learning Secretariat in June of that year. Assisting this position were 6 work teams', who in turn had access to a number of "reaction" groups representing interest groups from across the province for advice and criticism on the progress of plans and policies. In addition, work teams were to have regular feedback fiom the Learning Programs Advisory Council, an am's length body further representing educational associations, business and labour.

Work on this planned change project slowed suddenly, however, when, in a surpnsing turn of events, the Liberals were soundly beaten out of office in 1990 to be replaced by the NDP party under Bob Rae. More than a vote for a socialist agenda, however, it was considered by most media sources at the time as a block protest against the waste, perceived corruption, bloated bureaucracy and ineffec ti veness of Peterson's administration. It was hoped that a "new broom" would do rnuch to sweep away the problems and lack of productivity created by the Liberals. In terms of the education system, the populace appeared to have looked with optimism and One each for 'The Eariy Years". 'The Formative Years". 'The Transition Years". 'The Specialization Years", 'Technological Education", and 'Tareers". expectancy to Rae's campaign promises that he would create a unified, simplified cumculum, and that he would streamline the bureaucracy to make it more efficient. The question that remained, however, was how an NDP govemment could attempt this within the confines of the party's philosophy. The first issue, that of cumculum, was tackled by the NDP almost immediately. Created by a number of seconded educational theorists, an initial draft of "the Common Cumculum" was circulated in February 1993 as a working document to schook, parents and the general public for feedback. In an accompanying press release, Rae announced that it would herald a revolution in education (1993). As a central cumculum, it would not only cut down on overlap, but as everyone was following the sarne document, it would also cut down on confusion. Furthemore, it was to be based on "Outcornes-Based Learning", a new educational method focusing on the student achieving certain results rather than passing a certain arnount of coursework. No longer would the cuniculum build upon itself (as Cumculum I:1 or OSIS had done) in a stumbling evolutionary format, but that this newbom document would be the dawn of a new age (for a

detailed account of these early NDP days, see Gidney, 1999, pp. 209-219). Difficulties arose in its delivery, however. While the Minister's Annual Report in 1992-3 had expected to begin impiementing the cumculum in September 1993 for a full, system-wide implementation by 1996, ongoing revisions to the document began to bog this process down. Many parents and teachers complained the document was too vague. Even Rae, himself, admitted that he, too, didn't "understand a lot of the jargon" dubbed by the press "edu-babble."3 The final version of the Common Cumculum was finally released in 1995. This was pointed out by Rita Daley of the Toronto Star in her 5 June 1993 column 'Today's lesson: C-U-R-R1-C-U-L-U-W. Gidney (1999, pp. 221-223) points out the numerous critics who cornrnented on the jargonfilled draft copies of the document. Bureaucracy posed a singular problem for the NDP. On the one hand, Rae had promised to cut waste and strearnline the educational system. On the other, the parsy was tied by the socialist agenda, which necessitated an increased arnount of government intervention in the various facets of public life. This was made quite clear in the Minister's Annual Report of 19901, in which he announced that the Ministry intended to expand its sphere of influence "to better integrate social services with educational programs" (p. 12). To meet this increased responsibility, the Ministry merged with the JobsOntario Training program in February 1993. and expanded to include no less than 5 divisions (each made up of numerous teams, projects, and an increased administration in general). While the Ministry emphatically stated that the reorganization would "result in the provision of better services to the education cornmunity at considerably less cost" (Organizational Overview, 1994), most media pointed out the enormous increases in govemment spending to support these changes. In finding ways to streamline the system, therefore, the NDP primarily targeted schooi boards as being especiaIIy wasteful of funds that could be more properly allocated directIy to

schools, themselves. In past decades, officials had defended the necessity of board-level expansion in order to f i I l the vacuum left by decentralization. After a decade of economic recession and the teassertion of power by the Ministry, however, boards were finding it more difficult to justify some of its activities. '' They could not deny the public allegations that much duplication of tasks was taking place - this extended to cumculum design. It was, perhaps, inevitable that a final struggle would ensue in which the Ministry would regain central control of the cumculum. However, during this period, the Ministry took a very conciliatory approach to solving this problem. In 1992, it announced the creation of a Transition Assistance fund that boards could draw on to help consolidate their interna1 organization for more eficiency (1991-2). 4 One area that was to corne under increasing cnticism was trustees' salaries in certain large boards (reaching close to $l,/year in some boards). Even as the returns on this funding proved less than encouraging with boards proposing mostly superficial changes5. the NDP continued its policy of voluntary restructuring and earmarked additionai fun& to the Transition Program in April 1994 (for the details of the NDP's struggle with board amalgamation, see Gidney, 1999, pp. 192- 197) Features of the Period: The only mandated cumculum guideLine document created during this period was The Common Cumculum (1995), after going through a draft period (1993-5). The other two documents that are used in this study are resource guides created to assist the teacher in the various aspects of the curriculum. The first is centrai to the definition of cumculum integration. Entitled Towards an Intenrated Cumculum: A School Resource Guide (1993), it is the first document in 60 years to concretely address the issue. The second deals with another illusive area of the cumculum: Education about Religion in Ontario in Public Elementary Schools (1994). Lastly, the brief report The Transition Years, Grades 7, 8, 9 (1992). lays out the government's plan to rearrange the grade system. ' In April 1994. the Minister announced that 50 out of 172 Ontario school boards had reduced their number of

trustees. The total number of vustees fell by 106, frorn 2129 to 2023. This represents a decrease of 5 per cent (Annual Report. 1994-5). Most board-Ievel reports proposed a rneasure of cost sharing between boards that would still leave thern fairly independent (see Wells' Report, 1 March 1994). Cooke also cailed on boards to share busing, curriculum development, payroll processing, purchasing. and technology. Analysis of Dimension A: Elements Used During lnteqration Quite clearly, the Common Curriculum signals a great change from the previous OSIS documents. Rather than trying to maintain a balance between the various elements, the Ministry during this period made some strong choices based on a focused ideology. Both Content and Individual Developrnent virtually disappear, to be replaced with a desire to inculcate a number of Underlying Principles (of equity, rnulticultunlism, environmentalism and ethical practices). The divide that used to exist between Academic Skills and Practical Skills no longer exists. but are merged together to train students to face the changing world. Social Skills are also deerned necessary to teach students how to adapt to this new "global village". Graph 8.1 - Dimension A (Importance of Elements used during Integration) Ac. Skills Mmul Social Elcrncnts Individual Underlying Analysis of Dimension 6: Objectives of lntegration More than in any previous period the curriculum documents devote an extremely large amount of space to explain why integration should take place. As such, the definition of the terrn becomes complex and all-encompassing to the leming proess. Most importantly for this study, there is some acceptance that differences exist in how various educators define and utilize the integrated approach (8B-7). Subject Unity Becomes System Unity The Common Cumculum explains that, in the pst, the cumculurn was based on a

disciplinary system. This meant that information had to be channelled and isolated in particular subject areas (bodies of knowledge), taught by subject specialists. In doing so, however, the system becarne monolithic and unresponsive to the changes in the world outside academia. During this period, the Ministry made a conscious decision to step away from this method of education and embrace the more experimenta1 "Outcomes-Based Learning" in an attempt to force the system to become more flexible: In outcomes-based learning, cumculum refers to the varied experiences by means of which students achieve a set of defined outcomes. Students do not attain the outcomes through a set of prescribed learning experiences in one program area or in one grade; they attain them through a wide range of experiences encountered over severaI grades. These experiences, moreover, will include varied content drawn From al1 program areas. It should thus be clear that there is an essential link between outcomes-based leming and an integrated cumculum (8A-67) In divorcing al1 goals of education (defined as the students' "achievement of certain results") from the root subjects, the Ministry hoped to bring down the walls created by past conventions long since obsolete. Now, as the outcomes became the sole product desired by the Ministry, curriculum integration was seen merely as a tool to achieve these ends efficiently and to help point out the connections between these outcomes. However, it is an important tool otherwise, the disparate outcomes out would become just as fragmented as subjects. Using the outcomes as building blocks, the curriculum then creates certain tentative areas around skill groupings (narnely Language skills, MatMScience ski1 ls, Artistic skills and "Self' skilIs - 8D-32, 8D-95). However, while these classifications are to exist in the minds of the teacher, they are not treated as independent bodies (given specific space on the timetable, etc). Even more than the previous OSiS documents, the associated Common CurricuIum resources view the cumculum as an interconnected system (see sections especially on Mathematics and Self & Society 8D-361, 8D-362, 8D-373). Certain outcomes span al1 areas and should be transferred and reinforced across the school day (8B-5, 8D-78, 8D-79, 8D-80, 8D- 102. 8D12 1, 8D-137). Language, for example, ceases to be a subject and becomes a skill, underlined

throughout the curriculum (8D- 156, 8D- 169). In other resources, the Ministry recommends that outcomes can be doubled up to alleviate problems of timetable overload, adaptability and fragmentation (8B-6, 8C-7) For al1 its protests against a subject-centred curticulum, however, the Ministry does still maintain that certain naturaI commonalties exist between subjects and that "artificial or forced integration should be avoided" (8B-19). Rather than creating them, the designers should look for them and they wiIl surface (8B-20). Connections are seen as existing between math, science and technology (8D-263). and with other program areas (8D-263) such as the Arts, and social sciences (8D-264). Political Change Becomes a Driving Force for Integration Throughout this period. the integrative approach was accepted whole-heartedly as a panacea for most of the ills of teaching any subject and its use was advocated in almost every situation. This is promoted in both the resource document "Towards an Integrated Cumculum" (8B- 1, 8B-2, 8B4), and throughout the Common Cumculum itself (8D-30, 8D-3 1, 8D-59, 8D60). Both go beyond the usual reasoning for an integrated cumculum, however, which typically cites the cause of integration as bringing subjects together. Here, they see it as an entire worldvision. While teachers were allowed to begin with the segregated course structure, the Ministry mandated that the new program must be organized in such a way that the interrelationships among subjects and topics are evident and meaningful to the student (8A-4). It was hoped that as teachers becme more and more cornfortable, the discipline-based system would eventually be shed, and that they would ultimately move "towards an integrated cuniculum" (8B-10). The belief of the Ministq was that the natural tendency of mankind was integrative. The mind seeks out patterns and education should mimic this process (8B-4). Everything must come together for

inevitable sense to be derived - al1 subjects, al1 skills, famiIies, communities, the environment, society (8D-53). They reasoned chat students must view the world (and thereby life) as an integrated whole. By linking students to the whole world, therefore, and showing them that it is changing constantly (8D-102), it was hoped that they would not only have a "global perspective" but also be prepared for change and come to the realization that they must be lifelong lemers (8D-16, 8D-73, 8D-16). To do this, the Cumculum continually reinforced the premise that students must not look at the world as disassociated facts, but as something that is composed of "systems" of various sizes (8D-286, 813-287. 8D-29 1, 8D-292. 8D-297). Alone. Outcomebased Education could not attain a meaningful, synthesized curriculum (more goals would just be added or dropped). It is only through the integrative process that masses of new information, values, perspectives (see Dimension A) could be brought into the cumculum and neatly slotted into the new world view. (8A-4) Social Continuity Not Mentioned or Wanted Dtiving this penod is a feeling that the world is changing, whether we want it to or not. To put stock in the "tried and me" methods or figures of authority is merely to be damned to obsolescence. Therefore, any remaining aspects of social continui ty were eschewed in this curriculum as outmoded. Student Centred Education Left Vague The documents Frequently mention that the changes being made were done in order to meet the needs of the students (8A-4, 8B-1, 8B-4). However, it seems that the Common Curriculum is a finished package by the time it gets to them. Their job is merely to achieve the prescribed outcomes. While IocaI issues are dealt with, the Ministry seems less interested in deaIing with students' idiosyncratic desires and more with equalizing their environments so that al1 may learn equitably. One policy of "Education for the Whole Person". for exampte, States: To maximize the learner's potential, an integrated approach is required, one that

meets the needs of the whole person. Children who corne to school hungry, young people who are troubled and neglected, and adults with economic or family problems al1 face barriers to learning. In education, the students' persona1 concern can no longer be separated from their ability to learn well. (Minister's Annual Report. 19901, p. 12) Therefore, while some mention is made of including student interests (8B-9, 8D-209) education is viewed as something that is "done to" students rather than something that emanates from the students themselves. Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntegration While for most of the century a dialogue between two stakeholder levels, namely the Ministry and the individual teacher, had decided on the creation and maintenance of cumculum (and the development of integration methods), this balance is now broken. In part. this can be seen as a natural evolution of the procedures devised by the previous two periods. Under the Wells administration, the Ministry had mandated that each level of the educational system play a part (either through direct actions or indirect recomrnenciations) in the decision-making process conceming curriculum integration. By the time the OSIS documents were in place, a huge array of groups, federations, boards and teachers were involved in their creation. Similady, for the guidelines to get from Ministry to teacher, they were sifted through several layers of board and school-leveI cornmittees. The NDP appear to reaiize this system as too bureaucratie and slow moving with not enough benefits (see Context of this chapter). However, king in a precarious position as a newcomer to power and realizing how entrenched the system had become, they can only rnake hesitant motions to streamline operations. This mixture between the competing drives for inclusion and for clarity/effkiency can be best illustrated in the creation of the Common Curriculum document (1995). The first draft was first completed by a fairly small vanguard of Ministry and associated wnters in 1993. It was then

distributed to an extremely wide circle of groups and organizations (p. 110) including those that had never before been afiliated with Ministry projects, most likely in an effort to accurately reflect the views of the Ontario populace. Responses were then synthesized by a Revision Tearn composed of a CO-ordinating group, and groups for the Arts, Language, MST and Self & Society. Finally, a Review Committee scrutinized the document. It must be noted that by this stage, the stakeholder pool had shrunk considerably - al1 rnembers of these committees belonged to either the Ministry itself, a school board or a teachers' federation. The school board has, by this period reached the peak of its influence. It is given the responsibilities for proper implementation and tailoring of the cumculum policies including the Transition Years (8A-2), the religion program (8C-5, 8C-6) and the Comrnon Cumculum (8D-65, 8D-87, 8D-97, 8D-234, 8D-235). The Ministry, in fact, earmarked an annual expense of $30 million to the boards CO aid them in redesigning the cumculum for its locality. Above this, boards were also given almost exclusive rights to in-service teachers under their jurisdiction (8C-13, 8C14), and the ability to create advisory committees for local initiatives (8C- 16). According to the Ministry, the school-level is where the hub of cumculum integration shouId be taking place. Under the tutelage of the principal, teachecs' groups should be set up to plan ways of finding interrelationships between what they are teaching. Arranged in teams of 6 (no bigger), the resource document 'Towards an lntegrated Cumculurn" recommends that participants should be allowed ample tirne to understand the process, find out what's king taught in various subjects, find links, and consult experts when necessary (8B-15, 8B-19). The object of al1 this is to bring al1 teachers' ideas together so as to make the Common Curriculum a joint venture based on shared understanding. Of course, with the meteoric rise of one level of input

came the decline of another. Little attention is paid to the solitary classroom teacher during this period. The design of the Common Cuniculum, in fact, actively discourages him or her from following just the Ministry documents in isolation. It would lead to an overload and severe anxiety. Rather, the creators of the guideline saw it as a fomm for discussion at the school level a beginning that should be developed by a group. Analvsis of Dimension D: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other Grade Levels Grades 7 and 8 are now drawn back into the elementary system through the unified Common Curriculum (covering Grades 1-9 inclusively). Outcome follows outcome in the hopes that the students wilI be always progressing forward from the known to the unknown. As such, an underlying continuity pervades the system up to the first year of secondary school. Three junctures are presented in this continuum, however. The Minisuy proposes that students should be tested for the prescribed outcomes at Grades 3, 6 and 9. This allows some accountability in the system while maintaining a great arnount of flexibility in achieving these outcomes. As seen in the last stage, entitled the "Transition Years", outcomes are not relegated to one year but can be taught at any time during the three years. This places the onus on the teachers to rneet, discuss and decide where the outcomes will be placed in the sequence of class work, allowing a great amount of integration between the three grade levels. The tenn ''Transition Years" suits the position that the M i n i s ~ha d given to the Grade 79 arrangement during this period. While it is definitely insulated from the lower or higher grades, it is not seen as an ending of a certain stage of education (as Period 1 and 2 had ken) or the beginning of a new stage (as Period 7 had ken). Rather. by including grade 9 in the calculation, the Ministry creates this phase of the students' education as a hinge between the two. The creators of the Common Curriculum did not believe that integration could just

naturaIIy happen within a system that was divided along traditional disciplinary lines. This wouid just push the burden of integration down to the classroom-level, resulting in a mere mishmash of ad hoc measures. Even with a great amount of encouragement in this situation, a teacher who was isolated in a 45-minute subject setup would never progress beyond the nested or correlation approaches. They, therefore, recommended that the influentid forms of integration should come fiom the higher levels of the education system. Most importantly, they Fused the previously separate subjects into 4 leaming areas, based on shared skiIls. Recognizing that this was a radical change to the system presently in place, they proposed an evolutionary format to reach this desired state of education. To begin this long trek to complete integration, schools were allowed to maintain a disciplinary organization of courses. However, they must begin to make connections imrnediately between what they are teaching and the other areas of the curriculum (Correlation und Crossdisciplinary approaches). At the same time, each school is encouraged to organize and relate courses naturally through shared outcomes. As such, teachers are to start thinking in terms of an Art program (that relates Art, Music and drama courses together), a Math, Science and Technology grouping, a Language grouping, and a Self and Society grouping (that relates al1 the penonai subjects together such as Family Studies, Geography, History, and Physical Education). Committees are encouraged to work together to come to some shared understandings and ways of dealing with outcomes (Puridiscipli~~aryn d ~uidisciplinary~ Apaches). Furthemore, teachers are to erase boundary lines through the use of joint thematic projects, and outcomes that span the curriculum (harmonization). Graph 8.2 - Dimension E (integration Methods/Approaches) Ncgligiblc 'm~cntral, '~~oca~izcd

!~lncidcntal M ulii C.irrclui Pluri lnscrr Fuswn Tlicnlatic: Hmm Trans Integrarion Approachcs The Common Curriculum stands apart from the other periods in that it does not view each fom as an end in itself, but as merely a stop-gap measure to reach higher and more intense ways of integrating the curriculum. The reader is almost led to infer that the Ministry would eventually like to see al1 boundaries fall away one day to make room for a totally Integrated Day. Of course, this is in total harmony with their philosophy outlined in Dimension B - integration is not sirnply the intemlationship of one element or subject, but the bringing together of al1 things and people to the centre for communion and reunification. For it is only here that true rneaning can be found. The muItidisciplinary approach is of towering importance during this period - however it is Iefi irnplicit. It stands to reason. however, that if more than one teacher will be teaching the same group of students. they will The Ministry appears to have been quite concerned with certain aspects of the implementation process of the Common Cumculurn while downplaying others. This may be due to the NDP's dichotornous agenda mentioned in Dimension C. Certain aspirations build on the preceding period - this is especiaily m e of the Ministry's desire to include a great number of stakeholders in the process. Both boards and principals were marked as central roles in the successful maintenance of cuniculum policy. As well, parents and the community were brought on board to help the programs run smoothly (by 1993 parents cornmittees are mandated policy). Most importantly, the Ministry promoted teacher tearnwork as the best way to overcome balkanization and subject attachment. These al1 hearken back to sentiments expressed in the older OSIS documents. Alongside this, however, is the NDP's desire to have the educational community accept the

new cuniculum, considered quite radical in approach and objective. To facilitate this process the Ministry employs a combination of firm and clear direction with a great deai of financial recompense. While adaptability of approach is aven much credence, the outcomes are considered untouchable. Funhermore, to ensure that these outcornes are taught, the Ministry began, at this time, to re-instzll a standardized testing system (not seen since 1938)' Language/MathematicaI standards, and National Achievement Indicators (see Annual Report. 1993-5). Foreshadowing events of the next penod, the Ministry indicated that these were only tentative steps on the way to a greater ideal. In October 1994, Minister Cooke stated that: Although the test results are encouraging, we believe we can still do better. The ministry, school boards, teachers, parents and the community al1 need to work together to raise the level of reading and writing skills in this province. . .. We're committed to testing as an important means of improving the skills of Ontario students. We have gained valuable expenence from the Grade 9 Reading and Wnting Test that we can use as we plan the expansion of our assessrnent program (press release). - -- -. have to be constantly meeting to straighten out who teaches which outcomes. Recognizing the revolutionary nature of the reforms, it does give certain allowances - for example, a fairly broad lag time for implementation (3 years). As well, an enormous amount of money was earmarked for aiding the installation of the cumculum into Ontario cIassrooms. School boards alone were given $30 million to create added resources to help teachers interpret the curriculum. Even as Iate as April 1995, Cooke was announcing an additional $2 million in funding "to support the development of expertise and resources needed to deliver the province's new Common Cumculum" (press release. 25 April 1995). The funding, which was channeled through the Common Cumculum Innovation Fund was spent in three different areas: Inservicing. increasing access to material and human resources across the province, and supponing projects designed to tell parents and the general public about c ~ n i c u l ~cmha nges. At the time, his comments reflected the Ministry's merger of the two desires for inclusion and direction:

I'm impressed by the kind of collaboration that the work on the new cumculum has generated. It will help build local. regional. and provincial networks of key partners across the province which will be powerful mechanisms for teaching the new cumculum (p. 1). Overall Remarks on Period 8 In this period, the NDP quite obviously attempted to pick up the gauntlet that Radwanski had thrown down in 1987. In trying to create a holistic approach to education, however, the Ministry only made it half way. It can be inferred: 1. The Common Curriculum a Revolutionary Vision of lntegration At the core of the new curriculum is a certain philosophy of integration that has rarely been seen before. It is no longer seen merely as a tool to get the point across more eficiently (although this is still a valued consideration). It is now viewed by the Ministry as a "world vision", a paradigm where meaning is derived only when barriers are removed. The cumculurn is considered a whole. unified work of knowledge. This extends even to the uniting of people in shared understanding. This mindset is then to be internalized in the students. This may explain why M e input is warranted from either the teachers or pupils (as seen by the dearth of references to the transdisciplinary approach). While teacher interaction is highly recomrnended, it is not for feedback. but to ensure that each teacher interprets the documents correctly. 2. Ranking the Sub-definitions of Integration The Ministry explicitIy accepts that several forms of integration exist and describes them as a continuum from least (nested cross-disciplinary, correlation) to most (themes. fusion). While it recommends that teachers should begin at the level that rnakes them feel most comfortable, it believes that the generaI trend of education should be towards more intense forrns of integration (perhaps ending in some form of Integrated Day). 3. The Ministry tries to Promote Integration through Curriculum Design To facilitate this trend, the creators of the Common Cumculum adapted a few of the traditional

structures. First, it attempted to destroy the subject-based system by introducing 4 program areas revolving around certain shared outcomes. It also tried to bring teachers together by erasing any vestiges of grade-related material. By grouping outcomes in larger packages of Grades 1-3, 46, and 7-9, it forced teachers of the various grade levels to meet and share the outcomes among themselves. 4. Implementation Attempted within Traditional Inclusive Framework By trying to function within the entrenched system of bureaucracy set up during the WellsOSE penods. it was perhaps inevitable that the Ministry could not totally protect its ideal vision of integration from the "watenng-down" process. While the ideas were originally thought through by a fairly small vanguard of wnters, they were subjected to multiple revisions based on a great number of responses from many disparate interest groups (this also resulted in a myriad of underlying beliefs being included in the principle document). Once revised and distributed to the boards, the curriculum was left open to interpretation and application (as was traditionally the case). Short of usurping the boards' power, and directly mandating the integration of the cumculum at the school level, the Ministry could not guarantee that steps would be taken towards the ideal foms. As conciliators, the NDP could only try to induce stakeholders along with promises of additional resources. And as time passed and money became scarcer, funding an ideal was becoming more difficult to defend. 5. The Inherent Dichotorny There exists one flaw in the philosophy of those who created the documents surrounding the Common Curriculum, and that deals with the reconciliation of Outcomes Based Learning, Integration as a world view. and the NDP's policy of equity. OBE is based on an elitist doctrine in that the designers of the cut-riculum preconceive the outcomes. Theoretically, the boards, schools and teachers are given the sole task of finding ways of enabling the students to achieve

these outcomes. The only feedback required fkom these lower levels, therefore, are the success rate and the effectiveness of the methods aiding this process. The policy of equity stands directly opposite from this - it believes that al1 participants' conviction should be taken into consideration. It is at this point that integration, as a philosophical premise, is tom in two. On the one hand, unity is based on shared understanding, synthesis emerging from different points of view to create something different. On the other, unity is something that is to be imposed on the recipients fkom a central designer. For the Common Cumculum to succeed this inborn rift must be mended or one half eradicated (as noted earlier, the establishment of standardized testing might give some indication as to which side the Ministry is leaning towards). Impetus for Change vision for educaiion through one addressed by thc NDP cumculum document govcmment New Philosophical Premises Approach Used to enact the philosophy Reac tionary Depart men ta1 Assumptions A cal1 for thc sireamlining of the educaiional sysrem Manhird Outcomcs paramouni - and Intcgniion seen as an end in Strong voicing of social noi highly lied IO onc spccilic itself - a world vision, noi jusi a justice issues within the disciplinc 1001 conimon curriculum Pluri- and nicmcs an important All foms of intrption good, cven lcsser ones (puts ihem on

a scale fmm Irast to most). Rui musi sec it as building IO beiier ihings (specifically - the Inicgnied Day) Inspiration for Direction of Change * Ouicomes-Rased Etlucation schotarship forming the Basis for ihe Common Cumculum Fusion of subjects in the hopes of rcaching an Inicgraied Day Muliidisciplinary way of joining approachcs highly ouicomcs iogethrr in a loeical wav Many levels of stakeholder invulvement which slows down and effccis ihc idrals sel out by the Governmeni Diagram 8. Linking Philosophy to Curriculum Integration Approach Context of the 1997-1999 Curriculum When Dave Cooke became Minister of Education in 1993. he broke ranks with generations of Ministry policy and endorsed province-wide literacy tests. He explained that his change in attitude reflected the public's desire to see the Ministry play a greater role in ensuring the accountabiiity of the public school system. At the time, he stated: We have ken weak in this province at assessing the education system to determine whether or not we're accomplishing the goals of providing students with a good solid basic education. The way to have an intelligent and thorough discussion about the quality of education is to evaluate the system and discuss it based on real facts and not just people's impressions (Report card on Education, 1993). That same year, Cooke established a Royal Commission on Learning with the mandate to examine in detai l issues conceming accountabili ty, governance, programs/curricul um, standards, and a shared vision for the education of Ontario students (Annual Report, 1993-94). Like the

previous two commissions in this half-century, the five-member appointees were to consuIt with students, parents, educators, and taxpayers. as weli as representatives of business and labour and other organizations and interest groups (for detaiis, see Gidney, 1999. pp. 225-23 1). After sifting through 1400 written submissions and 3600 additional presentations across the province, the cochairs Monique Begin and Gerald Caplan submitted their report "For the Love of Learning" to Cooke on January 26, 1995. At the time, Caplan summed up the collective change in mentality that Ontario had undergone since the Hall-Dennis Report: Our bottom Iine is that we want the vast majority of Ontario students to cornpiete high school as literate, knowledgeable, creative and committed young men and women. Our recommendations are geared to ensuring they know how to solve problerns, and think logically and critically. They wiIl be able to communicate articulatel y, work cooperati vel y. and most importantly, wi l l have learned how to lem. Al1 our recommendations are designed to help every Ontario student reach this goal. But we have a long way to go (p. 1). Diversity and decentralization were no longer considered principal issues. They had been replaced by a desire to ensure that a minimum arnount of knowledge and skills were king taught to students. It was urther resolved that the only way to achieve this end would be through a strong centralized authority with a clearly defined hierarchy of responsibilities, not a patchwork quilt of local initiatives. The remainder of this period can be seen as the Ministry's attempt to reach this goal. Within days, Cooke announced a series of reforms based on certain recommendations from the report. Changes that specifically effected cumculum included: A rerouting of cumculurn control. While he maintained the Common Curriculum as the primary document, he stated that it should evolve into a series of documents that would make up the new province-wide cumculurn for JK to the end of secondary school. Most irnportantly, Cooke announced that the Ministry would assume responsibility for curriculum development, and thus eliminate the current duplication of effort at the board level (press

release 7 February 1995). Comprehensive testing in Reading, Writing and Mathematics for Grades 3, 6, 9 and 1 1. He proposed this as the primary way to ensure that the system was functioning effectively. He further proposed the establishment of a new, independent office, the Education Quality and Accountability Office (the EQAO), to develop and carry out the tests and report the results to the public (press release 17 February 1995; see also Gidney, 1999, pp. 200-202). A new province-wide Report Card that would display a standard way of reporting student achievement to parents (press release, February 1995) The creation of an Ontario Collge of Teachers, a new professional body (operating at arm's length from the Ministry) that would govem everyone who held an Ontario Teaching Certihcate. It would develop standards of practice to fom the basis for assessing knowledge of specific subjects, teaching ability, competence in English andor French, ability to use cornputer technology, and familiarity with provincial cumcula and policies. Cooke also anticipated that it would regulate and take over a great deal of the professional development. (press release 1 3 Febniary 1 995) 5. The mandatory introduction of Parent CounciLs in every school for September of that year. They were to be made up of parents, community rnembers. a student, the principal, a teacher and another school staff member and will be chaired by a parent. "Parents have a right to be involved in the decisions that affect their children's education," said Rae, "and the education system as a whole will benefit from their input. 1 see this as a positive step towards making our school system more accountable." Primarily, the councils' main responsibilities would be to advise principals on subjects such as curriculum, program priorities, assessrnent and accountability, student behaviour, and so on. (press release, Febmary 1995) While these reforms were made specifically to focus control into a more direct line from the Ministry to the teacher, it was also hoped that these changes would do much to bnng down These reforms made many functions by the school board system obsolete, placing them in an even more precarious position. Frustrated by the superficial cost-cutting measures suggested by the boards themselves, Cooke had begun to make veiled threats of board amalgamations (see March 1994 press release). As soon as the Royal Report was released, he announced that the Ministry would take control of this endemic problern directly. Scheduled for initial meetings in

September of that year, a Task Force was set up to look at the reduction of school boards across the province by 40 to 50 per cent, and the limitation of money that boards could spend on administration and trustees' compensation. He expected that new school board boundaries would be in place in time for the 1997 municipal election. "1 think we need to look at where our money ' For example, it was hoped that by centralizing the cumculurn, it would glean about $30 million back from the boards. Downloading certain professional and regulatory functions to the newly developed College of Teachers would also Save on Ministry expenses - they were passed dong directly to teachers who were charged $90 a year for mernbership. is k i n g spent within school boards" he said at the time, noting that Ontario spent more money per student than any other province. "Shared services and CO-operation can cut down on the arnount of money that's being diverted from the classroom" (Annual Report 1994-95). While the reforms undertaken by Cooke appeared to have met with popular acclairn by the generai public, unfortunately the NDP's performance as a whole did not. Criticised by the media as neophytes in managing the affairs of state and conhibuting to just more bureaucratie waste, the party was voted out of office in the Summer of 1995. As a result, the Conservatives were retumed to power after a 10-year hiatus. The new leader, Mike Harris, attnbuted the victory to the party's platform dubbed "the Common Sense Revolution" (Gidney, 1999, p. 234). Quite representative of the right-wing backlash sweeping the country at the time,' it entailed the elirnination of a hefty deficit through massive and immediate cut-backs to government expenditure. At the Ministry of Education and Training, however, this just meant the continuation and expansion of the vision that had k e n set out earlier that year. Over the next year, the new Minister John Snobelen was able to rapidly pass legislation establishing the Ontario College of Teachers (launched September 16, 1996). comprehensive province-wide student testing13 and a Provincial Standard Report ~ a r d ?

Harris made many references in speeches (before and after the election) about the successes of the conservative policies of Ralph Kline in Alberta. The Ministry of Education itself used examples from other provinces to justify its cost cutting rneasures. It stated in a press release "Education reforms similar to those under way in Ontario have already paid off in improved student achievernent in other Canadian provinces. As eariy as 1992, other provinces begrtn to reform their education systems. reducing the number of school boards and increasing provincial responsibility for the fair funding of education. For example: New Brunswick reduced its nurnber of school boards to two - one Anglophone and one Francophone. Eight superintendents are advised by 18 district parent councils. New Brunswick's 16-year-oId students ranked ahead of Ontario in national science and math tests. Alberta has reduced the number of boards from 181 to 57, and cut the number of tmstees by almost two-thirds. Its students ranked first in the country in national science and math tests last year. British Columbia cut the nurnber of school boards and funds education 95 per cent through provincial grants. Its students ranked second in the country on national tests" (see Putting Students First: Ontario's Plan for Education Reform [Ministry Newsletter for Parents]. 9 September 1997). On March 1997, the Ministry introduced Grade 3 annual province wide testing. It proposed its expansion to grade 6 for October 1998 (see Annual Report 1995-6). Perhaps the most controversial of the Tories' policies were those related to cost-cutting measures. While the groundwork had already been laid by Cooke's administration, Snobelen decided to accelerate the process. In his first months in office, he announced an immediate downsizing of government prograrns, projects and positions within the Ministry itself.' By March 1996, he was reporting to the legislature his intentions to cut $400 million from the budget

(to Save an annual 3%). He proposed that the shortfall should not come from additional taxes, but by eliminating certain out-of-classroom expenditures (transportation, board administration, and custodial services). Two reports were cited to buttress his planned cuts to the education system. The first, a study on school costs by OISE researchers, showed that teacher salaries had continually increased while studentlteacher ratios continually decreased since 1984 (Lawton, Ryal1 and Menzies, 1996). Because the education system had found no way of making up for this shortfall from interna1 sources (through more efficient practices, etc), the result was to drive up education costs disproportionately to other provinces. The second study, on school board taxes, showed that when given an ultimatum by Cooke to make up this shortfall of expenses, close to two-thirds of On tario school boards chose to raise taxes rather than strearnlining operations. Snobelen concluded that these reports show that the system is not responsive to the needs of students or taxpayers. ... Our responsibility to the public is to ensure an education system that is both excellent and affordable. ... We rnust find solutions to fix the education system that will ensure that our children get the quaIity of education they deserve, but do not burden them with an enormous debt. (press release, 22 August 1996) 4 First announced by John Snobelen in a Staternent to the Legislature (9 October 1996). the new standard Report Card was experimentally released to 30% of schools in August 1997. It was then to be phased in over a twoyear period for fuli implementation in Fall 1998. Within their first few months in power. the Conservatives cancelled the early childhood education pilot projects, eliminated the Planning and Implementation Commission (PIC), and the rninister without portfolio's office. Frequently mentioned in press releases throughout the year, they stated that they also cut travel

expenses, printing, and telecommunication costs within the Ministry. These administrative services were downloaded to other levels. such as the board (see especially the 6 October 1995 press release). Buoyed by these and other reports indicating nearly $6 billion king spent outside the classroom~ Snobelen introduced Bill 104 "the Fewer School Boards Act" in January 1997. In it, the 129 major school boards in Ontario would be cut by half to be replaced with 66 new "District Boards" effective January 1, 1998. Reasoning that taxpayers were simply not getting good value for the rnoney they spend on education (13 January 1997), he contended that this was part of the Tories' master plan to create "less duplication in the education system and more dollars directed to help students lem and teachers teach" (10 January 1997). The act received Royal Assent on Aprii 24, 1997. Following close upon its heels was another proposal, an Education Quality Improvement Act introduced as Bill 160 in September 1997. Stated by the Ministry itself as the cornerstone of its "comprehensive plan to reforrn education to ensure the highest student achievement in Canada in the most cost-effective manner," it included a panoply of changes to the Ontario education system. Most specificall y i t cal led for the capping of class sizes, increasing teachers' classroom time, extending the school year, allowing non4 icensed specialists into the classrooms, and removing the authority to control education tax rates from school boards to make it the sole purview of the provincial govemment. Boards would then receive funding on a per student basis. Tension immediately rose between the vanous stakeholders of this plan. Boards called it unconstitutional while the Teachers' Federations called for strike action by October. The media pointed to Snobelen's callousness in dealing with the situation. It was reponed that he had

instructed his bureaucrats to "invent an education crisis" in order to pass measures that were Of most specific help were the Sweeney Task Force Report (February 1996). and another interna1 report released January 10, 1997. Snobelen received a boost at the annual Meeting of the Council of Ministers of Education in October 1996 - He stated that Ontario was doing nothing radical - Al1 provincial govemments were engaged in streamlining their educational systems. increasing standards. making the curriculum more rigorous and placing greater emphasis on parental involvement and contro1. 1985 and 1995. During this tirne, revenues frorn property taxes increased 120 percent while school enrolment increased only 16 percent. popularly perceived as mere short-sighted cost-cutting (see Gidney. 1999. p. 236).' It was in this milieu of mistrust that the Ministry unveited its plans for a new cumculum. The centrepiece of this new education system, planned out in advance by the NDP, had been the Common Curriculum. In it, outcomes were prescribed for teachers to impiement, regular comprehensive testing would indicate the schools' effectiveness in reaching these outcomes (aided by professional development from the college), and parents would be able to see the end product of these outcomes in the new standardized report cards. The only dispute that the Conservatives had with this policy, in reality, were the outcomes themselves. Snobelen mentioned repeatedly that parents and teachers found it to be too vague and broad, resuIting in an uneven patchwork of local curricula developed at the board level across the province (13 June 1997). Perhaps, the Tories also viewed it as king a little too NDP in philosophy - in a newsletter to parents, the Minister wrote that he felt a "return to the 3 Rs is long overdue" (9 September 1997). Regardless, rather than working within its framework, in November 1996, Snobelen announced that the Ministry would replace the document with a more "rigorous and demanding

cumculum that will focus on the basics: reading, writing, speIIing and gramma., math, science, geograph y and Canadian history (22 November 1 996). Most important for a smoothl y running system. he persistently stated that the new bbexpectations"w ould be cleariy defined. rneasurable and grade-specific (13 June 1997). Concurrently, the Harris administration announced that the Ministry would bring the entire system into line by reforming high school in a matching format (including standardized literacy tests and a new "rigorous cumculum" to be implemented in September 1999). ' The hostility towards the Minister's actions is ciearly felt in the Ontano Federation of Labour Website. It even contains a subdirectory devoted to an "Embarrass Harris" campaign. The disputes between the educational community and the Conservative governrnent are described by Gidney (1999) in a chapter entitled "Disarray" (pp. 255-275). Features of the Period : First announced in June 1997, subject-centred documents were released as follows: Language (June 1997)- Mathematics (June I997), Science and Technology (March 1 998), French as a Second Language (June 1998), The Arts (June 1998)- Physical Education (June 1998)History and Geography (August 1998). The creators of the documents are largely unnamed and unnumbered in the documents themselves. It would appear, however (in observing the Ministry's website) that the Ministry sought out creation tearns for the documents through the MERX eIectronic bidding system. The few known curriculum CO-designers are named in Dimension C. In Excellence in Education, the Ministry explains why reforms had to be made to the existing curriculum: These changes aimed for a balance between two roles for education. One is to provide young people with the skills, knowledge, and work habits they need to find

or create gainful and satisfying employment and to be independent, productive, and conuibuting members of our society. The second is to provide an environment where students reach their persona1 potential, develop general life and coping skills, "lem to Iearn", build self-esteem, develop interests and integrity, and "become good citizens". Many in Ontario argue that changes to Ontario high schools that began in the 1960s have focused excessively on the second role - king more concerned with "civilizing" the young than with giving them the tools they need to become productive and independent. But education can succeed only if the two roles are balanced (p. 1). However, unlike its promise, the cumculum pendulum appears to swing to one side, yet again. While social skills and individual development are mentioned, they are far outweighed by the Ministry's concern with preparing students for the "real worid". Accent is placed on content and academic skills, and teachers are entreated to show their relevance to the students. While these elements are highly promoted throughout this period, however, little attempt is made to spread them over the curriculum or to even draw connections between subject areas (exceptions can be seen on 9D- 15,9D-l6,9C-23). Chart 9.1 - Dimension A (Importance of Elements used during Integration) Content Ac. Skills MmuaI Social Individual Undalying Elements Analysis of Dimension B: Inteqration MethodsIApproaches Fragmented Subjects with Incidental Overlap When Snobelen unveiled the new "rigorous and challenging cumculum" in June 1997, he stated that it wouId: [spell] out exactty what children should lem in each and every grade-will raise the standard of education for al1 students in Ontario. From now on, teachers and parents will have a clearer understanding of what children should leam and what they should be able to demonstrate in class and on tests. (p. 1 ) For the Ministry at this time. clarity was best achieved through a fragrnented curriculum. After a

number of "Expectations" were isolated by the C U ~ C U c~omUm~it tees. they were then subjugated into fairly focused subject areas: the study of English remains in Language, anthmetic in Mathematics, citizenship in History, personal development in Physical Education, and so on. It would appear that the prime consideration for this configuration was to achieve clearer accountability and effxciency. A particular expectation was delegated to a particular teacher, whose job was to help the student reach this expectation at a particular time. If the student does not meet this expectation (as shown through testing), it can be easily spotted where the shortcoming occurred. In this paradigrn, any wholesale integration of these subject areas would merely lead to confusion and a breakdown of the system (as had happened with the Common Curriculum, Snobelen pointed out). Cumculurn integration does fulfill certain purposes for this program. When natural points of connection incidentally spring up, for instance, the guidelines remark that it would be foolish to ignore them. This is especially important for the intemal unity of specific subjects. Math (9A-12, 9A-25, 9A-30, 9A-33) occasionally mentions ways to interweave the various strands (geometry, probability, arithmetic, etc) so that the students can see the ways various techniques can be used in coordination. For English, the individual rules and skills of language must be eventually combined in a logical order to instill a systematic approach (9B-49B- 1 1, 9B28). These reasons are mentioned as well in Physical Education and the Arts. Lastly, the Science curriculum points out from time to time occasionally that it must be seen as an amalgam of both science and technology, the two being interrelated (9D-1, 9D4, 9D-7). Extemal integration (between subject areas) is rnentioned in most guidelines, as well, but its uses are considerably more limited (see figure 9.2, p. 613). It is implied that this type of interconnection is considered a luxury to be undertaken by teachers only after they have rnastered the prescribed subject at hand.

Otherwise, it is feared that they may stumble into areas that they are less farniliar with and muddy the waters. With this belief the Snobelen Ministry is not dissimilar to that of period 4 in the early 1960s. Students' Interests a Consideration While each guideline States quite explicitly that it is important for teachers to recognize students' interests, this cannot be seen as any return on the part of the Ministry towards childcentred education. In this instance, teac hers are king encouraged to find teac hing approaches that will interest students enough to motivate them to reach the prescribed expectations. This may include the use of simpIer, more meaningful language to the students (9A-26). engaging in activities that are within the scope of the students' development (9B-4, 9B- 1 1, 9B- 12, 9D15), giving them a choice of reading material (9B-7), and increasing teacher enthusiasm for the subject at hand (9C- 10.9F-18). "Rigorous" Social Continuity Snobelen repeatedly stated to parents that the new "rigorous curriculum" was part of Ontario's "back-to-basics" movement, aimed at integrating certain traditional skills (namely the 3Rs) back into the Ontario students' education. As well, students should be exposed to various work and civic situations to prepare them for their role in society. While extolled vociferously by the Minister in several speeches, however. this aspect is mentioned less frequently throughout the cumculum. It may be inferred that the creators of the guidelines wished to avoid any direct promotion of "traditional values" for fear of king branded reactionary. Change not an Issue The creators may also have ken nervous about being called socially radical by the public. They felt this had greatly conaibuted to the destruction of the "rigorous" curriculum's predecessor, the Cornmon Curriculum. The only hint of change mentioned in the documents revolves around scientific discovery, econornic shifts, and vague references to social issues such

as muiticulturaIism and environmentalism. Analysis of Dimension C: Loci of lntearation In this period, the balance of power has once again been radically shifted back along the traditional Minisy-teacher mis. The creation and distribution of the curriculum, itself, refiects the changes that had taken place. Rather than seconding a number of board members and stakeholders From the intemal system to help create the documents, the Conservatives posted invitations to bid. Contracts were then given to those who were specialists in the field and could perform the job most efficiently. In Science, for example, the guidelines were developed in collaboration with a Science Education Group at York University, based on a Pan-Canadian science framework released the year before by the Canadian Council of Ministers of Education. The document was then distibuted to 300 teachers in 17 school boards across the province for field-testing. Once completed, each document was sent directly to teachers for implementation, bypassing the standard operating procedure of re-interpretation by school boards. In fact, the Ministry no longer saw the boards as having any viable role to play in terms of curriculum matters, and severely cut their budget earmarked for this area. The cumculum duties of principals were also severely curtailed (if the cumculum documents are any indication). Rather than leaders, they are seen more as custodial agents, making certain that the built environment functioned properly to serve teachers needs. properly scheduling time-tables, juggling resources and so forth. As well, teachers' commi ttees within the school are never mentioned. Once again, the teacher is looked upon as a combination of lone professional and operating core. While it is the responsibility of the workers of this level to transmit the prescribed expectations to the students, they are also given the discretionary powers to use the instructional methods that they deem the best to suit the situation. Professional development, given by the new Ontario College of Teachers. was thought to eventually relate new teaching techniques to teachers and help them be more effective in dealing with the curriculum. It is highly recommended, however, that they try experiments and indulge in integrative activities only after the solid core of material has ken successfully relayed to the

students. Success, in this case, is determined by satisfactory resuIts in exams set by the Ministry and by parent approval. Analysis of Dimension D: The Relationship of Grades 7-8 to Other Grade Levels The new Conservative Ministry of Education and Training eliminated virtually al1 changes that had been made to the grade system during the previous era. Unlike the Common Curriculum, the new "rigorous cumculum" deals solely with the traditionat elementary years of grades 1 to 8. Grade 9 is placed back into the secondary niche and resuearned into various aptitudes (i-e., college or work-bound). Furtherrnore, whiIe general comment is made in regards to the overall education of al1 elementary students, most expectations are attached to specific grade levels. This is in stark connast to the previous policy of altowing outcomes to be taught over extended blocks of time (Grades 1 to 3, 4 to 6, and 7 to 9). Mile it greatly reduces flexibility about what can be taught. both Snobelen and his successor Johnson assured the public that it would do much to increase clarity and accountability. By making it more efficient, they added, the C U ~ C U I Ude~s igners were able to add materials that were previously taught in higher grade levek8 ' A press release informed the public that "In addition. this new curriculum addresses Earth and Space science components which were rnissing from the previous cumculum. In the new cumculum. students will cover many study units earlier than in the past. For example, "Particle Theory." which was previously taught in Grade 9, will now be taught in Grade 7. Magnetism and electricity, which used to be mught in Grade 10, will now be taught in grade 6" (26 August 1998). Analysis of Dimension E= lntegration Methods/Approaches Primary Forms of Integration The one strong form of integration present in this cumculum is the Nested Approach.

While differing in content and skills, each guideline displays a uniformity of design. Set out in a lock-step manner, each proceeds sequentially through its specifrc subject area - fiom the known to the unknown, from the simple to the more complex. WhiIe various strands of related material or skills are described separately (for the sake of clarity), the teacher is beseeched to twist them together for meaning. Beyond this point of interna1 integration, however, the remaining forms tend to be rather scattered and unfocused as to the definite benefits they may yield. Harmonization is placed in the primary section only because of the insertion of "computer skills" in every document. This is the onfy unified initiative that the Conservative government seemed to support (reinforced with millions of dollars in grants to schools designated for computer networks). Localized Forms of Integration While the Cross-disciplinary and Cornelafion Approaches are mentioned occasionall y, i t is quite obvious that the Ministry views them as double-edged swords. They may give added insight to the student who sees the relationship between the subjects. However, they may just as easily draw them away fiorn the task at hand and waste valuable class time on something that has limited relevance. As such, it is implied that these forms of external integration should be indulged only when the expectations are assured. Even the thematic approach, reaching a pinnacle in the previous period, has now greatly diminished in stature, now defended primarily by the Sciences, Social Sciences and Arts. However, even in these subject areas, teachers are strongly cautioned to handle the integrated unit delicately and with great pianning beforehand. Individual cases do arise, however. Science and technology are fused together to form two halves of one comprehensive course, while Art, Dance, Music and Drama are al1 brought under the umbrella course entitled 'The Arts". In both instances, however, the subcomponents are dealt with in self-contained sections in the document, with Iittle merging or overlap. As such,

it is unclear whether the form of integration promoted by the documents is actuality Fusion (in that the separate components merge to create a new entity) or Phridisciplinary (in that the components remain as separate sections but have natural afinities for one another - i.e. through departments). If the perspectives expressed by teachers in Part II of this study give any indication, it is suspected that Science falls under the former, while The Arts falls under the latter. Incidental Forms of Integration On the rare occasion, the documents hint that teachers rnay wish to collaborate when preparing their course work. Because the expectations are stated in such a specific manner, this represents more of a spot check process than the massive amount of muctidisciplinary activities demanded of the previous period. Again, this seems to have been done to cut down on the waste of teacher time and energy expended on group consensus. Graph 9.2 - Dimension E (Integration Methods/Approachs) Ncstcd Cross Mulii Corrclnt Plur~ lnscn Fusion Thematic Horm Trns lntegration A pproachcs With accountability and efficiency as guiding principles. the Ministry appears to place a Weberian mode1 over the education system. Primarily, it takes a stronger regdatory hand in controIling the implementation of the new cumculum. This entails the imposition of uniformity across the entire organization through a single province-wide program and the elimination of any hindrances or baniers to the clear interpretation of the guidelines' expectations. Boards, which have been able to act as independent fiefdoms with the ability to reinterpret the cumculum and allocate privately raised funds. are greatly stripped of their power during this period? In retum. the structure is redesigned to reflect a more strearnlined, direct hierarchy of authority. The documents themselves do muc h to give a distinct division of responsibilities for each stakeholder. Each subject teacher is directiy given a certain arnoun t of 'bclearly-defined expectations" which

are to be followed and applied rather than adapted to the situation. Even students are given a prescribed amount of responsibilities (such as a cornmitment to learn). To ensure that the prescribed expectations are achieved with the greatest efficacy, organizations are created by the Ministry to deal with professional development (the Coilege of Teachers) and evaluation (the EQAO). Harris explicitly endorsed the changes to education: "testing will let us know if the education system is providing the consistency and quality we want everywhere in the province" (1 October 1998). While this does lead to a seemingly greater accountability of the curriculum, it does Little to aid cumculum integration. however. By slotting everything to be taught into a certain time, and delegating it to a certain individual, little freedom can be given for any crossover activities or sharing of work (invariably increasing balkanization and subject attachment). Because the Harris administration takes a very mechanistic view of implementation, it tends to ignore most human-related problems associated with the process. In speeches made to This includes a multitude of decision-making powers. such as student accommodation. class sizes. direct funding per student ( 1 January 1999). the public, Dave Johnson explained that the new cumculum consisted of the most ngorous guidelines issued in the past 25 years. He also stated that a great amount of material previously taught in senior years would be brought down to the elementary level. However, no mention is made of this fact in the documents themselves, and no help is given to teachers on how to cope with the influx. As well, while most sections of the new cuniculum were issued only in the summer or fa11 of 1998, the Ministry insuucted teachers to immediately abandon the Common Cuniculum and follow the new expectations (full impiementation to be completed in a threeyear period). No thought is really given to the effect that a new cumculum might have on their performance or psyche.

The stakeholders who seem to be given the greatest consideration by the Ministry during this period are the parents. In fact, every measure undertaken by the central authority is said to be a result of parental concern or a desire for more parental involvement. Johnson emphatically stated that: Parents have told us that they need standards and consistency to improve the quality of education. That's why we've instituted a standardized cumculum, with clear expectations for student achievement, and put a limit on average class sizes (press release, 9 January 1998) In this new relationship, however, it is quite clear what role the parents will now play. %en discussing the newly-created Parental Advisory Committee (mandatory at each school), or the updated standardized Report Card, the Ministry hopes that parents will play the position of watchdog. Inforrnally they will now be able to assess how well their children are doing as compared to the school, provincial and international average and relay their feedback directly to principals, and the Ministry. Overall Remarks on Period 9 Based on the actions taken by the Ministry during this period, certain inferences can be made: 1. Paradigm Shift Paramount to al1 other desires, the newly installed Conservative Party wanted to show to the public an education system that was giving them "good vaIue for money." This was not to Say that the previous administrations were giving poor value - there were just no standardized mechanisms to indicate one way or another. Since Davis' time, there had been a deep-rooted trust that teachers knew the best way to educate students depending on certain locations. For this reason, any standardized techniques conceming cumculum or evaluation had been a taboo subject. In this present period, however, there is a clear loss of this trust, replaced by a desire to see (in empirical terms) if the system was actuaIly working efficiently and effectively. This represents, therefore, a complete paradigm shift from a humanist to a mechanistic mode1 of administration. 2. Division of Responsibility

Having made the jump from service agency back to reguiatory body, the Ministry saw itseIf as being responsible for selecting the desired expectations that students were to reach. It then slotted these expectations into tradi tional subject areas and distri buted them to the teachers. Other stakeholders (like the boards and principals) may concern themselves with resources and plant, but cumculum becomes the sole responsibility of the operating core (the teachers). In fact, the Ministry discourages forms of team teaching, sharing or mixing of expectations between courses, feeIing that this would make it more dificult to pinpoint the exact places where individual students have weaknesses. For the same reason, the guidelines are organized in a ngid format, grade-by-grade. Formal standardized exarns, seen for the first time in this study. are implernented to make certain that these expectations are met. 3. Drive for Accountability Chokes Curriculum Integration In this instance, the Conservatives* all-encompassing drive to insure that certain expectations are transmitted to the student has led to an extremely fragmented cumculum, with little hope of integration beyond the intemal, nested approach. In fact, the concept of integration does not really fa11 into this Ministry's sphere of interest - because this type of learning is so complex and intangible, it would simply be counter-productive to attempt. Johnson pointed out that this fact had been proven by the expriment of the Common Curriculum. The Ministry may endure seasoned vecerans to pursue this teaching method if they wish, but sees it as an optional, experimental luxury rather than any sort of basis for education. lmpetus for Change Inspiration for Direction of Change Ubiquiious commenis ihai the Common Curriculum is unclear and ioo complex IO implrment New Philosophical Premises

Approach Used to enact the philosophy v II A Back-to-Basics agenda promoied hy the Conscrvative govemment Reactionary Depart mental Assumptions A great hue and cry concerning the troubled suie of ihe deficii and "value for money" Rndings of the Royal Commission "For the Love of Leaming" (1995) and Conservativc election mandates vv Manaicd expectaiions layed out in Cost reducuon Back-io-Basics A greal push for ctrar, disciplinary guidcliiies iniiiativcs cumculum - Accent on accouniahility ai al1 welcomc Content and Skills - rest levels of the education are luxuni svstem Only compuien are Integntion approiiches Nested Approach harrnonized - resi should not go beyond keeps disciplines and should bc kept in the classrmm and allows IO organizc iis olacr iracher - ii jusi bccomes loeicallv confusing Resiahlishmcnt of the Ministry-teacher dialogue Sianardized tesiing, reportcards Minisiry incs IO cul other stakeholders (exccpt parents) out of the picture Diagram 9. Linking Philosophy to Curriculum Integration Approach Cornparison of Ministry Perspectives Introduction

The initial questions that propelled Part 1 of this thesis bear repeating: "What has curriculum integration meant to the Ontario Ministry of Education From 1937 to the present? How has this conception varied over time? What factors explain such changes?" This study has found that for the past 60 years, curt-iculum integration appears to have remained a nebulous approach for the Ministry. In fact, except for period 8, no operational definition has existed for the term within the cuniculum documents. Even the forrns recommended or mandated from the central authority varied greatly fiom period to period. With no sustained vision of what the terni is or what it can do, it is little wonder that succeeding administrations have only used it in a tentative fashion. What cm be deterrnined fkom the present study, however, is that the fonn (Dimension E) chosen during a particular period depended greatly on the Ministry's perception of the benefits of integration (Dimension l3 j, what elements it employed (Dimension A), and the setup of the educational system of the time (Dimensions C and D). Dimension A - Elements used durinp the Curriculum Process As represented below in figure 10.1, some elements have varied greatly while others have remained relatively stable in importance. These shifts are described in more detail between pages 256-263 and in Appendix C. Figure 10.1 - Dimension A (Numerical Aggregation of Overall Importance of Elements) Blucbook Wariirnc Cur. I:I Robarts Davis ( 5 ) Wclls (6) OSIS ( 7 ) Cornrnon Rigorous ( 1 ) (2) (3) ( 4 ) (8) ( 9 ) Historicd Periods based on Shifts in the Curriculum *percemage is based upon the numerical assienment of importance displayed in charts 1.1. 2.1. 3.1.4.1. 5.1. 6.1. 7.1. 8.1. and 9.1 (Negligible = O. Low = 1. Medium = 2; High = 3). Content The use of content is in a perpetually fluid state throughout the documents. For most periods. there is a fear that too much information will only confuse the student, clog the mind,

and get in the way of the larger perspective. At one extreme are pet-iods 1 and 8, which virtually shun content altogether. Other. more moderate periods feel that there should be a place for content but that it should be tightly reigned in by some method (like the thematic) so that they may contribute to a larger meaning. In ascending degrees of usage. this can be seen in periods 2. 5. 7, 6 and 3. At the other end of the spectnim, in times of great stress (periods 4 and 9). are the periods that include a great deal of content - perhaps in order to show the public that students are learning something concrete. It is interesting to note that these periods also show the lowest amount of interdisciplinary activity (see Dimension E on pp. 269-278). Figure 10.2 - C om parison of the Im portance of C ontent betw een Periods Blucbook Warrtme t 2 i Cur l 1 1 3 I Robarts 141 D a v r s $ 5 , Wclls a61 OStS 1 7 1 Common Rigorous 1 I l $ 8 1 19 1 Hirrorical Pcriods bascd on Shifts of the Curriculum *Percentages in figures 10.2 to 10.7 are based on conversion from the numerical assignment displayed in chans 1.1. 2.1, 3.1, 4.1. 5.1, 6.1, 7.1. 8.1 and 9.1. Academic Skills F i g u r e 10.3 - Corn parison o f the I m p o r t a n c e o f Academ ic SkiIls betweenPeriods i Negligible , -. Bluchimk W i r t i m c C u l l 1 I R h 4 I V I1 5 W c l l i (61 O S I S ( 7 ) Cornmon Rigurnu* ( I l ( 2 1 1s t9 1 H istorical Periods b a s e d on shifts in the Curriculum Academic Skills have continually grown over the years to become the paramount element to be integrated into the Ontario cumculum. For the first two periods, little accent was placed on any but the most fundamental of skills. This may be due to the fact that most students were expected to leave school at grade 10 or lower to take up a job requiring no more than basic

literacy or mathematical aptitude. While both periods 3 and 5 gave more credence to skills (and broadened their definition to be more than the basics), they also kept them segregated in separate subjects. It is only over periods 6, 7 and 8, that a truly interdisciplinary approach is seen. In period 6, an Across-the-Cumculum method is suggested. In period 7, it is mandated. By period 8, it is so interconnected that one can barely distinguish where one skill stops within the document and another begins. The two integrative standouts are periods 4 and 9. While both give a renewed prominence to the "basic" scientific and mathematical skills, they also segregate them into assigned niches - rnost li kely for accountabiiity. Figure 10.4 - Corn parison of Importance of M anual Skills b e t w e e n Periods Bluebook ( 1 1 Wartimc ( 2 1 Cur l t 3 3 , Robarts 448 D ~ v i s 1 5 1 Wells ( 6 , O S l S ( 7 1 Common(8)Rigorourt91 Ci i s i o r i c r l Pcriods bascd on shifrs or ihc Curriculum While king important in both the earlier and later periods of this study, Manual/Practical Skills undergoes a radical transformation. For the first three periods, a hands-on approach is recommended. This is based on the belief that concrete work is a steppingstone to more abstract thought processes dunng adolescence. By period three, however, this conviction is replaced by a desire to show the students the relevance of education through the use of practicai problem solving. By periods 4.5 and 6, both approaches lose much of their significance. to be banished to guidance and scientific lab work. When this element is reborn in periods 7 and 8, it has metamorphosed into generic "Life Skills" or the ability to manage personal affairs, to be adaptable, and to be self-reliant in society. Therefore, while the desire of the Ministry to prepare students for the "real world" has stayed fairly constant over the periods, what has changed is its perception of "survival". In the I93Os, hands-on training was qui te important. However, as mankind has moved further away from this aspect of the human situation, so to has the Ministry's

definition of what is "practical." By period 9, this aspect has begun to change again - from a more universal worldview to practical applications in the students' immediate environment. Social Skills Dunng the first three periods, Social Skills was seemingly unquestioned as a part of the school's mandate. Seen especially in period 2's Enterprise Method, students were to be socialized through active participation in projects and team activities. In light of the events of the 1930s and 1940s, it was not surprising that this element was highly promoted - social skills were believed to be the bastion between a dictatorship and a democracy. By period 3, however, the active element of group work was being downplayed by the cumculum, to be replaced by a more passive approach of teacher-led activities. From this point on, this element appears to have been fighting an uphill battle. For a fifteen year hiatus (periods 4 and 5), the social aspect is barely mentioned, perhaps because the ski11 was viewed by the Department as too vague to be used, or perhaps because it no longer thought it was the school's place to inculcate this skill. Nevertheless, social skills became relegated solely to guidance at this time. When the Ministry brings this element back into the curriculum, it does so cautiously. Citizenship training is pockrnarked through the guidelines and some controlled group work is allowed in period 6. However. great arnounts of student-led group activities are allowed only in the traditionally social subjects of Physical Education, Guidance and Drama. After this trial period, group work is reborn as an entrenched mainstay of a well-rounded education through periods 7 and 8. Collaboration is promoted to the extreme - students were actively taught to be team players and functioning members of society. Beginning in the mid- 1990s. however, group work was viewed by the Ministry as an unproven technique that could lead to a great waste of time. For this reason, Period 9 appears to draw back from this approach. While it agrees that students should learn cooperative skills and citizenship training, it conciudes that these need not be necessarily learned through active participation. Figure 10.5 - Corn parison of the Importance o f Social Skills b e t w e e n

Periods Bli=baok il) W a r t l n e Cmrl 1 1 1 1 R b D i v i s < > I W i l l . 1 6 1 051s ( 7 1 Cornmor ( 1 1Rt~oise.49b H i s t o r i c a l Periods b a s e d on sh ifts in C urricu lum Individual Developrnent There have ken three distinct views of student development over the 60 years of this study. The first perspective observes each student as a distinct entity who should deserve an individualized education. This permeates periods 1 and 5, both extremely ideologically charged with the progressive spirit.' The second and more widespread grouping consists of the periods that viewed the responsibility of the teacher as meeting generic adolescent needs. Here, individual development becomes almost quantifiable and thrown into a specialized course (most likely guidance as in period 3) or split among various courses depending on the personal attributes. For instance, English is assigned the stimulation of imagination and self-confidence, while An's function is to develop aesthetics. and Physical Education teaches good health habits. This can be seen in periods 2, 6. 7 and 8. The last group is made up of those who believe that it is really not Figure 10.6 - Comparison of I m p o r t a n c e of Individual Development between Periods , Negligible oe ~ i ~ h :a~cdium ~LOW 1 l P e n d 5 is perhaps the most authentic. Perod 1 mentions most of this in the preamble without concretely realizing it throughout the programme. the responsibility of the school to include any but the barest hints of this element. Period 4 ignores this element altogether, while period 9 includes a sincere effort only in Arts and Physical

Education guidelines. Otherwise, it seems to indicate that this aspect of education should be left to the student's parents to attend. Underiying Principles Each period appears to have had one or two strong underlying beliefs that the Ministry wished to see transmitted to the student. In the earlier years of this century, these principles revolved around patriotisrn, good citizenship and religion - in later years the Ministry seemed to lean more towards environmentalism and multiculturalism. While these principles do change greatly over the years, a pattern forms as to how they are integrated into the cu~culum. In general, if the value is vague, it is usualIy spread liberally across the cumcuIum in the form of suggestions. This can be seen in the case of patriotism and religion (period 1) and multicultunlism (periods 5 and 6). As the value cornes into sharper focus, it becomes relegated to one or two separate courses. This can be observed in the cases of religious instruction (seen in 10.7 - Cornparison of Importance of Undedying Ruiciples between Periods period 2) and conservation (seen in periods 3, 4, 5). Finally, if the value remains clear-cut and deemed a central issue to be studied, it becomes more strongly integrated across the curriculum. During the OSIS period, for example, the Ministry mandates the inculcation of environmentalism and multiculturalism in al1 areas of the cumculum through the use of specific sections of each guideline. In the Comrnon Curt-iculum (Period 8), these two tenets are even more thoroughly woven into the fabric of the document, What is interesting to note, is that as the beliefs remain sharply focused, but drop in importance in period 9, both are reassigned back to separate disciplines (environmentalisrn to Geography and Science, multiculturalism to History and the Arts). Dimension B - What is the Objective or Purpose of Integration? Figure 10.8 - Dimension B (Relative Importance of Objectives of Integration) Blucbook ( 1 ) Wircimc (2) Cur I IO1 Rabiris 141 Diris ISI Wclls 16) 0515 17) Comman 18) Rigarnui 191 Hisiorical Pcriods bascd on shifts of Curriculum *Importance is based upon the numericai assignment of importance displayed in

figures 1.1. 2.1, 3.1. 4.1. 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, and 9.1 in Appendix - (NegligibIe = 0, Low = 1, Medium = 2; High = 3). The highest number 12 represents the potential of al1 4 purposes being ranked as High. Subject UNS a fairly Constant Objective This objective of integration has held firrner than any other dimension for most of this century. Continuous throughout every period (even the periods blatantly negative towards the approach such as 1 and 2) there is an acknowledgement that cumculum integration is an appropriate method to reduce overlap, h i tless repeti tion, and timetabling complexi ty. As well, al1 periods except 4 and 9 agree that integration is crucial to allow students to see that the subject areas can combine into a rneaningful whole, thereby overcoming fragmented thinking. Most of the earIier periods, in fact, believed in the existence of a narural unity within the cumculum and that natural points of contact must be sought out and exploited for their benefits (seen especially in period 1, 2, 3, 5). Penod 5 is the most adamant in feeling that these connections must be unforced. The last two periods are of great dichotomous interest - while in period 8, integration is seen as one of the most important aims of education (anticipating the eventual destruction of the subject-based system altogether), period 9 sees integration as a luxury with limited benefits for clarifying the cumculum or efficiency. In fact, it sees integration as doing a great deal of harm to accountabiiity. Periods 6 and 7 take the most moderate approach with the belief that connections should be found first within subject areas (bodies of knowledge) for interna1 consistency and should branch out From there. Student-Centred Reasoning Varies Greatly While the previous objective was based on the practicaf benefits that could be derived from cumculum integration, a student-centred approach is based solely on faith. Perhaps this is why it has varied so greatly over the years. The activities recommended in Period 1 and 2, borrowed from the progressive movement, revolve around the "innate wisdom" of the child.

Here the Department believed that teachers must actively interest and engage students, and that curriculum has to be adaptable to student's natural bent and abilities. Throughout the 1950s (penod 3) a fear arose about the ineffectiveness of the previous two periods, which cast this tenet into doubt. While this approach continued to be promoted, more passive student activities were recommended. By period 4, with the launch of Spumik, the Department appears to have seen this as confirmation that student-centred integration didn't work and tore out almost every shred of progressive thought. During the late 1960s (period 5) a reversa1 occurred again, based on a change in educational scholarship, and brought back the belief in student-centred education. Teachers were entreated to create programs to attend to students' needs and interests, giving them a greater role in planning the course. This radical approach did not last long. Penod 6 and 7 saw a retrenchment from individualized education to the meeting of the more unifonn adolescent level of needs. Active participation on the part of the student now became lost in the final two periods. While radically different in outlooks, both penods 8 and 9 are dedicated to teaching the student a certain number of outcomes or expectations - as such, the child's interests becomes subsumed to the greater cause. Social Continuity and Old-Fashioned Notion This is seen only before, dunng and immediately after World War II - perhaps because of the great threat posed on Ontario's whole way of life during this time. For the last 40 years this objective has played very little part in the integration process. This may be due to the fact that after normalcy had returned during the 1950s. progress and change become the prevalent views of the Department. And perhaps the central authority did not wish to inculcate any set social values

into students. Even the newest guidelines, revolving around a "back to basics" platform have only the barest whiff of social continuity. Promotion of Change tied to Political Agendas Two very different aspects of change are referred to during this study. Between penods 3 and 7 there is a determined belief that change is a constant fact of life and should be integrated into the students' cumculum. Beginning quietly after the war (period 3 j, it grows during period 4 to look at the scientific and technological revolution that was engulfing the western world. This changes in the next thme periods to include multiculturalism, globalism, and so on. However, except for period 8, these remain as secondary issues. A second conviction for change binds together two distinct eras. Periods 1 and 8 both share a radical belief that education should be striving to bring al1 aspects of the cumculum into a united whole. As such, they recommend the destruction of the subject-based system and anything else seen as barriers to the unifying process. Interestingly enough, each of these periods is followed by a deadening silence on the matter (see Periods 2 and 9). Dimension C - Who is Involveci in the Integration Process? For most of this century, the cumculum documents have maintained a dialogue between the Ministry and the teacher. However, a number of outside intercessors have increasingly intervened to place their own stamp on the conversation. This has been a gradua1 process. Initially, as most schools were very small and school boards non-existent in relation to cumculum affairs, the procedure was simple. The cumculum was created by a very small band of scholars within the Department, basing their conclusions on British theory, and distributing the programme to teachers for them to follow and adapt at the classroom level. Period 3 represents the most radical departure seen in this study, in that it opened up cumculum development to a much wider audience of teacher groups. While it appears to be somewhat unsuccessful, exemplified by the backlash of period 4,? the philosophy of decentralization retums in period 5

and many new stakeholder groups were included in the creation of the curriculum. By this time, the Department plays a smaller role in cunicul~ma nd the post of inspector is eliminated. A newfound trust seems to be placed on the teachers in cumculum matters. Nevertheless it did encourage the field-testing of documents for the first time. Periods 6 7 and 8 see a mushrooming of middle agencies' involvement in the curriculum process. For each period large numbers of stakeholders are seconded to draft. revise. and validate each document and given to the school boards for distribution. By period 8. they have the right to create many support documents. adaptations. and additional expectations to suite the local situation. At the same time, school committees are expected to play an important role for integrative possibilities. Teachers cease to become lone scholars and are expected to be team players (perhaps to allow some informal evaluation of teachers' performance without being monolithic). By period 8, this creates a definite strain on the Ministry's control of the curriculum process. The cacophony of voices does much to hamper distribution and "water down" the impact of the original cumculum documents. By pied 9. the Harris govemment pushes the pendulum back to a facsimile of period 2. Once again. cumculum is can-ied out on a Ministryteachers axis. A minimal group quickly completes and field-tests each document. which is then distributed directly to teachers. Figure 10.9 - Dimension C (Loci of Curriculum Integralion Devclopment and Involvemeni) *percentage is based upon the numerical assienment of importance displayed in figures 1.1. 2.1. 3.1. 4.1. 5.1. 6.1. 7.1. 8.1. and 9.1 in Appendix - (Ncgligible = 0. Low = 1. Medium = 2; High = 3). Dimension D - When is Integration Possible at the Grade 7-8 Years? Figure 10.10 - Dimension D (The Rclationship of Gradee 7-8 to other Levels) Blutbook Wartimc Curi:1(3] Robarts(4J Davis(51 Wciis(61 OSIS(71 Conurion Rigomus [ 1) ( 21 ( 81 ( 91 Wstoncal Periods based O nshifts in Curicrtun *Importance is based upon the numerical assignment of importance displayed in figures 1.1, 2.1, 3.1.4.1. 5.1.6.1. 7.1. 8.1, and 9.1 in Appendix (Negligible = O. Low = 1. Medium = 2; High = 3).

While naturalIy seen as a separate time of adolescence (insular) for most of this study, grades 7 and 8 have been tied to both the elementary and secondary systems at various periods over the 1 s t 60 years. Initially, grade 8 was considered the end of formal schooling for most students. By penod three, however, 7 and 8 were linked to grades 9 and 10 to create the Intermediate Division in an effort to keep students in school until the end of high school. This structure was maintained up until period 7, with a definite linking of this age group to higher education. In a revolutionary move under the Liberal and NDP governments (period 8), however, this grade level was first isolated (as the Transition Years) and then re-connected to the elementary system (through the Common Cumculum Grades 1-9). This arrangement was maintained in period 9 by the Conservative govemment (except for grade 9, which was fused back into the secondary system). In an effort to achieve greater accountability, the present Ministry appears to further subdivide the levels (horizontal) so that certain grades become responsible for a specified amount of expectations. Dimension E - How should Integration be Appear (MethoddApproaches)? In comparing the 9 periods, it would appear that certain forms of curriculum integration serve certain purposes in relation to the other dimensions (objectives, structure, etc) favoured by the Ministry. Over the periods, the Ministry vacillates from promoting a form that maintains and strengthens an essentially subject-based approach to education to choosing a form that actively undermines the status quo. These choices seem to inevitably depend on the particular circumstances and educational philosophy of the period. The forms outlined below can be grouped into those that are subject-supportive, decentrdized-group, subject-destnrctive, and chameleonic. Subject-Supportive Forms This first grouping is, in general, supportive of the disciplinary system. Al1 act as merely correctives that reinforce meaning, point out connections, and allow for the inclusion of more material. These include the Nested, Cross-disciplinary, Correlated, and Insertion approaches. Nested As can be seen in figures 10.2, 10.3 and 10.1 1, the nested approach corresponds quite

closely to the changes in perception seen in Dimension A. especially content and skills. If these two elements are seen as unimportant, such as in periods 1 and 2 (or if the skills are quite broadly defined, as in period 8), the nested approach is not used. However, if content and "back to basics" skills are highly promoted (such as in periods 4, 6 and 9). this fonn becomes of paramount importance (in fact, in periods 4 and 9, it squeezes out most other forms). This could be because the elements are very concrete and accountability is required during these periods therefore the most mechanical and pseudo-disciplinary approach is used. As well, this fonn can generally be seen when the Ministry is attempting to re-centraiize its power and reestablish a dialogue with the individual teacher. Figure 10.11 - Dimension E (The Nested Approach between Periods) Bluchoot 1 I I Winimc 12) Cur 1 1 13) Rcihub ( 4 ) Diri. ( S I Wcllr (bi OSlS 171 Conimm 18) Rtgnrour (91 Historical Periods bascd on shifts in Curriculum , Ncgligible .central :a~ocalized ;nlncidental a *Percentages in figures 10.1 1 to 10.20 are based on conversion from the numerical assignment displayed in chans 1.2.2.2. 3.3.4.2.5.2.6.2.7.2.8.2 and 9.2. The Crossdisciplinary Approach Considered by many theorists as primarily a university-based form of integration, the crossdisciplinary approach has never been utilized in any forrnalized sense (such as devoting an entire course to the history of art, for example). However. it has been mentioned more frequently in later years. This may be linked to the changes outlined in Dimensions B and D. In the early penods, when grades 7 and 8 were strongly tied to a child-centred elementary system, this fom had no place. It was

only as these grades becarne strongly linked to higher education that it could find meaning. The pinnacle of this form can be seen in period 7, not coincidentally occurring in the sarne C U ~ CUIU~ (OSIS) that tied grades 7 and 8 to the senior years. Most recently, the cross-disciplinq approach fias been ecl ipsed by other in tegration methods. While the subject-centred objectives of period 9 may explain the form's continued allure. the Ministry also appears to view it with trepidation. fearing that its uses may be out of reach of "elementary" students. 10.12 - D i m e n s i o n E ( T h e C r o s s d i s c i p l i n a r y A p p r o a c h b e t w e e n Periods) H istorical Periods based on shifis in Curriculum Correlation WhiIe Correlation is a ghostly presence in each period, it is rarely the primary forrn of integration. Rather, the Ministry fiequently uses it as an ad hoc technique to reinforce specific connections that it sees between subject areas. Promotion is always done through suggestions, never mandated - in doing this, the Ministry shifts the burden of integration to the classroom level. It is perhaps this benign use that has allowed this forrn to remain omnipresent. However, it is rarely seen as more than an optional means to help students see the bigger picture, while staying within the bounds of a disciplinary system. This position of makeshift solution holds especially true in period 6. Wells had promised a "back to basics" curriculum, but the structure of the educational system wouId not allow a more radicaI, centralized approac h. Correlation, therefore, represented a middle of the road solution that allowed teachers Ieeway while promoting a more rigid curriculum than had been seen previously.

F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 3 - Dim e n s i o n E ( C o r r e l a t i o n b e t w een P e r i o d s ) H i s t o r i c a l P e r i o d s based on shifts b e t w c r n C u r r i c u l u m Insertion Rather than used to reinforce meaning or to cure a fragrnented curriculum, Insertion appears to have a more pedestrian use for the Ministry. It is solely used to include blocks of material whose integrity must be maintained, but are not important enough to be given their own designated "subject areas". Pragmaticaily. the cumculum designers find the most suitable areas in the programme - this can be detemined by natural linkages (such as conservation into geography) or by just slotting the material into subjects with remaining space (such as conservation into the Mathematics section in period 3). By period 7. however, the guidelines are created systematically by a great number of stakeholders. rendering this ad hoc form of integration no longer viable. Figure 10.14 - Dimension E ( Insertion b e t w e e n P e r i o d s ) B l i c h n u L t l w i r t i m c 0 2 1 Cmr l l Raihartr s r i Dabar * S i W r l l . i b i 0 5 1 5 8 7 , C<inini>i i l , R i l n i i . i r #'JI Historical Periods brised on shifts in C u r r i c u l u m Decentralried Group Forms A second group exists whose main purpose is to promote communication within the school environment. This can only be accomplished if a great deal of leeway is given in terms of wide subject areas and interchangeable grade levels. Indeed. the vaguer the Ministry documents are. the more likely this form of integration will occur. Multidisciplinary As seen above, no hospitable environmrnt is given to this form during the first four periods. In the first two. the school as an entity with various subject teachen simply did not exist. Even during the third and fourth, teachers may have been included in the creation of the cumculum, but the

actual realization of the programme was still considered a solitary act (see Dimension C). It is only when the cumculum documents are left purposely vague in period 5, and teachers given wide berth F i g u r e 10.15 - D i m e n s i o n E ( T h e M u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y A p p r o a c h b e t w een Periods) that this fonn can grow. Each document extols the virtues of tearn teaching, CO-planning,a nd teacher empowerment at the school Ievel. To the Davis administration, this is the paragon of integration. As the Ministry attempts to take more centralized control of the cumcuIum, and other extemal stakeholders (like boards) become involved, this primarily school-based form begins to dwindle. An incredible resurgence does occur in Period 8- due to the scattered outcomes of the Common ~uniculum.' Teachers must meet to delegate who must teach what. at which time. However, this is short-lived as the Harris administration reimposes control over the subject areas of the curriculum. Pluridisciplinary Like the Multidisciplinary approach, this form is shown little sympathy until quite recently. Period 6 makes vague references to "programs" when discussing subject areas, indicating that certain skills will be continued over a number of years to keep track of a student's progress and to allow clear communication between subject teachers. This is taken seriously for the first time in period 7, where principals and teacher-coordinators are charged with the systematic coordination of subject matter. In particular, as the OSIS documents are related to the higher levels (Dimension D), much consideration is given to Language programs, Technology and Business Studies, History and Contemporary Studies, and an Allied Arts program. By period 8, the Common Curriculum allows little choice but

the imposition of the pluridisciplinary approach. Because outcomes are prescribed in a 3-year tirneframe, teachers must meet and delegate responsibilities themselves. This is cut short, however, as the next period creates an almost horizontal grade system with extremely clear expecbtions for each subject area. ' While this form appears Iow in the chan. it is only because little explicit mention is made. Implicitly. this form should be shown as high and central. Figure 10.16 - Dimension E (The Pluridisciplinary Approach between Periods) Blucbook I 1, Wmimc ( 2 ) Cur l 1 (3) Robus 14) Dav~s15 1 Wells 16, OSlS (71 Common 48) Rigomus (91 Historical Periods based on shifts in Curriculum Subject-Destructive Forms These forms (e.g., fusion, transdisciplinary) serve the purpose of tearing down the status quo within the curriculum. At certain. revolutionary times in its history, the Ministry perceives that a certain philosophy (usually child-centred) is the most beneficial means of educating the Young. To achieve this end, certain anificial barriers (like subjects) have to be reduced or removed to allow change to take place. At other times, where accountability becomes a great concem (like periods 4 and 9), these forms al1 but disappear. Fusion Fusion appears strongly during the most radical moments of the Ontario cumculum's history. and then fades into the background. In the instance of penod 1. the changes made to the C U ~ T~CUIU~ (the fusion of 15 subjects into 7) become the genenlly accepted format for the next two pnerations. This may be due to the massive arnount of support given by contemporary scholarship and the fact that every other provincial ministry endorsed this form at the tirne. By the 1950s. however. this fom

is rejected as valid (this is shown by Robarts' fissioning of the Social Studies course into History and Geography) on the grounds that it is weak and problematic. While nebulous mention is made to this form in later years (such as "Classical Studies" in penod 6). it is only during the extreme era of the Common C~rticulumth at it makes a recovery. Rather than maintaining the traditional subjects. the Ministry fuses them into four skill areas. This revolutionary approach is short-lived however. and Period 9 experiences a severe counter-revolution as the Hamis administration reorganizes the cumculurn dong distinctly disciplinary lines (it discusses an integrated Arts guideline - but has subsequentl y begun disman tling this concept). Figure 10.17 - Dimension E (Fusion between Periods) 4 Nonc iI ~l~cnrralI Historical Pcriods bascd on shifts in Curriculum Transdisciplinary The Transdisciplinary approach appears to contain more rhetoric than any concrete realizations in this century. Almost every period makes some vague mention that the curriculum should pay heed to the students' interests, but to greater or lesser extents, other foms inevitably take over. In most instances. the Ministry discusses independent projects. tearn planning. field trips and expenential learning. However. even in Period 5, the era that typified "student power". many caveats are tacked on by the Ministry to prevent chaos from ensuing. It would seem that the Ministry could never make the great leap of faith necessary for this approach to be attempted in any great measure. It is interesting to note that during periods of great centralization and enmity for the childcentred

approach. such as 4 and 9. this form is not to be found. As well. it would seem that as more stakeholders become involved in period 6.7 and 8. this form is rendered unfeasible. Figure 10.18 - Dimension E (The Transdisciplinary Appmch between Periods) Bluebook Wartirne Cur 1: l Robarts Davis ( 5 ) Wells (6) OSIS (7) Cornrnon Rigomus (1 1 (2) (3 (4 (8) (9) -None =centml ' 8aLocalized Incidental . Historical Periods based on shifts in Curriculum Chameleonic Forms This grouping refers to those forms that, at certain times, and under the influence of certain other dimensions, rnay endeavour to support or destroy the disciplinary system. In most instances this would be a form that could, in one penod, serve a subject-centred objective (and reinforce a disciplinary agenda), while in the other periods promote child-centred education (with no adultinspired boundaries) equaIly as well Thematic Figure 10. 19 - Dimension E (The Thematic Approach between Periods ) 1 ; None Im~enuri~ i a Localized i ;a Incidental O 2 E Blucbook Wartirne Cur 1: 1 Robarrs Davis (5) Wells (6) OSIS (7) Common Rigomus ( 1 (2) (3) (41 (8) (9) Historical Periods based on shifts in Cumculum The thematic approach is, by and large, one of the most utilized forms of integration by the

Ministry. It is also the most widely defined. When certain attributes coincide, the approach supports the disciplinary structure admirably. In periods 1, 3,4 and 9 themes remain distinctly within separate subjects and are created by the cumculum designers themselves. Called "units," their main purpose is to give meaning and acceptance to the traditional layout. At other times, when a radical childcentred approach is mandated, the thematic approac h mutates into student-directed projects that give no consideration to subject boundaries (seen in periods 2 and 5). Rather, teammanship, discovery and self-knowledge become the desires of this form. At more moderate time, the Ministry recognizes that this form has its uses, but is just not sure what side to give credence to - the subject or the student (periods 1,6,7). What results is a mishmash approach of the two. Period 8 is the odditybecause no subject areas stand in its way, the thematic approach is only bounded by the expected outcornes and student interest. Harrnonization When emplo ying this form, the Ministry generally continues to maintain a disciplinary system. However, it also believes that certain skills (or in the rare instance, values) transcend the bounds of this organization. If language skills, for instance, are reinforced outside of its specific subject area, it is posited that students will learn them in a shorter period of time while being able to see their relevance. While it is discussed in earlier periods, it is rarely brought to fruition. Inevitably, to accomplish this feat, a considerable amount of sophistication and agreement must be reached between the creators of the various subject documents. This is only seen, to any great

extent, after the development of the Across-the-Cumculum format introduced in period 6. While only this form rernains as just a suggestion during the Wells' administration, it naturally evolved into a mandated approach under OSE. After reaching an apex during this penod (where not onIy language was harmonized, but a host of other skills and values as well), this form was then turned one crank further to help break apart the disciplinary system by the Cornrnon Cumculum. This was done by allowing al1 skills and values (outcornes) to be promoted in any area of the curriculum. In an attempt to reinstate the traditional system dunng period 9, the Hams administration strongly reined in this form (even Language remains in one place). While appearing strong, harmonization during this period was relegated solely to the use of computers. Figure 10.20 - Dimension E (Harmonization between Periods) Historical Periods based on shifts in Cumculum Overall Cornparison of the Importance of Elements between Periods In the earlier penods there seemed to be an acceptance of one or two specific rnethods to integnte the cunicuIum. In penod 1 the Depamnent favoured fusion. In period 2 this included the thematic approach. By period 4. the definition of the terni shrank to "the nested approach". As shown in the chart below (figure 10.22). there was a gradua1 increase in the widespread acceptance of a variety of cumculum integration methods by the Ministry. Rather than merely mentioned in a preamble or appendix, numerous approaches were woven into the hem of each cumculum guideline. In penods 5. 6. and 7. cumculum designers recognized the importance of al1 variations of cumculum integration and promoted their use based on the immediate circumstances of the teaching situation. Having peaked in the 1980s, the Ministry appears to return to a more prescnptive method of selecting

"the perfect" method of integration. Dunng the Common Curriculum this included the crossdisciplinary approach and correlation. In the present period this trend appears io be continuing unabated. It must be noted that the numbers in the last period were mificially inflated due to harmonization. lm 900am*The numbers 0-1000 represent the potenrial of 100% for each of the 10 mett..ods/appromhes represented. The percentap of importance for each score is based on results of Figures 10.1 1 to 10.2 1. Dimension F - Awareness of Implementation Impediments As seen in tigure 10.22. each period seems to show a certain arnount of awareness of hindrances in regards to implementing cumculum integration initiatives. In general. this peak of awareness was reached in the mid-1970s (excluding period 4) with a gradua1 dropping-off of interest from period 7 onward. However. some comment can be made on the exact areas (curriculum. teacher and external hindrances) in which the Ministry chose to focus upon at certain times. Figure 10.22 - Dimension F (Awareness of Hindrances to Integration) Biuebook (1) Wanimc (2) Cur 1: 1 (3) Robarts (4) Davis ( 5 ) Wclls (6) OSlS (7) Cornmon (8) Rigorous (9) Historical Periods based on shifts in Curriculum ~ a c Rkes *Intensity of Awareness in figures 10.22. 10.23, 10.24, 10.25 is based upon the numerical assignment of importance displayed in Dimension F Profiles outlined in Appendix C (Negligible = O, Low = 1, Medium = 2; High = 3). Teacher-Related Impediments On the whole, the Ministry seems to maintain a fairly stable view of these teacher-related hindrances (except for the final pex-iod). It continually points out that teachers should not feel attached to one subject, but view their position as more of a generalist. While being more conspicuous duhg particular periods, it never fades fiom view. On the other hand, speedy

implementation and curriculum overload have never really been considered important issues. The only time that this seemed of concern was in relation to the radical changes made in period 1. The one area that has grown considerably over time has been "fear of balkanization". Teachers are entreated to meet and act as a school-team - this is in direct relation to the growth of the decentralized forms seen above. Period 9 is of particular interest for this study. In contrast to the Comrnon Cumculum, the Rigorous Cumculum shows very little awareness of any hindrances that teachers may face in implernenting the new program. Figure 10.23 - Dimension F (Teacher-Relateci Impediments to Integration) Bluebook Wartime Cur l:l Rob- Davis (5) Wells (6) OSiS (7) Common Rigorous (1) (2) (3) (4) (8) (9) Historical Periods bascd on shifts in Cunicufum Cum~culurn-Reltzrehd pedimertts Except for the final period, the Ministry appears to have always taken into consideration that a specialized, rigid curriculum would choke interdisciplinary integration. With this in mind, a11 guidelines were given varying degrees of flexibility. in periods 3-6, the Ministry also made special mention of the hazards of linking the grade 7-8 level to secondary education. This was caused by a fear that it may lead to a premature acceptance of subject-centred teaching methods. This tends to disappear under OSIS and Penod 9 (which. in fact, promote this iinkage), and the Common Cumculum (which tie this level more closeiy to the elementary years). As outlined in the context sections of penod 8 and 9, traditional testing makes a comeback after being eschewed for 50 years. It is dunng these penods that accountabiIity considerations appear to take precedence over integration endeavours. Figure 10.24 - I)irrieraion F (CumdumRelafed Inpediments to Inkgcation)

9Historical Periods based on shifts in Curriculum Outside Forces Impeding Integration Lack of resources appears to be a constant fact of life for the Ontario education system, even in times of great prosperity. As time progresses, however, the Ministry seems more acutely aware of this, however, and even makes some suggestions to ameliorate the situation. Of greater interest is the importance parents' comrnents play in the final period. After sitting dormant for so long, it would appear that the Harris administration has now included them as stakeholders in the curriculum irnplementation process as informa1 evaIuators and watchdogs. Figure 10.25 - Dimension F (Outside Forces that Impede Integration) fistoncal Periods based on shifts in the C U ~ ~ C U I U ~ Dimension G - Assistance for Implementing Curriculum Integration As in Dimension F, certain sub-groupings can be distinguished as linked focal points for the Ministry over the past 60 years when addressing assistance for the implementation process. The first is the search for outside assistance, the second has to do with professional aid and development, and the third deals with curriculum-related assistanceOutside Assistance Figure 10.26 - Dimension G (Outside Assistance for Integration) Blucb00k ( I l Wartimc 12) Cur I I t . 3 ) R o b ~ r i s44 1 D a v ~ (s5 I WCIIS 161 OSlS ( 7 1 Coinmon t 8 Rtgorous (91 Historical Periods brised on shifts in Curriculum *Intensity of Assistance in figures 10.26, 10.27, 10.28 is based upon the numerical assignment of importance displayed in Dimension G Profiles outlined in Appendix C (Negligible = O. Low = 1. Medium = 2; High = 3). In totaI harmony with Dimension C, the Ministry goes through an evolutionary process. Originally. it seeks little help from any outside stakeholders not directly involved with classroom

activities. It is only as the system becomes increasingly decentralized (in a first abortive attempt in period 3, and in a more sustained effort in petiods 6-8) that the Ministry downloads much of the responsibility for facilitating the implementation process to principals and board oficiaIs. It is only in the final period, tbat a drarnatic shift in their importance is witnessed. This crin be Iargely attributed to the Harris administration's conscious effort to distance the boards and local administrators from the cumculum aspects of schooling. Their influence is gradually replaced by more grassroots organizations. Suggestions are continually made fiom period 3 onward to make use of community facilities, but it is only in periods 7-9 that deals are made with the private sector to help fund and provide resources for schools. As well, in the final two periods, parents are given an active role (through councils) in regards to curriculum evaluation. Pro fessional Aid Figure 10.27 - Dimension G (Professional Aid) Blucbook t 1 ) W;lriimc ( 2 ) Cur l : I (3) Robnrts ( 4 ) Davis ( 5 1 Wclls 16) OSlS ( 7 ) Coinmon (81 Rigorous ( 9 ) Hisiorical Periods based on shifis in Curriculum While there appeared to be a growing awareness that teachers Iacked resources, it would also seem that the Ministry has felt less and less responsibility to deal with this issue. In periods 2 and 6 the central authority does take it upon itself to issue additional resources directly to teachers in the form of additional literature, support documents and equipment (in period 8 it does the sarne but through the auspices of the board). With the introduction of revolutionary curricula (seen in periods 2 and S), or fairIy dense documents (as with period 7) the Ministry also makes offers of professional

assistance to teachers. In the k t few periods, these issues are inevitably downloaded to the other sections of the educational community as the Ministry tries to reestablish itself as a sole regulatory body. While the issue of teacher mentoring (role-models) arises occasionally, it is never developed as a feasible method of assistance. Curriculum-Related Assistance Like professional assistance, flexibility and teacher freedom has been gradually decreasing over the last 60 years. In the first two periods, due to the isolation of the teacher the Ministry gave some Ieeway. By period 3 a short-lived revolution occurred to give the operating core of teachers as much freedom as possible to educate students. This was immediately followed by a fairly harsh backlash of centralization in the early 1960s. When control of the cumculum was unbridled in the Iate 1960s (period 5), adaptability and open design of the cumculum were not as radically addressed. These were tamed down even further in the 1970s and 1980s. While the Common Curriculum revitalized adaptability somewhat, its effects were short lived. The new rigorous cumculum leaves little room for maneuverability. Indeed, teachers have had little Say in the outcornes of education for 25 years. The one aspect of this grouping that has maintained some strength over the years is teacher support of the cumculum (in line with the fear of balkanization seen in Dimension F). However, this statement by ~heM inistry has rung hollow in later years where teachers have less ownership of the cumculum - teachers are more expected to follow the documents than to question them. As well, students are consistently encouraged to collaborate on local manifestations of the cumculum (Le. plan

a project). However, this entreaty is more to interest and motivate the student than to genuinely solicit help on cumculum design (as this may lead to chaos). Figure 10.28 - Dimension G (Curriculum related Assistance for Integration) Historicvl Periods based on shifis in Curriculum OVERALL REMARIKS OF PART 1 While the Ontario Department/Ministry of Education has promoted many variations of the method since 1937, it is quite clear that the foms of curriculum integration they routinely use are the ones closest to the disciplinary structure. Most prominent among these are the Nested and the Harmonized approaches. Because most remaining approaches are perceived by the Ministry to be based on faith rather than proven fact, they continue to be quite politically charged. Thernes, for instance, have been either strongly supported by adherents or abnegated by others as mere fads. In most cases, the form cannot be defended Iogically, because of lack of strong empirical analysis. If the form proves to be disappointing in one period, even if it is due to improper use, the Ministry unceremoniousiy dumps it in the next with IittIe attempt to show exactly why it failed. These changes seem to have less to do with an evolution of thought and research concerning this method, and more closely tied to a particular administration's overall beliefs in the educational process. ,. - , - 3p a rt: -tg ;;-* P. f -4 ! ..- - - - # .t- -~Y r ' . , - - A. L. tpt. ' ,.- i a- - 3-* - ;.#+: - . L * . , , z * f ' * . ? */: Introduction Part II of this thesis is driven largely by the research question asked on page 32: "What does cumculum integration mean to contemporary school administrators and teachers of the intermediate ievel (Grades 7-8)?" Participants who were asked to define this term gave a wide range of answers depending on their location, experience and personality. As in Part 1,

however, a great deal of consensus was found amongst them regarding the broader, philosophical Dimensions (A and B) whiie a certain amount of variation was seen in the forms they employed (Dimension E). These similarities and differences will be detailed in Part II, whiIe some general conciusions will be offered in the "Conclusion and Discussion" section of this thesis. Context and School- Wide Integration Activities For this study, eight publicly-funded schools with quite different configurations were chosen to represent the views of teachers in Eastern Ontario in regards to cumculum integration. The procedures and plan of analysis of these schoois are discussed in the methods section of this study (pp. 45-51), while the sarnple size, interview dates and codified responses are outlined in detail in Appendices G and H. Bnefl y, those interviewed are listed in figure 1 1.1 beiow. Figure 11.2 - Codes for Schook and Participants 1 1 Rural 1 1 ri-ncipal). MCRIb, MCWc, MCiUd, MCFUe, MCWf, # 1 1 1 urban 1 1 (Princi~al)E. CUh. EBUIc. EBUId. EBUe. EBUIf. Qualifiers Middle Catholic Nickname of School The "Charitable" 2 3 I The "Open Option" Middle Public Urban Code MCR The "Forces Base" 5 1 The "Gernini" 1 Elementary Public Participants 8 participants henceforth known as MCiUa (Vice4

Elernentary Catholic 1 ~eaders" 1 Urban The "Lone Scholar" 6 ECU Elernentary CathoIic Rurai MCW~M, CR/h. 6 participants henceforth known as ECUIa The "Program 7 mu ECR Rural Middle Catholic 8 EPR MCU The "Retrospective" JOPR EPU JK-O AC Public Rural The "Inner-city Innovators** 4 participants henceforth known as MPUIa Elementary Public Urban : (~rinci~alM);P UIb. MPUIc. MPUId 5 participants henceforth known as ECWa (Principal), ECR/b. ECiUc. ECFUd. ECiUe. 3 participants henceforth known as EPR/a (principal), EPR/b, EPR/b 5 participants henceforth known as MCUIa (principal), MCUh. MCU/c, MCUId, MCUIe. 6 participants henceforth known as JOPR/a

(principal), JOPR/b, JOPFUc, JOPR/d, JOPR/e, JOPR/f 6 participants henceforth known as EPUIa (principal). EPUh. EP Ulc. EPU/d. EPUIe. EPUIf School 1 - MiddZe Catholic School in a Rural Sem-ng (The "Chantable") For the past 60 years, a school has stood on or nearby this site to serve the Catholic population of this town of about 10,000 people and its agricultural hinterland. When the older elementary schoot was demolished in the late-1970s and a new one built, the local board decided to fonn a separate middle school for grades 7-8. Unable to finance a totally independent structure, however, the board attached it to the secondary school, which was being constructed at the time. This middle "school within a school" has since been run as a shadowy separate entity under the bailiwick of a vice-principal. Presently, the area designated for the 220 grade 7-8 students (with 12 teachers) dangles off the end of the main building (housing the 450 Grade 9OAC students) like an appendix. While the two schooIs are generally segregated, there are some shared areas for convenience sake, such as the cafeteria, gymnasium, music room and chapei. Each teacher is assigned a homeroom class and given the responsibiIity to teach rnost subject areas (except for the specialized courses of French and Music). While teachers are given a timetable to follow, the vice-principal freely admits that because they keep the students for most of the day, they can freely spi11 one class into another if they wish. The vice-principal (V-P)m entioned two notable items related to curriculum integration at the school. The first was an annual science fair that combined aspects of science, technology, mathematics and English (writing being included in the grading of the project). However, it had been tied to the Common Cumculum and had been cancelled that year with the advent of the new rigorous cumculum. Teacher MCRk expressed regret at its demise in that it brought a sense of integrated realism to her teaching, but this was mixed with relief with not having to perform the onerous task of preparing for it again this year. Another project mentioned by the V-P was a

charitable undertaking that had been spearheaded by the core French teacher (MCR/b). The teacher explained that she had ken inspired by visiting missionaries to undertake a collection of shoes and soap to be sent to underprivileged countries. The students were put in charge of collecting the items, calculating costs, writing letters, and so on during class time (MCR/b-1). The project had ken so well received by the students that it spilled over into other classes, other teachers and even the school's pastor. A local newspaper had, in fact, picked it up and members of a local parish were now becoming involved as well. School2 - Elementary Caholic School in an Urban Seting (The "Forces Base") This school, located near a Canadian Forces base, draws many of its students from farnilies of military personnel. Opened in 1957. it originally consisted of three classrooms and approximately 100 students. By 1965, six open-concept pod classrooms were added ont0 the original stnrcture. Most recently, several new cIassrooms, offices, a staffroom area, and a new gymnasium were added in 1993. While student numbers have tended to fluctuate greatly over the years depending on local economic circurnstances, there would appear to have been an average enrollment of approximately 700 in the Iast decade. Teachers have formal staff meetings and divisional planning sessions (broken into Primary, Junior and Intermediate levels) every Tuesday after student dismissal, but these are more likely dedicated to behavior-review rather than cumculum issues. When teachers do deal with the curriculum, they admitted that it had more to do with how to cover the prescribed material rather than discussing any innovative techniques of its delivery (ECU/a-4). Like the previous school, most teachers are given the responsibility of teaching al1 subjects to one class of students (except French and Music). The one exception to this rule is teacher ECU/e, who teaches stnctly mathematics to grades 4 to 8. When asked. the principal stated that he did not consider himself an "active" cumculum leader in that he would not try to push any new educational techniques on his teachers. Rather he

saw his job more "as one of being a supporter of the curriculum. but providing the opponunities upon which it can happen" (ECU/a-6). For him, leadership meant first ensuring that the Ministry expectations were being met and then providing a flexible enough framework to allow for different teaching methods. This may include a certain amount of curriculum integration, or a more disciplinary approach depending on the learning style best suited for the students in the particular classroom. While he saw himself as a checkpoint to ensure that certain expectations are king fulfilled, he also believed that he should step in only when there was a grave threat of error. Teachers, to him, shouid be viewed as professionals and decisions about teaching style should be left almost totally up to the individual within their own classroom. His reasoning was: I rnean, in the teaching profession you get paid a good salary. You are expected to be able to have some kind of problems-solving skills. You are expected to be able to do the job that is required of you, because you are trained well, and you are paid well. And that expectation is not outrageous - it's a good expectation, i t' s a healthy one. (ECU/a- 1 2) Most of the teachers who were interviewed appeared to follow along quite closely with this philosophy. While each said that she would occasionally tum to other teachers for advice, dhe kept sole control of any integration projects and tried them only within the confines of his or her own classroom (seen especially with teachers ECUh, c, d and e). In fact. two of the teachers expressed a desire for a more formalized structure at the school to deal with resources (like a departmental structure wi th heads), claiming that the present system was too informa1 and vague (ECUIb-39, ECU/d-7). The one teacher who stood aside was ECU/f who had only just begun in this school the previous fail after a few years teaching in Japan. Having been used to extremely disciplined students who benefited from a student-centred approach, he tried to mirror this approach in his present situation dirough a great deal of group work. As well, in Japan. he had been exposed to tearn-teaching (which had been formally written into his contract) and felt that it

could be a great improvement over a single-teacher approach at the school. Here, he tried switching classes once with another teacher. However, the result was disappointing for him the other teacher complained to the principal that his students were too social and out of connol (ECU/f-10). In turn, the principal reproached him (ECU/f-7), asking him to tone down the group work aspect and reven to a more disciplinary, transmission-style of teaching. This he did. After this experience, he concluded that team-teaching, or extra-classroom integration was infeasible, and that any future experiments would be carried out in seclusion. School3 - Middle Public SchooC in an Urban Setting (The "Open Option") Opened in 1973 to cope with a population explosion in a suburb of Ottawa, this building was designed as a Iarge open-concept school to accommodate 300 students. It contains a twostorey, multi-class space in the centre (now holding about 4 classes) and is shaped not unlike a Cathedra]. Separated only by pillars and supports, several "classrooms" emanate from this central area to form niches relatively unprotected from the main action of student activity. This innovative expriment was initially lauded by the academic community and the media, who felt that it would benefit curriculum integration, group work, and cooperative learning. As more and more instances of student misbehaviour and teacher burn-out were reported, however, this form of school building quickly fell into disrepute. The increasing stress may also have been due to the overtaxing of the school's population - by the mid-1980s it had expanded to include over 600 students. By the early-1990s- large sections of the community condemned it as a relic of a bygone age and especially unsuitable for the intermediate level. The administration responded by reducing the student population down to 450 students, and adding walls to create specialty rooms (namely the Iibrary, music room, science lab, art and tech room). As weli, two portable

cIassrooms were recently attached at the back. The incumbent principal, who had arrived the previous year, had felt the atrnosphere was stilt rather poisonous due to teacher bum-out and a general antipathy towards the building. To deal with the problem he immediately terrninated or transferred approxirnately fifty percent of the staff, leaving veterans who wished to remain. He then specifically hired teachers who had just graduated from teachers' college. He stated that their inexperience had led to a lot of sharing and diffusion of tension in the school "because of the new fresh air" (MPUIa-12). The greatest irony in this situation is the fact that while the environment was set up for more interaction, classes were run on a rotary basis of 70-minute periods for the various subjects. As well, al1 teachers who were interviewed freely admitted that they vastly preferred the transmission approach of teaching over any other. Each stated that they engaged in some forms of cumculum integration, but saw it as something that should be teacher-directed and severely controlled. Teacher MPUlc (English and Social Studies), for instance, constantly wove the theme of "conflict" throughout the classes over the space of the year (MPUIc-12, 13), while teacher MPUld (French) would include activities in her class that accentuated character development. Teacher MPUh (Art) was the most passionateiy anti-integrative of those interviewed. She said she had been "forced to combine music, drama, art, design and technology into one class under the Cornmon Cuniculum. After making many artificial connections and creating a huge baIance sheet of blended outcornes, she came to the conclusion that this exercise had lead to nothing but mediocrity. In fact, she commented - "to me that was not integration. That was sheer madness. Because you couldn't do it in that time frame" (MPUh-41). Presently, she said that she had decided to teach just one thing well and passionately - Visual Art (MPUIb-5). While students were allowed the leeway to pursue their own projects and activities, and given a certain amount of Say over the direction of the course (she calls them "the barorneter" [MPUh-Cil]), ultimate control rested on her shoulders.

Both Teachers MPUh and MPUld stated that they had taught in the open area in the past. Both describe the experience as a form of purgatory (or paying their dues). They specifically referred to the high noise levels - Teacher /d, in fact, said it gave her a nervous disposition at the time (MPUId-33). Teacher /b discussed how the situation kept her from doing many activities. She rnentioned how she couldn't have debates, how distracting it was for the students who were trying to paint, and especially how she had to be continually considerate of other classes around her (MPUIb-54 to 56). Laughingly, she said that in earlier years she could roll with the punches but she was too old for that now. Al1 four participants at this school were quick to Say that certain teachers did flourish in the open concept environment. The three teachers admitted, however, that the approach was not for them (MPUh-53, MPU/c-53, MPU/d-33). Al1 had moved on to walled classrooms, and the older teachers bluntly stated that they would quit before moving back into an open classroom (MPUh-57, MPU/d-33). MPUIc has perhaps the most equanimity about the situation. When asked if she believed the concept to be beneficial or detrimental to integration, she simply answered that the school was what it was - it was neither bad nor good. While she agreed that it was noisy, she said that it was up to the teacher to adapt - the will to integrate comes from within the teacher, not from the built environment (MPU/c-5 1 to 53). The principal supported this premise. He stated that whiIe the open concept could Iead to more sharing between certain teachers, it cm also have the reverse effect (MPU/a-I 1). Because some teachers feel like they are "standing naked in the middle of the street," they may tend to build up subconscious "wall of protection and defensiveness" (MPU/a- 10). As an interesting aside, one of the teachers mentioned, off the record, that the real reason why the open-concept was still rnaintained in the school had more to do with economic factors

than phiiosophical premises. She said that when it was built, the open, barn-like structure meant that no air ducts were needed. To subdivide the school now meant hefty expenses or oxygenfree rooms. She felt that the board was just biding its time until it could afford repairs or replacement. School4 - Ekmentary Cathoiic School in a Rural Seitng (The %ne Scholar") Located in a summer reson town dong the St. Lawrence, this school had been built in the early 1960s as part of the Robarts buiiding spree to deal with the baby boom of the time. Little has changed in this community since then and the school population has stayed stable at 400 students and 20 teachers ~veniys pread out over kindergarten to grade 8. Individual classrooms fan out from a central hallway to forrn a long, narrow school structure. Like the previous two Catholic schools, teachers are assigned to handle al1 subject areas except French and Music, Uniike the others, however, most teachers have to manage split-grades (meaning they must teach students fiom both grades 7 and 8 in the same classroom at the same time). This had been a creation of the previous principal who had found that the integration of the two grade levels was tailor-made for the blended outcomes of the Common Cumculum. After mnning the school for over a decade and winning renown for her accornplishments, she was rewarded by king transferred to a bigger school in a more urban area. In return, a younger administrator from Toronto was parachuted into the position. When interviewed, she gave the impression that the board had hired her to do one specitic job in regards to cumc~lum.H~ er overwhelming concem was to implement the new "ngorous cuniculum" created by the Harris government, while maintaining the split-grade system at the school. This was no mean feat as the new guidelines spelled out quite different expectations for the two grade levels. When asked about integration in her school, she bluntly stated that she believed any modes beyond the nested approach to be creatures of an earlier, more carefree era. She, in fact, chastised the interview guide: "You're presenting this as if we have the luxury as educators to make these choices. We no longer have that" (ECEUa-5). She said that while she would

personally love to ay out certain integrative styles, she quickly added, "we have constraints" (ECWa-6). In this new and "different world", students are under enormous pressure by the Ministry and by their parents to retain a number of skills so that they will succeed in high school (ECRIa-6). The school, she concluded, must be concerned with this rather than any studentcentred innovations - maybe at some future date, but not now (ECRIa-7). The four teachers interviewed appear to reflect the principal's sentiment. Teacher ECR/b, who had been teaching at the sarne school for over thirty years. considered himself a fairly ' This hunch has proven correct - since the interview this principal has been transferred to a larger school within the board's temtory. traditional "teacher-centred educator (ECR/b-8). While he felt confident to teach any subject, he also believed in separating subjects into specific timeslots. He acknowledged that some spillover occasionaily occurred between classes: if he saw, for instance, that more time was needed in history, he would extend it into a math class and then make up the shortfall at a later date (ECRm-18). He always did this on an ad hoc basis as needed. The only time that subject lines should be blurred, in his opinion, was during special projects such as career days, field trips (ECRm-17) or for the "Winter Wake Up" sports day (ECRIb-26). While he appeared the most rigid on this point, the other teachers echoed his sentiment. None felt uncornfortable with being generalists but kept subject areas separated, allowing only occasional lapses in their definite schedule (ECRk- 1 1, ECFUd- 10). Teacher ECR/e went as far as saying that she kept a formal tirnetable in order to prepare students for high school (ECWe-12). Rather than king concerned with any horizontal integration (across subject areas), the teachers presently seemed to be very concenied with vertically integrating the Ministry's expectations over the split grades. Ail admitted that this was a far greater challenge with the new guidelines than had ever been before. ECWe was the only one able to create an integrated unit joining the two levels, on the theme of

mountains. She admitted that this was a rarity, however, and only achieved with difficulty by stretching the expectations into unusual shapes (ECR/e-1, 8). Inevitably, al1 teachers Iiken integration to a luxury that should only be approached tentatively, on certain occasions (ECR/d-3, ECRle-8). Teacher ECR/c, in fact, denounced what he saw as the more in depth forms of integration (like themes) as king artificial and university-based rather than founded in reality (ECWe- 1). Lastly, because each teacher had his or her own class of students, there appeared to be very little formal interaction between staff members within the school, let alone the division. This was compensated by a great deal of informai planning and sharing between teachers (ECWc-32, ECR/d-8). Suggestions were meted out in the teacher's lounge or on the drive home. However, the culture of the school seemed to reinforce a belief in the "lone scholar". The two exceptions to this were during the planning of special events, like school masses, or at the end of year, where teachers of one grade met and discussed student levels and behaviour with teachers of the next (ECWe- IO). School5 - Ekmenary Public School in a Rural Semong (The "Gernini") This schooi, located on the outskirts of a small village, serves a far-reaching community of local agricultural and manufacturing workers. A one-room village schoolhouse had originally occupied the site. After several additions, it was tom down in the 1960s to be replaced by a brickclad, L-shaped structure, presently housing 300 JK-8 students. The principal and two teachers (the school's only grade 7 and grade 8 teachers) who were interviewed al1 corroborated the sarne story of the school's recent cumcuIum history. In the early 1990s, the principal of the time received a certain arnount of funding from the board to experiment with the implementation of the new Common Cumcdum. To encourage the teaching of integrated units recornmended by the guideline and board level consultants, he scheduled Teachers EPRh and EPWc to have several fiee periods together per week (EPR/a-1). As such, the two did a lot of joint planning -

throughout the summer on their own as well as on paid time. They stated that they would dream up thematic units based on perceived student interest, and then "weave in" various outcomes, delegating some to the grade 7 teacher, others to grade 8. At the end of the year they would then pass along a list of the accomplished outcomes to the high school, grade 9 teacher. Creating such themes as "the Victorian Unit", "Ancient Greece", and "Mysterious Phenomena", the teachers agreed that it had gotten to the point that students didn't know what discipline they were studying - and they didn't care. What was important was just "the project" (EPR/b-2). The two teachers said that over this period they had developed a bond as educational partners - a team that supported each other with empathy and an incredible amount of ideas. However, in the last year, al1 three interviewees maintained that this whole configuration had changed to end this forrn of cumculum integration at the school. With the advent of the new, rigorous cumculum, expectations were now based on a grade-specific agenda. As such, the cross-Ievel themes becarne unfeasible and the team teaching ended. At the same time, board and Ministry level funding dried up and the new principal began to find it very difficult to book joint planning time for the teachers. She herself admitted that this represented a retreat for cumculum innovation and for integration in particular (EPR/a- 1 to 2). While there was a general sadness among the three women as a result of the changes they were also quite pragmatic. Subject areas (EPRk-1) once again replaced "projects", and inflexible, context-specific content subsumed the more lax outcomes of the previous cumculum (EPRk-2, 6). However, whiIe Teacher EPRk complained that the "boring old fur trade did not grab the students' attention like UFOs, she admitted that the new cumculum gave her a feeling of greater secunty. The Common Cumculum had been great fun, but it had also meant a pile of extra work, and the constant nagging feeling chat she was a charlatan for using it. The thematic approach had been one aspect that worked well. But taken overall, she openly discussed her

disdain for the previous document. Primarily, she felt that certain fundamental chunks of information had been missing fkom the guideline, while other outcomes that she considered I U X U ~ ~w~eSre included (EPR/c-6.38). She then confessed that she was actuaily relieved when the new guidelines were introduced because they made her feel more accountabIe to parents and part of a provincial1 y standardized system (EPRk-29, 30). School6 - Middle Catholic School in an Urban Seting (The "Program Leaders") This school, located in a densely populated suburb of Ottawa was created in the mid1980s to deal with a rapid change in demographics. Constmcted in a rnaze of conidors and twisting hallways meeting in off-angles on several floors, the building is presently taxed to its capacity of over 750 students and 40 teachers. Unlike the other Catholic schools in this study, teachers are viewed as subject specialist and classes are organized around a rotary system. When asked about forrns of integration in the school. the principal immediately pointed out the "exploratory programs". This consisted of an "Integrated Arts" program (Music, Art and drama), a "Design and Technology " program (computers, machinery and woodworking), Famit y S tudies, and Physical Education (sports, dance and health), taught over a 2-year penod (15A-3). On closer questioning, he admitted that rather than "fused", the integrated studies were split into various isolated cornponents. A student taking Integrated Arts, for example, would first take a Music class for two-thirds of a school year, then the Art, then the drarna. The four teachers selected by the principal to be interviewed al1 held the position of "program leader" for the various subject areas at the school. As "leaders of servitude" (MCU/c2), their responsibility was to act as liaison between the board and the subject teachers, to infonn them of C U ~ - ~ ~ C U uI pUd~a tes, to give aid where needed and to bring cornplaints and comments back to the board office (MCU/d- 12). Beyond this pluridisciplinary approach, there were few other fonnal methods of integration actively used throughout the school beyond the classroom tevel. None made the claim chat they engaged in any team projects (MCU/c-22) or formal planning meetings on cut-i-ic~l~(mM CUh-18). Rather, they al1 seemed to see themselves as

autonomous professionals when it came to handling their class. Teacher MCU/c, who represented the English program, most explicitly expressed this sentiment (25). However, they did state that this lack of forma1 collaboration was more than compensated for by informal gatherings of teachers and sharing of resources (MCUh-2 1. MCUfc-9, MCWld- 1 2, 33, MCUfe14). The projects that were undertaken were alrnost solely the product of individual initiative. The teacher representing Social Studies said that she felt that not enough was being done to prornote multiculturalism within the school, so she took it upon herself to have the students prepare and run an international day. The work for this was fitted into various subjects and the principal gave a certain &y for activities to take place (MCUh-1, 2). Teacher MCU/d (representing French) also stated that she frequently engaged students in theme-work that she had a persona1 interest in (MCUfd- 1). While teacher MCUfe (representing science) said that she may bring geographical issues into her lab-work, and include artwork in religion for interest sake (MCU/e-6), she added that she remained a traditional teacher. She rarely went outside the framework set by Ministry guidelines and avoided stepping on other subject-teachers' toes (MCUle-24). In fact, she commended the present guidelines as superior to the Common Cumculum for its ability to remove "the guesswork with other teachers" (MCUte-19,20). School7 - JK-OAC Public School in a Rural Sening (The c'Retrospective") This school was originaily part of a pianned comrnunity - one of the many created between 1948 and 1952 to relocate inhabitants of towns flooded by the creation of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. At first, the elementary and secondary schools stood side by side as separate entities until 1972 when they were joined by a connecting comdor to create an extremely long, hybrid structure. It now houses just over 300 students and 20 teachers, approximately the same number as when the two schools were founded. The Principal, who had held the position for just over 5 years said that this was not the only facet of the school that had remained the sarne. She

said that the entire community was quite a culturally homogeneous group of peopIe who, fiom her perspective, had changed little in morality from the mid-1950s (JOPR/a-5). Almost immediately into the interview, the principal expressed a great desire ro see cunicuIum integration as an integral aspect of education rather than as a "project" perfonned on a special occasion for promotional purposes (JOPWa-2). However, she admitted that this was a bit of a pipe drearn in the present situation. Because of the firrnly enuenched rotational system and the local culture that believed in subject specialization for teachers at the Intermediate level, a disciplinary education system was inevitable (JOPRIa-26). Most of the teachers interviewed agreed with the principal, mentioning that these two aspects harnstrung any integration methods they might think of undertaking - not much could be accomplished in one period a day (JOPRh1, JOPRk-26, JOPWf-22, 23). Teacher /b (French) said that she had been quite inventive in the past but that because of the school organization and culture, she was quite fearful to tread on toes of other subject teachers (JOPRfb-23, 32). As such, she dolefully described herself as "an island" in this teaching post (JOPR/b-34). The other teachers were less fatalistic, and seemed to engage in more informal meetings with one another (JOPWd-9). The Gym and Tech teacher went as far as says that he once "traded off' a certain "scientifically-centred unit to a more scientificalIy inclined colleague in exchange for a tech-centred unit wi th another class (JOPWc- 1 7). Otherwise, he did agree that he had little other connections with teachers (JOPRk-8). The Social Studies teacher gave a great deal of insight into a failed integration experiment at the school. She related how in the early 90s the previous principal had mandated the use of group work throughout the school, based on suggestions by the Common Curriculum. He had the rows of desks removed and replaced with perrnanently fixed work-stations accommodating four

students at a time. Students were to be graded as a group and marked for tearn effort. When the social science teacher was hired five years previously, she related that the classes she stepped into were in a state of chaos - "it was horrifie, absolutely horiific" (JOPR/e-12). She said that nothing was being done - one student would do al1 the work while the other three did little more than socialize (JOPR/e-1 1). With help from the new principal, her first mission was to have al1 the island seating removed fiom her classroom and the rows brought back in. Taking an almost apologetic tone in her voice, she said "then we were back to where we could get some order and discipline and so on - so we could actually impart knowledge. That sounds like we were feeding thern with spoons - but we were" (JOPR/e-13). Her reasoning was that they had to learn something and rnake up for lost time. At present, she said that she did take out time for the occasional project, but that they amounted to no more than three weeks of the year - as special events (JOPR/e-12). For example, she did a section on Mexico in geography, and on one day they had a smaII party with Mexican food (JOPWe-2). Otherwise, she keeps the subjects separated for efficiency sake (JOPiUe-2 1, 22). The one big event of the year that every teacher mentioned was "The Seaway Project" - a weeklong unit dedicated to help students research their local history (in celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the town). Three grades, 7, 8, and 9 are given the task of looking at what the landscape and society looked like before, during and after the creation of the St. Lawrence seaway in the late 1940s (JOPRIe-12). One teacher mentioned that this was the one time that students were given the freedom to research at their leisure, to dictate the direction of the project and for teachers to relinquish most of the power in the classroom (JOPR/f-27). Schod 8 - Elernentary Public School in an Urban Setting (Inner-City Innovators) Located in the core of Ottawa's downtown area, this school is essentially a three-storey box surrounded by asphai t parking lots and storefionts. With a student body of 400, almost every

continent in the world is represented. The principal proudly boasted of the strength that this cultural diversity had brought to the educational process at the school. She was also very enthusiastic about the innovative teaching techniques employed by the Intemediate level teachers, specificaIIy pointing to the "Integrated Studies Program" or IS (1 7A-1). The history of this ongoing experiment was related by Teacher EPU/f who had been its creator almost a decade previously. He said that in the very early 90s, under the Transition Years, he was given a small class of exceptionally bright students who were uninspired by the three separate subjects he was teaching them (English, History and Geography). Having been himself interested in the Arctic, he decided to combine al1 three subjects together for one week as an integrated unit (or "fused" to be more specific). He showed them a film of the North. brought in its history and had them read a Jack London story. It was so popular that the next year it had evolved into a six-week unit (EPU/f-1). At the time, he said he was lucky enough to have very innovative colleagues. Between the three of them they devised a program around the three subjects composed entirely of thematic uni& (except for the first month where the ground rules are established [EPU/f-31). The principal, who described by EPU/f as a genius at manging schedules, create a formalized Xntegrated S tudies Program for ail the EngIish/Social Studies teachers at the Intermediate levei and i t has remained in this configuration ever since (EPU/f-30). Each day, the IS teacher was given 3 periods - an isolated 40-minute "planning" time and a more substantial 80-minute block to do a major activity (EPU/a-3, EPU/c-2). For this particular teacher, every unit contained a book, a video, manual work (rnaking dioramas, for example) and hopefully some fom of field trip. Over the years, the themes have ranged from "the trial of Louis Riel" (EPU/a-1), to a pioneer school, and a "shopping mall" (EPU/a-2). One of the units, on the stock market, won

such fame that it was showcased by the board and had been adopted by half the schools under its jurisdiction (EPU/f-30, 32). Almost every other teacher intewiewed at the school had been influenced by this experiment. Teacher EPUlc was perhaps the closest in spirit to EPUA (the unrivaled IS guru at the school). She said that she had done a lot of substitution work for him over the years and had been impressed and inspired by his approach (EPUk-22). When she was offered a full time position at the school the previous year, she said that she had jumped at the chance. Her only regret at the present time was that she had a bit of trouble doing total fusion of the three subjects at ail times. English and History were no problem, but Geography was the monkey wrench in the works (EPUlc-1, 5). Still, she Iooked to him as a mentor and felt that after a few years she would overcome these problerns. Teachers EPUh and EPU/d, who taught Integrated Studies programs consisting of French, History and Geography, were less concemed with a complete bonding of the three subjects. Because of the level of language ability, the teachers tended to teach History in French during the first semester, then Geography in French during the second - never al1 three at one time. Otherwise, they said, it would becorne too diff~culta nd vague (EPUIb-19, EPUId-3, 13). While no team teaching endeavours were undertaken, al1 the teachers mentioned that they would occasionally coordinate field trips together (EPUIc- 14, EPUId-3, 16). EPUIe, the schoot's ESL specialist, independently came to many of the same conclusions regarding a fused cuniculum that EPUIf had come to a decade earlier. However, she has pursued them in relative informality. She found that that her foreign students were bored by the "Mickey Mouse" material she was mandated to teach by the board, so she took it upon herself to integrate

a great deal of history into her class for interest sake (EPUIe-1, 2). Not formally an IS class, she ran it along the same lines but under her own initiative (EPUIe-3) doing any period of history she Iiked (EPUIe-5, 6). The students took an especiai liking for historical novels - so that was the direction she was presently taking (EPUIe-19). Most recently, she had come in line closer to the IS teachers - she did a "quick and dirty" version of the "pioneer school" unit at the same time as EPUIfs class was engaged in it. However, she admitted that this was done simply because her students were going on an end-of-unit field trip with EPU/fs class to Upper Canada Village and she wanted to bring them up to speed so it wouldn't be a waste of their tirne (EPU/e-22). Analysis of Dimension A: Elements used during Integration (by Sub-dimension) Content For the majority of participants surveyed, Content did not play an important role as a building block for integration or in the education process in general. In fact, 3 administrators and 4 teachers (representing 16.3% of the survey) made no mention of content or content integration at al1 when asked about the elements in Dimension A. While an overwhelming number did acknowledge that a certain arnount of information should be included, they appeared to grimly accept it more as an evil necessity than anything else (51.2% stated that content was a low priority, 27.9% said it was a secondary priority). A prevalent fear arnong teachers was that the teaching of content could too easily degenerate into rote learning and the memorization of minutiae. This representative sample indicated as much: Obviously, if they are going to memorize when Jacques Cartier was born and died - how is that going to help them? (MCR/e-7) They used to give you so much information, you digested it all, then (excuse my expression) brought it al1 up on an exam. A month later you forgot it all. Well, where is the skill? And that's what the question of a11 our generation of rote, rote, rote, knowledge, knowledge, knowledge - you know, kids have brains like sponges. Feed it in, it will stay. We only rernember a quarter of what was fed in

if it was a bit of han& on, or some skill was used with it. It does not stay if it is j ust knowledge poured in. (MPU/d-5) 1 don't want them to have more information. That is not the point of education, is i t? (MPUh-48) A number of participants mentioned the various approaches they had used to overcome the problern of teaching disembodied bits of trivia. Prirnarily, they used content as steppingstones, the facts king less important than the honing of memorization skills (MCRic-1, MCRle-7, ECU/c-2, MPU/d-4, ECRle-7). Teacher JOPR/f (the only one to rate content highly) was quite emphatic about this approach. He taught a cornputer class and brought in much information from mathematics and geography to use as filler for spreadsheets and databases (JOPR/f-2). In most instances, teachers who worked with content endeavored to weave information into the greater meaning of what was king taught (MCRk-1, MCWe-7, MCR/g-2, ECU/c-2). This was done by drawing logical connections between other subject areas (MCWd-4, ECU/b-2, MCU/c-1), subjugating content to vatious projects (MPU/c-3, MCU/d-IO), and by reinforcing it fkom class to class (ECUIe- 1, MPUIa-3, ECRfd-2, JOPRfd-2). Many participants expressed a concern that the importance of content had been artificially inflated with the introduction of the new C U ~ C U g~uUide~lin es. Displaying especial alarm, five administrators remarked that this tum of events had placed an undue stress on the education system and had been detrimental for other elements (MCRla-16, MPU/a-17, ECR/a-1, EPFUa-4, JOPIUa-6). Generally, the teachers concerned with increased content fett more fatalistic about the situation. Most considered it just another transition from the Ministry that they would adapt to over the next year. The only anxiety that they attached to the presence of new information was king able to "cover it" in the short term (MCWb-10, MCRIh-36, ECU/d-4, ECR/c-3). Teacher

JOPR/b stated that she actually disliked the present cumcuIum because it encouraged the passive transmission of knowledge, allowing students to become "lazy leamers": I'm giving lots of content, because the way the cumculum is laid out - and, 1 really don? feel cornfortable with that. When I teach history, I try to bnng the kids out by saying, "what do you think?" One time, 1 said, " if you don? start talking, I'm going to put everything on transparencies, and that's it - we won't do anything." You know what they said - "that's a good idea, Madame!" . They want content, content, content. (J0PR.b- 1 2) Inevitably, content becomes a double-edged sword for teachers. While some is required, too much can stultiQ the educational process. Teacher MPU/d explained the position most eloquently: Of course, without content completely you have a drum - when you hit it, it's empty. . . . So you do have to have sorne kind of depth behind the skill, and the depth would be the content and knowledge that you require. But knowledge by itself doesn't really necessarily give you the skills you need. You're just giving somebody a book and saying, "here - read it." (MPU/d-6) Acadernic Skills Rated uniformly higher than any other element in Dimension A, the integration of certain Academic Skills were mentioned by al1 participants in this study except for four administrators (who, in fact, made little mention of any of the elements). WhiIe there were some variations in the importance that teachers attached to this element, the majonty either felt that academic skills were of a high (58.1%) or middling (27.9%) priority. The only real fringe respondents in the study were teachers MCRh and JOPR/d (who both taught core French). Each stated the same cornplaint - they felt that other academic skills were important, but because of the low level of student language competence they had to concentrate solely on the study of French while in the designated class (MCR/b-8, JOPRId- 1, 2). Other teachers, while king qui te enthusiastic about the importance of this elernent, referred to it in nothing more than generic terms and broadly

stated that it should be "woven" throughout the cumculum (MCR/c- 1, MPU/d-4 to 6, ECR/c2 to 3, ECR/e-2, 7, MCU/c-3, 7, JOPR/e-5). The remaining participants (3 1 in total) tended to define the term as Language skills, Mathemarical and Scientrfic skills, Cornputer skills or General Research skills. 2. Language across the Cun-iculum The top prionty for 90% of the 31 teachers surveyed was the reinforcement of language throughout the cumculum - in whatever course they were teaching. Schools 1, 2, 3 and 8 were especially uniform in their desire to see an informal school-wide "Language across the Cumculum" policy. This ranged from a brief mention by some (MCR/d-2, MCRff-3, MCR/h3, ECU/d-1, ECU/e-3, ECU/e-11, ECU/f-5), to a more in depth discussion by others who said they had made this one of their central goals of education (MCRIe-1, 5, 20, 21, 22, ECUh-3, 7, 14, ECU/c-3). Almost al1 participants remarked. at least once, that they consistently rnarked al1 projects and presentations for spelling, grarnmar, and sentence structure throughout the day . This was done to reinforce to the students the importance of proper spelling no matter what they were doing. Many teachers believed language to be a process. rather than an object of study, thereby rendering it impossibie to separate from the other subject areas. The participants from school 3 ("Open Option") were quite clear on this point: The way we communicate emotional development is through language - either through body language or through verbal language - and teachers have just plugged right into that and seen the relationship and therefore that is the curriculum integration approach there. Now, what I find is that teachers are almost doing it intuitiveIy and not so much consciously. (MPU/a- I ) I'm always looking, I think, towards the end goal that 1 have. This end goal is for independent thinking, for them to become good problem solvers and to have that confidence that they are capable of doing it. They can't do it unless they have developed some very important [language] ski Ils. (Mf U/b- 12)

1 don't think you can teach any subject without integrating language skills. ... I've even done grammar lessons based on what we've read in history. We did a lot on similes in language early on. We were reading some history documents that had a lot of similes, so the kids would Say "oh, here's a simile! They're talking about the bullets being like lightning from the sky. Oh, yeah - we learnt about that in English. That's comparing this and this." (MPUIc-5) School 8 ("Inner-City Innovators") went as far as forrnalizing this belief at the school-level through the creation of an Integrated Studies programme. Outside of the first month where the grammar mies were explained to the students, Social Studies projects becarne the objects of study (EPU/b-2, 4, EPU/d-8, EPU/f-19, 39, 40). Language becarne more of an underlying tooI to be used by the student at each stage, but formally discussed only when necessary. This "Language as Vehicle" approach was also used extensively by the ESL and French Immersion teachers. The ones that were interviewed said that they spent much of their time looking at other subjects and only used language as a medium to communicate points being made. That way, the students were put more at ease about their shortcomings in language and naturally learned how to speak and write (MCFUg-1, 2, MCUh-3, 4, MCUId-1, 2, 4, 10, 25, JOPRlb-1). Teacher EPUIe went as far as informaIly centenng her whole class on the study of ancient history even though there was no such mandate from the Ministry or the school. She did this simply to create filler and interest for ESL students (EPU/e-7). Some of the teachers interviewed took a more pragmatic reasoning to the integration of language in other subjects. They stated that this allowed them to double up on marking (such as correcting spelling in a Science Project) and fulfill 2 Ministry expectations with one activity, thereby saving themselves time (MCRk-4, ECR/b-2, ECRId-3, EPR/b- 14, 15, MCU/e-4, MCU/e-5, JOPR/a-7). 2. Problern solving and research skiils

Of the 31 participants, 14 (45.2%) explicitly stated that they had tried to aid the deveIopment of students' problern solving and research skills. Al1 14 felt that these skills should not be segregated to just one specific subject area, but that they should be treated more generically and transferred across the curriculum. Like Language skills, this was seen as fairly endemic in schools 1, 3 and 8. They differed slightly in approach, however. School 1 ("Charitable") appeared to lean more to problem soIving skills - the teachers highly praised the ability to learn general thinking skills and then king able to apply them to subject areas or various situations (MCWd-2, 4, MCR/f-1, 2, MCR/g-1, 5, MCR/h-3). The participants in school 3 ("Open Option") were less enthusiastic about elements outside of their area of concentration like Art or Language. However, each mentioned that they had uied to teach the students "research skills" (MPU/b-5, 14, MPU/d-6). This was also referred to in school 8 ("Inner-City Innovators"), where teachers put great emphasis on the ability to research the thematic projects independently as part of the programme (EPUh4, EPU/c-7, EPU/d-8, EPUIf-19, 39, 40). In other schools, the promotion of these skills seemed to have been based on the teacher's own initiative (ECFUb-2, MCU/d4, 10,25, JOPRlb-5, 7). 3. Mathemuicd and scienti@ ski& A few teachers (12 of the 31 or 38.7%) were drawn to mathematical skills as having a great ability to transfer across the cumculum and apply to rnany situations. This willjngness to integrate this facet seems to have been dependent largely on the individual preferences of the teachers and their predilection for math/science (10 of the 12 had taken this specialized subject at teachers' college). At school 1 ("Charitable"), it also seemed to be part of the teacher culture. While the teachers do mention that math skiIls could be informally placed in several divergent subjects, most gravitated to a "natural melding" of mathematics and science experiments (MCR/c-4, MCR/e- 1, MCRIf-3, 4, 7, MCRlh-3, 4, ECUIb-3, MCU/e-4). Two teachers (MCR/g and ECRId) mentioned that Mathematical skills could be applied to art and sewing classes (MCWg-1)' while one teacher said she had used a project on Hockey in English literature to introduce aspects of science and technology (ECUh-14). Teacher ECRId was especially stnick on mathematics and felt that it could be fitted in almost anywhere in the

cumculum: We talk about how important the basic skills are and that you need to know those basic skills to do your science projects, and you need to do them for art when you're doing measurement or figuring out how much material you need. In health we talk about nutrition a lot - so we use the basic skills again in math. .. . 1 try to make sure that they match up. When I'm doing measurement in math, 1 make sure in science we're doing something that's going to involve like experiments that will involve some type of measurement, so they can see that it's canied over in bath. (ECRId-3) Others tried to draw correlations between math and geography (JOPWa- 1, EPU/f-3) but mention this only informaIly. Teacher ECU/e, with almost a guilty tone, admitted that he will ask the students who take French Immersion certain geography questions in Math class to see if they have been taught al1 the information and skiils they needed. If they could not answer, he would insert these skills into his own class to make up for the shortfall (ECU/e-3). Lastly, Teacher JOPWc, who had received his joint teaching degree in Technology and Physical Education, said he did his best to combine the two. He confessed that he found it diffkult due to the school's rigid rotary environment: 1 try to incorporate phys.ed. in as much as possible. When 1 do my math and science, 1 have incorporated some physical activities into the science, bring them on nature walks and things like that. 1 haven't got into it as much this year as 1 have in the past - getting them up and moving - "if you put this group over here and this group over here, and if he mns there and back, and it takes him 30 seconds, how long will it take him to run twice as far" - and actually see how long it takes (JOPRk-1). 4. Cornputers A small number of participants (7 of the 31 or 22.6%) stated that they had tried to integrate computers into the ciassroom. In school I ("Charitable"), the teachers appeared to use the computer at a low level - as a word processor to write letters. reports or a special project in technoiogy (MCR/b-11, MCWd-4, MCR/e-2, MCiUf-3). The administrator of school 7 ("Retrospective") was more energetic in her promotion of computers as the Ministry had recently supplied them with a great deal of funding emarked especially for this area (JOPWa-1, 7).

Teacher JOPR/f supported this - he said that because some c1assrooms were now equipped with one computer per student, the class could get beyond the strictly academic study of the PC. Rather, he now felt that it could be used as an educational tool, like any other writing device (JOPR/f-3). In school 8 ("Inner-City"), teacher EPUk seemed to combine most of the aforernentioned skil1s into one project: We did an Internet activity as part of the unit. It was definitely an integrated unit because they were on the Internet on a site calied the Museum of New France and we had to do research. So, it was research skilis and they're learning about using the Internet, but also the end product was they had to write a journal from the point of view of a child immigrating to New France in the 1600's. So, they were using writing skills and reading information on the Internet, and they were doing research. (EPUk-7) One of three conclusions can be gathered fiom the low participant response in this area. Either most teachers eschewed the use of computers in their ciassroom (or could not get access), or that the computer was so prevalent in the classroom, it was not worth mentioning. A final conclusion could also be that the teachers just did not relate computers to cumculum integration. Overall While substantially more proof would be needed to make any valid explanations of the results of this section, it may be suggested that Language-Across-the-Curriculum (and problem solvinghesearch skills to a lesser extent) has become engrained in many elementary teachers as a universal responsibility (perhaps due to generations of reinforcement). Mathematical and Computers skills, however, seem to be viewed by the majority of teachers as king of a more specialized nature. School 1 ("Charitable") is, in fact, the only site that whoie-heartedly supported al1 of the facets of academic skills. The rest of the schools were more scattered in their opinions and little difference existed between the variations of urban/rural, separatelpublic or elementary/middle (as shown below in figure 1 1.2). Fimire 11.2 - Teachers Usine Academic Skills Across the Curriculum 1 5. "Gemini" 1 1 1 3 1 013 1 O 13 1 O13 1

School 1. "Charitable" 2. "Forces Base" 3. "Open Option" 4. "Lone Scholar" PracticaVManual SkiIls While there was much more variation arnong teachers' opinions in regards to Language 718 516 6. "Program Leaders" 7. "Retrospective" 8. "Inner-City Innovators" Total number of teachers Practical/Manual skills, this element was mentioned as having some importance by ail participants (ignoring the 3 administrators MCR/a, ECUIa and MCUIa previously mentioned). Problem-Solving 418 116 315 3/6 416 28 143 Ranked by 7 (16.3%) as low, by 17 (39.5%) as secondary, and by 16 (37.2%) as a high priority, participants equated three things wi th this elemen t: Relevance, Life S kills, and Hands-On Mathematics 5/8 2/6 314 2 15 I activi ties.

cornputek . 3 18 016 O14 115 314 115 115 116 4 16 15/43 014 O15 115 216 116 11 143 O15 3 16 116 7 143 Relevance An overwhelming majonty of participants (35 or 81.4%) made at least some mention of the importance of including relevant points to the curriculum. "Relevance", of course, took different forms depending on the respondent's angle. Several related it to student interest they said that they had ken through the school system themselves, had studied the curriculum, and knew how boring education could be (MCWe-6, EPWe-4). They therefore said that one of the things they wanted to do with each unit was to make some outstanding splash that would get the students' attention and help motivate them to keep going (no matter how unrelated it was to the work at hand). Without some shock or immediate connection, teachers explained, a subject

would not stick (MCEUc- 1, MCR/h- 1 1, MCR/g-3, 5, JOPRIa- 1). Teacher MCRh explained that: They like music. It doesn't matter if they hate French, they like music and sornehow that bnngs them on board. [a spoon full of sugar?] Yes, that's right! You have to go at it positively and they will take it. It is like coming in the back door. (MCR/b-17) Of al1 other participants, Principal MPU/a had the biggest touch of the educational showman in him. He felt that it was the teacher's job to "make the academic components perhaps a little more relevant, a little more exciting, a Iittle more pizzazzy so that they do connect with the mind set of the young person. adoiescent." (MPU/a-5). He illustrated this remark by describing a field trip that the students took to citizen court. He said that rather than just turning to a dry textbook, the students could see the ceremony, feel the patriotism and emotion of the experience of becoming a new mernber of a country. He maintained that this "would certainly make history more relevant, and what they do then is that they go back to that page 73 and read it with more vigour and enthusiasm" (MPUIa-5). Many teachers tried different ways to help the students relate to the abstract knowledge mandated by the guidelines, usually by including practical applications. Pnmarily, they commented that they would always include a number of realistic examples when dealing with science (MCU/e-9, 10) mathematics (ECUIe-5, ECR/d-4) or the past (JOPRId-2, 4, JOPR/e-8, JOPWf-5, 6). These examples were, in most cases, taken tfom the teacher's observations of contemporary political, economic or popular events that were going on beyond the school doors Some teachers stated that they went further than trying to relate the "larger independent world" to the student. Rather, they tried to get into the adolescent mind-set and build a bridge outward in an effort to meet the curriculum expectations in a meaningful way. Teacher JOPlUb, for example studied contemporary music (MCUh-6) and tried to relate it to the religion class she was

teaching: The kids got to do a rap where they included the Ten Commandments. This was a big huge deal, and it took hours because they had to wnte the rap and they had to work together with their group to present the rap. And it's stressing - 1 rnean, they learned more about the Ten Commandments than they ever would have from just having to sit and memorize them. (MCUh-8) Some teachers felt it was most effective to simply talk to the students for periods of tirne about their lives, or bnng in personal experiences to help the students relate (ECUIc-4, ECEUe-3, 7). Teacher MPUh, in fact, threw away the curriculum for a period of time to discuss only the topics that the students wanted to look at: If they become curious about something, it's easy to get me off track in the class. They know that and I think it's great, it's great. For instance, in history unfortunately 1 still find Canadian history fairly dry.. . well, really dry. . . . I'm with a class that's very sort of "throw me the ball and 1-11 catch it". where as last year it was "don't throw me the ball - I'm not even going to catch it- make me. Like, lady, teach me if you cm". ... So, we got into things like Auschwitz. We got into human rights issues. We got into al1 kinds of things. Well, somebody may Say "well, that's got nothing to do with the history cumculum". In essence, it did. It has much to do with i t. (MPU/b- 1 4) A few of the teachers were quite blunt about the difficulty they had experienced when trying to find relevant material. Bernoaning the fact that it was difficult to compete with the world of Nintendo (ECU/b-47) and TV (ECU/f-6)' they said that no matter what they introduced i t was immediately branded by the students as out-of-date. Teacher JOPR/b went as far as saying that when she began to discuss personal experiences or things other than traditional schoolwork the students would accuse her of "babbling" (JOPRIb-2). Life SkiZls A fairly srna11 arnount of participants (9 or 20.9%) indicated that they tried to introduce "Life Skills" - those everyday, practical skills that they thought would help the students in the

"real world". Teacher MCR/b, for exarnple, tied this to the charity work she was having her students engage in: Dunng lent, the kids have had bake sales. I guess that is another aspect of integration. The kids organize the project - they've got to plan it. Someone's got to run with a table, they've got to make a sign. This aspect I have nothing to do with it. 1 am basically there as a supervisor to Say "okay, you've got to do that". We've had bake sales, we've had kids making ginger-bread houses. They raffled items off. And al1 of that money goes toward their class goal for the month. That's an education for me - to watch the kids organize a bake sale. There has to be a Iot of give and take and sometimes the guys don't have a due what they're doing and the girls are telling them what to do - it's "life skills". (MCRIb-9) Other teachers seem to echo this approach. They mention such things as "real life math" or "functioning skills" (MCRId-2, MPU/c-13, ECRIc-SO), "everyday skills" (MCR/h-3). applications (MCR/h-5), or something you can "use down the road" (MCR/g-3). One teacher went as far as saying that real world skills were the fountainhead for al1 others that students will Iearn (JOPR/e-5, 6). These were al1 kept in a fairly general, rudimentary state of development, however. Students were not really expected to be prepared for "real life" or to be specialized in any vocational ski11 just yet (this would be left for Grade12 and OAC). Rather, activities took broader forrns such as "business sense" (ECR/c- 1,4), or internet projects (EPUIb-3). A couple of teachers did go as far as organizing career days - but this was more to enhance the relevance of education for the students and to vary the learning activities than to try to help them choose an employment path: Take last weeks event. We had spent about two weeks organizing a career &y. We brought in people from dl fields to talk to these guys, and then we turned that into a writing assignment. We turn it into history, because we were able to find the roots of these different careers. We tumed it into math, because we were able to figure out dollars and cents to teach them what they'd make. So, something as minute as getting eight people talking on a career day, we turned that into three areas of the cumculum. So 1 think real life experiences is probably the most important, because 1

think kids are very intelligent, and they are visual lemers. (ECU/f-6) Hands On 20 participants (45.5%) mentioned that they had used "hands-on" projects in their ciassroom. In most cases, these projects had taken the form of sculptures, diorama, models posters and gardens. The reasons for engaging in these forrns of artistic expression outside of the art class varied greatly from teacher to teacher. Some felt it was a way of keeping student interest in schoolwork. Others felt it gave additional development to their manual skills (MCR/g-3, 5, JOPR/d-3, EPU/a-9, EPU/c-8, EPU/f- 1, 1 8). Some teachers admi tted to king qui te discriminate. They said that they would assign more manual work to classes they thought of as slow (MCU/d16). Teacher MCUh stated: That's me - because it is a fairly iow-level group. So say, for native studies - they would write a legend and we did the printrnaking, and then we made a calendar with their prints. So, 1 do a lot of hands-on. In the seignorial system, they'll do a mode1 of the seignonal system. (MCUIb-5) Certain subjects seem to come to the fore as being naturally amenable to manual work. Artistic endeavour and science projects seemed to go hand in hand, for instance (MCR/c-16, MCU/e46, MCU/e-7). Strangely enough, Art was used especially in the separate schools as part of the religion class. Teachers explained that this made the class more interesting and gave the teachers something concrete to mark (MCR/e-20, ECUIf- 1.4, 14). As teacher MCU/e explains: 1 always Say to the kids "I'm not marking you as an artist. I'm not an artist, you're not an artist. I'm marking you on your effort. I'm marking you on your neatness. I'm marking you on completeness." But the art aspect is still there. It is included in. There is a lot of art integrated in religion, too - if 1 want to cross over. 1 teach religion and a lot of their religion projects, basically, are art-type projects, you know. They may be doing an acrostic, but it has to be coloured, and maybe decorated. So, there is a lot of art integrated into that area. (MCU/e-5) A few teachers stood in directly opposite camps in regards to hands-on activities.

Teacher JOPR/c (physical education) made a convincing argument that the grade 7 & 8 level was the perfect time for students to learn physical skills and manual dextenty (JOPRfc-l), while teacher EPU/b added these skiils heIped students deveiop personal growth (EPU/b-5). Other teachers were just as vehement in their arguments against the uses of hands-on. Teacher MPUId was extremely forceful in her belief that projects like mobiles or "cutting of construction paper" were cornpletely inappropriate for young adults. She felt that grades 7-8 should be geared more for social and intellectual pursuits (MPUId-8). Other teachers were more pragmatic in their reasoning - they didn't have the time or space to indulge in these activities (JOPWa-8, JOPR/b-8. JOPRIf-4). Overall While teachers seerned still very positive about the use of this element (at least facets of it), quite a few administrators and teachers felt that the new Ministry cumculum had done a lot to curtail its viability (ECEUa, EPR/a. EPR/b, EPR/c, MCU/e, EPU/b). At one school in particular, each participant felt that they had seen a dramatic decrease in this area due to the academically oriented guidelines (EPWa-4, EPRh-2,6, 14, EPRk-6, 7, 24). Figure 113. Teachers Using PracticsVManual Skills Across the Curriculum 1 School ! Relevance 1 "Life SkilIs" l Manual Skills l 1. "Charitable" 2. "Forces Base" 3. "Open Option" 4. "Lone Schotar" 5. "Gemini" 6. "Prop;ram Leaders" 7. "Retrospective" 8. "Inner-City Innovators" Total number of teachers

7/8 5/6 414 4/5 3/3 3/5 5/6 4/6 35 1 43 4/8 1/6 0/4 1/5 013 O15 1/6 2/6 9/43 3/8 116 1 /4 0/5 2/3 4/5 5/6 4/6 20 / 43 Social Skills While almost al1 participants felt that the development of social skills had a certain importance in rounding out a child's education, the significance they placed on this element var-ied wildly depending on who was k i n g interviewed. A nurnber of teachers (10 or 23.3%) ranked it rather low on their prionty list and approached it with extreme skepticism concerning its

effectiveness. They believed group work to be an overrated, trendy fad thought up by academics with little validity in real-Iife classroom situations. Teacher MCWd represented this viewpoint The one thing 1 noticed at teacher's college was aside fiom one professor they al1 talked about the value and the virtue and importance of group work. And none of them. in my mind, could pull it off successfully. I used to kind of chuckle to myself and think if these university professors can't make it work with a bunch of teacher candidates, 1 wonder how we are going to make it work? (MCRId-8) Teacher JOPR/e brought these comments into shocking reality. She said that when she was hired at the school she had been given a class with workstations (consisting of 4 students per table). Describing it as "homfic, absolutely horrifie!" she felt that they did nothing but talk for a full year - 'There were always one or two out of the four who wouId do the work and the other two would sit back - as is typical, right?" (JOPRIe-11). According to her, the first thing she did was to have the tables removed to be replaced with rows of desks. She concluded that: Then we were back to where we could get some order and discipline and so on - so we could actually impart knowledge. That sounds like we're feeding them with spoons - but we were. Then, we wanted to do some of that integration. so we would stop for three weeks. We had been so overburdened for two years with this chaos, there was no way we were going to do it more than a little bit of time. (JOPRIe- 12) While she agreed that students should be taught how to respect one another and to compromise, she concluded that this type of integration was a luxury, and ridiculous to be mandated as a universal approach - "it's like anything else - you overuse it and it's not special anymore. If 1 got roses every Friday then after a while getting roses wouldn't be great . . . [pauses] it wouldn't be so great" (JOPWe-19). Many teachers echoed her sentiment (albeit not to this extent). They said that whiIe they used group work as a teaching tool from time to time, they never felt compdled to do it. In fact, the majority of teachers 22 (51.2%) saw social skills as king only a secondary

priority and that group work should be used only in conjunction with other techniques. In many instances, the only form of social work they engaged in were quick brainstorming sessions for a particular project (MCR/b-1 l), working with a partner (MCRk-16), debating (MPU/b-56) or used for special events (ECRlb-5). A small number of teachers even expressed the belief that planning of any sort was unnecessary for the development of social skills. They said that if you just occasionally threw them into a student-interaction situation, it would just happen naturdly (MCR/f-6,22). This point is best made by JOPR/c, a physicaI education teacher: Social skills, 1 think, is something we don? really have to try and integrate it's naturally there, if you do it properly. Especially when you are doing dance - You can't help it - it's al1 part of what happens. (JOPFUc-1) Those participants that were sympathetic to the element gave a multitude of reasons why they were not using much group work or accenting social skills in their classrooms. Some felt that they were just not "group work" people (MCRIg-4, 5, ECR/b-5, 8, 13, 26), while others maintained that the structure of the school system or class size made sociaI projects unfeasible (ECFUc-5, ECWd-5). Three teachers emphatically stated that they believed Grade 7-8 to be an unsuitable time for group work - it should be indulged in at an earlier level (MCRk-3 1, ECU/f-7, 9, 25, JOPRIf-7). Unfavourable guidelines (ECWd-5, 6, 7, EPRIa-4, 21) and staff cut-backs (17E-23) were another set of reasons. Finally, one teacher said that he had done more group work in the past but that this had led to problems: "1 probably spent sixty percent of my day in small groups [pause] which the principal chastised me for at the beginning of the year. [laughs] Your moving into this a little quick" (ECU/f-7). Some participants got around the group work problem by endeavouring to impart social skills through more teacher-student discussions and lectures (JOPR/b-3, 10, EPU/b-6). Those teachers that had a higher opinion of the element gave a number of specific reasons why they had included it in the cumculum. Some engaged in it simply because the school environment was quite conducive to that approach, being encouraged by the board and administration (EPRlc-3, EPUIa-1) or because they simply wanted to escape the tedium of

leaming in rows (JOPWd-5). Sometimes group work was assigned for more than strictly social reasons. In the French Immersion classes, teachers said chat they planned group work simply to practice language skills (MCUId-5,6, 18, 25). In language immersion you have to do group work to make the communication meaningful ... in a second language. ... Whenever they have to present, this is where 1 ask them to evaluate their work. What did they do? (EPUh-9) This was also the case in some science labs, where students were paired so that their joint effort could finish a particular experiment in one class (MCU/e-8, 10). The teacher said that they may l e m team-work, but this was secondary - her goal was strictly pragmatic. The teachers who were most committed to group work (only 5 participants ranked it as a high pnonty) did so because they feIt that adolescence was the greatest time of social development and the acquisition of social mores (ECUIf-7). Teacher ECU/c said: It can be a very cruel year for some students and it can be a very successful year for others - based on where they are in the social drama of life. So, we do a lot of group talking. (ECU/c-5) In particular, these teachers said that they wished to give special accent to cooperation, tearn building (MCUfb-1, 7, 8) and sharing skills (MPU/d-10, MClUh-6, MPWIa-7, EPW-6, 14, 15). To accomplish this, some made a point of placing the students in certain configurations. For instance, they would pair a student stronger in a particular ski11 with a weaker one with diffenng skills to develop cooperation skills (ECUIe-6, ECUIb-5, ECR/e-4). Other teachers thought less about balancing ski Il s and more about social tolerance. The other thing 1 have them do is they do have a tendency to always want to work with their best bud. So, 1 mix that up a little bit so that they don? always have that chance - so that they're forced, in a way. So forced by me - 1 Say to them at the beginning of the year "I'm not asking you to be best fiiends with anybody in the class - I'm asking you to do work with everybody." [and this is for socialization?] Yes. (JOPRId-5)

Some teachers were very interested in the aspect of teaching respect for others and peaceful conflict management (JOPRId-5, MPU/c-1, 3, 7, MCUIb-7). Teacher JOPRtb was quite emphatic: You don't Iive in this society without social skills. . . . 1 have two rules in my class. You respect and you do your best. You respect me, not because I'rn a teacher - it has no relevance to that - because I'rn a human king. But, you also respect one another -it' s very, very important. (JOPW- 10) On the whole, however, there appeared to be only a half-hearted attempt at group work on the part of the participants. This seems to have come fiom an interna1 dichotomy - while many believed that students should be given time to socialize and develop communication skills, teachers were also fearful about giving them too much fieedom. The consensus seemed to be that uniess activities at the Grade 7-8 level were greatIy teacher-controlled, the students would spin off into unrelated chatter (voiced explicitly by ECU/e-6, ECU/d- 1). Individual Individual Development was perhaps the most volatile element among those surveyed. Of course, no teacher took a stand against the development of student's independent thought or maturity. However, 14 participants (32.6%) seemed to voice their opinion with silence on the issue while 11 (25.6%) ranked it as low. This was based on the fact that they simply felt it to be beyond their responsibilities and more the concern of guidance counselors or parents. Some discussed its unfeasibility based on their inability to accurateiy measure success in this area No, it's a slow process and it's hard to measure. ... 1 can see this king done on maybe a one-to-one basis. Otherwise, no. (MCU/d-9) 11 participants (25.6%) made a number of cornments that indicated their interest in having the element utilized in the classroorn, but seemed to look on it as part of the informa1 curriculum. In most of these cases, the teachers wanted to boost the students' confidence so that they would better achieve in particutar subject areas. They judged success through the physical

manifestation of self-direction, working independently and meeting self-imposed goals (MCRia1, MCWc-5, MCWf-22. MCWg-5, ECU/e-8. 9, JOPRIf-9). The more personal aspects of this element were deemed more appropriate for spare periods (MCR/b- 10, 15), drama and sports (ECU/d-1, 5). Two teachers, in fact, said that they felt rather tom by what the Ministry prescnbed and what their own consciences told them to teach: 1 think the one thing that my kids thrive on is responsibility. They need the feeling that they are important and that they have been given opportunity. Some of the worst actors in my room are the ones that need that responsibility to choose what they would do today, or choose how they would approach this, or how they would finish this or resolve this. To give them that it is like giving them a pot of gold. 1 think not enough of it happens, and that's due to the strict rules that you need to follow to complete. You know the drill. (ECU/c-2 1 ) It's a very tough one, because if you look at my job ... I'm there to deliver the content. My persona1 point of view is I'm there to give them some confidence, especially teaching to go and get the content somewhere else. (JOPRlb-5) A smail number (7 or 16.3 %) seemed to be highly driven by their desire to see students become independent thinkers. Most ta1 k about this when they are discussing artistic creation (MPU/b-7)- scientific experimentation (MCUIe- 1 1) or ESL (EPU/e- 14). In these instances, the teachers usually encouraged the students to take chances, to be self-confident, and to make actions without self-doubt. Teacher MCR/g is most explicit in her aspirations: A big thing with me is learning to problem solve, and my students will often Say to me in art "Madame, tell me how to do this," and I'11 Say, "well, no - I'm not going to tell you how to do that - you have to figure out on your own." . . . They have to realize that this guides them for their future to learn to do that instead of always running to someone for help. ... To be independent. [The students look to] the whole experience. (MCR/g-5) One teacher in particular (the one who founded the Integrated Studies program in School 8) was extremely drawn to this element. However, he strongly believed that the environment and triais he had created for the student were of infinitely more importance to the student than any praise the teacher could heap on the student's work. He stated: Self-esteem is totally, totally tied to production - it has nothing to do with what

the teacher says to a kid or building a kid up - the kid knows. In fact. if you build up a kid and the production is not there, then it has a reverse effect. The kid basically loses al1 faith and the kid considers you a liar, because a kid knows if they're not perforrning. If you tell a kid they've done well and they've done 30% on something then that tells the kid two things - number one, the teacher is a liar - number two, if that's the best 1 can do then 1 must be bloody stupid. (EPUIf-39) Underlying Principles While almost al1 participants in this study mentioned Underlying Principles, their comments were relegated to only two sub-categories. By-and-large, these were divided along denominationai lines: Catholic values played a substantial (if secondary) role in al1 Separate schools while multiculturalism was stressed by a few public school teachers. Religion Of the 20 separate school teachen interviewed 18 (90%) felt that Christian principles were an important element that permeated the system. In most cases, however. they tended to be vague on the actual details of how these were included in classroom teaching. Rather. values were said to enter the teaching process "naturally" (MCRIa-1, MCRAi-7, ECU/a-13. ECUh-6. 7, ECUlc-6. 7, MCU/a-6) through conversation or incidental activities. A number of teachers mentioned that they believed they transmitted this element to the students through their demeanour (MCWe-1, 6, 28, ECUIe-7) or their perspective on certain subject areas (MCU/a6, MCUh-6, 8, 16) such as economics and charity work (ECRk-6. ECWd-7). While it was always there in the shadows, most participants explained that they were prohibited from specifically planning (MCR/d-2, 3, 9, ECUE-8, 9) or quantifying Chnstian beliefs into one bIock of time (ECU/d-4, MCUfc-6, 19, MCU/d-9, 35, MCU/e-12) due to its epherneral qualities. Some stated that while they personally did Little integration of this element in the class, Christian pnncipies came through in extracurricular activities like mass or sports (MCR/f-7, 33, 36, ECRib-6, 7, ECWe-5, 7). In the end, most Catholic teachers ranked it as secondary (9) or low (8) in priority -

al1 said that they were comforted with the knowledge that it was there. Teacher MCRh most eloquently explained this: 1 think especially king in a Catholic system you have to look at the Christian ideals as something you always want to promote regardless of what subject you're teaching. Just the underlying basics of what a good person is, how to live your life properly that's always a theme that is constantly coming up in any class situation. Not necessarily in teaching a lesson ail the time, but even in just class discussions that you have or things that corne up during the day that you want to talk about as a group ... Just to make sure that they understand what it is to be a Christian and why it is we've chosen this separate school ... you know, make sure they have an understanding that they are different than other schools, and that they are here for a particular reason. (MC=-7) Two participants went beyond this mean to discuss this element in concrete terms. The first, (mentioned earlier on p. 293) consciously integrated Christian charity work in almost al1 the classes she taught and compelted her students to take an active role in the events she planned around this theme (MCRfb-1, 4, 5, 11). The second, the administrator at school 4, said that the school actually planned annuai motifs focusing on some aspect of Catholicism, this year king Charity (ECRIa-2). She said that she followed these activities very seriously: 1 think that that is a given in a Catholic school. You have probably a higher mandate than even the Ministry mandate. So, certainly ... our theme is charity this year and we infuse social justice and looking at how it impacts on people and the world. (EC Wa-2) Two public school teachers, while not king mandated, made an informal effort to teach religion in their ciassroom. Appearing almost defensive about their actions, they argued their conviction that other arms of society (religious leaders or parents) were not guiding students. They, therefore, felt that it was incumbent upon them to take on some of the burden: You don't have to take anybody's individuality or principles, but this country is based on Judeo-Christian principles. 1 get quite peeved at schools for saying we cannot do it. We can't indoctrinate, but you can't force anybody - just like you can't feed a baby with a spoon shoving it down his mouth, he is going to spit it up - it's the same thing. . . . it is really sad that we have to say "oh, excuse me - we can't do that". Who said you can't? Exposing somebody to ten theories or telling them it exists is ten times more knowledge and skill to

me than saying we can't do it, so we leave it out. (MPUId- 12) Sometimes they look at me and 1 sound old fashioned, but 1 think because we don't have any religion in the school and they don't do any of this systematically, the kids don't have any help to develop their morality. You know, the theorie Kohlberg [sic], when you said different steps of moral development. 1 would Say the students, if you don? help them develop their level of judgment, of morality, they will remain, you know, at the level where "they didn't see me - I'm okay". So. I find I do it incidentally. . . . But, I'm aware of it. (EPU/b-7) MulficulturaCisrn In al1 but the urban elementary school, public school participants seemed to eschew the inculcation of values of any kind. A few who were questioned further said that this was due to the fact that the schools were composed of relatively homogeneous communities. Ethics and cultural mores, they felt, were already being taught informally at home and naturally entered the school that way (MPUIa-6, MCUIa-5, JOPR/a- 12, 13, JOPR/d-7'8, EPR/b-7, EPFUc-4, 5). The principal of School 5 portrayed the reality of the rural Ontario lifestyle: This is a homogeneous grouping. We've got white Anglo-saxons most, everybody . . . . the majori ty is ei ther Protestant or fundamentalist Protestant. So, we have a real base, a real value system that people have. We've got Dutch and Gerrnan background, and also farming. A11 of those kinds of things do permeate what's going on at this school. I'm coming from a very multicultural kind of background, and 1 was just shocked. 1 went to the graduation and one non-white kid walked across the stage. It was a Chinese child, the son of owners of the grocery store, and the people behind me said "there's the Chiney boy," and 1 thought "oh, my God! What have 1 moved to?" (JOPWa- 10) The majority of families are two parent families. They're working, they've got individual homes, they're of a middle class or above level. So, underlying everything, 1 would Say is this sort of Christian belief that is definitely there. Very patriotic Canadian, 1 mean anything to do with Canada. We have a red and white day and Canadian heritage day and al1 of those kinds of things are very much a big part of this school. People really do buy into the family

values and al1 of those kinds of things that are very much a part of the school. (JOPWa- 1 1 ) The one underlying principle that did emerge occasionally was multiculturalism. In these instances, individual participants inserted this element into the curriculum simply because they thought it was lacking in the guidelines (MPUlc-9, JOPR/c-1.2). The one school that showed the greatest overall interest in this aspect was the urban public Elementary school. Most teachers mentioned that due to the high immigrant population at the school, they felt compelled to include the informal study of other cultures. While it was the focus of many of the ESL teacher's classes (EPUle-4, 7, 13, 14). it was repeatedly mentioned elsewhere (EPU/a-8, EPU/c-6). In the Separate schools that were interviewed. only one teacher was adamant in her desire to inculcate this value to the students. She did so because she felt the Catholic system did not teach enough about different cultures: With me. my heart is really with multiculturalism. 1 have ESL students in my homeroom and 1 also work within small groups, so I'm coming from that approach a11 the time. 1 do various things like in Social Science we just did a lot in Febmary for black history month. I'd integrate that or native studies or. like in English. reading books from around the world or reading shon st0t-k with a multicuitural message to them. or like issues of racism or prejudice or citizenship. In religion, talking about accepting of others and then reading stories about kids from other countries or whatever. So. I'm always going from that angle. [it's your obsession] yeah - more or less. When talking about the big project - for about three years we've done a big international day. We have a big talent show - and we can bnng it into the cuniculum. (MCU/b- 1) Overall As shown in figure 11.4 below, it appears that only two elements were ranked by the majonty of participants as having a high suitability for integration across the various subject areas

- Acadernic Skills (primarily Language skills) and PracticaVManual Skills (primarily relevance). The rest are not discounted, but on the whole assume secondary importance. Most participants acknowledged that Social Skills and Underlying Pnnciples have a pIace in the cumcuIum but assumed that they just naturall y integrated into the activi ties. Individual Development is ignored by many and thought to be beyond their control. Lastly, Content is ranked aImost universally low by al1 participants. *Note - levels of Appendix D, and Appendix H. importance shown above are bas& on ratings shown in in the "Participants' Codified Response List" shown in Analysis of Dimension B: Objectives of lntegration Subject Unity Alrnost al1 participants agreed that one of the main objectives of integration was to enable teachers to make more eficient use of class time. The older teachers mentioned that they had ken doing this for several years - nipping here, combining there - to Save a little space for other activities (MCWf-22, MPUId- 14, 15, ECWa-2. ECRlb-30, EPRIb-3, 1 1. MCUIe-23, JOPR/b-2 1, 47). Some teachers said that it had enabled them to "kill two birds with one stone" by allowing them to strearnline the evaluation process and mark for two ski11 areas or outcornes at the sarne time in one project (MCWf-1, 7, ECU/f-11, EPUIf-29). One principal went as far as saying that integration alfowed for different types of testing to occur: 1 guess, there would be an evaluation purpose. To Say the teachers simply evaluate with penciI and test format - there is more to it than that with integration. It allows the teachers to take assessments and evaluations to a wide variety and strategies. (MCUIa- 10) Many teachers adrnitted that the present curriculum had actually increased their motivation to

integrate the cumculum. For them, it had now become the only way that they could incorporate al1 the new Ministry expectations into their courses (MCRIe- 1, ECU/c-1, IO, ECU/f-11, ECR/e13, 14, EPIUa-12, 13, MCUh-15). The most radical of the younger teachers descnbed the situation as "integration for survival" (ECU/f-12, EPR/b-11). The following excerpts give a fairer cross-section of the comments made by the teachers who were concerned with the new documents: It's a very realistic reason. There is just simpIy not enough time in the course of a day to allow for every subject area to be taught. ... If we were to address al1 the issues that the Ministry wanted us to do, we'd have to extend the schooI day, So that's a very practical, realistic approach for teachers. (MCUIa- 10) 1 think it is necessary to draw on various areas of the curriculum and bring it together for a project or a topic or a theme. 1 think with the cumculum coming out, 1 think it is almost becoming necessary - because there are just not enough hours in the teaching day if we are not careful to cover everything we have to cover. So, if for one 40-minute period we can target areas from English and areas from history then that's helping, as long as you don't lose the focus of getting the content and the skills. (ECU/d-7) 1 do so rnuch English in religion - like a lot of my religion program is, you know, writing, writing the acrostics. We do a lot so that 1 can cover a lot of the English skills in religion class. If not, 1 would never get to it - you know what 1 mean? (MCU/b- 15) Several participants went beyond this stictly pragrnatic objective, however. They agreed that while other methods could gain just as much time (the removal of extraneous content, specialized teaching, adding more hours to the school day), integration also had the ability to organize the curriculum into a more meaningful whole (MCWc-1, 4, EPU/a-1, EPU/f-23, 24). Science projects, thematic units and just the drawing of connections seemed to be important to many participants above and beyond strict efficiency. Language teachers were especially drawn to integration as a way to give meaning to the study of English or French. They pointed out that they could spread language skiils in many areas, reinforcing its importance again and again

(MCRIg-IO, EPU/d-1,6, 1 1). Even generalist teachers were quite adamant about fitting language and numeracy into classes in some purposeful way (ECR/d- 1, EPR/c- 10, 12, JOPWa- 1, JOPR/fL 3, ECU/e- 1, 2, 3). In these instances, connections were reinforced for increased meaning rather than reduced for efficiency (MPU/a-3) Many participants pointed out what they saw as "natural " combinations of subjects (MCWf- 1 7, MPU/a- 1 3, MPU/b-37, ECR/b-2, 4, JOPRk-9, JOPiUd- 1, 2, EPUIb- 1 5). Informally, they noticed affiliations and points-of-contact between math-science (ECUIa- 1, ECU/b-2, ECU/f- 15, ECUId- 1, ECR/b-2, ECR/d- 1 ), language-drama-the arts (ECU/a- 1 ), historygeograph y (ECU/a- 1, ECUIf- 1 ), geography-mathematics (JOPRIa- 1 ) science-geography (MCUIe1) drama-history (ECR/b-2), Religion-Art (ECU/f-l), History-English (ECU/d-7), art-math (ECR/d-1) Science-physical education (JOPWc-3), Technology-Science (MPU/a-1). the Arts (ECU/c- 1 O), and Language-History-Geography (ECU/'-2, JOPR/d- 1, MPU/a- 1 ). School 8 had formalized the links between English-History-Geography combination and i t had appexed to be a very suitable trio at that location (EPUIf-3 1, EPUIc- 15). Most teachers explained that they had reached these "natural" connections through firsthand experience. In some cases, it had crept up almost incidentally without their notice after years of teaching (JOPR/a-18, JOPR/c-3). In others, the links had ken forged through years of study and conscience effort (MPU/a-13). One said that through painful experience she had realized how far she could stretch the subject areas - she felt that 2 or 3 subject areas were the limit (ECU/b-2, 11). Almost al1 agreed that proper integration could only come with time and experience (JOPWc-9). These subject areas were linked by connections that existed in the minds of the participants. Some tied them together based on shared skills (MPUIa- 1, 13), others through shared information. In the case of History and Geography, the teachers' believed that these two subjects were united under a larger body of knowledge entitled "Social Studies" (MPU/a- 17). Several teachers had quite firm opinions about "artificial connections" that would just not

work. In most cases. they referred to forrns of integration that had been forced upon them by authorities such as the Ministry or board. The responding participants felt that these poor forms resulted in illogical connections (MCRId-4, 6, ECRk-1) and mediocre results (MPUh-1, 2). The bellwether for one teacher was when the students themselves found the connections unnatural (EPUIc- 18). Two teachers descnbed the problem: . . .it's very phony sometimes the way they do things. They cal1 it integration and they have a little theme on birds and stuff. This is not integration, you know, this is a thematic approach - but it's not integration. Integration, 1 would Say that there is something happening in life. Okay, tomorrow, 1 have to do this this weekend, this summer. Okay, how am 1 going to deal with this and what kind of skills and abilities do 1 need in order to face al1 of that okay? (EPU/b- 15) 1 don't think it makes it an integrated approach if al1 you do is throw the content together and Say "okay this is integrated". There has to be some real connection otherwise the relevance doesn't come through for the student. (MCR/c- I ) Student-Centred Most of the teachers interviewed stated that one of the primary reasons for integrating the cumculum was for the students' benefi t. When further questioned, however, the teac hers' intentions ranged from mild attempts to interest the students to relinquishing some control to them during certain activities. The majority fell somewhere in the middle. Int erestkele vance A towering nurnber of participants said that they included matenal from outside of the subject area simply to interest the students (MCR/f- 16, ECUh- I 1, 23, ECU/e- I 1, MPUh14, 19, MPU/c-10, 16, 22, MCU/b-34, MCU/d-19, JOPWd-IO, EPU/a-1). One teacher put it quite bluntly: It is a survival trait for sevedeight. With this particular age group you have to do everything you can to grab the kids' attention and to get them involved because it's such a diFTicult age and if you don't then [as a teacher] you're dead. (MCUh-34)

The motivation for teachers went beyond the hopes of merely shocking the students into active listening, however. It was hoped that by integrating something from "real-life", the students' imaginations would be twigged, allowing them to see the relevance of the subject under study EPU/f-1, 13). As well, teachers said that they made frequent connections between other subject areas so that the students could make sense of "the whole picture" (JOPR/a- 1, EPU/d- 1 1). Without this link, a number of participants concluded that the whole education process was useless - the students would not be motivated to learn anything and become disinterested (MCRk- 1, MCRAI- 1, ECUId-6, ECUIe-8, MPU/d- 16, MCU/d-24, 25, EPUId- 19). One teacher said that he did it so he couId answer the age-old question asked by students: So, ultimately if you can make it real for them, make it more relevant for them, and show them how it al1 fits together,.. Sometimes they Say, "why are we taking this anyway?" So you can show them how this stuff al1 fits together then, 1 think, they're going to get much more out of it. (ECR/c-13) By breaking these boundaries, they concluded that it brought the teaching process "to life" (MCR/e-3, 6, 13, EPU/c-15, 22,). However, this depended on the subject that was king taught. Certain disciplines, such as science, just seemed naturslly interesting to the students (MCU/e-7, 23). and did not need much integration. Others, like religion, grammar and history were seen as more isolated and boring - combining subjects would "spice things up" (ECU/e-I 1). Interesting enough, while the students considered the separate courses of English and history quite dull, they were fascinated by the fused Integrated Studies program in school 8. They find history kind of bonng just straight and so if you're reading a historical novel it's much more in teresting. They remember things about Canadian history that they never would. 1 remember [the novel is] in Tadoussac by the Saint Lawrence and they [the students] have just a whole picture in their minds of what that was like that small community starting up in the 1600's. So, it brings the history alive and ... it improves student interest and growth - 1 think that fits in there, as well, because they're much more motivated. In an integrated unit they can see how there is a novel study to do but there is also other activities and it just seems a Iittle more interesting and exciting for them. (JOPRIa-9)

Addressing Various Learning Syies A number of participants said that they had altered the curriculum at times to rneet the various learning styles of a particular class or the needs of a certain student (MCWa- 1. 5, MCRIe15, MCUh- 15, JOPiUe- 1 1 ). They indicated that some students had poor absuact reasoning qualities or were immature for the grade level. Others were cleariy more advanced in certain areas and underdeveloped elsewhere. To keep the entire group engaged and intellectually stimulated, a number of quite different approaches had to be used at the same time (MPU/a-5, 14, MCU/c-14, MCU/d-21). This way al1 students were able to show the class their strengths as well as their weaknesses, thereby buitding their confidence. Two administrators were especially expressive about the importance of this objective for integration: ... the main purpose for integrating is to address learning styles. It is also to address teaching styles. It's to make sure that kids like to come to school and want to come to schooi. It's also done to ensure that there are different ways of making sure that leaming does take place. If we didn't integrate it would cut down on the different approaches that we can use. Because of the knowledge that we have now, we know that kids lem differently, and we cannot teach them the sarne way al1 the time. When we integrate we make it more exciting, we hopefully get the kids involved in the learning, and when they are involved in their learning then they can demonstrate that learning. From that demonstration we know what they have learned. (ECU/a-7) ... it gives an opportunity for students to showcase different styles of learning. So, for example, if one is presented with a project, you will find teachers that will offer a wide variety of snategies to present that project. It could be in audio form, it could be in visual fom, it could be in written forrn or it could be done artistically. So that integration enables students to succeed. (MCU/a- IO) In most cases, this included the addition of more tactile forms of learning. For example, art would be included in an unrelated subject area such as math. science or religion, simply to engage the students who were more artistically inclined (MCR/f-1, 17, ECU/f-4, 15, EPU/e-4). A math

teacher, who knew that a particular group of students were not capable of dealing with abstract numbers, used many practical applications - he focused almost totalIy on the caIculation of money and the stock market (ECR/e-13). Another teacher said that he fiequently used drama in their classes to bring out the withdrawn students (ECU/d-1). He explained: if you are in a class that has one particular strength and they enjoy drama, for instance, then why not use that strength to bring in some history and to bting in some geography, to do some role playing in other subjects. If it's something that they enjoy, then why not use that and, 1 think you would be foolish not to. If it is something that they enjoy, you are still teaching them history - you are bringing it home to thern and it is becorning relevant to that student. (ECU/d-7) Sfdent Control A very smalI number of participants said that they had relinquished some control of classroom activities to the students. However, none admitted that they did it on a regular basis. In most cases, "student freedom" was highly regulated by pre-set perimeters determined by the teacher. Students could take over the direction of a charitable project (MCRIb-1 l), or decide to take a learning activity somewhat further than the teacher had intended (MCR/g-8). The teacher may even let student interest dictate how long a thematic unit lasts (JOPFUb-3 1) or give them an amount of options: The kids sometimes control the options of the tasks that they can do. . . . They can choose a number of tasks from 6 - but al1 roughly cover the same expectations. So, 1 try and make sure that the student has some control so that &y can choose a topic that is a little more relevant. If it's language arts for instance, they can choose what debate they want to do as long as they end up with the expectations. They can find their own thing that is relevant to them. So some of them might do hockey players better because that's relevant to them. Some might do dogs or cats or pets, but they can still meet al1 the expectations, whatever they are. There is still some flexibility. (EPRk-12)

In the case of school 8, students had the ability to work in a self-directed fashion at their level. However, they were to do this within a classroom environment meticulously created by the teacher (EPU/b-5). It was made quite clear that the teachers' intentions were in no way to abnegate control of the classroom setting to the students, but to spur them on as active learners, with a feeling of responsibility for their own work (MCRfc-5. 17, MPUId-5, 16, EPUh-5). Social Continuity and Political Change An almost negligible amount of participants made any comment an these objectives. In most instances, they simply indicated that they integrated the occasional undedying principle to make the students better citizens, human beings or better adapted to the changing world (MCEUe6, MCRIf-15, 36, ECU/c-IO, EPU/b-14). Teacher MPUh considered art to be a cultural imperative and advocated its inclusion in the cumculum whenever possible (MPU/b-15). Others fett that they were defenders of state directives (MCR/a-5, MCUIc- 14) and should dutifully carry out this mandate: We have policy makers and you pretty much have no options. Whatever the policy of the days is, 1 will teach that. Like 1 said, 1 have gone through four different changes in the C U ~ - ~ C Uan~d Uth~ey take a lot of tirne, to invest in Iearning them and preparing and then in two years you have to start again. So you don? have time even to get that under your belt, long enough to completely follow the policy. You don't have the option to disagree with the policy and Say - here you go. You don't have those options if you want the job. (EPRk- 13) However, these sentiments remained quite vague and were mentioned solely in passing. Only three teachers rated change as high. The first was teacher MCRIb, who was inspired to make Christian charity-work the centre of her course (MCRm-11). The second, teacher MCUh displayed just the opposite motive - because she felt that the Catholic school was too homogeneous, she took it upon herself to integrate multicultuniism into much of her coursework (MCUIb-15, 16). The last was teacher JOPR/f. who firmly believed in the integration of computer studies into al1 facets of the cumculum in preparation for the rapidly changing.

technology-driven society (JOPFUf-16). While al1 three held vastly different opinions about the world, they held the same belief that the world was changing and that they had to do something to prepare the students for what awaited them in the future. Overali Remarks As can be inferred From above, the bulk of teachers were tom between two objectives, both in integrating the curriculum, and in teaching the course in general. While they wished to make the class interesting and relevant to the students. they also felt that they had been mandated to teach a prescribed amount of materiai. Most teachers therefore felt no compunction about using integration as a tool for both ends simultaneously, and when asked to prioritize the two were loath to choose. As can be seen in figure 11.5 below (and even more graphically in Appendix C), very little may be definitively inferred From their responses. In most cases, the student-centred objective appeared to be a sincere wish of most, but the subject-centred objective seemed to reflect the immediate reality. This was especially mie of schools 4, 5 and 7 (al1 rural) whose teachers expressed concem about the new cumculum. Figure 1 1.5 - Teachers' Perceptions about the ObjectiveJPurposes of lntegration Subject-Centred Student-Centred Social Continuity Political Change Purpo#ts/Objectlves of lntegration *Note - levels of importance shown above are based on rritings shown in Appendix D, and in the "Participants' Codified Response List" shown in Appendix H. Analysis of Dimension C: The Loci of Inspiration for Curriculum Integration Al1 the participants made some remark about the various influences on their teaching methods. Of those surveyed. 24 (55.86) referred to the influence of the Ministry, 15 (34.8%) mentioned the school board, and 12 (27.9%) other sources. It was quite obvious, however, that most teachers discovered vanous ways to integrate the cumculum through personal, rather than

second-hand experiences - 40 (93%) discussed the importance of their colleagues and 35 (8 1.4%) mentioned classroom experience as the most important inspiration for their integration techniques. This sentiment was shown in stark detail when participants were asked to rate these influences from high to negligible (displayed beiow in figure 1 1.6). Figure 11.6 - Loci OC Inspiration Cor Integration (Teachers' Perceptions) ,U inisiry Board School Classroom Other Loci of Inspiration *Note - levels of importance shown above are based on ratings shown in Appendix D. and in the "Participants' Coditied Response List" shown in Appendix H. Ministry 's Influence The single influence that the Ministry seemed to exert over most of the responding teachers (in terms of integration) was through the prescribed cumculum documents. First, a number of participants at two schools attested to the fact that they had been highly effected by the Common Curriculum's explicit message to integrate. At School I ("the Charitable"), teacher MCWc said that she had done the science project soIely because it was a directive of the Ministry (encouraged by the principal). As indicated earlier, (p. 301-2) school 5 (the "Gemini") had aiso been adarnan t about implementing a team-teaching, theme based programme across the grade 7-8 years, driven by the agenda of the Common Curriculum. When the new guidelines severely restncted both the science project and the team-teaching approaches as viable educational tools, both SC hools immediatel y dropped them, throwing the long-term influences of the Ministry into question. While the participants involved said that they felt rather jaded by having the "mg pulled out from under them", they also felt a sense of relief from practices they thought of as stressful, problematic, and not their own (MCWc- 17, EPR/a-20, EPWb- 1, 2, 24, EPWc-2,24, 40, 41).

The new, rigorous guidelines appeared to have a more implicit influence over teachers. WhiIe the participants noted chat the new ones were split into segregated, discipline-based documents, they also remarked that if they med to fulfill the large number of expectations without some combination, they would not finish the course of studies by the end of the school year. They, therefore, endeavoured to seek out and combine similar expectations in two or more subject areas to Save time. Many of the teachers actually stated that the present guidelines were a greater influence to integrate than past cumcula due to this fact (MCR/d-5, MCWe-19, MCR/f20, 27, MCR/h- 19, 20, 27, MPU/a-25, ECWe-23, MCU/c- I ). Some teachers even complimented the new guidelines for remaining silent on any issues dealing with teaching methods. That way, they said, it gave them the freedom to develop their own (ECUIb-24, 25, ECU/c-25, ECU/eIO, ECRk-23, MPUh-1.2, 3,43, MPUld-25). Only three participants felt that the present guidelines had made any explicit contribution to the integration process and had actively sought out connections between subject areas - two of these people were administrators (MCWa-12, 15, ECU/a- 1, MCU/e-2, 33). Juxtaposing these compliments were a number of criticisms by teachers. Many felt that the Ministry had an agenda opposed to integration, and that the documents they set up hindered integration (for further commentary see Dimension F). Some respondents said they were nonplussed that the Ministry had tom apart the previously fused subject areas and had made the expectations very discipline-centred and grade-specific (MPU/b- 15, 34, ECEUa- 1, 17, JOPWa-28, JOPRIc-22, EPU/b-28,). A sizable proportion (16 or 37.2%) simply made no comment one way or another about the Ministry or the documents. Board

The School boards appeared to exert the teast arnount of influence on the way teachers arranged the cumculum. In fact, 28 participants (representing 65.2% of those interviewed) either made no reference to this level of the education system or explicitly denied any connection to the board in terrns of curriculum (MCEUb-24, 36, MCR/c- 19). Three administrators suggested that this low rating may have ken due to the chaotic state of bureaucracy at that level caused by the recent board amalgamations (MCR/a- 12. ECEUa- I8, MPUIa-26). Most of the responding teachers were not as charitable, however. They agreed that on rare occasions they obtained resources from board consultants (MCR/f-2 1, MCR/h-28, ECUIb-27, MCU/a- 18) or that board members would attend special events at their school (MCU/b-25). However, beyond this, the board seemed more like a shadowy figure whose information filtered to them through the rumour mil1 more often than not (ECR/b-34, ECRIe-5). This isolation seemed to work in some teachers' favour by giving them a sense of autonomy and freedom from authority. One teacher said that she had worked previously in a board that strongly encouraged the use of a certain predesigned unit plans, and she felt much spontaneity and teacher control was Iost (MPU/d-2.3, 25). Another said that the Integrated Studies prograrn developed at his school had been allowed to spread "naturally " to many other schools with little interference or hindrance from the board (EPU/a- 1 ). The school boards fulfilled a somewhat influential role at only one site. In School 6 (The "Program Leaders"), formal positions - "Cumculum Team Leaders" - were given to a number of teachers based on specific subject areas (English, French, Math, Science, Social Studies, the Arts, Religion, Design and Technology, and Physical Education). These "leaders of servitude" were held responsi ble to be liaisons between the board and the teachers, relaying decisions, criticisms

and praise (MCUk-2, MCU/d-12, 38, MCU/e-33). It should be noted that even though the teachers interviewed were the actual C U ~ C U l~eaUde~rs , they still thought of the board as having a low or secondary influence on teachers' perspective. SchooI The School appears to have had a significant impact on teachers' outlook on integration. The actual loci of inspiration were found in the school's structure itself, from the administrator and especially from coIleagues. Adminisirator Inspiration Three of the administrators professed that they were the most influential promoters of curriculum integration on their site, instilling this method in teachers through verbal encouragement and in-servicing (MCR/a-12, 25, ECR/a-25). Principal MPUla was the most confident about his role: It would have to go in this order ... It would be myself as the administrator, then the Ministry and then teachers. ... as professor at the University of Toronto, 1 taught subject integration and it was just because it was something through my own research and findings, and I believed strongly in. So every poor teacher of whom 1 am the principal has been affected by it too. (ECR/a-25) Teachers who commented on this aspect seemed to have a different perspective, however. Most felt that the principals had played more of a supportive role rather than being the originators of the idea. At school 1 (The "Cha,ritable"), teachers MCR/c and MCR/d admitted that they would not have been as keen on a science fair without their leader's encouragement, who had in turn been inspired by the Ministry (MCWc-18, 1MCWd-4). iMany reserved the praise for their principals, not for the direction they had given, but more for their financial support and the professional fieedom that they had given the teachers to follow their own path (MCEUe-19, ECU/b-28, MPUIb-45, MPUIC-36, EPUIf-22). in formal Colleague Inspiration The bulk of teachers who were affected by school-level influences seemed to indicate that they had found the greatest inspiration From informal contacts with colleagues. They explained that sometimes this would take the form of informa1 meetings throughout the day (MCR/e-9,

MCWf-21, ECUId-2 1, ECR/c-12, 23). At other times this would be the sharing of resources and ideas about what methods worked and what did not in the classroom (MCRIf-IO, ECUIc-8, MPU/a-26, MPU/c- 1 8, 2 1, 3 1, ECWd-25, MCUIe-33, EPUIc- 14). Some teachers mentioned that curriculum would just naturally f'lter into unrelated conversations in the hallway or on the ride home (ECUh-29, ECR/b-34, 35, JOPR/b-20, JOPR/c-22, JOPR/d-9). One adrninistrator said that she had seen a rather heated argument over the curriculum in the teachers' Iounge and was quite pleased to see her staff so passionate about their profession (JOPWa- 18). Some schools appeared to have a more systematized communication pathway. At schooI 6 ("Program Leaders"), al1 the teachers said that they had a great "grapevi ne" - a teacher may Say to her colleagues that she lacks something and a resource would wind up in her mailbox the next day (MCUIa- 18, MCUIb- 13, 14, MCUIc-8, 1 1, 12, MCUIe- 17). Some schools even appeared to have fairly regular, semi-formal meetings to deal with curriculum issues (MCR/f-9, 31). At the elementary level this was divided along divisional lines (ECU/a-4, ECR/a- 18, ECR/c-8, 9)while in the middle school, this took more of a subject-based smicture (MCU/d 12, 17, 18, MCU/e18). These sessions were held for two main reasons - to bnng teachers who were weak in certain areas up to speed or give specialist advice (MCR/e-4, 20) or to ensure that al1 expectations were covered with little unnecessary repetition (MCR/c-8, ECR/d-8, MCUle-19, EPU/b-1 1). Most of these responses carne from younger teachers - the older ones (mostly within five years of retiring) appeared to be less social and kept themselves to themselves a little more (namely ECUIe, MPUlb, MPU/d, ECR/b, MCUIe, EPUIf). While reticent about CO-planning or "chatting" because "everyone knows the drill" (EPUIf-6, to 8). teacher EPUlf did act as an important. if

informal mentor at school 8 ("Inner-city Innovators"). He had given a number of workshops on his Integrating Studies program and had been of extreme inspiration to teachers EPUIc and Ef Uld. Each aspired to copy his techniques, although they acknowledged that it would take time to master it as he had over the past 20 years (EPUIc-22, EPUId- 19, EPUIf-32). Co- Planning Some teachers said that they did a lot of long-term planning of their courses with a few of their colleagues (MCR/h- I O, 21, MPUId- 15). By meeting in groups of 3 or 4, the participants said that they were able to more precisely Iay out the expectations for individual students (MCRfa-2, ECU/a- 15, MPUk- 12, ECR/a- 1, JOPWd- 1, EPUld- 10) and to bounce ideas off one another (MPUIc-20). Team planning was especially important in school 5 ("Gernini"), where the teachers seemed to be never making a move without the other - until the new cumculum changed their expectations (EPR/a-1, 2, 8, 19, EPRIb-9, 25, 26, EPR/c-1). In very rare instances did this team-planning effort spill into team-teaching, however. OnIy two instances occurred where teachers actually switched classes - the first (JOPWc) was a success because each teacher had specific knowledge to impart and each knew the students well. In the other instance (MPU/f), however, the two teaching styles clashed and the experiment appeared to be a failure (see p. 285). School Organization and Evenfs There was some indication that the actual organization of the school (programs and special events) had a certain influence on teachers. Specific integrated programs were rnentioned as king an important fonnalized way of keeping the teachers from recidivating back to a tradi tional disciplinary system (see context concerning school 6 [Integrated Arts] and school 8 [Integrated Studies]). However, as wiIl be seen in Dimension E, whether the schools were based

on a rotary system or not, teachers seemed to have had little inspiration to perform any largescale integration activities (such as an integrated day) on a regular basis. Rather, cross-class or schoolwide activities were saved for special, short-term events. These included field trips (EPUh-13). masses (MCRlf-33, 34) extracumcular activities (MCEUf-36) and celebration days (ECiUb26, MCUh-24). It was only in school 7 ("Retrospective"), with their seaway project, that an integrated activity would Iast more than a week (JOPRIb-38, JOPRrd-20, JOPR/e-IO, JOPEUf-6). A few teachers mentioned the physical structure of the building. They extolled the virtues of the small size of the school (ECR/b-19, 20)- the central meeting areas for public discourse (MCUk-9, IO), and a unified JK-OAC school (JOPWf-23) as creating an atmosphere conduci ve to integration. Surprisingl y enough, al1 teac hers at the open concept school appeared to feel that its open shape inhibited integration (see context, school 3 - "Open Option"). Classroom Inspiration Above al1 other influences, teachers strongly indicated the importance of classroom experience in shaping their teaching methods, especially the way they integrated the curricuIum. Most said that it was only though their personal interaction with students, finding out what worked and what didn't at the personal level that they were able to solidify their beliefs. Through day-to-day events, they argued, that meaningful connections could be made between the various Ministry documents and the students' interests (MCR/b-245, MCRfd-2.4.5, ECU/b-9, 23, 25,26, ECU/c-23, MPU/d-30, 3 1, MCU/c-28). An intensely personai activity, teachers concluded that the process should be left at the classroom level, unhindered by any outside forces who had a vaguer and more imprecise view of the circumstances (MCR/f-20. MCR/g-2 1, MCRIh-2 1. 26,29, MPU/c-38, ECR/b-36, ECRk-1, 24, EPR/c-1, EPU/f-8, 9, 15, 39). Even in the classroorn, the

development of integrative skills was seen as something that a teacher could only approach slowly, in a stumbling ad hoc fashion (ECU/c-9, 16, 25, MCU/e-3). Through instinct (MPUh39, 42,43), some inner desire (MCU/b-22), and experience, the teacher gradually perfects the craft of integration to eventually master it (MCR/f-27, ECU/e-IO, ECR/d-25, MCU/d-42,43, 45, JOPRh41) but never completely control it. One teacher aptly reflected the general sentiment of those interviewed: There is no great way to give direction with that. How do you teach somebody to integrate? I think it is an experiential thing that you learn as you go. What I'rn finding is that, each year, you can make connections as you know more about education. And as you know more of what you're teaching - it's easier to make those connections - as opposed to a first year teacher who doesn't have that experience. You know, I'rn still finding a lot of things that I'm learning and making connections right now and I'm sure that will continue for a long tirne. (MCR/h-26) This feeling of professionai freedom was supported by quite a few of the administrators, who left this aspect of the education process up to the teachers themselves, intruding oniy when asked Other Influences Very few teachers made any mention concerning sources of inspiration outside of the immediate school environment (12 or 27.9%). Of this number, 6 indicated that they had gotten some training in cumculum integration during their years at teachers' college. This had varying effects on them - to some it was a very enlightening experience thanks to certain eloquent professors (MCR/f-23, ECWc-23, EPlUb-23). while to others it was more an experience of having it "crammed down your throat" (JOPWc-22) to little avail (MCR/e-25, MCR/h-25). The teachers who expressed the greatest inspiration frorn this area seemed to al1 have had significant personal experiences that brought them to this way of thinking. In the case of teacher MCR/b, she had been greatly touched by the visitation of the two nuns and her discussions with a

particular missionary. It had been a revelation and had given her a desire to change her teaching technique (MCR/b-7, 22). Teacher MCR/g had included much artwork in her class due to the influence of discussions with her rnother, an artist (MCWg-26). The final three teachers had undergone radically alternative educational expenences - when they returned to the public system they found it difficult to go back to what they saw as traditional methods. One had been exposed to work stations where students were encouraged to be more active leamers (JOPR/b41). Another had spent some time tearn-teaching in Japan and had felt that it had made the students more motivated (ECUIf-26). The final teacher gave perhaps the most moving description of her inspiration - teaching with the Northern Cree in Alberta: Their life is a whole - they don't separate things into compartments. 1 had some Cree teacher aids .. . that were coming from the States. You'd open the first book and there was a picture of the father going to work with a little briefcase. ... 1 asked them, "where is the father going, do you think?" "He's going to the hospital!" [laughs] . .. they had a tot of TB cases (this was the 70s). The only time they saw a father with a suitcase was when he was going to the hospita1 in Edmonton, because he had to take the plane. 1 realized the irrelevancy of al1 these books. Their lives were so different. .. . And everything was a whole. Their way of teaching was very much the mother and chiid or father and child approach. The holistic approach. 1 realized that this was how children learn, and how we learn, too, as an adult. So that's it . ., "My dad kiIled a moose," [a student would say] So, we would take off and see the moose. (Today, of course you'd have a room full of pemission slips) The mother was cleaning the hide. We would come back and we'd write about it. They would tell me what they wrote. . . . Life was our cumculum. These were my best years. There was no strictures, no structures. Even physically, in my classroom - we had three doors to go outside to be with nature. Then 1 had the old man, the old servant coming to talk about beaver dams - we would talk about it then the kids would write about it. Everything was done naturally. . . . It's too compartrnentalized here. (EPUh-27) Analvsis of Dimension D: The Relationship of Grades 7/23 to Other Grade Levels Regardless of their situation (in Elementary or Middle school). it appears that the participants

did most of their integntion of the curriculum within the space of one year with one grade level (except those who were forced to teach a spiit grade). For most teachers. there appears to be little concept of a continuum. except for some contact regarding shared projects or outcornes with preceding or succeeding grade-levels. Figure 11.7 - Relationship of Grade 7-8 to Other Grade Levels (Teachers' Perception) Horizontal III-I Downward ti pw ard Vcrricnl Grade Rciationship i Negligib .High a~ cdium ~oLOW *Note - levels of importance shown above are based on ratings shown in Appendix D, and in the "Participants' Codified Response List" shown in Appendix H. Horizontal Almost d l teachers in this study had been assigned to teach one specific grade level (either grade 7 or 8). They indicated that due to this fact, they canied out most integration activities within their one class and rarely created any multi-grade events. The adrninistrator at School 6 ("Program Leaders") mirrored the situation at most sites: It's strictly grade seven material and grade eight material. There is a sharing of material and resources arnongst teachers, but primarily the subject content with the cumculum is not merged and blended together. 1 am well aware, for example, that if you're teaching in a grade seven-eight split (that happens quite frequently in small schools) that there is a blending of content. But. there is no blending of content here (MCUla-7) While the smaIler schools said that the same 30 studenis usually passed from grade to grade as a cohort (MPUh-16, JOPRIf-12), the larger sites tended to separate them from year to year EPU/d-10, EPUIf-5). This seemed to have been done for efficiency sake - to keep the

administration straightforward (MPU/c- 17, 18, 20, MCUIe- 13). One teacher said that she was sad because "they're really dispersed to the winds" when they leave her level, but looked on it as the reality of an urban school (MCU/b-IO). Downwardly Vertical While al1 the schools in this study considered themselves elementary (as opposed to the secondary grades of 9 and higher), the participants made a surprisingly meagre amount of comments regarding their relations to the Rimary or Junior levels. In fact. 32 (74.4%) made no mention of any grades below 7. This is not surprising in the Middle schools. As one teacher fi-om School 1 ("Charitable") explained: [There is no real connection with] Grade 6 because it is a separate school and actually the kids are fed in from two feeder schools so even within the two schools there are different levels to start off with. From day one 1 feel like I'm starting from scratch. Usually 1 don't have a lot of contact with [the PJ teachers] other than about kids that are on a specialized program - that is the only information 1 get, and 1 hear the odd thing from parents. (MCR/e-9) Therefore, beyond the very rare informai chat between teachers concerning problems in a particular student's progress (MCRIf-34, 35, MPUIa-8, MPU/c-20, 33). they seemed to indicate no reason for any contact whatsoever. At the schools where JK-8 teachers were housed together under one roof, there was an expectedly stronger connection - but not as significant as one would anticipate. At each site, the administrator maintained a fairly rigid separation between divisions (Primary-JuniorIntermediate). The principal of school 2 ("Forces Base") said that even though the teachers may have some infonnal contact, he made it a point to schedule segregated meetings regarding curriculum (ECU/a-1) to accent the progression of students' education (ECUIa-4). Because of their proximity, a few grade 7 teachers noted that they would check with grade 6 teachers to see what they had accomplished by year's end (ECUlc-8). On rare occasions, a few even taught

Junior-level courses (ECUId and ECU/e). However, beyond occasional speciaI events that may bring the school together to show uni ty, class-centred activi ties prevailed (ECUIa- I , ECR/b12, 13). Only two "specialty" teachers (French immersion and ESL) integrated Primary-Junior cut-kulum material into Intermediate level classes. They said that they had included these expectations to try to bring foreign or slow students up to speed (JOPR/d-9, EPUIe-8) U pwardly Vertical As much as the participants dismnced themselves from the lower grades, they seemed even more isolated from the secondary level (see "balkanization" in Dimension F for more analysis). Here, 34 (79.1%) made no mention of any grade beyond 8. The site that was most closely related to the high school, School 1 (it was actually physically attached to one) acted as an insightful example of the middle school philosophy. Believing the connection to be a doubleedged sword, the administrator thought i t was an excellent opportuni ty for reacher interaction: Because we are fortunate enough to have 7 to OAC. there is a nice bridge between the 7 and 8 students and the grade 9. The high school teachers are able to talk to the 7 and 8 teachers on how to lem best and what is their best learning style. If a teacher is having problerns in a certain area, other teachers can make recommendations and suggestions (MCR/a-2) This is supported by a teacher who said that he tried to tap into secondary resources (which he considered superior to middle school) as often as possible (MCRld-11). Both explained, however, that this link did not extend to combining classes or even allowing the students from the two divisions to intermingle in any way: No, we keep the two schools separate and that's a concern parents have when they first come here in grade 6. They fear that the high school kids will be hanging around the elementary [areaj. So, you are right. In that aspect, they are very much separate. (MCWa-3) There are reasons for being separate . . . parents have some real concerns about grade 7 or grade 8 students mixing with high school students. Rightly so. There are a lot of things that they can get exposed to. The other reason to do it

is - high school students really don't want to go to a pIace where they are hanging around with 7 and 8's. There is a sense of identity. It's kind of tricky. In terms of classes, there is some mixing of projects but for the most part 1 think we operate as two schools within one. We share some things, we do some things together, but I think our idea is that the elementary pretty much have a part of the school that they stay in and high school kids shouldn't be in that part. So, it's pretty much separated. Just think about the administrators it's better this way. (MCR/d- 12) Therefore, while some events (iike assemblies or joint-masses) may unite the two schools (MCR/d-12, MCRIf-18, 33 to 35) they were looked upon as neither children nor highschoolers yet. Most other schools had even less contact with the secondary system. Mile the principal at school 3 ("Open Option") said he was trying to form some links to high school (MPU/a-8). most teachers who bothered to deal with this issue simply dismissed it as a different school "with al1 different philosophies" (EPU/b-13). While, they beIieved it was their duty to make the student ready for their next level, the teachers felt that their responsibility ended when they moved on to grade 9. One teacher explains 1 might meet a [high school] teacher and Say. "how's so and so doing?" or 1 think our guidance councilor keeps in touch more and keeps an eye on the kids who maybe have resource problems or kids that have behavior problems. The general average student goes on and we probably have very IittIe contact, unless we meet the students themselves. But the actual teachers - no. It's a separate entity - but it's also preparing them. ... You know, it's a preparation area for them. (MCUIe- 15 to 16) Some participants had individual concems about preparing the students for high school beyond the demands of the Grade 7-8 curriculum. in school 2 ("Forces Base"), one teacher said that he had taught at higher grade before (ECUIe-10) and was interested in sharing higher level content down to give the students a head start. Other participants (MPUIa-8, MPUIc-19) echoed this sentiment. Some treated the students in a more adult fashion or changed subject areas in a

rigid schedule every day to prepare the students for high school (ECRIe. JOPWf-20). These approaches were more based on teachers' conception of what the secondary experience would be like, however, than on first hand contact. Completely Vertical Having found a niche at the grade 7-8 level, an overwhelming number of teachers (38 participants or 88.3%) just never considered the school system as a continuum from JK-OAC, beyond a vague concept. The only school that was really able to see the span of 14 years was school 7 ("Retrospective"). Proud of the uniqueness of her school. the administrator said that she had tned to find various ways to pull the entire system together as a unit. She and her viceprincipal each took tums deating with elementary and secondary divisions to get a broader view (JOPRIa-15, 16). There were also several committees functioning at that school that superceded the divisional set-up to deal with computers. healthy lifestyles, and the school environment (JOPRIa-14). Finally, she said that she had hired specialty teachers, such as in music, to teach grades 1 through 12 in order to ensure continuity. She added that when there was no dislocation between the grade or divisional levels (as seen in most schools) there was no need to play "catch up" each time a student made a transition (JOPWa-5). Each teacher agreed that this method had it pluses and minuses - because the principal had to deal with large rotary chunks involving 12 grades, there was a reduction in flexibiiity for ad hoc events. However, teachers and students were able to see the whole span of the educational structure and always had the end goal in mind (JOPWe-1). As one teacher commented - they were "al1 on the sarne wave length" (JOPWf23) and saw public education as a continuum (JOPWf- 13). Insular In many cases, there seemed to be a strong connection between the grades 7 and 8, although the Iink may be rather implicit at times. For most teachers, the actual act of teaching was relegated to one class at one grade level. However, to ensure that there were no gaps or

overlaps in the students' progression, most participants mentioned that they did long-range planning (or at least some informal consulting) with the teacher fiom the preceding or succeeding grade level (MCR/a-2, MCWd- IO, MCRif-9, 10, ECUh- 1 O, ECU/c-8, MPUh 12, 19, ECR/b- 10, ECWc- 19, ECWe-9, EPU/b- 1 1, EPU/c- 12, 13). One teacher discussed the importance of teacher communication thusly: With grade 8 teachers, 1 do talk to them a lot now just to see (because of al1 the new cumculum) where they should be next year, like what kinds of things could 1 be working on. Some of them have corne up to me with suggestions for the new cumculum. ... What suggestions do you have for us? What do you want us to work on? And so, in that sense, we try to give students steppingstones. 1 want to feel confident that by the end of grade 7 they could go into their grade 8 cumculum and be ready to learn more. So, that's a goal that 1 have as well. (MCR/e-9) Two schools even had mandated divisional meetings to make sure that consistency of expectations was maintained, and to look at how resources could be shared (ECU/a-4, MCU/c-8, A number of teachers had undergone the experience of bouncing between grade levels. For the generalist teachers it was exciting to see a broader spectnim and the vertical connections, but they also felt that it was stressful having to releam quite different guidelines and expectations (MCR/c-2, MCR/h-8, 9). This practice was, in fact, insisted upon in school 6 ("Program Leaders"). While the grade levels were kept separate (MCUIa-7), the administrator boasted the fact that most of the teachers were well versed in the various cunicula: You'll fnd that many of Our staff here are experienced with the cumculum for seven and eight, because over a five year period (and 1 use that as an example) you could have one particular teacher who spent two years teaching grade seven, three years teaching grade eight and they have what we cal1 a mixed timetable (that they have some seven content and some eight). So there is a natural bridge throughout there. (MCUIa-8)

Only two teachers in the study mentioned that they actually kept the sarne students over a twoyear period. The first was one of the only Tech teachers in school 7 ("Retrospective") and treated the arrangement as simply a matter of course: During the first few years of my teaching, 1 was Design and Tech - so I had them in grade 7 one year, and then in grade 8 next year. You had to try to work in progression there - so I've done that. [do you think of it as a two-year program?] Yes, whenever 1 was laying out my Design and Tech course it was laid out as a continuum from 7 to the end of 8. (JOPWc-6) The other, a French immersion teacher in school 1 ("Charitable"), had high praise for the practice, saying that she was able to plan more consistently and see student development: You see 1 have my students for two years and it's wonderful. You can build on the skiIls and knowledge that they learn in grade seven, and take it one step further. 1 would really argue in favour of that. ... They know what your expectations are and then you can raise those expectations according to the grade level, you know, and take it one step further, so they see the growth themsel ves. (MCR/g-6) A few participants said that they supported the "Transition Years" concept, believing that it was a quite distinct phase of a child's development. A separate school was necessary to deal with the particular issues that were prevaient ar tfiis tinz. Spxifically, they mentioned the importance of zeroing in on the social aspect (ECU/c-5)- the development of responsibility (JOPRlb- 16), and the general problems of early adolescence (MPU/a- 1, MPUIb-20). Two administrators expressed great admiration for the "Transition Years" documents, as they pinpointed the needs of these students (MPU/a-8) and the problems of an omnibus cumcuIum from 1-12: I've found in Ontario that the grade seven and eight have been the wasted years. ... Very often it was a holding pattern for these children. They did not rnove them along. It was, sort of, like the brain dead time, you know. ... 1 think the Transition Years at least made people talk to each other - seven through nine. 1 think they recognized that there was a problem seven through nine (JOPR/a-3). Changing Views The new curriculum appears to have had a significant effect over the way some individual teachers and schools have approached inter-grade communication. In general, teachers have

commented that because the guidelines now lay out concrete expectations in a grade-specific fashion, they have less reason to discuss cumculum with other grade levels for clarification. As well, two sites (schools 4 and 5) that had been rather experimental in this area seemed to have become "more horizontal" due to the new guidelines. School 4 ("hne Scholar") had instituted the system of split grades (teachers being responsible to teach 2 grade levels in the sarne classroom at the same time) under the Common Cumculum. The teachers said that they had been able to quite easily blend the outcornes at the time and teach a unified class of 30 students. However, in the past year with the enuy of the "rigorous curriculum" and the vastly different expectations for grades 7 and 8, they now had to treat the class like two different sections of 15 students at one time (ECR/a-1, ECR/b-IO, ECR/c10, ECFUd-14). While the teachers seemed to have few negative comments about the documents themselves, they found that its use in the present situation had put them in an almost untenable position (ECRIc-9, ECR/d-8, 21, 33, ECR/e-11). The principal, whose mandate was to maintain the split-grade system at the school, seemed to be fighting an uphill battle against the Ministry and her teachers, who were questioning the split-grade approach: The reality is - you have split grades because you have numbers. There is a reality of putting 25 kids or more in a classroom. So teachers feel strongly that they want straight grades at any cost. Teachers are saying "I'd take 35 one straight grade", and it's oniy because of the cumculum right now. The government bas made integration difficult. They have not considered that, and it is really too bad. Probably with better cumculum writing we'll get good resources that will pull out the important skills across those units. That's what we're looking for. (ECRla-3) School 5 ("Gemini") went through an even more radical transformation in recent years. Under the Common Curriculum, the Grade 7/8 teachers had been able to treat the two levels as a continuous grouping, and plan thematic units that spanned this period. With the advent of the new guidelines, however, these multi-grade themes became unviable, to be replaced by more

solitary forms of integration. Teacher EPRb explains the metamorphosis: Well, when we did the Common Curriculum, my gosh - the grade 7 teacher and 1 were tearn-teaching almost - even though she had her grade 7 class. and 1 had my grade 8 class. We used to put things together, she would have half of a lesson, and I'd have the other half and we would say together, we are one heck of a teacher. This was because we could do that - but with the common cumculum you had that time to do that. You went from grade 7 to grade 9. So, as long as they covered these expectations, it was fine. In this new cumculum, that can't be. 1 mean, the new cumculum has outlined these expectations so specifically - what is covered in math in grade 7, is not touched again in grade 8 - it's something different. So there's no real continuum in this new curriculum. (l3PR.b-8) At the time of the interviews, the two teachers said that they had retreated back into their isolated (horizontal) classrooms and al though they still remained great friends, rare1 y spoke to each other about cumculum anymore (EPR/a-1, 3, EPiUb-8, EPR/c-8, 9). Teacher EPRk was acutely aware of the tight-fitting situation she was now in. While before she considered herself a flexible grade 5-9 teacher, she now she felt quite locked into the roIe of a grade 8 specialist Analvsis of Dimension E: Inteeration Approaches Used by the Teachers While the participants' views on the various approaches varied greatly from school to school and individual to individual. some general patterns emerged. The chart below (figure 11.8) shows the overall approaches favoured by teachers. However. the reader should look at Appendix H to view the broad scope fiom school to school. Figure 11.8 - The Importance OC lntegration Approacbes (Teachers' Perceptions) Sesrcd Correlaie Cross Insertion Pluri Muolii Fusion Harrrionizc Thcinatic f rans Intcgration Approachcs *Note - levels of importance shown above are based on ratings shown in Appendix D, and in the "Participants' Codified Response List" shown in Appendix H. Nested Almost al1 participants said that they made preparations to place their subject-based courses into some meaningful and systematic order.' However, whether this approach was 1 The exception to this was school 8 ('nner-city Innovators") - none of the teachers taught an individual subject

course but a forrnalized Integrated Studies program. considered "an integration method or not depended greatly on the teacher's circumstances. Those who were doing much higher-level forms thought it to be basic comrnon sense (MCFUb19, MPU/a-22). Others simply remained silent on the issue (see MCRfa, MCWe, ECU/& MPU/d, A significant arnount of teachers tied this form to the new cumculum. They said that each guideline they received was broken into a number of separate "strands" of knowledge. They read it over and then endeavoured to arranged these strands in a logical order within the course progressing from simple to complex ideas (MCIUg- 17, ECU/e- 10, MPU/a- 18, ECR/b-29, 30, ECR/d-22, ECR/e-20, MCU/e-30, JOPR/e- 14). The following teachers explain the process: I will jump between, let's Say, chapter 3 and chapter 11 and then corne back again, because it links this strand and this strand and this strand. It just goes better together and it follows some pattern that is going to make sense to the kids. (ECU/c-19) We do some number work and then we move on to measurement and then to geometry and patterning. 1 think it's good, because it gives them a bit of a variety, but you do have to, hopefully, build and build the skills and use what they have learned. I can still remember rny grade 9 math teacher talking about math is like a sand pile - you have to buiId. 1 still rernember that.. . @CU/d-16) The nested approach - making it meaningful and taking al1 the little steps and at the end you get this big project but everything comes together. We start off very slow in September with just a process of writing a paragraph or doing a chart or doing a very simple lab. Then we keep adding, and hopefully, the student at the end of al1 of this will know there is a reason and there is a definite pattern to why he is doing it this way. Near the end of some of the labs, 1 have my grade 7 students handing in stuff that is very, very impressive and 1 get a good feeling. You can take the labs and see the steps that they've done - step by step, putting everything together. But that may take until almost February before we get to this level. (MCRIf- 18) A number of teachers said that they were struggling to make logical connections even within the subject guidelines.' Most felt that they would overcome this problem through carefui planning

(MCEUc- 13, MPU/c-30, ECR/c- 1, 20, JOPRk- 10, 1 l), working with the subject over time (MCR/h- 18, ECU/b-20, ECU/d- 16, ECU/f-22, ECR/a- L 3) and "creative shuming" (MCR/d-20). * The two issues of rigid curriculum documents and spoedy implementation are dealt with in more detail in Dimension F. What seems apparent is that the approach was usually the first form of integration used by new teachers or those approaching a new cumculum. After the connections had ken made within a subject area, however, teachers then began including material fiom other disciplines and leaping to higher forms of integration. The principal of school 7 ("Retrospective") was the most open about the nested approach, and its use as a springhoard: 1 see it particularly with new teachers. That's al1 they can handle when they start. But they grow. 1 mean, once they've learned how to teach that particular subject then they can move on to doing more integration involving other things. (JOPR/a-20) Once teachers have moved on to a higher level, they appear to become rather fnistrated with any return to this form, equating it with retrenchment and personal defeat. This was especially the case in school 5 ("Gemini") where al1 three participants mentioned their plight with some embarrassrnent (EPRIa- 1, EPRIc-2 1 ). Unfortunately, right now that is what I'm doing and I'm not enjoying it. 1 don't like it, 1 don? think the kids get as much out of it. Yeah - I'd like to do more, but 1 have to understand ... 1 have to get this down more before 1 can really go with it. (14B-19) Correiation/Insertion The line between these two forms of integration was almost totally blurred by the participants, who felt that the distinction between them was too fine. Quite simply, most teachers said that from time to time they have included information from outside a subject area into the general flow of the course. Sometimes, they indicated, this was just a phrase to jog students' memory and show relevance. At other times, it consisted of larger sections of material t&en From other curriculum documents to borrow time From one class to give to another. This was not

considered by most teachers as a radical form of integration but rather as just a natural outgrowth of the nested approach - once a solid disciplinary form had ken firmly created, then filaments could be launched out to other subject areas. In theory, one would assume that the intensity of usage would depend on the teaching structure (rotary or homeroom). The teachers' interviews tell a different story, however. The R o t q Schook Mile each principal had high praises for its merits (MPUIa-3, MCUIa-3, JOPR/a-l), there appeared to be little incentive in the rotary system schools (school 3, 6, 7, 8) for teachers to engage in this practice in any large-scale sense. In each site, teachers were given a set number of subject-related expectations to fulfill and unilateral cross-overs (whereby one teacher just decides to insert matenal from another cuniculum) were "definitely not a school wide policy" (MPU/a19). Even the principal of school 7 ("Retrospective"), who was extreme in her beiief that correlation and insertion should be brought into the rnainstrearn of education and made systematic, had to admit a two-week special project was the best she could accomplish with the present rotary system (JOPR/a- 1, 22). The teachers, as well, seemed somewhat hesitant about correlating or inserting information or expectations fiom other courses - especially the courses that were taught by others. Most said that they did it only incidentally - including a novel into history (MPU/d-21, JOPRfe- 16, JOPWf- 19), atlas work in math (MCUIc-20, 22)- dance in Physical Education (JOPRlc-2, 13). and references between subjects (JOPRfd-2, 9). They were quite specific about their reasons for holding off on this form. Primarily, it was the unessential aspect of this forrn that made some teachers recoil. While many said that it would be nice to insert a fun novel in here or a science lab there to interest the students, it was impossible due to arnount of prescribed material they had been mandated to teach (JOPWd-15, EPUIb- 19, 23). Teacher MPUId said that each teacher had their specialty and should stick with it (MPU/d-22). Teacher JOPR/b, a little

more timidly said that she was afiaid to "step in anybody else's temtory" (JOPRb23). She added, however, that she was suspicious the form may just lead to gratuitous and illogical connections (JOPR/b-29, 36) - "you're not integrating - you're just touching" (JOPRh-26). Only teacher MCUle seerned to have no qualms about inserting some geography and math into her science course (MCU/e-5, 19). However, she said she was able to do this because of the leeway given her by the science guideline (MCUle-2 1, 26,27). Even the teachers who kept the sarne students over a number of courses seemed disinclined to make too rnany connections. Teacher MPU/c said that although she taught English, History and Geography to the same students she would make only incidentai insertions (such as grarnmar into history), believing in the importance of structured time for effective lessons (MPUlc-5, 12). Another teacher suggested that this form of integration was perhaps more suitable for higher education (MCUId-29). The two teachers who were attracted to this form said that they did this to transmit personally important information to the students. Teacher MPU/b said she would introduce a lot of real-life material into her art class (MPUIb-14, 30). However, she admitted that she did not plan for this - neither did she look to any other guidelines for her source. She simply included the material based on her own instinct and discretion (MPUIb-30, 37, 39). Teacher MCUh said she also included a lot of unprescribed material - al1 related to the multiculturalism issue wherever she felt it was appropriate (MCUh- 1, 20). The Homeroom Schools As in the rotary system, the administrators of these schools (1, 2, 4, 5) were highly supportive of this method of integration (ECR/a-11, ECU/a-8). praising it for its practicality. They were also quite aware of the importance of the homeroom system in enabling that to happen: You almost don't have enough time to teach each Stream. What the teachers have found is that maybe they are going to do the data probability in science and not in math. So, for al1 that is covered in the science cumculum a mark has to be reflected over in the math column because that's where the Ministry

expects you to report it. ... there is a lot of that crossing over into different subject areas. It j ust naturall y has happened. (MCR/a-7) What was most striking about the interviews of these schools, however, was that while much more formal freedom was given to the teachers to perform this kind of integration, they rarely employed it in any systematic way. In most cases, teachers said that they would only make connections between subject areas or to real life incidentally, when a glaring connection hit them. Otherwise they would not search for them (MCWc- IO, ECW-24, EPRh 16). In most cases, they referred to the exact type of examples seen in the rotary system. This would include the insertion of the occasional reference into a class discussion, a quick ciramatic presentation in history, or guest speaker (MCR/e-3, 13, 17)- the use of maps into history class (MCRh12, 13, MCRlg-14), science-type examples in mathematics (EPWc-18), or a little history in EngIish class before teching Shakespeare (ECRk- 17). Teacher ECUIc is probably representative of the majority of teachers when he says that connections are simply made by "just stumbhng ont0 a book or something, and saying "hey, I've read this and this would fit in here" (ECU/c-14, 16). Some said they just hadn't stumbled over any yet but were open to suggestions (ECWe-18, ECU/f- 1 7). A few teachers seemed interested in using this form in a more intended fashion, and inserting a novel into their long-term plans a few times a year in the hopes of making the classes more lively and allowing students to see connections. (ECFUd- 19, ECU/d- 13, 20). Teacher MCRlf, the most aware of the valuable connection between the homeroom system and this form of in tegration (MCWf- 13), explained: 1 tike the definition of insertion because it's taking one certain subject area and one other small section that you just like to add in there - so you're not overwhelming the students. Say, as we're doing this, let's take a look at a certain sector in math (1 aIways seem to go back to making charts) - in the science we're going to take a look at math and making charts and how to organize a page to do charts. That also incorporates proof reading and putting notes in point form in English. So that just inserting little sections of each subject area into one project and putting i t al1 together. (MCWf- 1 8)

In most cases, therefore, the teachers rnaintained a rather disciplinary hold over their classes, whether they were given the freedom or not. As long as the teachers felt that a disciplinary pattern was the nom at their school - they maintained it. The only difference between the two systems seemed to be their excuses for doing it: in the rotary, they blamed the structure of the class system; in the homeroom it was the rigidity of the subject-based Ministry expectations. Harmonization In each of the Homeroom schools, a weak harmonization was utilized by a number of the teachers. In the three Catholic schools, reIigiodvaIues were said to permeate the various subject areas. However, the intensity of this fonn varied from teacher to teacher. While some were quite adarnant about its place throughout the C U ~ - ~ C U(M~ UCR~ / b-14, ECR/a-IO), others were more circumspect about its uses (ECU/a- 13, ECU/d- 12, ECU/f- 16, ECR/b-23). Some found i t qui te difficult to do with any consistency (ECR/e-17). Teacher ECRk was quite upfront about how religion was approached in the school: Yes, it depends. If you're getting into math and you're taking the Christian underlying theme of values and beliefs as it pertains to Catholicism. In certain areas where it is relevant - when you get into family life, religion even health and those kinds of things and maybe perhaps to a certain degree when you get into some of the things like science and discussing that. Yes, 1 would see that. 1 bring it up incidentally. (ECR/c-16) AI1 the homeroom schools made some mention of prornoting good writing and reading skills in al1 their courses. They said that they managed to accomplish this by keeping marks for wntten assignments in each subject. That way, it remained under the surface, was not obtrusive and "crept in naturall y" (ECUh-3, ECU/c- 14, ECU/d- 12, ECU/f- 15. ECRh-22, ECWc- 1. 3, ECRId- 12, 18, ECR/e- 17, EPRfa- 15, EPRlb- 14, EPWc- 17). Teacher ECUh seemed to si ke a

chord when she said that this approach was not a priority, but "to me, it is just out of necessity" (ECUh-17). Of course, for many teachers, uniformity was not completely obtainable - in some areas (like science and math) language skills became of less prominence (MCRlf-4, 14, MCR/h14). However, many believed that a base-line of skills should be rnaintained by al1 teachers (MCFUf-3, 1 2, MCWe- 16, MCR/d- 17). It was made quite obvious that harmonization in the rotary schools was a near impossibility. The principals remained hopeful that the 3 Rs would be reinforced by teachers in al1 subject areas (MPU/a-18, JOPFUa-24). However, most teachers said that due to the fact that they only taught a few subjects, any approach that comprehensive could not be attained (MPUh29, MPU/c-26, JOPRh-37, MCUh-21, MCUId-28). Even teacher MPUId, who tried to keep a constant set of ethics said that she did this in an extremely informa1 fashion (MPU/d-20). The one ski11 that seemed to be promoted, to some extent, revoived around the computer (see Dimension A). Because a large amount of money had ken earmarked for the purchase of computers, they had ceased to be thought of as novelty items (MCU/a- 10, JOPRIc- 19). In school 7 ("Retrospective"), there were enough computers in certain classes to match the number of students, thereby making it a vehicle rather than an object of study each (JOPR/f-1, 26). The participants who promoted harmonization most highly were, quite naturally, the French Immersion teachers. They each said that rather than making French an object of study, when they had the students for the day, they merely used it as a vehicle to approach al1 other subjects (MCR/b- 13, MCR/g- 10, JOPR/d- 1 1 to 14) - "It's a total experience" (MCR/g- 13). The Crossdisciplinary Approach The people who made strong use of this approach, in actuality, said that they had wanted to harrnonize. However, because they were trapped in a rotary system they used crossdisciplinary as a stop-gap measure for the while - it was the k s i they could do. The prime example of this was the core French teachers who still tried to use the Ianguage as a vehicle in teaching other things - a one-class history lesson, for example (MCR/b- 1 2, MCU/d-35, JOPRb I ,

Other teachers used this approach when they were especially interested in one area of the cumculum. Principal JOPR/a explains: 1 see this in teachers who have a real passion for their subject. They do a lot of crossdiscipIinary stuff, like - it's the art teacher who tells you that art is everywhere, okay, and they make sure the kids know that art is the only way to go - and it is life. It's the music teacher who sees music in everything, and if they have a passion for their subject then they do that automatically. The generalist doesn't. That's the difference. (JOPRja-2 1 ) In essence, she described teacher MPU/b, who had a "passion" for the visual arts. She used it as a vehicle to reach other areas of the cumculum such as science and math (MPU/b-14). She also used it to allow students to reach higher though processes in general (MPU/b-27). There is an orientation or a concentration that 1 am working on that day. It's not loosey-goosey. Like, tomorrow, for instance, we're doing art al1 day. But it's amazing what's in there. We bring in al1 types of skills. [like math skills?] Yeah, yeah. Therefs science. I'm lucky. I got to work with this artist. It's only one class but - you name it. 1 should wnte it up. It was a kind of fluke. It's arnazing. We've had one day so far. And we've got language, we've got science coming out of there, we've had a bit of history coming out of there. But you see, none of this was planned, eh. But 1 knew it would happen. (MPU/b-39) On the whole, however, most participants who used the crossdisciplinary approach, did it simply to interest the students. To put a human face on science or math, for example, teachers said they would give a lesson on the "history of the inventors" at the beginning of the unit (ECU/b- 12, 13, 30, MCU/e-24, JOPRIf- 17). One teacher explains: And, the science cumculum is so much more intense. We would do something Iike the history of force - "where did force come from? Who was Newton? Where did ail this stuff corne from?" So, not only did we do some history, and we would integrate some geography into that as well. So I think that one we do a lot - or we did a lot - we haven't done it lately. This is especiall y important when you are introducing the di fferen t curricula. (ECUIf13) Others wouid teach math or science through art (showing angles, drawing what you see through a

microscope, etc). This would attract students with a different bent to the subject (MCEUf-14, MCRIg-1, ECWd-1). Art, music and drarna could, in fact, be applied just about everywhere (MCR/d-4) to "spice up" religion class (MCR/e-20). English or history (ECU/d-2, 7, 9, ECR/b-8, 21, MPU/d-18). One teacher who had the students al1 day said that, for her own interest, she would slant an entire day more towards a particular subject area (ECUIb-3, 19). Quite a few people felt that this was an inappropnate forrn of integration at the e tementary Ievel (either through cri ticisrn or silence). The ones who voiced cornplaint indicated that this approach may be better suited for higher secondary or even post-secondary settings (MCU/a- 1 1, 12). Some felt it codd be a problematic approach in that it could allow teachers to dwell on their specialty and become increasingly irrelevant to the students (MCRff-15, MCR/h12, MCWg- 1 1 ). The Multidisciplinary Approach From the literature and what the participants had said in the other dimensions, it would be assumed that the homeroom teachers would do a fair amount of coordination between their subject areas, while the rotary would engage in more interaction with their students' other subject teachers. This did not seem to be the case, however. Homeroom Schools The principals, on the whole, said that they saw a lot of teacher interaction. However, they could not fit it into the truly multidisciplinary category of two teachers aligning coursework on an ongoing basis. Rather, they saw the teachers creating long-term plans together at the beginning of the year and then going along their separate paths (ECU/a-15). The Viceprincipal of School 1 ("Charitable") commented: 1 find the teachers do a lot of their planning together. They are going to cover a lot of the sarne material together and they share their materials, but 1 haven't seen a lot of two teachers drawing connections - of course, it could happen and 1 wouldn't be aware of it. (MCRIa-9) This is supported by almost al1 of the "generalist" teachers. They said they initially planned

together (MCRk-14) and informally shared a few ideas, tirnelines and resources (MCWd-26, MCRIf-9, 10, ECU/c-8, ECR/c-19). The teachers at school 1 said that for the science course, each teacher created a unit and then they traded them (MCR/c-14, MCR/f-9, 31). In only two instances (mentioned earlier in Dimension C), teachers engaged in any form of team-teaching to varying degrees of success (MCR/e- 18, ECUIf- 10). In most instances in this environment, teachers chose to relate their courses on an individual basis (ECU/b-9, ECUIf-20, ECUIc-18). Even in ("Gemini") school 5, (as mentioned previousty in the eariier sections) the two teachers had aligned their courses only when they had the leeway afforded them under the Common Cumculurn - they now onIy made connections in courses they themselves taught (EPWa-17, While some teachers came upon connections by accident, as with correlation/insertion (MCWd-19), more participants said they actually did some planning to make the two courses relate to one another. In most cases, the teachers taught a concept in one class with an accompanying activity in another, like an event in history and role-playing in drama class (MCR/g- 16, MCRIh- 13, ECUh-2, ECU/f- 19) or al igning geograph y and science courses (EPWc20). Teacher ECUId says that this is what he would like to do the most: This is an approach that makes sense. This is just king considerate to the students. If you bounce back and forth in history, such as doing the Elizabethan period in History, then something totally different, and then months later you are back to Elizabethan in English and vice versa, it becomes confusing for the students. If you can hold off on one subject, and adjust your timetable and your schedule so that they coincide, 1 think that only makes sense. And 1 would certainly, as 1 become more cornfortable with the cumculum, adjust to this approach. (ECU/d- 15) The final word on this area however should be left to teacher MCRh He is quite clear about the uses of the approach, and its limitations in the homeroom environment: Because we're teaching most of those subject areas, it's not like 1 would connect with another teacher. Perhaps in planning this within your own classroom, it is something that you may want eventually to happen - to make connections between two subject areas so that you reach kind of a final point

together, and the students can see that connection between the two. But in terms of doing that outside of the classroom with another teacher that is not something that would work here. The way our elementary system is set up here it wouldn't really be an option." (MCR/h- 17) Rotary Schools Remarkably, this environment appears to have given even less impetus for the multidisciplinary approach that the homeroom. When interviewed, almost al1 the teachers said that while they rnay have informa1 chats with other subject-specific teachers, they preferred to integrate their subjects based on their own initiative (which meant little more than the nested approach). Even where some tearn planning existed to eliminate duplication (MPU/a-4), teachers did not regularl y in teract to coordinate coursework (MPU/a-2 1, MCUh- 1 8) but used planning time by themselves (due to government mandate, this time is shrinking). The interviews at school 7 ("Retrospective") were very insightful as to the cause of this reluctance. The principal said that she tried to encourage teacher interaction (JOPEUa-5). However, due to the Ministry documents, the rigid disciplinary set-up that had been set up in the schools for generations (JOPR/a-25) and the traditional mindset of the teachers and community (JOPWa-26). teachers felt more secure teaching their little sub-set of the entire cumculum. The other teachers agreed with the lack of enthusiasm among the staff for group endeavours outside of "hall chats" (JOPR/c-14, JOPEUd-1, 2, 17). Teacher JOPRIe was eager to have a multidisciplinary approach set in place at the school. However, she said to do that teachers had to be mandated - forced - to do this, and she did not see this happening (JOPR/e-2, 17). Two other teachers gave a more practical reason for not doing it. They said that they would occasionally switch classes with one teacher if their expertise was needed (Le. computers), but the rotary

system was so intricate they could barely keep track of their own schedule let alone start dealing with other teacher variables (JOPR/c- 17, JOPRN-22.23). Some teachers kept the same students for two subjects and they did make some attempt to coordinate the two courses, usually through some "thread, like an event or ski11 (MPU/b-32, MPU/c-1, 2, 29, MPUld-3, 22, MCUIc-22, MCUle-29). However, even this was not as prevalent as would be expected. The one teacher who said she had done this type of integration on a regular basis had a confession to make: If 1 would teach history, 1 could teach the history of Confederation and in their language arts they would produce a newspaper of Confederation. Then we would have the French teacher and history teacher together. [have you done that?] In this school? ... No. [have you done it in another school?] In the secondary school, yes. Mainly between History, French and French Geography and Social studies. (MCUId-30) Even the teachers at school 8 ("Inner-city Innovators"), who did perhaps the most high level integration of al1 the other sites, acimitted to having very few actuai links with other teachers. On the whole, there were no CO-planning or joint projects, just the occasional and tentative chat to see how the other person's courses were going (EPUb26). They would share resources when asked (EPUIc-14, 21), or talk "to keep things straight" (EPUld-5, 10, 17). The informal "master" of integration, teacher EPU/f, explained that meetings or formal planning were simply unnecessary - they had just been doing it for so long that everybody knew what was going on (EPUIf-6 to 8). The one exception to this was the planning of joint field trips at the end of an integrated unit. One teacher would decide to end off a unit on "pioneer times", for instance, with a trip to Upper Canada Village. He would then relate this to the other teachers, who would then tailor their courses appropriately over the next few days. AI1 the classes then went en masse for economy sake (EPUId-16). Even the ESL teacher said that she would take advantage of the

opportunity and give her students a rnini-lesson - "so that it wouIdnlt be a wasted trip" (EPUIe22). The participants who were the worst off (whether rotary or homeroom) were the specialty language teachers. They said that because of the language barrier and because their subject was segregated into a certain time dot, they rarely had contact with any other teachers. They described thernselves as islands (MCRIg-18, JOPRlb-32, 34) or "one-man shows" (MCRh20). The ESL teacher said that she did much more team-teaching in the past but could not do this since al1 her ESL partners had been downsized (EPUle- 1 1, 2 1). She said that the only interaction she got with other teachers now is when they corne to look at her projects on the wall (Ef Ule9). The core French teacher in school 1 ("Charitable") was in a similar state - she could not even have much discussion with the immersion teacher because their expectations and student levels were different - like two different worlds (MCRh- 18). The Principal of school 5 ("Gemini") saw this trouble with her French teacher and said that she was trying to make some informal Iinks to the other courses - but it was quite dificuit (EPWa-17). The Pturidiscipiinary Approach As elementary schools, most participants remarked, there was no real forrnalized system to deal with the cumculum. There were no departments, or school-based Cumculum personnel. Rather, in almost every school, there existed an extremely informa1 system whereby teachers could get support and advice on cumculum integration problems. In each school, a number of teachers had won a reputation for king better in certain subject areas (such as math, French, etc), based on background, education or interest. Colleagues who were weaker in this area would then seek them out for advice and support (MCR/e-4, MCRIh-10, 23, ECU/b-21, MPU/b-34, MPUk-

3 1, ECR/e-2 1 JOPWc- 16, EPR/a- 18, 19, EPR/b-2 1). Teacher ECUlc gave the most accurate picture of the situation: We al1 have talents in certain areas and it comes out very quickly who has talent in which areas. You'll know, right off the bat, who is good at what. You will know who to talk to - they just give off that aura. If you want a play put on in the school you know the person to do it. If you want something organized, well, this is the person to do it. There is somebody to ask for math help because they will have a really great grasp on math concepts. We will go to this person. We certainly, under the covers kind of thing, know who to go to for certain areas. (ECUIc-20) These people got the privilege of keeping the subject resources in their homeroom. The administrator said, however, that this was due as much to lack of storage facilities as anything else (MCR/a-4, 10). When asked if she was considered a specialist by other teachers, the French teacher answered in a deprecating way - "Well, 1 don't know how special 1 am, but. .. 1 give [the generalists] their spare, let's put it that way." (MCRIb-20) Sorne schools had ad hoc cornmittees to raise resources. Sitting on these were teachers who had been volunteered - in other words, they either went to the meeting and were given the post through acclamation or were inforrnally told that it was their turn (MPUh-34, ECU/f-23, ECR/a- 14, ECR/a- 18, ECR/b-3 1, EPUc-22, JOPR/f-24). These groups were short lived however, terminating once the resources were procured. For many of the teachers interviewed, information, advice, resources or good hints could only be found through the teachers' own initiative and scrounging abilities - through informal chats and "stealing ideas" (ECR/d-21, 23, A few of the younger teacher complained about their school's informai system. One teacher said that it made her feel like she was bothering her colleagues, and wanted a person formally designated to handle curriculum problems, like a departmental head (ECUh-39). Another said that he was wasting a lot of time re-inventing the wheel which he knew already existed, if a mentor would just explain it to him (ECR/c-12). He hoped that the school might go

that way in the future, where teachers would once again be specialists in science and art (ECRk21). The last person said he had taught in Britain where even elementary schools had departments and he thought it made tcie system run a bit smoother: for every subject there is a teacher on staff - that's their area of expertise and they are responsible for learning and keeping abreast of the latest developments in the cumculum in their subject area. When 1 was in England 1 was working with English. Other teachers would come to me and ask questions for English and for phys ed. So, 1 certainly see the benefits to that, and 1 think it is something that 1 would like to see us move more towards, in a more formal rnanner. There is simply so much cumculum and it is so very specific, that it's difficult, if not impossible, for each individual to know absolutely everything about every subject that they are teaching. So why not have, in each division, or certainly at each school, have a teacher or two, that you can go to that can help you, with science or geography or history or whatever. It only makes sense to me. Every school has those - teachers that have more strength in history or more in science. In England, they are advertised. You want a teacher for science, in elementary school, and 1 think that there are certainly advantages to that from what I've seen. (ECU/d- 17) As mentioned in the Context section, school 6 ("Program Leaders") was the only site witb a fairly fomalized approach to curriculum development and resource suppl y. Six teac hers were designated "cumculum leaders", each given a specific subject area. They were given the responsibility of king liaison to the board and teachers, and to ensure that the C U ~ C U w~aUs ~ king taught (MCU/a-9). The principal explained the process: [The Department] is basically a secondary level concept. However, if you substitute that word to cumculum leader, you would have cuniculum leader meetings. That approach definitely happens here. In addition, we also have resource team meetings every Wednesday morning, where resource teachers come together. Those resource teachers function as teachers who help other teachers or aid other teachers and certain students with their class. So, you also have that type of meeting going on also. (MCU/a-17)

However, even with this systematized approach, the leaders themselves professed the infomality of the arrangement. As "leaders of servitude" (MCU/c-2). al1 the teachers interviewed said that their job was merely to provide help and advice when needed, not to have any summative role (MCUh-21, MCU/c-25, 26, MCUM- 12, 33). Beyond the perodic information sessions, the teachers said that the staff acted fairly autonomously. The Science leader spells out her job: 1 basically look after the science materials, 1 look after the prograrn - if the science teachers have a question, if t!!ey need something, they come to me. We have science meetings, monthly - hopefully, not always. Sometimes more than monthly, sometimes less than monthly so. (MCU/e-3 1) The French leader stated that she would talk with other leaders about where their areas touched. In that way, she says she is the most involved teacher in the integration process: Yes, 1 have to - because in this school we have science (en francais). So, 1 have to work with the science curriculum leader. We have religion (en francais), so 1 work with the religion cumculum leader. Even though we are teaching religion, it has to be the same as the English prograrn. So, 1 work with Teacher 15C to establish some consistency. 1 feel that makes the teachers feel more a part of the school, and not just like a French teacher. (MCUId-34) The principal of school 7 ("Retrospective") sadly stated that the school used to have a similar structure of program leaders but that it had ken cancelled at the elementary level because of budget cuts. Now, she said the teachers had to rely on informa1 leaders to provide resources. She added that she gave free penods to people within the sarne division in the hopes that they would help each other at that time (JOPWa-17). Recently, the only formal positions had ken created were for a cornputer resource person (JOPR/f- 15). Fusion Most of the rotary schools, as would be expected, had little to Say about fusion. The configuration of classes did not allow it. Principals of schools 3, 6 and 8 al1 mentioned that they had tried the various fusion experiments of the Common Cumculum (namely Social Studies and

the Arts). However, with the new guidelines they had quickly returned to the disciplinary arrangement. This change was looked on as quite beneficial by some and with regret by others: One of the ironies that we're finding is, the Minisy seerns to encourage integration but the report card is not in an integrated form. Where once upon a time you would be able to cal1 history and geography social studies, on the report cards it now indicates history and geography as separate entities. It also does the same thing with art, drama and music. So, that's one of the dilemmas we're facing right now - certainly a challenge. (MCU/a-12) 1 don? know how effective the fused history geography really was. 1 have a real problem with somebody having a history bent and some more time was spent on history and less on geography. (JOPIUa-28) Some of the teachers had actually tried fusing subjects in the past and complained highly about it. One said that she had been forced by the Common C U ~ C Uto C~usUe th~e a rts together and had created a mediocre mishmash, and would never do that again (MPU/b-28). Another felt that she preferred separate courses in History and Geography to allow more structure and focus (MCU/d27). In opposition, others had taught social studies previously and thought the two should just be taught naturally together (MPU/d- 19, MCU/b-2, 20, JOPR/e-20). However, guidelines and preptime limitations prevented this (JOPFUe-21, 22). JOPFUc - the one teacher interviewed in the rotary system who was actually explanation was quite pragrnatic. students, and could in theory collm in a position to fuse two classes - still did not do it. His He said that he had a science class and a math class of same apse them into one. However, he had other science classes therefore why take the extra time to make a whole new course outline? He added: Then 1 get into the other students saying "well, how corne we don? do neat things like this - and then al1 the math stuff - well we still have to do math." I

guess, for my own sanity 1 just Say - that's enough. (JOPWc-18) Strangely enough, the homeroom schools, although in a perfect position to fuse entire days of subjects also adamantly refused to do so. When asked why, the administrators gave imminently understandable answers. The Vice-Principal of school 1 ("Charitable") said that the teachers seemed comfortable with the traditional disciplines and that they simply didn't have a complete set of textbooks for each teacher to monopolize for the whole year (MCRIa-6). One teacher received the hitory texts for six months and then exchanged with another teacher for geography books. The Principals of schools 4 ("Lone Scholar") and 5 ("Gemini") put the responsibility squarely on the back of the new guidelines (ECR/a-9, EPR/a- 14)- while Principal ECU/a (of the "Forces Base" school) gave a more idiosyncratic answer. He said that he liked the disciplinary mode1 - it dlowed teachers and administrators to see exactly where the student was failing in the cumculum (ECU/a-9). For many teachers, fusion just did not figure into their paradigm. They accompanied their denials with a number of good excuses why this was not a great way to integrate. They discussed problems of clarity (MCR/d-16)- said they were following the Ministry directives (EPiUb-13, EPR/c-15, ECRlc-15, ECR/d-17, ECUfd-IO), preparing the students for high school (ECR/e16) or merely following the way things were supposed to be done (ECUIc-13). Some teachers even said that they realized the flexibility the homeroom system afforded them for fusion and said they might try it in the future (MCRId- 1 1, MCR/f-18). Of the entire group only two teachers said that they were presently fusing parts of the curriculum. However, when further questioned, they still adrnitted to keeping the subjects separate. The first said that she had an integrated Arts cIass in that she didn't tell the students until they got to class whether they were going to do Art, drama or

Music that day (ECU/c- 1 1). The second explained that due to block scheduling he could expand a history into 2 penods and make up the difference Iater (ECU/f-2). The one exception in this study was School 8 ("Inner-city Innovators"), which dedicated itself to fused Integrated Studies programs (History-Geography-English and ScienceMathematics-Design & Technology). Explained in great detail in the Context section, al1 the teachers said that to do this took a leap of logic From what teachers are used to. It was not linear, not structured in the traditional sense, and in fact defied the disciplinary system. The principal voiced her enthusiasm of the approach: 1 think if you go into the classrooms there are times when the kids aren't sure whether they're doing science or math - and they're probably doing both. Other subjects that are integrated are English, History and Geography and that's just a wonderful way of integrating. It's a particularly good way of teaching English because al1 of it is done through the History, through the Geography. So, the English lives through those programs, and vice versa, and the teac hers work very closel y toge ther. (Ef Ula- 1 ) This format was actually accomplished with great aplomb by teachers EPUlc and EPUlf (the founder of the program), who used it in conjunction with thematic units (EPUlf-1, 3, 4, 12). He would be the first to Say that he was endeavouring to erase the disciplines - "life's not like that" (EPUIf-28). However, both agreed that it was a rather radical form of integration and subject to problems at the beginning. Teacher EPUIc said that she integrated al1 3 subjects together, but that a few teachers at the school just couldn't and had to revert back to the clarity of subject separation (EPUk-16). She did admit that it was difficdt at times to bring in al1 expectations to the strearn of the program. Sometimes she felt it was dificult to work geography in and had to simply stick in things that didn't relate (EPU/c-17,2 1). The French teachers had a much more difficult time trying to fuse French-History-

Geography into one mass. Rather, they would quite often revert back to more of a crossdisciplinary approach - teaching History in French the first term, Geography in French the second (EPUh- 17 to 20, EPUld- 1, 3,4, 12, 13). -this is because of their level of French history. It's very hard for them because there's a lot of language involved. In geography, 1 can use more terms that they can just translate, and it's easier. Many of the tenns are the same in French and English for geography. (EPUld- 13) However, both agreed that while it took a bit more planning to do the subjects in conjunction, they would never retum to "just French" (EPU/d-5). Instead, they would just take the occasional "pause" to reinforce some grammar rules, based on what's written in the textbooks (EPUm22). Interestingly enough, even the ESL teacher, who formally did not have to inchde any other subjects into her course, seemed to informally copy the Integrated Studies approach and fused World History into her class for interest sake. She said that it has made a great difference in student interest and motivation (EPUle-2, 3). The Thematic Approach The thematic approach was perhaps the most ubiquitous and immediately recognizable of the integration methods. However, it was also the one with the widest interpretation, ranging from small class-based projects to much larger school-wide undertakings. Teacher-Based Themes Quite a number of teachers said that they included some thematic projects in their class they usually took up one or two periods and were based on the teacher's own initiative and design. In most cases, the themes reflected a balance of Ministry expectations and the mood of the class. One teacher said that her students were sports-minded so she did a theme on "The technology of hockey" (ECU/b-14). Another did one on "countries" that brought in Music, drama and art of various countries (ECUfc- IO). Teacher ECU/f said that he only did themes on a regular basis in religion (usually around some moral issue) - because it was more loosely set up than the

other guidelines (ECU/f-18). He discussed how he had the student tum the Ten Commandments into a board garne. So, we also have thinking skills and a writing project, because we had to wnte out the rules. This crossed three areas. We did it for 120 minutes. They had to devise this board game so that they could teach my reading buddy class, the grade 2 class, about the Ten Commandments. It was pretty cool. They do some really fantastic work. It's amazing what they've been able to do. You should see it - like monopoly board games out of the Ten commandments . .. trivial pursuit . . . it's pretty funny. (ECU/f- 14) Teacher MCR/f combined information and skills from English, Math and Geography to create a project on Volcanoes. He said that this allowed him to combine marking into one concrete assignment (MCR/f-1, 4, 14, 22). However, al1 agreed that this would be used as an end-ofunit project and not something that would be common. It was too demanding on time, the guidelines were now too straightforward, and ovenise would make the approach mundane (MCRff-19, MClUh-16, MCU/e-28, ECRIe-19). Teacher ECUlc said that she really didn't have the experience to handle this radical and difficult method - she confessed, "right now 1 stick mostly to traditional approaches" (ECU/c- 17). Some teachers made this a more endemic approach (ECR/d-20). An Immersion Teacher, MCR/g, for example, was a great "project" enthusiast and had her students continually making something - quilts for charity (MCRIa-8), artwork for a theme on legends or hats for math class (MCR/g-1). She said that it was just her way of teaching (MCWg- 14, 20, MCRif-15). Another French teacher, MCU/d said that she used themes continually in her taught class just as a vehicle to develop their speaking, writing, and listening abilities in the language. She felt that this method was best at this age (MCU/d-1) and would think up themes such as "drearns" (MCUfd-3)

or "carnival" (MCU/d-24). Activities would go around these and students would have to work in tearn activities (MCU/d-25). She said that although this approach was no longer promoted by the Ministry, it was her way and she would continue on her own instincts (MCU/d-37, 39, 45). These sentiments were echoed by Teacher JOPR/b (another French speciaiist) (JOPRb-1, 29, 30), who said that she could make a theme last over two months, depending on interest of student and the right school environment (JOPR/b-31). Finally, two teachers said that they had thought up a theme on their own and had corne back to it again and again throughout the term. With Teacher ECR/c, it was sports (ECRk-18), while teacher MPU/c dwelt on "conflict". She had the students watch a video in English on WWI, write reflections, do an activity in History, and winding up with conflict management in guidance (MPU/c-1,2,28, 29,48). The Thematic Unit Two schools in the study had experimented with the use of formal Thematic Units (created initially by the Common Curriculum), and had experienced totally different outcornes. At school 5 ("Gemini"), a transformation had taken place in the last few years and what used to be a flowing fountain of thematic units has becorne a mere aickle. Teacher EPRh and EPRk said that they would spend a lot of time planning out units they thought the students would enjoy and then working in the Common Curriculum outcomes (EPRlb-17). Themes would include ancient Greece, Victorian Times, Mysterious Phenornena (EPR/b- 1.2, 6). Whole days would be taken up with theme-based projects around these units (EPlUc-15). However, as the curriculum becarne more rigid and grade specific, and as the teachers got less release time for planning, they switched back to more conservative, less time-consuming teaching methods (EPR/c-19, 24). Now, they mention that they still do a few, period-length themes in isolation, but difficult with

"tunnelled courses" (EPWc-12, 20. 42). The principal was sympathetic to both sides. She saw how themes could motivate teachers and students - but she also saw the pitfalls of the approach: 1 came from the Formative Years part where 1 had seen the probIems of theme planning. Where teachers took a theme and they just ... the theme was the most important thing and it didn't matter what the kids learned about the therne. it was just a whole bunch of stuff. We tried hard to shift the focus maybe the theme was great and dandy but let's see what outcomes or expectations that you wanted to could cover and those were the important things. And so coming from the consultant role, we had to try to get teachers to weed out and to focus more. That's what we did here for the last few years to start seeing if we could shift the focus a little bit (EPiUa-22). The other school, 8, had an opposite reaction to the method - it seemed to have perfected the integrated thematic unit and had become a mode1 test case for the approach (this is discussed also on pp. 306-8). Within each fused course, the teacher developed a number of units that make up the entire year. The principal referred to the variety that was king offered - a stock market unit (Math), shopping mail unit, a pioneer school house unit, a trial of Louis Riel unit (EPU/a1, 2). The two who taught English-History-Geography used thematic units almost exclusively (except for the first few weeks or so to get the students accustomed to the new educational setting). A routine was followed - each theme had a novel, a video, a number of small activities and a concluding event (EPU/c-6, 17, 18, 21, 22). For clarity, the unit was layed out in a table of contents that the students would then fil1 up with work assignrnents (EPU/f-1, 4, 17). Some teachers found great difficulty in doing these units based on the new, disciplinq resources that were king offered, and did thematic units interspersed with more traditional forms of teaching. This was seen especidly with the French teachers (EPUIb-3, 15, EPU/d-1). As one teacher explains: No, not most of the time. But they do have a lot. When there is a unit to do, there'll always be a project. At times, if there is none there will be one - they have to read novels. So there will be a project on that noveI. There's not

necessaril y a project. (EPUId- 14) The difference in success between the two schools may be related back to Dimension C (inspiration). The teachers at school 5 ("Gemini") seemed to view the innovation as something forced upon them from above, and did not feel totaliy cornfortable with the method. The teachers at school 8 ("Inner-city Innovators"), however, always viewed the thematic units as something they discovered, perfected and promoted. School- Wie Themes A number of sites seemed to have school-wide projects. They were discussed by the teacher as being of varying success. Teachers at schools 1, 4 and 5 made mention of a science fair that occurred every year. As seen earlier, however, as the new Ministry guidelines made littIe room for the project, it had just seemed to fade off into the distance (MCWa-8, MCRIc-3, ECR/b2, 27, EPWa-16). As with the thematic units, the more successful themes were those that were "home grown". In these instances, certain key people were responsible for seeing that they were enacted to any great extent: In school 1, it was teacher MCR/bls charitable drive (MCRtb- 1 ); in School 2 ("Forces Base"), a number of teachers got together and created a career day (ECU/f6); at school 4 ("Lone Scholar"), a jointly chosen Christian theme was promoted by ail teachers at certain events throughout the year (ECRIa-2, ECRIb-25, 26, ECWd-7); at school 6 ("Program Leaders"), one teacher had organized an "International Day" event (MCU/b-1,2 1). Perhaps the greatest example of a school-wide thematic project was found at school 7 ("Retrospective"). When each teacher was asked about the most prevalent form of integration at the school, dhe immediately spning on "The Seaway project" (discussed in detail in the context section). However, to a Iarge extent, this was viewed as a special one-week project that was only held at am's length to the rest of the curriculum (JOPRIa-23, 24, JOPRtb-35, JOPWd-16, 18, JOPR/e-18, JOPR/f-24, 16F-5, 6, 19, 20, 24). Teacher JOPFUc sums up the approach at the

school: We do a three-week session of it, and that's the extent of our thematic approach. It's because the board has asked that we do thematic units at some point dong the line - well that's our attempt - and it's on the Seaway Villages the Iost villages and seaway. It's an interesting unit that we're going to do, and we get to do a lot of things related to that theme. It could probably occur for a longer period titan three weeks. That's the course they've chosen the last four years to do it here - so that's it. [so, a top down approach?] Yeah, but that's the way it goes - it occurs but just not on a full-time basis. (JOPWc-15) Grumbles against the Thematic Approach A number of participants found some intinsic fault with the approach. Some thought it more suitable for small children (MCR/c-11, 3 1) or that teachers could get caught up in the project and lose pieces of the prescribed curriculum (MCWd-6, 8, EPR/a). The Principal of School 3 ("Open Option") said that it was a tricky approach for higher level teachers: This comes directly out of the junior schools. Primary and Junior schools would, 1 hop, have a great deal of thematic approach. Our grade 6s are no different. As they get into 7 and 8, the thematic approach begins to dwindle somewhat and it goes more into the harmonization issues we were talking about before. (MPUIa-20) Two teachers criticized the approach harshly as king too vague and open to sloppy teaching. One linked the approach to group work and the child-centred approach (JOPR/e-I 1 to 13, 19) and feared for the students' grades as they progressed to high school. The other. Teacher MPU/b, complained bitterly that under the Common Cumculum she had been charged with creating thematic units around a fused Arts program (discussed earlier on p. 297). After squeezing al1 outcomes (even ones that were unrelated) into what she thought of as "artificial" themes, she said the end result was a mediocre biob (MPU/b-1). She was even more disturbed to discover that in this method rnediocrity seemed to be generally expected (MPUh-4,37). She said that she would no longer do themes - only if the kids begged her (MPU/b- 17). One teacher had a twist on the approach, thinking of themes as constraining as much as

liberating: "1 try to keep it rather loose. When it cornes to thematics 1 don't like to be corralled by staying within a specific theme - especially in Language Arts or something" (ECU/f-18). Transdisciplinary This was the one approach that teachers seemed to uniformly agree on - they did not go anywhere near it. Their negativity had wide scope, however. 1t ranged from simply no comment at al1 to a firm "Not bloody likely!" Many teachers gave excuses why this would not work: No - that would be hell on earth if 1 ever did that. Especially with kids nowadays. Our Grade 8 classes have 30 kids. 1 just can't imagine stepping into a class that size and doing that. ... God knows what the kids might be doing. Somebody could get hurt. No accountability. It's not for me. (MCRIb-21) No, we'd never get the C U ~ C U c~ovUer~ed . ... It is Our responsibility to make sure that the cumculum contents are passed on. What happens when kids go off into High School and they don't know scientific methods or at least not know how to implement i t? (MCR/c- 15) Sounds like Hall-Dennis. I came fiom that era, thank you very much. 1 don't want to go back. 1 remember walking into class and them saying "well, whatever you want to do today just do it. There are math sheets over there, there are comics over there." It was a total waste, because I'm afraid kids just aren't motivated at that grade level to do that. I'm really glad they threw that out. It was a disaster. That was the year they said "oh yes, you also don't need to learn your multiplication tables." Because of that period we have a whole group of students who don't know them to this day. (MCRIg-19) No, I'm too old school for that (MCU/e-32) You can't be that flighty. Well, 1 guess that was maybe in the sixties or something. . . . Yeah, the Hall Dennis era [chuckles]. (ECR/b-32) That would Ieave yourself open. (EPRIb-22) They are not going to come in and Say " Gee Miss, 1 really want to talk about those United Empire LoyaIists today." They are not going to Say that. (EPR/c-23) You'd better be good at it" (EPUtb-25) While the remainder of the respondents also denied the uses of the approach in any pure form, they thought it quite acceptable to give students a certain amount of "controIled freedom" choice

within tight boundaries (MCR/h-24, MPU/c-32, ECRfc-22, ECFUe-22, MCU/c-27, MCU/d36, ECU/c-21). Two teachers explained the reasoning behind their restraint: it's good to give your kids input, but you can't give kids too much input. They really don't want it. Yes, give thern choice and opportunities to express themselves but at that age.. . There is nothing wrong with having choice but having free rein sometimes is not the best. When you have al1 the power to make the decisions, sometimes that's the worst to have. It's so open ended you don't know what to do. (MCWd-23) 1 think the way 1 can see that working, is that if you set up a perimeter and you set up a structure, then you allowed the student a choice within that. 1 think, actually, most students prefer that. 1 think, if there was absolute free choice, 1 can't see much agreement among the students - other than maybe a longer lunch hour. So 1 certainly do agree with empowerment of the student, but 1 think at the same time, we are responsible for delivering the cumculum. There has to be some limits. (ECU/d- 19) Some teachers gave the students an increased amount of fieedom during research projects (ECU/b-22), special events, (JOPR/f-27)- Iab experiments (JOPRk-21). or if the students had undergone a lengthy period of training. Oh, yes. 1 will do some, but 1 won't do it after a certain period of time where they can control their own learning. 1 have to show them how to do that. So 1 do that from September on. You really work your ass off to try and get to do that. By January-February - now's the time that you can see whether it's worked - if you've been effective or not. When they'll slowly start taking over, and 1 give them a bit of control. (MPUh-36) A few teachers appeared tom in that they wanted to give more freedom to the students but felt they needed to know sorne things and they weren't going to do it naturally (JOPRh-39, ECU/f24). The participant who seemed to give the most leeway to her students was the Immersion Teacher JOPFUd, who said she just wants the students to keep talking - if they go off course into daily events or whatever, that's okay (JOPR/d-1 1 , 19). At school 8 ("Inner-city Innovators"), the teachers were well aware that the fusionthematic approach was open to increased student freedom. They had found, however, that the

constant problem-solving process appeared to keep students focused on the task at hmd. Like the other schwls, the teachers appeared to offer the students a number of rigidly fonnatted choice of activities rather than any red fkeedom. The environment kept the control (EPU/d-18, EPU/e22, EPU/f- 1 6, 20). Overall While participants employed a wide variety of forrns of integration at different times, it becarne quite clear that most did not use them regularly. Rather, they viewed these methods as supplernental to the disciplinary structure of the tirnetable. As a consequence, these forms were applied in a rather ad hoc fashion. The Thematic and Fused approaches demanded a more thorough transformation of the teachers' mindset and a greater cornmitment on their part. As such, changes had to be made to the actual structure of the class timetable to accommodate their presence. As seen in school 5 ("Gemini"), however, when traditional structures return the school population usually rejects these forms. Dimensions F and G - Hindrances and Aids to Curriculum Inteeration On the whole, most participants who were interviewed made only mild comment on being hindered in their attempts to integrate the cumculum (as shown below in Figure 11.8). Of most importance was their critique of the way in which the new guidelines had been distributed to teachers. Here, they comrnented on the way the Ministry had undertaken the task (see especially Speedy Implementation, and Lack of Resources), and the limitations of the documents themselves (see sections on Work Overload, Balkanization, and Specialize Course Structure). Figure 11.8 - Hindrances to the Implementation of an Integrated Curriculum (Teachers' Perception) Subjcci Ati. Spcedy Overload Balk Thrcar Specil Trad Tcst 2nd Ed PIC Rcsourccs Courw *Note - levels of importance shown above are based on ratings shown in Appendix D, and in the "Participants' Codified Response List" shown in

Appendix H. To arneliorate the problems they saw, participants took a fairly straightfoward approach. To solve the present dificulties of the Ministry guideline, many proposed a combination of professional development and additional resources that explained the documents (see figure 1 1.9 and relevant sections below). A number of teachers believed that the "grassroots" were a better place to look for assistance. They maintained that the guidelines should be more adaptable to their present situation, and that their colleagues (or other very local sources of aid) would be the most likely source of help in implementing and maintaining an integrated curriculum. Figure 11.9 - Aids to the Implementation of Curriculum Integration (Teachers' Perceptions) PD Resources Parcnrs Conimuniry B o ~ r d Princip~I Rolc Tcachcr Adaptable Open Studcni A ids to the Implementaiion Process *Note - levels of importance shown above are based on ratings shown in Appendix D and in the "Participants' Codified Response List" shown in Appendix H. Subject Attachment Homeroom Teachers Almost every teacher interviewed in this setting seemed to be fearless in regards to new subject areas. They insisted that the elementary teacher should be considered first and foremost a "generalist" in outlook and should never be tied to one sole discipline (MC=-25, MCR/f-23, MCWg-22, MCR.h-2, ECU/c-24, ECRIa-4, ECRIb- 1, 37, ECWd-26, EPR/b-27, 28, EPR/c26). As one teacher put it - "I'm a generalist who is a specialist in al1 my generalities" (EPWc-34). Some admitted to king nervous when they were originally given the subject load but chalked it up to "opening night jitters" that they sIoughed off in a matter of weeks (MCR/c-20, MCR/h30, 31, ECU/a-18, ECUh-30, ECU/e-12, ECWc-24). If they had been at al1 disciplinary in outlook, many supposed, they would have been quickly replaced. Besides, being tied to one subject was

considered "old-fashioned" by most of the younger participants (MCWe-24, MCWg-40, MCRIh1, 32, EPRIa-23). Even the teachers who confessed that they were naturaIly weak in certain areas (such as art, history or religion) explained that they compensated for this defect through advice from stronger members of the staff and prepackaged activities (MCWa-13, MCWd-25, 26, MCRIe-4, 23, MCR/h- 1 O, ECWa- 19, 20, ECR/e-6.25). R o m Teachers Teachers in this environment appeared a Iittle more set in their subject areas - the system of course promoted that phenornenon. Schools 3 and 7 had particular problems in this area. The Principal of School 3 ("Open Option") said that he found that a number of teachers at his school had originally corne from specialist situations and felt that the generalist position was a bit of a demotion (MPU/a-34). He said that because of this mindset, and the way the schedule had ken created, breaks were created among subject areas (MPU/a-9). As an example, he said that some teachers had great trouble doing themes simply because they couldn't visualize it (MPWa-27). The staff supported his theory. Teacher MPUh was quite forthright about her great passion for the Visual Arts. Although she denied that this would be to the detriment of other subjects she taught (MPU/b-46), she definitely felt that if she included any other subject areas into it, the class would become "watered down" and mediocre (MPU/b-4,5,20,21). The other two teachers were also quite vehernent that there was a time and place for each particular subject, and that while they may make forays into other areas, they would not let that get in the way of the mandate& disciplinary material (MPUlc-5, 12, MPU/d-8). Although both said they weren't as ngid as High School teachers, they felt cornfortable with the structured atmosphere (MPUlc-39, 40, 42). Teacher MPU/d also added that she would be fearful to teach kids something that she had not been speci fically trained in (MPU/d-22). The participants at school 7 ("Retrospective") painted a

similar scenario, where the traditionally, subject-attached approach seemed to be just de rigeur (JOPWa-27, JOPR/b-3 1,42, JOPRk-23). The remaining two schools seemed to have more breathing space. AI1 the participants in school 6 ("Program Leaders") proudly stated that they felt competent as "generalist" teachers (MCUIa-21, 22, MCU/d-40, MCU/b-26, MCUIe-34) while a11 participants at school 8 ("Innercity Innovators") simply had no comment to make. The Speed of Guideline Impiementation The amount of pressure the participants felt in implementing the new cumculum redly seemed to depend on the atmosphere of the school. Some sites took a rather "laid back" attitude. Schools 3,6 and 8 had only an occasional word about "time pressure" but little more (MCU/a19, MCUld-44, EPUlc-19). This might have been due to the influence of the more seasoned veterans, who had quite a calming effect of the younger teachers. Teacher MPUh said she had felt under the gun when she was implementing the Common Cumculum (MPUh-5, 50). Now that she was older, she had taken a more "let me just teach, will ya?" stance (MPUh-51). The other participants seemed to feel much the same way (MPUIa-32, 33, MPU/c-46, MPUId-30). A few participants at school 7 ("Retrospective") complained a little more vehemently about the Iack of prep time in general, but had no specific comments about the present C U ~ C U (~J0UPR~.h -3 1, 47, JOPR/e-2 1-22). Some schools showed more concern about the way that the cumculum had ken implemented. At school 1 ("Charitable"), the Vice-principal said that the process was a bad combination - it had been distributed too close to the beginning of the school year (MCR/a16) to a class of workers (teachers) who were self-proclaimed perfectionists (MCR/a-20). Many of the teachers shared this view, but fieely admitted that the events were merely the occupational hazard of the business. A11 seemed to take it with good grace and said they would just have to cancel

any innovative thinking for this year. They looked ionirard to the summer to retool and get back to business as usual (MCRIb-30, MCR/d-28, MCRIe, MCEUg-27, 29, 30, MCR/h-18, 20, 21, 36). This attitude also prevailed among the teachers at school 4 ("Lone Scholar" - ECR/b-41, ECEUe29, 30). However, the principal, who had just arrived that Fall, showed considerable anxiety about the speed of implernentation and mentioned it Frequently throughout the interview (ECRfa1, 2, 13, 24, 25). The 1st two schools (2 and 5) showed apparent distress about the way the new cumcuIum had been distributed. Each participant said that s/he was stniggling to get through the year and that this had put a considerable crirnp in any innovative thinking. Looking back to the Common Cumculum as halcyon days, the teachers at school 5 ("Gemini") sighed that integration was simply now a luxury that they could not afford (EPWa-28, EPR/b- 3, 20, 33, 34, EPR/c27, 30, 32): 1 am treading water this year. There are too many things thrown at me and 1 am trying to cover as many expectations as 1 cm, as quickly as 1 can, but 1 don't have the time to plan. Had 1 been given them al1 in early summer, maybe ... (EPR/b- 19) When asked the timefrarne of expected implementation, the teachers at school 2 ("Forces Base") al1 seemed to indicate that the documents had been handed them in the tate summer and that the Ministry expected immediate adoption. While they hoped that they would eventually come to terms with the guidelines, they thought it would take some time (ECUIb-20, 33, ECU/d-16, 23, ECUIe-15, ECUIf-12, 27). Teacher ECUIf was quite blunt about the combination of the new cumculum, the speedy implementation and integration: I'm working my butt off trying to figure out a way to bnng these together.

Corne back in five years and talk to me about this cuniculum - if it's still around. (ECU/f-22) Work Overload A relatively small number of participants (7 or 16.3%) felt overwhelmed by the amount of materiai they had received from the Ministry, regardless of the amount of time they had been given to assimilate it into their classrooms (MCR/a-16, MCR/d-31, ECR/a-1, JOPR/a-27, JOPRIb-2, EPUIe-22). One teacher felt so passionate about this subject that she exclaimed: It has caused a huge work overload, and the way they have implemented it, it's really not worth it- ... 1 don? think the workload any of us are under right now is worth it. There are a lot of very, very good teachers thinking of leaving education. ... it's a combination al1 of the work load - cumculum king up there as one of the heavier things on your plate. But that huge workload and not enough hours in a day, and the cut-backs and everything else. There are too many good people leaving education for something Iess stressful. With what we're doing right now - it's got to give somehow somewhere because you're going to lose too many valuable people (EPRfc-37). 6 others (14%) took a more hopeful stance, saying that the cumculum was a bit of an overload at the moment, but eventually (a year perhaps) al1 the expectations would fa11 into logical place and redundancies would be eliminated (ECUIf-12, 27, MPU/a-35, MCUIc-29, 30, MCUId-41, MClUh-39). To one teacher, the overload actually increased rather than hindered integration "1 think with the cumculum corning out, 1 think it is almost becoming necessary - because there are just not enough hours in the teaching day if we are not careful to cover everything we have to cover*' (ECUld-7). An overwhelming number (30 or 69.7%), however, felt that the arnount of material in the present curricuIum was not a problem. A number of participants remembered back to the Common Cumculum and feit that il had been an even greater work overload than the present guidelines. They especially recalled the futility of having to make too many connections between outcomes that seemed to go nowhere

(MCRk- 17, 26, ECWa- 19, ECUk-25, MfU/b- 1, 50, 5 1). The Principal of school 2 ("Forces Base") explained the root of the problem of this fom of integration: It was very, very demanding. People could not see the reason to do it, and there has to be a reason to do it. If we expect people to work, they have to receive some benefit at the end for doing it. That benefit should be - less work the next unit or something you could use two or three times. None of those benefits seerned to be happening. At least it wasn't apparent (ECU/a-20) His theory was borne out by the participants who said that they had undertaken to integrate the cumculum or projects on their own initiative. Each said that the work load was exceedingly heavy (brought on by themselves), but that in the end it was wonh it - the cumculum had more rneaning for the students and time was saved in the long run (MCWe-32, MCWf-22, MCR/g32, Threat to Teachers' Careers HardIy anyone made the barest hint that trouble would ensue for them by engaging in integration activities (in face, 38 participants or 88.4% made no comment). Even when this issue was mentioned, it was done in vague, aImost joking terms. One teacher laughingly hoped the Ministry didn't find out half of what she did (MPUh-5), while another commented on the paranoia of some of his colleagues (MCWe-27). Only teacher ECU/f said that he had been reprimanded for doing too many social activities with his students - but he agreed with the principal's gentle scolding (ECU/f-7, 10). A few administrators seemed rather ominous in their promotion of integration. While the principal of school 5 ("Gemini") had threatened disciplinary action against a teacher who kept her tirnetable too rigid (EPRfa-30), the principal of school 3 ("Open Option") quite bluntly said that he terminated or aansferred fifty percent of the teaching staff because they didn't fit the mouId of the open school concept (MPU/a-12). Traditional Testing A majority of participants (30 or 69.8%) said that this issue did not pertain to them - they were not held by any external testing body and were given the freedom to mark students as they

saw fit. The only concrete annoyance that a few teachers assoiated with this area was the new inflexible, Ministry-issued report cards. Because they had to give a grade for each strand of a particular subject each trimester, they felt constrained to include each one in the class during that time. Rather than building one strand on another, therefore, they felt that they had to include them in rather unrelated chunks (MCRIc-13, MCR/h-36, MPUh-47,61, MPU/c41). A number of teachers professed that while they thought there was logically nothing to worry about, they had a feeling that one day soon they would be teaching to a standardized exarn. And with this would be some curtailing of innovation. For the moment, however, it didn't worry them that much (MCRIe-2 1, 26, ECUld-4, ECR/b-39, ECWd-28, ECWe-27, EPRra-25, EPR/c10, 28). Some teachers even said that they would embrace a more ngid testing process (MCR/d27, MPU/d-3, JOPFUf-27, EPU/b-19). School 1's ("Charitable") Vice-Principal is perhaps the rnost forward-thinking of those interviewed in regards to the unexpected impact of the new standardized tests recently put in place. She concluded: It's going to effect us next year. Our teachers are just starting to corne to understand that a bit. What happens is this - It is the first year for grade 6 testing. This Fall, it's the grade 7 teacher who will give the results to the parents, it's the grade 7 teacher who explains to the parents where their child is situated in the Ministry testing. It is also in grade 7 where the parent will look at the assessrnent results on their student From the Ministry and look at the report card the teacher has just completed and will compare the two. If the Ministry says my child is at level 3, while you, the teacher, are saying my child is at Ievel 4 - who is right here? What is going on? So, the teachers are going to have to be able to explain this discrepency. So, I don't think the teachers are quite as aware of the impact that this is going to have on them. They probably will not until next year. (MCWa-16) The Influence of Secondary Level Expectations While principals of schools 3 ("Open Option") and ("Lone Scholar") felt that grade 7-8 teachen were under temble pressure to act "more high school than high school teachers"

(MPWa-11, ECRfa-6). oniy a smail amount of teachers supported this hypothesis. Some mentioned the cumculum material that the Ministry was dropping down from higher levels, and that they had to find ways to accommodate this new information (ECU/e-10, JOPWf-20). Other participants said that they were taking the initiative themselves - to prepare their students for High School, sorne teachers said that they purposely kept the subjects separated into formal classes/labs and made students pay attention to the bells (MPU/d-8, ECR/e-12, 16, MCU/e37). However, even at the sites with the most contact to the secondary Ievel (schools 1 and 7)participants said that their links were tenuous at best. They simply gave students increasing responsibilities to prepare them for the secondary level (MCRIa-2, MCR/d- 1 1, 12, MCWf18, MCR/h-23, JOPR/a-28, JOPiUb- 16, JOPWf- 1 3,2 1 ). The majori ty of participants (29 participants or 67.41%) gave absolutely no comment about any effects that high school may have on them. Resources Lack of Resources 27 participants (62.8.5%) indicated that a lack of resources had no effect on how they handled the cumculum. The remaining teachers simply made the cornplaint that they found the documents too "bare-bones" and lacking in any resource guides to help them find any crossdisciplinary connections. They felt that they had k e n left to flounder around looking for resources and wasting time (MCFUf-26, MCWg-33, MCR/h-20, ECU/b-27, ECR/a- 1, ECR/b- 1, EPR/a-28, EPRIc-33, MCU/e-2 1, JOPWf-28). One teacher made the apt analogy: It's just unfortunate that the government just throws it out there and says, "well, there is the new car. There is no owners manuai for it, we're not sure how to turn it on, but when you do find it - let us know. If you can wnte a book for us on how to implement it, send it back to us so we can send it out to somebody. Then, as soon as this car breaks down, well then you're going to have to find out how to fix it." ... You know I think it's just bureaucracy. (MCR/d-20)

At school 1 ("Charitable"), this tightening of resources had an interesting effect on integration practices. The vice-principal said that while the Iack of textbooks had inhibited any type of fusion (MCWa-6). the lack of storage space had created informa1 resource peopIe and another form of integration - pIuridisciplinary (MCWa-4). School 8 ("Inner-city Innovators") said that they felt the pinch of poor resources most acutely. A lot of the new documents and textbooks simply didn't mesh with the Integrated Studies. They were too compartrnentalized (EPUIc18, 19, EPU/d-2, 21). Even with ail the retooling they had to perform, many seemed undeterred from continuing this form of integration (EPUh- 19, EPUIc-29). Additional Resources Quite a number of participants (16 or 37.2%) indicated that they were reasonably satisfied with the resources that they had to deal with. Some said that they were stoical, accepting whatever the "powers that be" threw at them (MCWf-30, ECU/b-27, 38). Others took a more "home-grown" approach and got by through sharing and making use of resources in the school communi ty (MPUIa- 1 1, MPUh-45, MPU/c-49, ECR/d-33 to 35, JOPWa- 1 8). A small number of teachers actually specified certain resources that they thought would make their courses blend together easier. However, they looked on this more as a wish-list than anything else. This included better lab equipment (ECWd-22), prepackaged workbooks (JOPWf-29, 30) and additional resource teachers (EPU/e-23). In line with the previous section, a large number of requests were made for resource guides that contained ways of connecting the expectations across the subjects or in creating activities that would span the disciplines (MCR/e-38, MCEUh-43, ECUIa-22, ECWa- 16, 18, 29, ECR/b-44, ECR/c-32, ECR/e-5, 6, EPR/a- 17, MCU/c-3 1, MCU/d48, JOPRId-2 1, EPUId-20). A small nurnber of teachers had felt that the distribution of text-books by the Ministry and schoolboards had been faulty. One teacher said that many of the resource books he had picked from the Ministry lists were merely a waste of money (JOPRk-29). Another said that because many of the books were simply out of the school's pnce range, she was forced to either buy the

more substandard printings or keep her out-of-date tex& (EPR/c-43,44). One teacher, full of ire, candidly expressed her views about the cryptic process of getting textbooks: There is no link between what the Ministry's telling you what to do and the resources they are giving you, or allow you to have. .... Not even the teacher's manuals are provided for! I wrote for a second language manual a few years ago, and 1 know that in the manual, if you don't have the teacher's manual, you don't know what's going on. But now the Ministry is not covering for the teacher's manuals. For me, it's al1 a big joke. Here, we feel that the more we get fiom the Ministry, the more useless it is. Sorry to tell you that. ... At the end of June, we had two days, we had a list of materials downIoaded from the computer and they said we had this much to spend. 1 just got titles. 1 saw a title "interaction ... " something - but no description of the materials. So, 1 ordered this and it ended up to be al1 math matenal. ... You couldn't see it [beforehand] - not even a description. .. . It's iack of coherence and a lot of money is badly spent. (EPUh28) Cornplaints fiom Parents/Cornrnunity about Integraiion A good deal of the participants (18 or 41.9%) (including most of school 2 and al1 of school 7) either made no comment about their relationship with parents and the community or said that it really didn't effect them one way or another (ECU/b-32, ECEUd-29, ECR/e-28, MCU/a-20, MCU/e-38, JOPR/b-46, JOPRk-25). Others said that they had only received positive feedback from the parents for their teaching (MCR/b-29, MCR/g-25, 26, ECU/e- 13, MPU/c43, MPU/b-49, ECRIb-40, EPRk-3 1, MCUh-29, MCU/d-44, EPU/c-25). In school 8 ("Inner-city Innovators"), the principal actually said the parents were beneficid to integration: People know [about our integrated program] who bring their children to the school. Most of them I meet with personally before they ever come here. So, it's not a surprise - they al1 know that we do an integrated studies program and how we do it. We have an information night. 1 meet most of the parents personally. The kids come on a tour of the school. We have a lot of students who come to the school on cross boundary transfers, and they come here because those are the things they like about this school (EPU/a-10). Sorne teachers casually mentioned that a few parents were a little hesitant about any new or

innovative techniques, afraid that their children wouldn't get "the basics". However, almost al1 teachers said that these parents were satisfied once the method was explained to hem (MCWe28, MCR/f-25, MCRh-35, MPU/a-3 1, ECR/c-28). The only participant who felt of two min& was teacher EPR/b who said that when she did themes, parents were divided: That depends on the kind of parents. 1 have had lots of parents who Say they love this - love the theme right into ancient Greece, Greek mythology and stuff - they love that. And parents have said to me - how keen 1 seem on it. You know, Iike I'm keen on these types of topics too. 1 have also had parents who said - you need to learn to read, you need to learn to write, and what are you doing this for? Once you explain they are a little bit better equipped - you know. 1 would think probably, on the whole, I've had more positive than 1 have had negative feedback from parents. (EPRIb-3 1) The principals al1 agreed that the biggest influence parents had had over the disappearance of cumcufum integration was an indirect one. The Ministry, in an effort to put their minds at ease, had made the new cumculum rather disciplinary and conservative (ECU/a-9, ECR/a-6,23, EPR/a-27). In turn, some principals inferred that teachers would be swayed over to this new cumculum through nom pressure (MCWa-15, ECU/a-9. EPRfa-4, MPUIa-36). Parent/CornmunUly Supporf When asked, 29 participants (67.4%) felt no more parental support was needed and 38 participants (88.4%) simply did not mention community support. It would seem, therefore, that most felt that stakeholders outside the school system were doing enough as it was and that this was not the group to look to for aid. In fact, most of the teachers interviewed only made very mild requests for hirther parental support. Most just hoped that they would continue to be supportive of school projects in the future (JOPRif-6, MCU/e-9, MCR/c-32, MPUh-60). A few wished that there would be a 1ittIe more active and frequent communication between parent and teacher in regards to cumculum (MCWa-17, MCWe-9, 35, MCR/h-43, ECU/b-36, ECU/d-23, MPU/d-32), however they were not displeased with the status quo. Two teachers at school 4

("Lone Scholar") even indicated that some of the parents had gone beyond the cal1 of duty and had created a parent committee to help them find resources (ECRlb-44. ECWe-34). Only one teacher said that she actively recruited mothers to help her in certain hands-on projects like quilting or papiere mache work (MCRIg-38, 39). In a lighter vein, teacher MCRk said she was gIad her integration activity, the science fair, was over because parents were too supportive some fathers had become overzealous and built the project themselves (MCRIc-24). The concept of "community support" was an even vaguer term for most of the teachers. Usually it entailed the turning out of the public at school events (MCU/a-23) or certain locai businessmen coming in as guest speakers (MCRIe-17, MCR/g-39, 40). Teacher MCRh said her class was the most effected by the community. Her charitable project had spread through the school's chaplain to his parish. In turn, sections of the Catholic community had corne to give donations and validate her work through the publicity (MCFUb-6, 7). Teacher Balkanization and Teacher Support These two sub-dimensions must be seen as two sides of the sarne coin. Each site seemed to have had a different outlook, depending on the age of the staff and the informal atmosphere of the school. School 2 ("Charitable") - Almost every participant attested to the open atmosphere at the schooI. While it was rare that they had any joint projects or team-teaching (MCWa-9), they said they planned together and shared advice and support (MCR/a- 13, MCR/e-9. 1 1, 20, 36, MCRIf-9, 10, MCR/h- IO). Teacher MCWe suggested that this open and lively environment was created by the recent turnover of staff and the hiring of quite young teachers (MCWe-31). Most said that they were satisfied with the arnount of teacher interaction at the present time and had no need of any increase. (MCR/b-3 1, MCR/c-27, 36, MCIUd-30, MCR/h-38-43). School 2 ("Forces Base") - Like the previous site, most of the teachers who were intewiewed were fairly young. Most said that they met every few weeks to discuss the curriculum

expectations and were, on the whole, satisfied with this arrangement (ECU/a-4, 15, ECU/c-8, 27). While they said that they had not built a teacher support network that may come over years of practice, they felt that this would come naturally over time (ECUh-9, 29, ECU/c-8). As mentioned earlier, teacher ECU/f pointed out the problems of trying to force team teaching in this setting (ECU/f- 10). School3 ("Open Option) - While there was no alienation at this site, and the principal tried to encourage the group planning mentality (MPU/a-4, 10, 12, 37), the teachers interviewed appeared to see themselves more as lone scholars than team players. Ensconcing thernselves in the more secluded areas of the open school, the older participants said they did not need any more support from colleagues than the occasional chat (MPU/b-35, 52, MPU/d-15, 33). Teacher MPUh conceded that her aloofhess had come from earlier experiences at the school that no longer existed - in the past, she admitted, it had been the site of acrimonious divisions and alienation (MPU/b-54, 55). The younger teacher, MPUIc, felt none of this and blitheIy stated that she was given tremendous support and encouragement by her peers (MPUk-37,45). School4 ("Lone Scholar") - While al1 teachers felt that the small size of the school brought them together informally as a fairly tight knit group, a few acknowledged that more could be done to bting them into closer contact on the issue of curriculum development (ECWa-18, ECR/b- 1 1, 12, 26, ECR/b- 12, ECRk-3 1, ECR/e-24, 3 1). However, this was only a mild concern. Teacher ECFVb, who had taught at the same site for 30 years felt that the school had actually developed a much more collegial atmosphere in recent time - in the past, teachers had been left "to sink or swim on their own" (ECiUb-10). School5 ("Gemini") - An extremely small site, the two teachers continued to think of themselves as partners. The only change they requested was that they should be given the opportunity to work together again to plan, generate ideas and support each other (EPR/b-3,35,44, EPRk-36). School6 ("Program Leaders") - Only one teacher at this site made a comment

she felt that her and her colleagues should have a "gentleman's agreement" about should be defined and used at the school (MCUId- 1 1.46). : on this issue how integration School 7 ("Retrospective") - The principal of this site would be the first to admit that collegial ties were not strong. Informally, she said, there was no alienation and everybody got aiong. However, very few teachers planned together and even fewer did any crossover work - each one was an island until a school project was mandated (JOPRfa-19). She saw this as her next endeavour (JOPWa-5). This desire for more team-building was also expressed by other participants (JOPRlc-8, 27, JOPIUi-20). Most enthusiastic was teacher JOPR/e, who almost wanted to see a forced collegiality: 1 run meetings as a tearn leader and they don't have to corne after school and they can leave at 3:30, because they just feel like leaving at 3:30. Well, as a tearn leader, I'm trying to get a program ready and people don't have to stay (the same as our principal) nobody really has to stay anymore after school, you can't make people stay. Then somehow or other, if this is something that an administration feeis strongly about, then they're going to have to work something out. (JOPR/e25) School8 ("lnner-city Innovators") - Five years before, according to teacher EPU/f, an incredible level of collegiality had ben achieved. He and a handful of others had created the Integrated Studies program and saw it blossom (EPUIf- 1). Now that the course was formalized, however, it seemed to be running mostly on inertia. Most of the originaI teachers had moved to other schools - the new replacements seemed to have been given a training session on how the program works and sent off to teach. These participants al1 said that they would like more ongoing support and discussion about the fine points of the thematic units and where to find resources for their unique situation (EPUh-26, EPUIc-27, 28). Specii Cases The Language teachers al1 bitterly complained that they felt isolated in their schools due to the peculiarity of their position. The French Immersion insmctors, especially felt segregated

due to the language barrier - their specialty impeded them from any joint planning or really any discussions with colleagues (MCR/g-7, 18, 3 1, JOPWb-33, 34,43). ESL teacher EPUIe said she had also ken alone since cuts had gotten rid of her assistants (EPU/e-9, 11). Al1 three called for more teacher interaction and support. However. as long as they were the sole teachers of this subject in the school, they feared they would continue to Iead a rather lonely existence (MCR/g23, 37, JOPR/b-48,49,50, EPU/e- IO, 2 1-23) Curriculum Inflexibility and Adaptability School l('cCharita&le77- )A number of teachers said that they felt the new cumculum rendered some forms of integration (like themes) impossible, and that the specificity of the guidelines were more tailored for specialists (MCWa-16, MCEUc-23, MCR/e-19, MCWf-12). However, they felt that there were some loopholes in it for lesser forms of integration (MCR/a-14), and that in the long run the documents will begin to lose their sharper edges (MCRld-4, MCRIf-19, MCRh 21,22, 34). One teacher was even quite blas about the situation, saying that no one outside the classroom can really hinder integration if a teacher really wants to do it: 1 guess al1 we'll do is just change the wording, the objectives and the expectations - but the bottom line is we won't change the process. ... And actually it keep you fresh, it keeps you on your toes. After teaching the same thing for about five years, it's time for change. Mind you, they give you a wide variety of units to teach so you don't have to teach the sarne units every year. You're still teaching the same objectives, and the same format, and the same needs the kids have - but using a different unit that's al1 (MCR/f-27). SchooZ 2 ("Forces Bme") - The teachers were considerably perturixd by the lack of flexibility found in the present curriculum. Each said that it prevented integration and added to the workload (ECU/b-3 1, 33, ECU/c-9, 2 1, ECU/d- 1). A few teachers, in almost a guilty whisper,

found that the specificity and consistency of the new guidelines gave hem peace of mind, however. They wouid adapt to it naturally over time (ECU/a-3, 10, 1 1, ECU/c-25, ECU/f- I). School3 ("Open Option") - Al1 three teachers agreed that they did not mind the new rigidity of the cumculum at all. In fact, two of them thought the guidelines had been too vague in the past (MPUh-6, 21, MPUk-42, MPU/d-1, 22). Only one teacher comrnented on the fact that the Geography cumculurn had been too splintered: The geography program, incidentally, is a mess fiom the Ministry. . . . Tt's just not a comprehensive program. We've had to make it up ourselves based on the strings we got from the Ministry. ... Exactly. 1 think if you look fiom the Ministry down ... the Ministry doesn't seem to have a big focus with integration at all. (MPU/c- 15) School 4 ("'Lmze Schohr") - The teachers at this school had a universal cornplaint - the combination of an inflexible cumculum with a structure that demands flexibility (the splitgrade system). While the principal was trying to find ways to cornpensate (ECR/a-9), teachers felt that one of the variables would soon have to go (ECWd-14, 27). A few teachers did mention that the new ngid cumculum hampered any integration even at one grade level for the moment (EClUb- 1, ECRIc-1, ECFUd-34). Because it was a small, informai school with block scheduling, however, most teachers felt that they would adapt to this relatively short-term problem (ECR/b-20, 38, ECWC-25, ECR/d-IO, 11, 12). Schoof 5 ("Gemini") - Ail participants at this school were quite upset about the inflexibility of the new C U ~ C U ~anUd ~its inability to absorb the activities they had designed during the Common Cumculum era (EPWa-26, EPm-30, 40, EPWc-45). The principal larnented the loss of innovative thinking of late and hoped the teachers wouId not feel jaded about the quick cumculum changes (EPEUa-29, 33). She was especially afraid that the two teachers would no longer plan and teach cooperatively as they had in the pst: Unfortunately it seemed to be connected with the Common Curriculum and that really scares me because it was and it is, an excellent tool for staff to use

to develop both academic and social skills. I fear that because it was in our era anyway, introduced at a time when Common Curriculum was a real biggie that people will now Say 1 can't do this any more, 1 have to do this instead. (EPEUa-34) School6 ("Ptogram Leaders") - The teachers at school 6 seerned to feel more cornfortable with the more rigid structure that the new cumculum afforded. They said that it made the system more accountable and kept them on the "straight and narrow" path (MCUh-26, 27. MCU/c16. MCU/d-32). While they said that this structure might initidly harnper them fiom doing any integration at the moment. they said that they would be better prepared and innovative in the future. Just like the students. they would rather have to work within a stnictured ffamework than to have total freedom (MCU/c-2 1, MCU/e-35). School 7 ("Retrospecfive") - At this school, the participants simply mentioned the constrictions they were feeling in trying to integrate the grade levels and organizing the various strands (JOPRlb43,45, JOPR/c-17). Teacher JOPRk was the most vocal about this problem: 1 don't think that there's a naturai progression with the cuniculum that we have. ... Lumps - teach them sections - lumps, lumps, lumps. With the cumculum in the past, 1 think there was a progression from the 7's to 8's . . . 1 think teachers are used to teaching that way. You start with the basic skills in math for instance, and work your way to the more difficult stuff. You donnt have that option now. . . . you've got to cover al1 those five things in your first two and a half months. There's no way you can progress al1 those things and tie them al1 in together. (JOPRk- 10) Otherwise, the new cuniculum's structure did not hinder the other teachers. School8 ("lnner-city Innovators") - The teachers that responded said they Ioved the Integrated Studies program because of its adaptability, king able to lengthen or shorten the thematic units as they wished (EPUIc-23, EPUlf-33). However, this came into direct conflict with the new guidelines, which rigidly slotted English, History, and Geography into separate compartments.

The teachers who tried to follow these documents and use the accompanying texts were having a very diffvxlt time (EPUh-14, 27, EPU/c-24, EPUId-2, 20). Teacher EPUIf said that he continued to use his own resources, praised their adaptability, and said it was just business as usual (EPU/f-25,26). Professional Development 28 people (65%) said that professional development would be a help for them when approaching curriculum integration. However, their definition of this help varied greatly. 11 teachers requested joint release time so that they could research the topic and plan as a team EPR/b-47, EPWc43, MCUIe-41, MCUId-47, MCUh-35, 37). At school 7, one teacher was exceedingly keen on the notion, although she was a little skepticd about its realization: To me, 1 would love to do that - but that takes commitment by every member of a team. It takes an awful lot of time to plan. It takes looking and Iooking and looking, and working with those documents. 1 come back to the big T word - and unless tirne is actually given to teachers within school time ... Maybe TA'S take the kids and do something with them once a week and allow us an hour or two hours once a week - an afternoon, where the whole team can get together and freed up teachers will take those kids and do something else with them to free us to do the planning. Then we can pay them back whenever their division has some planning time, and we'lI take their kids. Somehow, somewhere if that's what you really want and it's not going to happen unless that kind of thing happens - okay. (JOPiUe-25) Sorne teachers felt that it would help if the administration brought in experts to show hem how the new cumculum worked (ECUla-23, ECUId-22) or to direct them to the resources (ECU/b34, ECR/d-33, ECIUe-33. EPR/a-29, EPUId-21). One wily administrator said that what technicaily should happen is that teachers should have a while to mu11 over the documents, get into jarns, and then b h g in experts to answer their questions (MCRIa-2 t ). A few teachers felt that professional development served a different purpose - that of inspiration. They said that over time educators begin to burn out because they feel that their input

is futile or that they are out of touch with the bigger aims of education. An animated speaker could do much to re-infuse energy into teachers (MPUIa-36, EPR/b-38, MCU/b-32). Teacher MPU/c, for exarnple, was able to go to a conference and then returned to share with the staff. She said this validated her work (MPU/c-36-47). Teacher MPU/d was quite sure of its benefits: It doesn't matter what it would be, one that is inspirational, where ail the teachers get elevated. 1 cal1 it - they get their wings, they get their inspiration. . . . You do definitely need al1 tfiree [kinds of P.D. days]. One for your own professional growth, one for the kids with their parents and one for the inspiration. Positive talkers - like we had Bill Mitchell, we've had Jean Chretien. ... it was quite enlightening, quite eievating, it gives you a boost. (ECRId-32) Board Support Out of al1 the teachers interviewed, only four acknowledged that they had asked for and received support from the board that year. This included expanded units (ECRk-34, MCU/c30), a computer hook up (JOPR/f-14), and a workshop on Multiple Intelligences (MPU/c). Others had a desire for board matenal, but didn't think it was essential and did not have high hopes of ever seeing it (MCiUd-33, ECU/b-27, 37, EPRh-43. MCUIe-41). A few even had more modest requests - one teacher just wanted them to do the budget earlier so she could choose her textbooks (MCRk-33). while the other wanted a better explanation of the new report card than she had gotten at the board's workshop (EPRb43). Most participants (29 or 67.4%) simply made no comment. As mentioned earlier, administrators blamed this vacuum on the state of chaos that amalgarnations has caused (MCFUa-12, 21, ECWa-18). Regardless, the vast size of the new boards had not gone unnoticed by the teachers - EPR/b quite ingenuously remarked: "Holy mackerel - what Board? We're in the middle of a huge country with this Board. P.E.I. is srnaller than this Board" (EPR/b-39). Principal Support At almost every school the participants said that the administration had given them ample

support in the past through encouragement, the procurement of release time and the allocation of resources (MCR/b-23, MCR/d-33, MCRIe- 19, MCRIf-3 1, MCRfg-35, 37, EPR/b-26, 41, EPRk24). They had little doubt that this would continue in the future (MPU/b-26, 45, MPUlc-36, 49, MCU/b-28, MCU/e-41). A few teachers rernarked that they thought the principal of their particular sight had, in fact, acted beyond the cal1 of duty in some instances. In the case of the science fair, teacher MCRk said it never would have been started without the inspiration of the principal (MCRfc-18). Teacher EPU/f said that he had undying respect for the previous principal who had given him the fieedom to start the Integrated Studies program and had then ken able to perform scheduling "miracles" to formalize the program (EPUIf-30). In school 2 ("Forces Base"), a number of the participants mentioned "professional freedom" - they said that the greatest thing the principal had done was to trust them as teachers and let them get on with their work undisturbed (ECU/b-28, 35, ECU/f-27). He confirmed this view by saying that he was merely the "checkpoint" to make sure the expectations were king maintained, and not there to tell them how to get them across to the students (ECUIa-6, 12, 18, 22). Teacher MPUh made the interesting point about "heart" - she said the last principal had simply thrown money at her, while the present one (MPU/a) actually cared about her subject. This had made a difference in her morale when she was attempting something innovative (MPU/b-26). The only negative comment was made in school 8 ("Inner-city Innovators") - the teachers complained about the incredible amount of paperwork required from the administration when they wanted to leave the school with their class (EPUb-28, EPUlf-4 1). Role Mode1 A number of participants said that they would be quite open to some fom of mentonng

system. Some just requested this to get them up to speed on how the new guidelines would work in a cIassroom setting (ECR/b-43). Others wanted to get insight into how other teachers handte a more integrated class or project (MCR/d-34, MCR/e-33, 37, MCRIh-44, MCUle-42). One teacher entitled this "practical PD" (MCR/e-34). Three administrators said chat they had, in the past year, tried to procure some release time so teachers could make ciassroom visitations and peer coaching (MCR/a-23, ECWa-18, MPUIa-37). Only one teacher made mention of a more formalized "job shadowing" program within the board, but said that she had only heard of it. not tried it herself (ECR/e-35). The only two schools that seemed to have a reaI "role model" for integration were schools 7 and 8. In the former, vague mention was made of a grade 4 teacher who was a "master of integration" and inforrnally gave advice to those seeking enlightenment at the school (JOPR/c-27). The latter has been discussed earlier - the newer teachers viewed EPU/f as their Integrated Studies guru and tried to emulate his practices as best they could (EPUlc30, EPUId-2 1 ). Open Policy Most teachers seemed to have no opinion about the number of stakeholder groups that should be involved in cumculurn design (38 or 88.4%). It was simply beyond their scope and they thought the arnount of people invoived would have no effect on integration potential. Only teacher MPUh made specific comment, saying that the Ministry had gone to two different extremes. The Common Cumculum had been written and validated by too many stakeholders creating a vague and mediocre document (MPU/b-1, 3), while the newest one seems to be designed by an eli te group too removed from the operating core (MPUh-4 1). On the receiving end, no teachers willingiy adrnitted that they were open to input from other stakeholder groups. It seems that once the documents hit their mailboxes, the participants wanted sole control over how

it should be delivered in their classroom. The principal of school 5 ("Gemini") was the only participant who gave any credence to the importance of stakeholder acceptance (EPWa-32). Student Collaboration For a great number of participants (29 or 67.4%), the concept of giving the students any control over the curriculum just never entered their mincis. The remaining teachers made only vague comments on any active role students may play. A pair of teachers said that they would allow some collaboration if the students were highly acadernic and self-motivated (MCRk-37) or properly trained to accept added independence (MPUh-14). Mile it may be assurned that most teachers thought this implicitly, a few teachers explicitly said that they used their students as barorneters for class activities. If they appeared duIl and lifeless, she would try to find other approaches. In that way, they saw them as collaborators (ECUIc-2 1, MPU/b-6 1 ). Some teachers even said they would act on student suggestions for projects and activities, although they maintained veto power (MCRIb-25, 32, 34, 38, MCR/e- 13, MCR/f-22, MCRb 16, ECUld19, MPUIc-23, EPR/b-46). Only one teacher went as far as calling the students "CO-creators" (MCR/g-28). Conclusion and Discussion In order to address the various issues raised by the preceding research with clarity, this final chapter is divided into four sections. The first examines the specific findings of this study in an effort to answer the first half of the third research question asked on page 32: "How do the Ministry and Practitioners' perspectives compare to each other?'It will also draw a composite picture of how the Ontario educational system generally views curriculum integration as an approach and the benefits derived from its use. The second section will outline the limitations of this study and explain the extent to which its findings may be applied. The third section deals with the second half of the third research question: "What factors andor conditions expiain their alignment?'The responses to this must be seen as more tentative bases for discussion than definitive conclusions. It points out the numerous themes and issues that arose fiom the present

study and considers their potential importance for continued investigation. Finally, this chapter will outline the potential conmbutions that this study may have for future research and practice in this field. Part 1 - Summarv of Main Findings 1. Shared Aspects of the Definition While this study rarely found any explicit statements that tied the two phases of the research together in an absolute definition of the term, there nevertheless seemed to be a great deal of tacit agreement between the Ministry and the participants on the more general, philosophical aspects. This included Dimensions A and B, which, according to Roland Case (1991), ask the more intangible questions of "What domains of knowledge are integrated into the curriculum?" and "What purpose or objective does cumculum integration serve?" Dimension A - A Generay Shured Vision of Curriculum Elements A number of close parallels existed between the two levels of the Ontario education system represented in this study. Specifically, there seemed to be a general synchronization concerning what elements should be integrated into the cumculum (see figure 12.1 ): Social Skills Individual Development Underlying Principles Almost Universall y Low (except Periods 4 & 9) A gradua1 increase in importance. both in overall terms to the cumiculum and in terms of integratability. By P e r d 9 this element (especially "the basics" reading, writing and mathematical skills) has become of paramount importance. - In the early periods (1-3) there was

an accent of "hands-on" skills such as woodworking, etc. - In the middle periods (4-6) this element ranked very low - In the later periods (7-9) this element was tied to relevance, "Practical Applications". and computer skills. While k i n g of great importance in the earlier periods, this element has shown a distinct and graduai decline Great flucuations of importance over the periods. In Periods L and 5, it is a paramount element. in periods 4 and 9, it is downplayed. The guidelines usually only promote broad-bas& beliefs. In early years it was religion and partriotism. In more recent years (Period 7 onwards) it has been multiculturalism and environmentalism Schools Almost Uni versa11 y low This element was ranked the highest (especially reading and writing) by almost ail participants. even those not directly related to Ianguage skills. - A majority of participants ranked this high when defined as "Relevance." - A smailer nurnber felt that "Hands-On" had some importance. Some participants are quite committed to promoting this element.

Most see "Group work" and social skills as k i n g of secondary importance Seems to be a personal decision on the part of the participant to include it or not. Some are adamant in its promotion, others ignore it. In Separate Schools. the Catholic faith promoted as an element of high secondary importance. In Public Schools, there is more of rt promotion of broad base. beliefs (like multiculturalism and environmentalisni). Figure 12.1 - Dimension A: Generally Shared Vision of Cumculum Elements Content - For the past sixty years, this element has played a fairly low-level role for the Ministry, rising to prominence solely in the final period, 9. While the teachers said that they would follow the central authority's directives and make some attempt to intemdize this change in elementai priority, they aIso expressed their desire to maintain the traditional trend. They agreed that some content was neessary to give body to the cumculum. However, most participants were fearf'ul that the Ministry's accent on content had the potential to degenerate into rote learning. Academic Skills - As shown on pages 257-258, academic skills have steadily grown in importance in Ministry documents fiom 1938 onward. Beginning with very little notice in periods 1 and 2, this element then remained fairly segregated from other subject areas until period 6. It was only over subsequent periods that the Ministry employed a truly interdisciplinary approach, getting stronger with each era. The documents of period 6 suggested an Across-the-Cu~culum method. By period 7, this became a mandated approach. By period 8, it is almost impossible to separate academic skills into distinct subject areas. In fact, skilis, rather than subjects become the basic units of study. As with "content", the final period

perforrned a volte-face to this innovation. While the new documents gave prominence to the "basic" scientific, mathematical and language skills, they also segregated them into assigned subject niches - rnost likely for accountability concems (see below on pp. 430-432 concerning this aspect of integration). The participants of the second phase of this study seem to share the conciliatory spirit of periods 6 and 7. Most pointed to the importance of academic skills in a general education, thereby making it the most readily employed element in the integration process. As well, it was commonly acknowledged that "the basics" (language skills, followed by math, computers, general research skills) represented this element. However, most participants neither agreed with the extent of integration found in the Common Cumculum, nor were they satisfied with the relative isolation of skills found in the latest, "rigorous" curriculum. Rather, participants seemed to promote the philosophy of "Language Across the Curriculum" where language study plays an additive role in al1 subject areas (see pp. 3 1 1-3 1 3 for detail). PracticaVManua Skills - While the Ministry has periodically endeavoured to integrate some form of "survival skills" into the cumculum, certain aspects of this dimension have risen and fallen over the designated periods of this study. In the early documents, this dimension was equated with the "Han&-On" approach. However, this definition faded in the 1950s, never to retum to popularity. When "PracticaYManual Skills" recovered in the later periods, this element came to be likened to the more generic "Life Skills" or the ability to manage personal affairs, to be adaptable, and to be self-retiant in society. Concomitantly, this tenn has also meant "relevance" to life outside school. By period 9, the curriculum documents make more specific references to "practical applications" or the ability to apply abstract knowledge to a farniliar situation. Overwhelmingly, practitioners ranked this element (or more precisely "relevance") highly. This is in line with the definition put forward by the Ministry documents of the previous 4 periods. The integration of Hands-On techniques (seen in Periods 1 and 2) and career education (seen in Periods 4 or 7) played no significant role for the cumculum in schools that

were interviewed. Social Skills - While going through sporadic periods of popularity, social skills have generally ken relegated to a secondary position by the Ministry. There is a general use of group work and social skills throughout periods 6 and 7, and collaboration is highly promoted for the shortIived period 8. However, by the mid-1990s. the benefits of group work were no longer mentioned in the curriculum documents. While the guidelines of Penod 9 agree that students should lem coopentive skills and citizenship training, they do not state that these aspects need to be learned through their active participation. The interviews with practitioners in phase two reflect a similar struggle concerning this element. While most stated their belief in socializing students and helping them develop communication skills, they also expressed their deep concerns about the fieedom and ensuing chaos that unbridled group work may promote (see also pp. 436-438 concerning control and integration). Arising from this dichotomy, therefore, participants only mention half-hearted attempts at group work within their classrooms. individual Deveiopment - While sorne periods made a genuine attempt to address students' individual development, this was an issue of some contention over the past sixty years. The documents of most penods either dealt with this element as "the meeting of generic adolescent needs" (periods 2, 6, 7, 8) or ignored this element altogether (as in penod 9). Participants also downplayed the importance of this element in the school curriculum or in their teaching. While a small number of teachers viewed this element as central (see "the influence of Personal experience" on pp. 440-441). most felt that this element was simply outside of their job description. They referred especially to its intangible nature and difficulties in evaluation. Underlying principles - Taken as a whole, the Ministry documents tended to shy away from the promotion of values or principles, Save those that were universally accepted by contemporary sciety (such as environmentalism and multiculturalism, or patriotism during wartime). The only time when values came to the forefront was when the incumbent govemment had been elected with a certain mandate to fulfill. The NDP administration, for example, appeared to

promote a very values-laden and political agenda with the issuance of the Common Curriculum. With the victory of the Conservative government and the publication of a new set of cumculum guidelines, however, these underlying principles quickly disappeared. The interviews in Phase II indicated that most participants paid Iittle attention to this element and usually sidestepped the issue of underlying principles unIess directly faced with it in a classroom. Outside of the promotion of multiculturalism, participants agreed that the state had Iittle business in this area. In the public schools, teachers said that they relied on their own conscience to deal with values education, while in the separate schools, teachers were more Iikely to refer to their interpretation of church doctrine (see also "Catholic/Public Differences" on p. 443). Dimension B - Shared Objectives for Integration Remaining consistent across most interviews and the last four periods was the belief in the subject-centred objectives for integration. Most specifically, the approach was considered an appropriate way of reducing content overlap, rein forcing ski1 ls, enhancing meani ng for students, and overcorning fragmented thinking. One interesting phenomenon that returned repeatedly throughout this study was the assertion on the part of the Ministry and many participants that a natural unity of subject areas existed within the curriculum. They maintained that natural points of contact should be sought out and exploited for their benefits. The only place where this agreement began to break down was in any discussion conceming the generalizability of these connections, and who should be allowed to pursue these linkages. However, this had more to do with stakeholder control over the cumculum than a communication problem (see Dimensions C and E below). Both the Ministry and the teachers display extremely mixed emotions about studentcentred

education. During certain ers, the Ministry strongly promoted the belief in the innate wisdom of the chiId (see periods 1, 2, 5) - it was an article of faith. For most of the periods, however, this sentiment was subsumed under the more onerous duty of teaching students certain skills and outcornes. This dichotomy was reflected in the participants' interviews. While most teachers stated that they wanted to keep the students interested and motivated, this was considered an added bonus on top of the subject-centred objectives- In dealing with the new guidelines, for example, they believed it was necessary to sacrifice student-centred activities in order to transmit al1 of the prescribed expectations within the space of the school year. The two sub-dimensions that were of no great concern to al1 stakeholder groups were "Social Continuity" and "Political Change". Both the Ministry and participants gave much the sarne response here as they had for Underlying Principles in Dimension A. Except for particular penods in phase 1 (narnely period 2 or 8) or specific participants in phase II, every respondent made a point of avoiding issues that dealt with the explicit promotion of politics or social control. For these two broad-based dimensions, therefore, there actually seems to be a great deal of shared understanding and general agreement within the system (see figure 12.2). It can be inferred from this that any lack of c~rriculum integration does not seem to stem from a miscommunication about what should be integrated and the benefits that could ensue from this approach. It must be understood from this study, however, that these connections are not based on teachers' confonnity to specific, orchestrated Ministry directives. In fact, as shown below in Dimension C, there seems to be few linkages between the two in terms of tangible communication. Rather than wedded to specific government fiat of any particular pend, therefore, the participants' interviews seem to reflect more general trends within the curriculum documents, and in Ontario society as a whole (this is detailed below in Part III "Themes emerging for further study"). Subject Unity u Centred I social

There existed a general acceptance of "Natural unity" & "Connections" within the curriculum for most Schoois There existed a general acceptance of "Natural unity" & "Connections" within the c ~ ~ c u lfo~r mm ost periods There are great fluctuations & eventually a gradua1 decrease of importance of this objective by Perods 8 & 9 participants This is seen as a secondary priority by most participants - It is only employed to capture students' interest, reinforce relevance or for OId Fashioned Notion (popular mandate 1 1 addressing various learning styles NegligibIe objective only during wartime era) This objective is only found in p e n d s with a strong political Figure 12.2 - Dimension B: Shared Objectives for Integration Negligible objective 2. Control over the Integration Process The unified sense of cumculum integration, established in the previous dimensions, begins to break down when the various stakeholders discuss the specifics of the term. Rather than arguing over the root of the term, however, the basis of disagreement stems from the more pragmatic issues of inspiration for the approach, the length of time the method should be employed, and who should have control over its delivery. Dimension C - Split Influences This dimension (concerning inspiration and influence) represents the greatest rift

between the levels of the Ontario school system. In fact, beyond the tenuous and unidirectional guidelines, little explicit communication is seen between the Ministry and the teaching population (see Figure 12.3). Almost without exception, the Ministry promotes forms of in tegration based upon the theoretical frameworks of contemporary sc holarship. This tradition goes back to Period 1 (where the programme took its frarnework from the Hadow Report), continues through Period 2 (the work of Donalda Dickie on the Enterprise Method). Period 5 (the Plowden Repon), and Period 8 (Integration and Outcomes-Based scholarship). Very little attempt seemed to have been made on the Ministry's behalf to go searching into the Ontario system for grassroots inspiration or commentary. After the disbanding of the inspectorship in the 1960s. little to no program evaluation was done to see if these initiatives were being employed or even attempted at the classroom level. This is not to Say that no Ministry-inspired forms of integration were ever attempted by teachers - there just exists no record of it. The teachers who were interviewed seemed just as isolated from the Ministry when it came to inspiration. Very few actually admitted to following the guideline directives outside of the expectations. Rather, most said that the forms of integration they employed were either initiated by very personal ciassroom epiphanies, the influence of magnetic colleagues, SC hool-wide themes or formalized integrated programmes. It appeared that when the teachers did not have a great feeling of persona1 ownership over the approach (i.e., inspiration cornes fiom somewhere outside the school), they viewed it with suspicion and tended to be rather neutral. Even school 5 ("Gemini"), the site that had initia1 success with an "imposed" form of integration, displayed this tendency. Although the Ministry, the school board and the principal initially patronized the thematic approach, the teachers linked it closely to the old Common Curriculum and quickly abandoned it when the guidelines were replaced. However, while school 8 ("Inner-city

Innovators") had gone through the sarne changes, it strongly maintained their Integrated Studies Program, fiercely proud that it was their own creation. Inspiration Control 1 Ministry Outside Sources (usually academic from Britain or the United States) Early Periods ( 1 -2) - A topdown dialogue between the Minisuy documents and the teac her Middle Periods (3-8) a gradua1 increase of intervention by the board and school into this dialogue P e n 4 9 - a return to the top-down Ministry - teacher dialogue The integration project is controlled fiom various sources (in ascending order of importance): Administrators Co-Planning Classrmm Figure 12.3 - Dimension C: Split Influences Dimension D - Grade Specijkity A ffecfs Integration Aempts When the Department of Education began its first experiment with C U ~ C U ~ U ~ integration, it inherited an education system with only two distinct separations. A student entering school would be placed in the first grade, then move upward one grade pet year until graduating at grade 12.' Summative exarns were performed and the student moved to a whole new set of learning the next year. As such, it was a lock-step process with few links between the years. The second separation was a division between the elementary school (1-8) and secondary schooI (9-12). Since 1938, the Ministry has made numerous attempts to create a more flexible system. It first med to erase the distinctions between grades 7-8 (period 1-2), then created

Curriculum 1: 1 to combine grades 7- 10 into a large indivisible "Intermediate" unit (Periods 3-6). In period 7 guidelines went as far as mixing the Intermediate and Senior levels together within the same cuniculum document. The Common Curriculum went the furthest of al1 previous documents by eradicating al1 grade-specific outcomes and creating a three-year time limit (between grades 7-9). This allowed a great amount of flexibility to the schools and teachers. In cornparison to these previous eight periods, "the rigorous curriculum" may be seen as revolutionary, in that it abolished this 60-year evolution and reverted back to the pre-1938 lockstep progression of grade-specific expectations. This was in al1 likelihood done for accountability reasons (see below conceming this issue, pp. 434-436). While some interviews contained cornplaints concerning its rigidity, on the whole, participants seemed quite comfortable with the new structure of the curriculum. This was due to the fact that most of the eight schools in this study possessed grade-level systems that most closely resembled the pre- 1938 model. Teachers kept their students for a year and then passed thern, as a cohort, to another grade and another teacher. Inevitably, they stated that the most important foms of integration they participated in were those involving one grade level and that these occurred over the space of one school year. In fact, most teachers indicated that integrated projects usually took considerably less time: most likely a week. While a number of schools seemed to have been effected by the structure of the Common Cumculum during its incumbency, al1 interviews mention the speed of recidivism to the lockstep system once it was removed. This was seen in school 5 ("Gemini" - see pp. 301-302), in discussing the disappearance of the multi-grade thematic projects. This was also obsewed in school 4 ("Lone Scholar" - see pp. 298-301). The previous administration had set up a splitgrade format and teachers commented that it had suited the muiti-year outcornes of the Common Curriculum. Wi th the new curriculum, however, teachers reverted back to the separate grade

format and taught the two grade levels separate lessons within the same classroom. This was not dissimilar to the monitonal approach taken by the pre-1938 teachers seen on pages 52-57 (see also "Split Grades" outlined below). Lastly, it should be noted that even the most clearly integrated of schools in this study, school 8 ("Inner-City Innovators" - see pp. 306-308) kept a very ngid cohort system. Completely Vertical Insular An Intermediate (grade 7-10) promoted from periods 3-8 Ministry Very Rare A Grade 7-8 combination in periods 1-2 between grades 7-8 (especially when discussing split grades) -- - - Upward Downward Figure 12.4: Dimension D - Grade Specificity and its effects on curriculum integration Schools Negligible comment Some mention made of links Horizontal - - - - -- ' This explanation is the ideal model. As explained on pages 52-47, many other factors interfered to disrupt this progression, most noticeably the one-room schoolhouse setting and the high drop out rate. Some allusions to this in Period 7 Seen to a large extent in Period 8 Negligible comment Some vague comment Some attempt in Period 9 Preferred in Period 9 The paramount perimeters of most participants. especially with the new cumculum Dimension E - The Appearance of Integration Methods/Apptoaches

As mentioned earlier in this study, it was found that both the Ministry and the participants acknowledged al1 forrns of integration put forward in the review of literature (p. 24). It should be noted, however, that while the Ministry chose quite a wide variety of approaches (depending on the period), the teaching population appears to have k e n much more conservative in its choices (see Figure 12.5). As categorized earlier, the forms outlined below are grouped into subject-supportive, decentralked-group, subject-desimctive, and chamekonic . Subject- Supportive F o m As mentioned on page 269, these forms of integration generally support a disciplinary system. There appears to be some synchronization between the Ministry and the participants in this s tudy : Nested - This method is shared by the Ministry and participants under certain instances, narnely when there is a fear of accountability or a desire to insert control back into the teaching environment. This has become an especially popular fonn among teachers with the publication of the most recent cumculum guidelines. Because the cumculum was new and the connections between subject areas (even within subject areas) not readily apparent, teachers stated that they reverted back to this "basic" method of integration for comfort's sake. Some participants saw it as an extremely low level of integration. Others, who defined integration as including two or more subject areas, felt that the "Nested Approach" was a more disciplinary form. Most said that they would use this approach as a starting point, and after they felt cornfortable with the C U ~ - ~ C Udo~cUum~e nts would progress to higher forrns of integration. CrossdiscipIinary Appmach - M i l e the Ministry tentatively promoted this approach at times when cumculum integration as a whole was k i n g generally touted (e.g. periods 6, 7, 8)- it has more often shunned this fonn as too advanced for elementary students. This was also voiced by many of the participants, who felt it was out of reach of the students. The French teachers were

the only participants who truly engaged in this approach. However, they treated this as a pour substitute for an immersion (harmonized) approach. CorrelatiodZnsertion - Both the Ministry and the participants engage in correlation on a regular basis. It is promoted as a way to connect subject areas and to reinforce relevance to the students. However, this forrn is never used systematically but rather as an ad hoc solution to issues that arise. Coundess examples of this can be rendered from both the Ministry documents and the interview tapes. For example, a teacher conducting a lesson in a history class about pioneer life in Canada will be faced, at a certain point, with issues concerning geography. This type of integration (or "touching of subject areas" as a few teachers called it) arises From natural discussion rather than any advanced planning. Decenttizlized Group Fonns This grouping, whose main purpose is to promote communication within the schooI environment, does not appear to be widely used by either the Ministry or participants on an ongoing basis. Mulridiscipli~~-~ tWy hile the Ministry has promoted this method since period 5 onward, it has never appeared to create a consistently hospitable environment for growth. Tearn teaching, team planning and teacher interaction are mentioned most often as an afterthought in the Ministry documents, and dry up altogether when there is a concern for accotintability. The participants' commentary mirrored this condition in the schools. While each principal and teacher emphatically argued that there was a lot of communication and collaboration between the members of the school community, they also said that most of it was rather informai. Team teaching was never engaged in at these schools, and team planning was done usually at specific times of the year (in planning the year's calendar and for special events). Phridisciplinary - The Ministry first encouraged, then imposed this form in periods 7 and 8 as "prograrns". In the Common Curriculum, for exarnple, a three-year time frarne was given to prograrns to meet a certain arnount of prescribed outcomes. In the final period, however, the "rigorous" curriculum chose to deal with the more specific subdivisions of courses and grade

Ievels, al1 but eliminating this method of integration. The innovations of periods 7 and 8 seemed to have had no effect on the majority of participants, as weil. Departments existed in none of the schools, and those who were interviewed only made very vague references to the terrn "program" (such as Art programs). While most referred to a number of school cornmittees that dealt with certain issues, few felt that they had much effect on c u m ~ ~ l ummat ters. Subject- Destructive F o m Mentioned earlier on page 276, this form of integration is used specifically to erase subject boundanes. Fusion - Mile the Ministry has tried to employ this at different times in its history, the same subject configuration has essentially been maintained since 1938. If fact, there are presentIy less fused courses now than in period 1. The Common Cuniculum did begin a short-lived revolution in favour of this fom of integration (see pp. 215-233 for specif'cs). It would appear From the interviews, however, that the effects of Period 8 were never felt by any of the schools in this study. The only site where a fked curriculum existed was school 8 ("Inner-City Innovators"), and this was accomplished by on-site participants alone with no inspiration or aid from the Ministry. Tramdkciplimuy - While the documents of pend 5 and 6 contan much rhetoric about "student empowerrnent", most Ministry guidelines either ignore this form of integration completely or only mention it in brief asides. Almost without fail, this sentiment was reflected in the participants' interviews. To them, this form represented chaos and something unacceptable in their classroom. Charneleonic Forms As mentioned earlier on page 279, this category refers to those forms that may support or destroy disciplinary stmc ture depending on the influences of the other dimensions. Thematic - The thematic approach is, without a doubt, one of the most utilized and recognized forrns of integration by both the Ministry and participants. It is also the most widely interpreted by al1 stakeholders, leading to the most confusion (alongside correlation). To the Minisy, as

seen on pages 279 and 280, it cm range fiom a very child-centred approach (as seen in penods 2 and 5) to the essentially subject-centred thematic units (displayed in periods 4 and 6. for example). The use of this approach also varied quite widely between the schools in this study. It ranged from the tightly designed themahc units used in School 6 ("Progam Leaders"), to the short-lived interest-driven units used in School 5 ("Gemini") under the Comrnon Cumculum. This also included the balanced thematidfused units used in School 8 ("Inner-City Innovators"), to the large thematic project engaged in by school 7 ("Retrospective"). As mentioned below in conclusions and Part III, the great variation of this particular form may warrant further study. Harmonization - The Ministry employs this form extensively only between periods 6 and 8 to promote Language Across the Cumculum. This campaign has proven successful with most participants, who stated that they made an effort to deal with grammar, spelling and usage issues. even if the class was not directly concemed with language. Some even remarked about the importance of computers, and mentioned the govemment incentives used to promote this in recent years. However, it must be noted that this forrn has not generally been seen by the Ontario education system as a priority method of integration. cuniculum guidelines Insertion Material included that doesn't fit into disciplinary niches Decen- Muuidiscylti~ry Promoted in Periods 6 Co-planni ng men tioned G~OUFPo rms &7 - However, opportunities dry up quickly Pluridisc@linmy Prograrns mentioned in Vague programs some periods levels Subject- Fusion Only used in Perod 1 Only in School 8 Destructive & 8 Fonns Tmnsdisc@tinary Very rare Never IIII Type

Subjects up~ve Forms ChameIeonic Thematic Thernatic Units Varies from rigid Forms single class to school wide Hannonuation Language Across the Language Across the Cumculurn, Cornputers Curriculum Form Nested Ministry Encouraged when the Rare lI School Used when rigid Crossdiscip~ Correibkn ~1 used but on an ad hoc basis 7G-j curricu~umf o~owas transmission position Informally mentioned in alrnost al1 guidelines cumcu~urn Used most frequently by Language teachers Adds material informally Very rare Threaded into cuniculurn & prac tice.

Strong secondary Figure 12.5 - Dimension E: The Appearance of Integration Methocid Approaches Dimensions F & G - Hindrance/Aid of Little Importance in the Decision to ntegrate The literature points out that many factors rnay hinder curriculum innovations (see pp. 25-28), and the Ministry periodicaIly recognizes these as having a significant effect on detemng innovations in schools (see pp. 283-290). However, what was noticed in comparing phases 1 and II of this study was the lack of importance that the teachers designated to certain foms of support (see Figures 12.6 and 12.7). Primarily, this can be seen in the issue of professional development and resources. The Ministry varied greatly on the amount of aid it gave schools in regards to cumculum integration. In times of prosperity, it made great promises of support (like petiod 5, 6, 7), while these offers tended to dry up in times of belt-tightening (period 1, 2, 9). Although teachers expressed imitation with the loss of this assistance, it did not seem to have had a significant effect on their teaching method one way or another. The same feeling held true for the implementation tirneframe. While the participants made general cornplaints about the speed in which the present cumculum had been implemented and the increased workload that it entailed, few felt that it would have a long-term disability on any methods they rnay try in the classroom. Approval of their teaching techniques from parents, the community or the board atso seemed to make no appreciable difference to the teachers. As well, the expectations of secondary education, or the threat of standardized testing posed no problem for the teachers' psyche, even though the Ministry documents had hinted at this in the previous two periods. One thing rnay be determined. While al1 the factors listed above rnay aid or hinder the Iength of time it rnay take teachers to do their jobs or effect their morale, it does not seem to have a significant impact on changing their teaching techniques (from more disciplinary to integrative). Professional aid, suggestions about new innovative methods or words of

encouragement rnay bolster a teacher's confidence and give incentive. However, they will not appreciably change the course that they have embarked on. Teacher HUtdrances Reiated Form Subject Attachment Speedy Impiemen ta tion Work Overload Bal kanization Threat to Career Outside I Constant Low Low forces Schwl No concern Some concem Some concem Constant Negligible C&C~UM related Some concem - - No concern Constant Decreasi ng Low Course Structure too Rigid Testing Structure too Rigid Pressure of Hieher Education 1 community I Concern

Law concem Low concem Lack of resources Pressure from Parents/ Figure 12.6 - Dimension F: Hindrance to the Implementation of an Integrated Curriculum Constant Low until period 9 Some concem No concem Professional Development Additionai Resources Role mode1 Teacher Support Adaptability of the innovation Open Poky of Curricdum ]Development Student hvolvement Principal support Figure 12.7 - Dimension G: Aids to the Implementation of an Integrated Cumculum Parents/community Support Schd Board Support Decreasi ng Increasing then decreasing low Constant Decreasi ng Negligible Low but constant Increasing until pend 9 Sorne desire expresseci Desire expressed Sorne desire expressed Desire expressed Desire expressed No desire expressed

Low desire expressed Some desire expressed Increasing Increasing untiI pend 9 No desire expressed No desire expressed Overall Definition and Conclusions A very general picture rnay be formulated from the above descriptions in regards to how the Ontario education system defines the term "Curriculum Integration". It sees it as a method for bringing subject areas and abstract skills together in such a way that the students may see their relevame. This can be done through the inclusion of practical exarnples that rnay cross subject boundaries. It is also seen as a way to teach academic skills more efficiently and effectively by including them in necessary. though not readily apparent, places in the curriculum. There exists no such agreed-upon policy for more intangible elements (such as individual development and underlying principles), and their inclusion is based on a particular situation raher than a province-wide conformity . While teachers will follow c~niculurn structures outlined by tradition and the Ministry (i.e., the seven subject areas), they will rarely follow verbal or wntten suggestions made by outside forces concerning the form integration shouid take. Rather, the teachers who were interviewed chose the form of integration based on more idiosyncratic or school-related issues. AIrnost al1 forms of integration are seen as taking place within a limited time span (from part of a cIass to a few weeks) and no more. These usually consist of correlation (brought in irregularly) or thematic projects. Except for special occasions, al1 Ministry documents (except for the Common Cumculum) and stakeholders (except school 8) respected the subject-based format and did very little to erase any disciplinary boundaries. Curriculum Integration is seen as an additive to the disciplinary system but not as a replacement. Conclusion 1 - A General Agreement of Definition with Variations of Form and Control It was suggested by the literature (pp. 3-7) that the lack of development in the area of

cumculum integration was greatly due to the fact that no general concrete definition of the term existed. Without that solid teminology, the various stakeholders would not be able to agree on the benefits of the approach or the form it should take. The predicted results should have been massive miscommunications between the levels of the education system, and the eventual abandonment of integration through lack of understanding. This prognostication does not hoid completely tnie for the Ontario situation. It cannot be denied that no common policy was ever written down or entrenched within the system, and each participant had a slightly different understanding of the tem as a whole. Nevertheless there seemed to be a great deal of implicit agreement between the Ministry and the participants on the more general, philosophical aspects. The observed differences of definition within the system seem to reflect mere variations of form based on situational factors and the arnount of control the stakeholders wish to hold over the approach (this is further developed below in "themes"). As D.J. Gray mentioned about the writing-across-the-cumcuIum movement, the idea has simply grown "untidiIy" (1988, p. 73 1). Conclusion 2 - Curriculum Integration is as much a Situationally-Dictated Phenornenon as a Consciously Chosen Approach A great amount of the literature (see Review of Literature section, p. 3-12) consists of the creation of ideal integration models (such as a thematic unit), based on only one dimension (namely Dimension E or "Foms") or at most two (Dimension B or "objectives"). By ignoring the other areas of the definition, however, researchers give the erroneous impression that these dimensions can work independently and therefore be inserted into any situation. They also make the assumption that practitioners have the Free will to choose a fom based on rational argument and persuasion alone. The present study indicates, however, that whether the stakeholder is an organization (such as a Ministry or a school) or an individual, the fom they choose has more to do with norms, values, power structures and work conditions (as reflected in the other dimensions) than with outside exhortations. Speci ficdly, the method someone or some organization will take (Dimension E) may be anticipated by the value they place on why integration is important (Dimension B), what elements they intend to use (Dimension A), and

what level of the system controls the integration process (Dimension C and D). A great deai of further research must be done, however, to determine how these links are made, and the ways in which the stakeholders interact. Conclusion 3 - The Ontario Education System Perceives Integration as a Luxury In this study, cumculum integration appears to have had a shifting position of importance within the Ministry's priorities and only a relatively secondary role in the various sites where interviews were conducted. What dooms this method in the Ontario system is not problems of definition, however, but the importance that al1 stakeholders place on this approach. In short, both the Ministry and the majority of teachers perceive cumcuIum integration as a luxury - an addition to the curriculum that can be used when time permits and dropped when more important agendas come along. Since the original core of subjects were created in 1938 (English, Math. Social Studies [later History and Geography], Science, Music, Art, Physical Education [and later French]) the Ministry's configuration of the school tirnetable has changed very little. Even at those times in history that were most open to integration, the Ministry saw the innovation as playing only a supportive role to the disciplinary system. In the past 60 years, (outside of period 8 and the periodic resurgence of social studies) no core subject areas have been added or dropped. In fact, in times of perceived crisis (such as in periods 4 and 9) most traces of integration were eradicated to rnake way for a more traditional structure. This mindset is also quite prevalent at most sites in this study. On a regular basis, most teachers (outside of school 8) pointed to the more subject-supponive forms of integration such as the nested approach, correlation-insertion and singular multidisciplinary (in the homeroom setting). Most revealing about the entrenched disciplinary mindset that pervades the system were the discussions concerning the new guidelines. Most participants indicated that when they began to implement the curriculum, they discarded the integration practices they were doing to pursue a more disciplinary approach. Next year, they said, they would make it more intemally logicai and consistent, then branch out into correlations with other subject areas. Although there were complaints From the teachers about having to learn a new

curriculum, there also seemed to be a level of comfort with the new documents. This may be related to the disciplinary basis of the guidelines as the teachers also expressed discomfort with the Common Curriculum. Outside of school 8, none had attempted to fuse the areas recommended by the previous administration. In fact, a few participants even described their anxieties about its destructive potential. In over half the schools, teachers maintained one class of students throughout most of the day and could integrate to almost any level they chose rght up to complete fusion or "integrated &y". However, even in this case, they still maintained a fairly rigid disciplinary structure to the school &y. Al1 other forms of integration (narnely decentralized- group, subject-destructive, or chameleonic forms) were done at even lower levels. Few ongoing projects between teachers were engaged in, and teachers seemed to meet for discussions on cumculum only to make certain there was no overlap between subject areas. Themes were used by most teachers but done as a speciai event by most. Many warned against the overuse of this method. Part II - Limitations It must be acknowledged that this study has some limitations: This is a study of a particular area and culture. In fact, it is a study of a rather small subsection of this group. While the first part (the cumculum documents) does represent some of the ideas and methods of a given period of time, it must not be interpreted as king the sole voice for al1 of Ontario. Similariy, it is felt that the 8 schools and 43 participants of this study may be somewhat representative of many members of the Ontario public school system. However, they should in no way be seen as speaking for the whole of Ontario, not even a11 middle school grade teachers. Ultimately, this study should be seen as nothing more than a preliminary test (a dry run, if you will) of the modified typology proposed by Case (1991). Its conclusions should be seen as having limited generalizability. The greatest hope of this researcher is that this project will encourage others to duplicate this study in other settings - other provinces, teaching situations, or literature meta-analyses. Time and sanity restraints kept the study from straying much from the Middle school level (Grades 7/8). It would be expected that there would be significantly different responses from teachers at lower elementary or higher secondary levels. This would be an interesting area

for future studies. While the context sections of each period in Phase 1 of this study endeavoured to explain some of the wider concerns of the time in which the documents were created, it must be acknowledged that the conclusions for each period were derived almost solely From the analysis of the cumculum guidelines. The perceptions of the participants were given in one interview session. More specific details (or changes over the) may have ken ascertained if the research had ken conducted in a different manner, such as observation over a period of months. However, time restraints did not permit this. As well, the various gatekeepers (board officials and school administrators) broadly insinuated that access to the participants was allowed to me on the condition that my interviews were kept to a minimum of time. To overcome this problem, participants were allowed to examine their interview transcripts a few months later and make corrections. This would give them added time to reflect upon their responses. It should also be acknowledged that this study brings the reader to no greater certainty as to the effectiveness of an integrated cumculum. It is never mentioned, in quantitatively proven tenns, that children who are taught by an integrated method are better equipped to answer standardized tests or "real-life" problems than those who attend disciplinary courses. This, of course, is the objective of another thesis. The present study was limited to looking solely at how the Ministry and 43 educators define the term, perceive its uses, and implement the me thod. 6. Lastly, this study deals with only two levels of the Ontario public education community and makes the assumption that it reflects (more or less) the spirit of the times and the spirit of the place. For a tmly accurate impression, it would behoove future researchers to seek out impressions from the other stakeholders involved - this may include personal interviews with Minisy officials, school board directors, students and parents. However, this was beyond the scope of the present study and the patience of the researcher. Part III - Themes Emerging for Further Study A number of tentative conclusions can be drawn from this study, which warrant further research to determine the workings of this approach. Specifically, these concern the nature of cuniculum integration within the setting in which it appears, its variations from location to location, and the potential factors that are involved in effecting its application. Rather than dealing with cumculum integration as a universal or widely applicable terrn, therefore, certain situational aspects should be taken into consideration: 1. It is necessary for researchers to notice the general environment in which the approach

is king implemented. Bolrnan and Deal (1991) concluded that in any organizational setting, increased clarity of the situation might be obtained by observing it through various ''fiames" or perspectives (p. 9). They isolate four different frarnes - Structural. Poli tical, Human Relations and Symbolic. Supported by separate theory bases, eac h display a diffrent aspect of the setting in which integration takes place. 2. Various specific factors may also do much to alter or readjust the way cumculum integration is irnplemen ted aside fiom the general backdrop mentioned above. 1. LLFrameso"r Perspectives that Should be Addressed when Researching Curriculum Integration a) Structud Perspective explanations for the state of Integrdon in Ontario At one level, the problem that the stakeholders seem to have with integration is one of general accountability. By pigeon-holing expectations into specific subjects at specific times, the Ministry, school administrators and teachers enjoy a sense of certainty and predictability from the structured environment. Since this study began, the Ministry has had a desire to create an accountable system. What has significantly changed over the nine periods, however, has been the Minis-y's concems for cost-efficiency, and its acceptance of teacher professionalism. In periods 1 through 4, effectiveness was carried out through a network of inspectors who (in theory) made teachers aware of their specific duties, enlightened them to new techniques and reported on their effectiveness. Through period 5, however, the Department accorded more trust to the teachers, while at the sarne time creating a large network of non-hierarchical bureaucracy to deal with support. This ailowed a greater arnount of freedom for teachers. As accountability and cost-effectiveness became an issue under the Wells administration, however, the Ministry came under increasing pressure to create a more disciplinary, centralized and streamlined system. Through periods 7 and 8, school boards were considered the most effective means of ensuring accountability through a bureaucracy that remained close to the operating core of teachers. In the final period 9, accountability and cost-effectiveness is thought to be maintained through a severely stream-lined educational system and a disciplinary curriculum. Teachers were also concerned with the structurai issue of accountability. In the interviews, they seemed to prefer more work (as long as it was specifically designated to them) rather than

the potential for a reduced workload in the future if it included some indeterminate form of sharing with colleagues (such as multidisciplinary). This may be due to their fear that their job descriptions and work outcomes will becorne blurred. This conclusion supports a study made by Moeller (1 968), who explored the effects of bureaucratie structure on morale in 2 schools. He determined that the teachers preferred an imposition of rationality and clarity on a school structure to an ambiguous and decentralized form. The present study takes this premise funher it suggests that even if this structure is not imposed from above, teachers will create a disciplinary environment on their own initiative, unless specifically guided elsewhere. AS detailed in Part II and further descnbed below, even when homeroom teachers had a great deal of Freedom to group the school day as they chose, almost al1 opted for a fairly disciplinary format. What can be determined is that generd concerns for accountability. division of labour and cost effectiveness, dl play an important role to al1 levels of the Ontario education system. This should be a concern for future research. b) Political Perspective explaIl(lfiOns for the s u e of Integraion in O n W In many instances in this study, the political theorist Bernstein (1971) appears to have ken correct - rather than king lost through miscommunication or lack of clarity, some forrns of integration seem to be purposefully avoided. While remaining largely unstated by al1 respondents (both at the Ministry and school level), there was an underlying sense that integration represented a loss of personal or centrai power. In describing the political fiame, Bolman and Deal (1991) refer to the inevitable struggle that various coalitions have for resources in times of scarcity (p. 186-7). This is played out in Ministry policy over the 9 periods and has a significant effect on the curriculum documents. At certain times in the Minisy's history, when there is an abundance of wealth, this loss of power could be tolerated. Under the short lived Porter Plan (Period 3). or the more successful Davis Administration (period S ) , for exarnple, locally-controlled integration was encouraged as part of

a general thrust for decentralization. However, at times wbere the power of the central authority felt threatened, or there is a scarcity of funds, integration was the first to be eliminated. The transition between Periods 8 and 9 is a prime exarnple. While in penod 8, power over the cumculum documents (see pp. 224-226) is fairly evenly distributed between the Ministry, the school boards, principals, teachers' federations and teachers, this situation changes drastically in period 9. The Minisy makes great effort to stnp al1 other stakeholder coalitions of their power of interpretation. Boards and Principals seem to have had their rights removed completely from the curriculum process. Furthemore, an extremely lock-step, rigid, disciplinary cumculum was put in place, removing the teachers' power to control their use of teaching method. The majority of teachers aiso indicated that they were driven by a desire to controi their surroundings. When they followed clearly organized themes that they decided upon. they were extremely confident and promoted it (they have ownership). However, if the theme was more school based and out of their direct control, they transmi tted a growing discomfort. This feeling was magnified when they were faced with the proposition of giving any significant power to the students. Seen in Dimensions B, E and G, any student control or independence (in terms of collaboration or the employrnent of the transdisciplinary approach) were seen as almost taboo subjects. Power may also be an underlying problem that keeps teachers From getting too close to one other. While dl said that they were collegial, there was very little sharing of classroom time in terms of tearn teaching. In one of the rare instances of class swapping (ECU/f), it even led to a power stmggle over teaching techniques. In al1 schools there was no doubt that fairly strong systems of communication existed to relay advice and even engage in long term pianning. However, there appeared to be no fonnalized team-planning on a regular basis. In fact, when a teacher said that s/he had learned a teaching technique from another teacher s/he usually referred

to it as "stealing ideas". Alongside the disciplinary nom, therefore, the archetype of the "lone scholar" still looms large - the belief that a teacher is a solitary figure who must assume sole responsibility for his or her class once the door is closed. This conclusion supports the work of Little (1990) who maintained that this icon continues to hold predominance in the North American school system. The one site that proved to be an exception to this was school 5 ("Gemini"). The two teachers here managed to break this concern over sole authority by becoming fast fiiends as well as colleagues. The two levels that seem to have reached some unspoken agreement in this area have been the teachers and the present ministry - each stake out a temtory of power and then hold on to their own bailiwick. In this instance, the Ministry is the undisputed mler of the expectations (see Part 1, Period 9). In return, the documents make no mention about the methods that teachers should employ to teach these expectations, leaving it up to individual teachers to do what they wish. If past history rings me, it could be assumed that the teachers would probably ignore any method the Ministry should suggest anyway. C) Human Relations Perspective explanatLnatLfoorrt st he state of Integration in Ontanntano Skinner (1948) makes an apt analogy to the importance of nom control in his novel Walden Two. He States: We soon found that the sheep kept to the enclosure and quite clear of the fence, which didn't need to be eIectrified. So we substituted a piece of string, which is easier to move around. ... [lambs] stray, but they cause no trouble and soon learn to keep with the flock. ... The curious thing is that most of the sheep have never been shocked by the fence. Most of them were born after we took the wire away. It has become a tradition among Our sheep never to approach string. The larnbs acquire it from their elders, whose judgement they never question. (p. 20) Perhaps the comparison is a bit blunt (although diplomacy was never Skinner's strong point), however, in this instance the analogy has some merit. For many of the teachers, especially those in control of a homeroom class, no concrete barriers kept them fiom going as far with the integration process as they wished (up to the creation of an integrated day program). However,

while no retribution would ensue from a teacher breaking ranks, the majority of participants kept a disciplinary structure just because that was the way things were done - over the past 60 years it had become the informa1 nom as well as the officia1 structure. In fact, teachers showed great defiance to the present government's implementation of changes that went contrary to any traditionat noms. Alternatively, they showed cornpliance to changes made by the Ministry that eradicated any "revolutionary innovations" introduced by the NDP. Even those teachers who had tried experiments in the past (like school 5) seemed to regress back to the disciplinary mode if there was not great external incentive to integrate. Only in school 8, where an Integrated Studies program had become the nom, was there a generai acceptance of integration as the status quo rather than a radical innovation. d) Symbolic Perspective explanaiions for the state of lntegruion in Onario What seems to have done the integration approach more h m than good since 1938 has been the Ministry's use of it as a symbol for change and reform. In period 1 and 2, various forrns of integration were promoted as a way of reassuring the public that the Department of Education was keeping up with the progressive movement in rest of North Amenca. However. as few lasting impressions were created on the Ontario teaching population (see Context sections of Penod 2, Part 1), it may be assumed that this reform was more symbolic than actual. This connection (between integration and "new and progressive") surfaced again under the Davis Administration and the Common Curriculum. This has had some unintended results. Each time, after an initial success, this method has then taken on rather negative connotations. Both Minister Dunlop in the 1950s and Snobelen in the 1990s have argued successfully that integration represents a threat to the education system. Specificdly, they brand this method as king chaotic, uncontrollable, ineffective and a mere degradation of the traditionai system. Unfortunately, the symbolic perspective in these instances does much to obscure the more precise uses or fallibilities of cumculum integration. 2. Specific School-level Factors with the Potential for Effeclting Variations in Curriculum Integration

Certain specific factors seem to be present in particular locations that would counteract the general background tendencies seen across Ontario. a) The Influence of Personai Experience In a number of interviews, the role that idiosyncratic experiences play in the use of integration cannot be discounted. In almost every school, one or more participants stood slightly aside From his or her colleagues and from the culture of the school as a whole. Their attitudes could not be ascribed to the environment they were living in, official directives or other stimuli outside of their control. Rather, these people had experienced some event or upbringing in their past that had given them convictions strong enough to disregard the general trend and mentdity surrounding thern. In school 1 ("Charitable"), for example, teacher MCU/b had been so moved by the charitable acts of the missionaries (see pp. 293-294) that she had incorporated it into her teaching method. She continued this even despite of the gentle teasing she had received from other staff members. Two other teachers (MCUh & MPUIb) had been artists and this permeated al1 their cumculum. Teacher EPUh had had what she could only describe as a "peak" expenence that had cemented her teaching technique. Finally, two principals (MPU/a and ECR/a) had been exposed to extensive training at university in curriculum techniques, the former specializing in C U ~ C U i~nteUgr~at ion. The participants described here al1 showed strong persona1 beliefs and very little susceptibility to accepting the noms of the environment unquestioningly. For these teachers, however, rnost seemed to stand somewhat alone from the rest of the staff in cumculum issues. It would be erroneous to believe that the community around them viewed them as outcasts. However, they al1 seemed to have a reputation as "lone wolves". The two principals, both obviously strong willed people, have subsequently ken transferred to other schools after serving an incumbency of two years each.

Two specific examples should be noted that show instances where personal beliefs were not strong enough to counteract the noms of the school. MCR/f and ECR/a, both fairly young and new to their schools, had returned from teaching abroad with new teaching techniques. Both had been quelled and brought into line by the community and the structure of the courses. This may have been due to the fact that the teachers had not been exposed to the innovations long enough, and that they were quite eager to be accepted by their new community. b) The Role of Administrators in Education In a number of schools where fairly distinctive forrns of integration took hold and prospered, the administrators appeared to have played an instrumental roIe in its introduction and promotion. This is quite in line with recent research (see p. 30 of this study). Both Higgs (1995) and Glatthom (1997) showed that the principal actually had a great leadership role when it came to cumculum. More than anyone else in the school, they were seen as the lynchpin between the school and the outside community (such as province and board). However, it should be noted that, in the sites of this study, this was only accomplished with the respect and support of staff members. This can be seen primarily in schools 5, 7 and 8. In school 5 ("Gemini"), the original principal believed strongly in the Common Cumculum's multidisciplinary approach. He promoted it and earmarked special blocks of tirne for team planning. The two teachers involved, however, were not as convinced about the merits of this approach as the principal had been. When he left and planning time dried up, so did this approach at this school. School 7 ("Retrospective") had an annual school-wide project that seemed to be almost solely the creation of the principal and board to promote certain features of the area. It was supported by some teachers, but merely tolerated by others who felt it robbed them of valuable class time. At school 8 ("Inner-City Innovators"), the principal had ken key in designing the

integrated Studies tirnetable with the support of a number of teachers, who strongly believed in the approach. The principal broadcast the success of the expriment to the board, and was subsequently transferred to another school to repeat the process. Teacher EPU/f became the unofficial person responsibie for Integrated Studies and promoted it rather voally in the interviews. The new principal even remarked that it was an important "selling point" to convince parents to send their children to the school. To a large extent, the sumival of this integrated format depended greatly on i ts prestige. It would seem that while the official sanction and promotion by the administration would be necessary to implement an integrated method school-wide, it did not cernent its place within the school. It may survive as long as the principal was on site. When this offtcial is replaced, however, its continued success then depends on how well the other staff members had been convinced of its importance. These results would tend to confirm recent studies concerning the irnplementation of cumculum integration at the school level. In Arredondo and Rucinski (1998). it was shown that the acceptance of an integrated curriculum at a particular site largely depended on the principal's perceptions and beliefs concerning the innovation and how well dhe could persuade teachers of its merits. However, in the long term, they also found that its continued success depended on the principal's creation of a formal support structure and blocks of time for pianning and teaching (something that was al1 too rare in the schools they studied). School 8 ("Inner-city Innovators") seemed to include equal portions of the two in order to succeed. The principal created an ongoing form of systematized planning and monitoring (Mojkowski, 2000), managed to impress his own interests on the staff, yet allowed the teachers the freedom to develop and validate new belief systems (Clark & Clark, 1996). This would seem an appropriate balance especial 1 y geared toward the middle school l evel (Famer, 1 995). C) Cathok-Public School Differences The largest difference that appeared to exist between these two types of schools can only be described as a sense "centredness". As an observer, 1 found the Catholic schools to be less

prone to changing their integration approaches based on Ministry directives or educational fads. At each school, the teachers felt no pressure from the central authority to implement changes quickly. Rather, they said they would arnend their present C U ~ ~ C aUpp~roUac~he s at a rate where they felt most comfortable. As 1 expected, there was also a general uniformity arnong teacher as to how they dealt with underlying beliefs. The public schools were less nonchalant in their relation to outside influences. The teachers appeared to be more stressed about the new curriculum guidelines and harboured the belief that they had to implement them immediately in their entirety. School 5 ("Gemini") had made major shifts of teaching approaches in the last few years based on the alterations in government opinion. Those public schools that did ignore or defer Ministry directives did not behave with the neutrality displayed by the Catholic teachers. Rather, the public school did so with outward defiance. In school 8 ("Inner-City Innovators"), the teachers showed great pride that they had created their system with no help or inspiration from central authority. Therefore, while the public schools seemed to have an ongoing dialogue with the Ministry (either obeying or disobeying), the Catholic schools showed complete disinterest. The most ready conjecture may be that the Catholic schools have only recently ken under the direct influence of the Ministry. They may also have other levels of stakeholder involvement (namely the Catholic Church), which may diffuse the preeminence of the Ministry. However, much research must be done in this area before any statement can be made with authority. participant educationa occasion. d) Urban - Rural Diierences Some general differences seerned to exist between the urban and rural public schools, although it can not be ascertained whether this was by coincidence, by noms or by design. In the two rural schools (5 and 7)- a fairly rigid disciplinary mode1 prevailed. According to interviews, there was a feeling of isolation between colleagues and the greater .1 system. Some projects were engaged in by the school, but oniy as a special The two urban schools (3 and 8) had taken part in much more drastic forms of

integration. The fmt had continued an open concept system, while the second maintained an Integrated Studies prograrn. This would seem to indicate that the urban setting offered more hospitable conditions for integration. However. a great deal more study is needed in this area. Interestingly enough, very little visible difference distinguished the separate schools in terrns of cumculum integration, regardless of their urbadrural status. e) Elernenary - Middle School Differences It was expected that different forms of integration would be found in the two types of schools within this study. Most specifically, it was predicted that the grade 7 and 8 teachers at eIementary schools would encourage a more fused cumculum in line with the rest of the levels. It was also anticipated that the Middle schools would try to emulate higher forms of education and keep more distinct subject areas. Within the literature concerning the Middle school system, a persuasive argument was also made that these segregated adolescents (at grades 7-8) would be treated differently from both elementary and secondary techniques. Primarly, it drew the readers' attention to an increased use of socialization/group work types of integration such as thematic projects. While the Ministry documents periodically reflected each of these points of view, the schools themselves remained rather unifom on this issue. Inevitably, it made little difference where the grade 7-8 students were situated. There was no appreciable difference in type of integration (either child-centred or subject-centred) between any of these schools, based on this specification. This may have been due to the fact that whether they were included in an elementary school, a distinct Middle school, or part of a JK to OAC school, the grade 7-8 students were kept fairly isolated. At each site, the majority of teachers were held responsible for teaching only one or, at most, two grade levels. 3. Methods of Integration by Design a) The Role of Cuniculurn Overload and c'Zntegration for Survivai" One indirect means of forcing cumculum integration, displayed by the latest cumculum, has been the inclusion of an increased number of expectations. Teachers said that they found it impossible to dwell on one expectation at a time - they decided they either had to extend the

school year or find connections between them to "kill two birds with one stone" (or integration for survival). However, it still does not seem to promote forms beyond subject-supportive and rarely forms beyond the individual classroom level. b) Specidized Cum~culurnI nhibits Integration, but the Reverse is Not Necessarily Correct The last two guidelines put out by the Ministry display the significant effects that can be made by increasing or decreasing subject specificity. Under the Common Curriculum, a great deal of flexibility was allowed at the school level. This caused a dea! of discomfort to the teachers but it also @y design) encouraged a great cieai more decentralized forms of integration and sharing. They had to meet to sort out who was going to teach which outcornes. It also allowed the possibility of much more intense forms of integration (themes, for example), even though the teachers did not seem to willingly engage in them. This did no< guarantee these foms of integration, but at least dlowed the potential for such forms. The new guidelines, because they are so subject-specific and organized in tighter strands to be reported on at regular intervals, seem to curtail that activity. The teachers are not specifically dissuaded from integrating - the new situation just does not allow it. Because of time concerns and the division of expectations, teachers would have to go to extraordinary lengths to do the same themes explained by the Common Cuniculum. Because of the precise allocation of subject-specific expectations, teachers no longer have the need to meet and decipher the guidelines. C) The Issue of Split Grades This factor has been discussed at greater length in Part iI of this study. What can be concluded is that split-grades may aIlow greater inter-grade integration if the guideline expectations are broad enough. However, if the guidelines contain rigid, grade-specific expectations (like that of period 9), this forrn of integration is rendered impossible. A rnonitorial system as seen on pages 5355 must then be put in place. d) Differences in Homeroom/Rotary Based Schools

This has also been discussed in extensively in Part II of this study. If the structural perspective is solely taken into consideration, the homeroom system should give the teacher a vastly increased amount of freedom. Rather than officially beginning and stopping classes based on timelimited segments throughout the day, the administration allows teachers to allocate tirne to students' specific needs. However, the interviews in this study seem to indicate that teachers still continue to follow a rotary-like system of subject-based courses throughout the day. They ascribe this format to the design of the curriculum and informal noms reinforced in the school. 4. The Future of Integration in Ontario and Changing the Venue The Ontario public school system seems to be playing out a pattern that is not unlike that seen in the Iiterature on cumculum integration (displayed in pp. 5-7 of the introduction). On the one side remains the Ministry, which continues to propose theoretical scenarios. With litle empirical evidence in its favour, the innovation becomes a political football and is usually kicked out of the educational arena when the next set of guidelines is drawn up. Within a generation, virtually the same form of integration under a new name retums to go through the same process. On the other side of this system remain the teachers who tend to stay in isolated pockets, developing approaches through "action research" methods that usually die with their retirement. Brophy's (199 1) comment concerning "try, fail, and try again" is an appropnate observation of the situation. There is a negative outcome of this "two solitudes" situation. Rather than a logical evolution of the innovation through implementation, evaluation, feedback and correction, cuniculum integration at the Minisy level continues to be mired in a never-ending cycle of boom and bust, period after period. Teachers, as well, are left to walk their own paths like pilgrims, wondering if they are going in the right direction. To overcome the problems found in this system, and avoid the inevitable cycle, a fundamental issue must be resolved. This study has found that the greatest deterrent to the

widespread utilization of integration was its promotion as an innovation. Proponents treat it as a "cause celebre" - it is suggested, defended, explained, and proselytized to teachers. However, it is still considered by most stakeholders in the system as a radically "newfangled idea" (even though it has been continually proposed in the cumculum documents for over 60 years). It has never been internalized by teachers or the Ministry as the status quo - that place is reserved for disciptinary teaching. For al1 its promotion, the only way the Ministry would see any widespread use of integration in the Ontario education system would be by changing the way it is viewed and approached. As seen in school 8, the only time teachers felt mly cornfortable with the method and used it regularly was when it was considered the commonplace nom - "what is done around here". As long as it is viewed as a revolutionary experiment of some kind, it will be continually marginalized and subjected to faddish trends. The work of Karl Weick (1976, 1982) regarding "loosely-coupled systems" would seem to be an appropriate paradigm in which researchers and innovators should view the Ontario system. Certain couplings exist within the Ontario education system that Iink communication and control. What is necessary is that these must be utilized in order to promote innovations in any widespread and systematic fashion throughout the system. Teacher EUP/f at school 8 ("Inner-City Innovators") vocalized this sentiment quite well. He stated that over time a grassroots method had started to overcome the problem of isolation. The Integrated Studies program, begun at his school, had grown in an almost organic fashion within the board. When the principal moved, he recreated it at another school. Other schools copied this approach over the past ten years, the teacher then explained. At present, he stated that about thirty percent of schools in his board treated the Integrated Studies program as "what we do around here". He speculated that, given enough time and success, it could become a board wide policy, then adopted by the Ministry as province-wide policy. However, he then took a deep breath and resoived that the links of communication were not strongly enough coupled between the various levels of the system to act in such accord. The historical findings of Dimension C would unfortunately support this conclusion.

Part IV - Implications for Research and Practice 1. The Importance of the Typology Method in defining Curriculum lntegration 1 had hoped to End research to support or to conclusively oppose my belief that quality integrated education is the most promising approach. For every study that contains a recornmendation, there is another, equally well documented study, challenging the conclusions of the first ... No one seems to agree with anyone else's approach. But more distressing: no one seems to know what works. (Senator Fritz Mondale as quoted in Bangert-Drowns & Rudner, 199 1 ) This quotation illustrates a cornmon plight. In the Review of Literature it was noted that the term "cumculurn integration" suffered from the lack of any clear definition. From this, research on integration often produces contradictory results. As well, literature on this topic is so extensive as to obscure trends with an overwhelming arnount of information. Thousands of articles, reports and research projects have sat idle, simply because no connections or generalizability can be established. Furthemore, with no clear conception, practitioners shy away from this promising yet arnbiguously vague notion. Due to this problem, this approach has been hobbled for the greater part of this century as an effective aid to the education process. Rather than a continued search for a sole definition, the findings of this study indicates that there is much merit in looking at the term fiom a more constructivist perspective. Specifically, it showed the use that a typology method, such as Case's "Anatomy of Cumcular Integration" (1991), has for exposing meanings and gaps in communication that would otherwise have been left implicit. As this study arnply displays, it is perhaps nave to think that a concrete deftnition of this tem would hold steady over time and space. Indeed, it has trouble holding meaning within one school setting. However, with the use of a typology. linkages cm be made between sites and documents. In fact, this typology would appear to be an excellent tool for a meta-analysis to collate and find cornmonalties in definitions between the vast arnount of literature on cumculum

integration - it would show the expanse to which authors have taken the term and list the precise uses in specific circumstiinces. As such, it may do much to bring the seemingly disparate Iiterature closer together as a more transferable body of knowledge. The dimension format coutd show, in precise detail, where any two studies run parallel or diverge. 2. The Importance of the Typology Method for Practifioners For the practitioner, this typology also goes a long way to break the either/or dichotomy that has marginalized the approach for so long. Using older standards, only one historical period (the Common Curriculum of the 1990s) and one teacher (MPU/f) would be considered tmly integrated. Presently, most periods and participants were shown by the typology as integrating in one fom or another. This does much to de-stigmatize the approach and bring it into the mainstream of education. As mentioned in the Review of Literature, Fisher (1990) displayed dissatisfaction with the word "integration" based on the connotations it had as a panacea. One could not oppose it for fear of looking evil or narrow-minded. Similarly, when teachers interpret integration by using the continuum approach, they tended to think in terms of an ideal form of integration that they were working towards. This made them disparage themselves for not getting to this level at a faster rate and blaming the environment for their perceived failure. When the term is broken down logically into more precise "forma1 components", however, this monolithic appeai fades away. It ceases to be universally good or evil - if defined and described situationaily, its uses and form becomes much more precise. Once this is performed, educators may then embrace or oppose the approach boldly - not based on vague hopes or uneasiness, but on clear philosophical principles and practical utility. 3. The Use of Ernpirical Data It is felt that the raw data rediscovered by this research, especially the earlier cuniculum documents long discarded, could do much to aid policy preparation at the rninisterial level, as well as provide enlightenment for teac hers, interested acadernics and Ontario residents. Too

often in the past decisions concerning integration have been based on faith in the method or rather scanty evidence. This bulk of material could now permit officiais and other stakeholder groups to reflect on the past activities that their predecessors have engaged in - to see what has been successful and what has not. This could allow the promotion of cumculum integration based on evolutionary research and systematic trial rather than on political agenda. 4. The Importance of a Mulli-level study Lastly, it was mentioned at the beginning of this study that one of the most S ~ ~ O U S problems continually plaguing research into cumculum integration has been the isolation in which it has been carried out. As mentioned in the Review of Literature, theoreticians and governments have dispersed a great number of models and policies with great detachment from the intended practitioners. At the sarne time, Action Researchers report on rather idiosyncratic case studies or implement cumculum integration on a relatively ad hoc basis. In other words, the provincial education system has been so loosely coupled that researchers have a very difficult tirne to observe, analyze and make connections between its various levels (Weick, 1976). It is hoped that researchers will see this multi-study approach as king of great importance because it enables observation of the integration process across these numerous levels. For one of the first times in the history of integration research, both theoretical (Ministry) and practical (the 8 schools) perspectives on integration have been folded together into one study. In this very loosely-coupled system, this method of observation will show where the coupling occurs and where the connections don't exist. In this study, for exarnple, it was shown that the cumculum documents themselves joins the Ministry to the teachers in a direct and unidirectional linkage. The role of the school boards, on the other hand, seems to provide a much weaker alliance. Only ongoing research of this nature, such as the present study and that of Miller et al (1997) would ensure that integration forms suited to a situation are king recognized and promoted. As to the particula. case study in question, Ontario's educational community, it would enable the Ministry to receive feedback From front-line educators (teachers and administrators) on how they have used the Ministry's suggestions and adapted to conditions

of the new cumculum. Otherwise, past behaviour may dictate the future of curriculum integration - whimsical promotion by the Ministry, reticence by the teacher, and a general isolation of the levels of the educational hierarchy. Chapter 4 Methodology : Malring Sense of a Teacher's Complex World We do not describe the world we see; we see the world we c m describe. (Senge, 1995) 4.1 Introduction The methodological approach chosen for this study is multifaceted relying on a variety of means to probe and profile the beliefs of teachers. The potential of the Internet as a tool for research is exploited by the present investigation which relies on an oniine discussion list, e-mail correspondence and questioning to collect data The study also included use of a more traditional research technique, that of a mail-out, open-ended questionnaire. The investigation privileges teacher talk through multilogue, monologue and dialogue in order to make explicit and articuIate the tacit. The multiloguing or discussion is accomplished through use of an online discussion list. The monologue is represented by the use of questionnaires. The dialogues are one-on-one exchanges that took place between the researcher and select participants in both the discussion list and the questionnaire. The data are coIiected and anaiyzed withm the historical and concepnial fiamework outlined m Chapter 2 of this study. The questions that guided the research are as follows: 1. What are some of the beliefs of teachers of FSE in relation to teaching and learning in online learning environments? 2. What do these beliefs reflect in texms of the evolution of approaches and use of technology m the teaching of FSFL? This chapter descnbes m detail the approach taken to the investigation of these questions. For each method used to collect data, a description is provided of the procedures, participants and the characteristics of the method. Prior to the description is an o v e ~ e wof the general research paradigm as well as a discussion of the parhcular challenges related to studying beliefs. 4.2 Multiple Worids: Research Paradigm In his discussion of paradigm and research programs in the study of teaching,

Shuiman (1986) highlights the complex nature of the world of teaching: I begin with the assumption that there is no "real world" of the classroom, of l e h g and of teachmg. There are many such worlds, perhaps nested within one ano ther, perhaps occup ying paralle1 universes which fiequently, albeit unpredictably, intrude on one another. Each of these worlds is occupied by the same people, but in different roles and striving for Werent purposes simultaneously. (p -7) Schulman's assertion fits well with the epistemological fiamework or perspective of the present research. This investigation is premised on the notion that a teacher's world is a diverse and complex phenornenon. It a s m e s not a hear, rather a cyclical or circular direction of causality In the chai- of behaviors of students' and teachers' classroom actions. Furthemore, it considers of primal importance the experiences of individuals and the meanings and interpretations they attach to these experiences. Learning is understood as being the social negotiation of shared meanings and interpretations which groups of individuals construct based on experiences and interactions with their environment. Research is seen as a means of gaining insight into these experiences in order to understand the meanings of events and not to influence them This inqiIiry is thus interpretive and reflective. It does not attempt to explain how things work, nor does it attempt to predict how they might work. The orientation of the present research aims to understand the meanings which mdividuals in a particular context have evo2ved. Specificdly, it seeks to understand some of the underlying beliefs or irnplicit theones of teachers. It attempts to make sense, to understand, to make more explicit, this underlying aspect of teachers' complex world. The present study cm be descnlbed as '~nteractive" in the sense that the researcher actively participates in the discussion list dong with the other participants. While the researcher's role m the list may be more of a leader and an individual who prompts others, the role nonetheless involves active participation. Such research cari be described more specifically as ethnographie. Ethnography can be defined as "malyticd description of social sciences, individuals, and groups that recreate their s h e d feelings, beliefs, practices, artifacts, folkknowledge, and actions" (Mc- & Schumacher, 1997, p.427). Ethnography is a form of "naturaIistic enqujl" (Tafi, 1988). The emphasis on subjective realities as the focus of the investigator's attention has much in common with the philosophy of naturalism which purports that "there exkt multiple realities which are, m the main, constructions existing in the h d s o f peopleyy( Guba &Lincoln, 1988, p.81).

These multiple realities are synonymous with S hulmads (1 986) multiple w orlds d e s c r i in an earlier section of this chapter. The role of the researcher as ethnographer is to observe these multiple realities, to articulate, interpret and reconstruct them (McMlllan & Schumacher, 1997). The methodological appro ach adopted is designed to take hto consideration the challenges related to investigating beliefs. Innovative and non-O btrusive techniques are required to elicit tacitly held beliefs and to provide an environment m which teachers will be encouraged to reflect on and articulate their beliefs. Many approaches might or could have ken used to probe and profile teachers' beliefs. However, ensuring the integrity of these beliefk has to be a guidhg factor m the choice of metho do10 gy. The present research mode1 has been designed spec5cally to ensure the integrity of the beliefs and to provide teachers with an optimal opportunity to reflect and articulate their beliefs. The following section describes in detail the challenges rehted to studying beliefs. 4.3 Hidden Worlds: Challenges Related to Investigating Beliefs Much of educational research has traditionally focused on teacher actions which represent observable and measurable phenornena that Iend themselves easily to empirical research. Beattie (1995) notes that the major goal of this research was to determine the effects of teacher actions and performance on student achievement. Brophy and Good (1986) describe this type of research as process-product studies. Such research typicdy concerned itself with causatity and was conducted using quantitative research methods. Fang (1996) notes that this research was conducted under laboratory or contnved conditions and describes it as follows: [Such] research assumed that the relationship between teachers' actions and their O bsenrable effects is linear and unidirectional. Data anaiysis was relasvely decontextualized and objectiied in a search for positive, generalizable principIes which can be used to formulate teaching and learning theories. Statisticd procedures used in these studies were often correlations and analysis of variance. (p.48) In recent years, advances in cognitive psychoIogy have resulted in a shift away from process-product studies towards a growing interest in understanding teachers' thought processes (Fang, 1996). This tendency has led to various attempts at investigating teacher beliefs. However, focusing on what happens inside teachers' heads presents certain obvious research challenges. Pajares (1992) argues that the constnict of belief does not lend itself eady to empincal investigation. Beliefs have a very covert

nature, might not be observable and even the teachers holding them may not recognize them (Milne & Taylor, 1995). Teachers' beliefs are O fien tacit and inarticulate (Driver & Erickson, 2983). They belong to the area of thought processes that occur inside heads and are thus unobservable m the same way that behaviour would be (Clark & Peterson, 198 6). Kagan (1992) has identfied a number of challenges related to studying beliefs. She notes that they cannot be inferred directly fkom teacher behaviour, because teachers can folow similar practices for very different reasons. Furthemore, notes Kagan, "much of what teachers kno w or believe about their craft is tacit. For example, teachers are often unaware of their O wn kiefs, they do no t always possess language with which to describe and label their beliefs ..." (p.66). She therefore cautions against a style of direct questioning such as ' m a t is your philosophy of teaching?" and characterizes it as "an ineffective or counterproductive way to elicit beliefs" (p.62). Varying approaches have ken taken by reseanhers m their attempts to understand teacher beliefs. One of the more common approaches is the use of Likert-type questionnaires to which teachers indicate agreement with direct statements on beliefs. Another approach is that of forced-choice options that require teachers to endorse a parfcdlar option. Such approaches, however, are *e1y to provide an accurate indication of teachers' beliefs. Munby (1984) points to a number of drawbaclcs to such approaches to studying beliefs: While the items of the instrument generate a response, they may be doing so not because the teacher would necessariiy have thought of the belief represented by the items but because the test developer did. In other words, the scores represent what the teacher says is believed when he or she is physically presented with various beliefs of interest to the researcher (and possbly identified by many other teachers), and these do not necessady correspond to the beliefs which are paramount to the individual teacher's handhg of the immediate and unique professional environment. (p -29) Like Kagan, Woods (1996) emphasizes the tacit nature of beliefs and the difficulties of accessing them. Even in an interview situation, direct questionhg can produce misleading results: . . . beliefs (and their interrelationships) may no t be entirely consciously accessiile, and teachers may, in responding to questions about generalized beIiefs, answer according to what they would like to believe, or would like

to show they believe m the mterview context. When a belief or assumption is articulateci m the abstract as a response to an abstract question, there is a much greater chance that it w;II tend more towards what is expected in the interview situation than what is actually held in the teaching situation and actualiy Muences teaching prachces. (p -27) A fbrther problem arises, accordhg to Woods, in relation to the way in which the questions may be posed. Terms Iike whole Zmguage cm have varying meanings for different individu& and theu use by the inte~ewerm ay be misleading. As Woods explains "..,hguage teachers know a lot about themselves in language teaching situations, but although they have had the experiences, they may not have categonzed and Iabeled them. Therefore using abstract questions, s ymbols and catego ries that the interviewer might feel cornfortable with may no t allo w themselves to express what is important to thexn" (p.27). Fang (1996) expresses a similar concem about the approach of much of the research on teachers' thought processes and beliefs. He posits that smdies of teacher cognition and beliefs must address the personal expenences of teachers and their mfluence on shaping these beliefs. He recommends approaches such as life history, narrative, and autobiography in order to capture the complexities of teacher beliefs. Woods makes sirnilar recommendatiom and proposes investigatuig the contexts of what he refers to as teacher Stones about events, behaviours and plans. Munby (1984) argues that special attention needs to be given to providmg teachers with opportunities to taIk about fundamentai beliefs. The present study recognizes the challenges related to studying beliefs. It is in recognition of these challenges that the research was designed. Emphasis in the research design is on providing a means or mechanism to dow teachers the opportunity to bring to the surface their O wn theories, personal h o wledge, or beliefs about the teaching of FSFL in oniine learning environments. The study has taken a broad focus as a means of providing an initial foray into an area about which iittle is yet kno wn. Expressed in this study therefore is an interest m understanding the beliefs of both teachers who do and do not operate in OB. The broad range aiIo ws for an understanding of the beliefs of those who may value and those who may not value the use of the Internet m the teachmg of FSFL. The study dowed for participation fkom a wide range of teachers fiom diverse educational and geographical backgrounds. At the same tirne, the study provided an opportunity to probe more deeply into the beliefs of a certain nurnber of the study's

participants. An approach often taken to the study of teachers' beliefs is to focus in on a small number of three or four teachers and to probe their belies in-depth. The present study takes a very cMEerent approach. The study's data collection techniques allowed the opportunity to probe in-depth the beliefs of certain participants. The teachers involved in the study were able to participate in the large group discussion where many issues were raised and a broad range of topics discussed. Ho wever, at the same time, these teachers ' beliefs were also probed in a more in-depth fashion through individual dialogues conducted via e-mail for the discussion participants and via telephone for the questionnaire participants. The range of topics generated allo wed the researc her to capture a broader range of beLiefi than might have been possible if ody three or four indMduals participated in the study. The fonowing section provides a brief ovewiew of the data collection techniques. 4.4 Overview of Data Collection The data were cokted over a period of ten months ie., fiom September, 1998 to June, 1999. Two primary methods were used to collect data for this study: 1. a French online discussion list and an English online discussion list 2. an open-ended, mail-out questionnaire The En&h and French discussion h t s were comprised of teachers from more than four continents but primarily Erom North America The questionnaire was circulated among teachers of FSFL in the province of Nedoundland and Labrador, Canada Comments made by participants in the djscussion lia inspired questionhg or probing in the questionnaires. Some of the comments made in the questionnaires were recirculated by the researcher in the discussion kt, Thus, the research could be described as cyclical and integrated, with each method of data collection influencing the content of the other methods. In-depth probing, or dialoguing as it win be referred to in this study, formed a secondary means of collecting data- Sixteen participants fkom the discussion list were involved in e-mail dialogues with the researcher in order to gain further insight h o indMdual beliefs. In the case of the questionnaires, five of the respondents were selected to participate in dialogues or interviews with the researcher. The following sections of this chapter descn in detail, the participants, procedures and instruments used in this study. (See Appendix A for a s m a r y of the study's research methods). 4.5 Discussion List: MnItiIogue and Dialogue

This section provides in-depth information on the use of discussion as a means of favouring teacher talk, reflection and of brhging teachers' implicit beliefs to the explicit level. Cornparisons will be made throughout this section in order to highlight the * - s i m . and differences between onlnle discussions in asynchronous t h e and face-toface discussions in synchronous time. An overview wii be presented of the participants in and procedures of the onIine discussion that took place in the context of this study. The individual dialogues or discussions wilL &O be explained. 4.5.1 Discussion List: DeM tion and Characteristics Of all types of sustained direct oral communication, none is more common or important to our way of He than discussion (Brilhart, 1978). The foIlowing definitions of a discussion indicate the many interpretations that can be given to the term. These definitions also highlight many commonalities, The definitions include: a process of shared talking and listening by two or more people; (Brilhart, 1978, p.3) a small group of people taIking with each other face to face in order to achieve some interdependent goal, such as increased understanding, coordination of efforts, or a solution to a shared pr O blem; (ibid. p S) a form of group dialectic; (ibid. p.7) the purposefd, systematic, primarily ord exchange of ideas, facts, and opinions by a group of persons who share in the group's leadership; (Potter & Anderson, 1976, p. I) ... one or more meetings of a small group of people who thereby communicate, face to face, in order to fEE a common purpose and achieve a group goal; (Borman, 1975, p.53) an effective technique for intefigent and productive selfexpression. (Bergevin & Morris, 1965) These definitions were created at a time when the o f i e discussion was a yet nonexistent phenornenon It is therefore easy to understand why many of the authors cited above relied on the importance of face-to-face contact in their definition. In this age of asynchronous communication facilitateci b y the many to ois of the Intemet such as e-mail, the World Wide Web, chat rooms, MUDs and MOOs, discussions c a . occur without the 105 need for either physical or temporal proximity- Thus, for the purposes of the discussion

that formed a major part of the research method of this study, the face-to-face element need not figure as part of the deftotion Using these clariEications and with reference to the established definitions listed above, the discussion used in this study cm be defked ~O~OWS: A purposefid and systematic exchange of experiences, anecdotes, personal kno wledge and implicit theories, by means of electronic, asynchronous, -en communication by a group of teachers sharing a cornmon mterest in the teaching and learning of French as a second or foreign language in online learning environrnents . There are numerous differences between a 'live" discussion and an online discussion. The elements of time and distance play no role in the online discussion. Email discussion operates in asynchronous t h e whereby "messages are either e-mailed or posted on a system where, upon login, users are notified of the new postings they have not yet accessed" (Bush, 1996, p.2). Discussions are fiozen on the hard drives of the participants and the discussion can be entered into at an interval convenieent to the participant mgan, 1995). The characteristic of asynchronicity means that participants do not have to be logged ont0 the cornputer system at the same time in order ?O communcate, thus fieeing them fiom t h e and distance limitations. Asynchronicity also aUows either reflective or spontaneous interaction (Harash, 1986, p.6). In tenns of distance, whether the discussion Iist member sends a message fkom 500 or fkom 50 d e s away, the resulthg message and relative speed of its delivery are the same. Physical presence is not a requirement for online discussion which has the capacity to "unite" a geo grap hically dispersed group of individuals. In an O nline discussion, participants "share a common corner of cyberspace rather than sit at a banquet table" (Logan, 1995, p.276). The absence of physical presence means that members of the discussion cannot see each other. Absence of physical presence has important implications for the discussion. The benefit of fteedom fkom spatio-temporal limitations aIlows for more interaction and flexibility in communication among mernbers and thus potentidy more exchange of ideas, increased participation and variety of mterchange (McComb, 1993). The fact that the communication is taking place online has important implications for the amount and types of participation. 'The tme for reflectim and the distance of the written interaction aIlow the slow thinker or shy person opportwrity to interact just as much as the quicker or boIder person, who can, however, still interact at his or her own pace without having

to wait for petmission" (McComb,1993, p.8). While some might argue that online discussions are Iimited by lack of physical interaction, others see signifxcant benefits to the W o r n of spatial limitation, Feenberg (1987) considers the advantages of computermediated communication (CMC) : CMC users often feel they gain a more immediate access to each other's thought processes, undistractecl by the status signaling and social games that are played simultaneously with speech in face-to-face encounters.. . . or- individuals possess the literary' capab%ty necessary to project their personalities in written texts. The loss of the interlocutor's bodily presence does not s i g n . impersonality, but fieedom fi-om undesirable social constraints. (p. 174) Cornputer-mediated communication facilitates a greater equality of participation than does a face-to-face discussion. Such communication can benefit most those who would normdy be shut out of the conversation because of shyness but &O because of other factors. In a review of the literature on cornputer-mediated collaboration, Warschauer (1997a) smumrizes some of the Smdings related to the eqrrRlizing nature of cornputer-mediated discussions. He explains that factors related to race, gender, status, handicap, accent or status do not impact on the discussion. Certain non-verbal ches such as fio wning and hesitating which might normdy serve to mtimidate certain participants are eliminated- Finaliy, individuals cm contribute at their own time and pace. Another characteristic of oaline communication that distinguishes it from its realworld counterpart is its oral nature. In spite of the fact that colpmunication via e-mail is written, the style of communication in an onlirie discussion bears more resemblance to oral commurcation.. Logan (1995) explains: The protocols and ntuals associated with the use of the htemet are not the formal patterns characteristic of Literate communication but are more like those of an oral society, despite the underlying iiterate substrata that *ses the use of cornputers. The primary mode of comm~catione, mad, is WZitten, but, in contrast to traditional literacy, the form of wnting is not formal Grammatical structures are frequently relaxed and shorthands and jargon are hieral2y used. The writing is frequently infused with hieroglyphic signs used to connote feelings and tone and are meant to replicate the kind of information that facial gesture and vocal tone

convey during face-to -face conversation. (p. 268) Shank (1993) likens Internet communication to a conversation* He notes that messages tend to be informal and phrased in conversational. fom, and cm engender a great deal of interchange. He also distmguishes the online discussion from al1 others through his reference to the term ccmul~oguing". Shank distinguishes between three types of conversation: the monologue where 'Yhere is ody one sender, and one or more multiple receivers who listen passively to the message of the sender"; the dialogue whereby "the sender and receiver take turns" (p.2). The third type of conversation is the discussion whereby 'bve have one person who starts as the sender, and multiple receivers. While it is important for the recekrs to take tunis as senders, in the discussion, the initial sender still retains control of the conversation" (p.2). However, argues Shank, these models of monologue, dialogue, discussion, do not capture the dynamics of Internet communication, For this reason, he ckms, a new linguistic model is needed - that of the rnuldo gue: In the multiiogue, we have a number of players. We have the starter, or the initial sender, who starts the %read" (a well-established Net tenn, by the way). Once a thread has been started though, it is no longer under sender control. This is because the mechanics of Net response do not require tum taking. From the oral side, it is as if everyone who is interested in talking can aIl jump ni at once, but s t i I l their individual voices cm be clear1y heard. From the written side, it is as if someone had started writing a piece, but before hdshe gets too far, people are there magically m print to add to, correct, challenge, or extend the piece. Therefore, what we have is a written quasi-discussion that has the potentid to use the strengths of each fonn. Since the "feel" of Net communication is still oral, I think it is b a t to cal1 this fonn of comunication "mdtiloguing", to retain the link with its oral heritage. (p.3) The pattern of communication or conversation m the online discussions that took place ni the context of this study's discussion hts cm be descriied as multiioguing. The researcher served most ofken, though not dways, as the starter. The participants developed the thread such that the researcher as participant-observer needed to intervene to maintahi momentum, to start a new thread where necessary, to probe m e r or to request clarification. Multiloguing seive-d as an effective technique for ensuring a context

in which teachers could "tak", share ideas, opinions, questions and debate without too much intervention by the researcher. Besides defining the term discussion, it is important to understand in detail its characteristics. Hyman (19 80) highlights seven such characteristics. The hrst of these characteristics is that of the discussion as a social activity whereby several people react to each other. A miriimum group of five individuals is necessary to provide the opportunity to talk and yet allow some shilling of roles within the group. Secondly, a discussion is &O a cooperative endeavor without winners or losers iiTilllce the argument and debate which thrive on cornpetition. Thirdly, unil'ke the fiee conversation among friends, the discussion can be distinguished by reason and purpose and a focus on an agreed-upon topic. Participants are required to think reflectively and to weigh arguments. The characteristic of being systematic implies that there w be some progression in the discussion. The f32h characteristic of the discussion is that it is creative. It is through the participants asking of, responding and reacting to questions, that remarks are shaped and that the discussion is created. A discussion requires participation. Active, attentive listening as well as active responsive speaking constitutes a sixth characteristic of the discussion-that of participation. The speakers and listeners constitute the integral participants. The discussion benefits fiom a broad range of participants. The online discussion conducted m the context of this study foLZowed a systematic exchange among teachers. The discussion provided them with the opportuaity to reflect on their practices, the curriculum, their theories and kno wiedge. Through a cooperative sharing of ideas and experiences, teachers were able to respond and react to each other, to weigh arguments, ask questions, compare practices and ideas, express concerns and chi@ issues m order to better understand how bat to work and learn in OLEs. Providing teachers with the opportunity to talk about their experences, theories and knowledge meant that they were having to reflect on their practice as weU as on the environment m which they work Such reflection brings closer '?O the surface" issues, laiowledge, theories, ideas and feelings that might otherwise have gone unexplored, unquestioned and unnoticed. Teachers were guided in this process by the researcher who served as a leader of the group discussion, A discussion requires leadership in order to keep it focused, rational, purposefid, creative, systematic and participatory The leadership of the discussion may take at least three dif5erent forms: that of the leader-centered group, the Ieader-guided group or the group-centered group (Hyman, 1980). In the first group, it is the leader who provides the

motivation and direction and makes decisions for the group. The leader functions like the hub of the group without whom the group might cease to function It is the leader who chooses the topic, sets the tone and focuses the discussion. Zn the leader-guided group, the leader functions as a facilitator who guides the discussion, contriiutes facts and opinions, cianses ideas and raises questions. The third type is the group-centered group in which case there is no officia1 leader. Instead, aIi members function as leader so that the discussion is not focused by .one person rather each participant is responsibIe for providiog the focus. S p d c discussion skills are required in order to lead the discussion. Hyman lists six skiB which he identifies as being necessary to ensure an effective discussion. The first of these skills, that of contributing, involves supplying requests for information, pro viding information not provided by the participants themselves, offerhg opinions, and suggesting new ways to view a point. Crystallizhg is the second important skill for the discussion leader and essenMy involves statmg concisely, summarizing or interpreting the remarks of the participants in order to get at bo th the explkit and implicit, overaU meanings. The leader rnay cla- statements made, offer alternative ways of perceiving meaning of remarks or offer a reflection on remarks. The thrd ski11 is that of focusing or putting the discussion on its intended course and ensuing that progress is made in the discussion. Focusing may also invoIve linking remarks wth previous remarks, settmg IUnits on what cm and cannot be discussed. Ln addition to the three leadership skiIls is the skill of introducing/cIosing the discussion Introducing the discussion involves getting it off the ground by presenting the topic wMe closhg the discussion involves ensuring that the discussants have a sense of satisfaction about their participation, The introduction also provides an important opportunity to deal with procedural issues related to the discussion. Closhg the discussion involves more than ending it- A summary or recapitulation of the important points made dong with suggestions for future discussions are important parts of the closing process. Participants can &O be asked by the leader to perform the role of summarizing the highlights of the discussioa The fifth discussion skill is that of questioning or probing which serves to stimulate greater participation by the discussants and allows opportunitties to solicit M e r opinions, explanations or generalizattions or to explore relationships between ideas and remarks. Mixing the skiU of questioning with other skiIls allows the leader to avoid dominating the discussion by interrogating. The final, but not the least important skin for the leader, is that of supporting. Praise, humourous remarks, and

facilitating participation by shy or inactive members or even reducing any tension in the discussion cons titute different ways of supporting. The discussion that took place m this study codd be described as a leader-centered discussion. The researcher functioned like the hub of the group, provlding the topic, focus and direction of the discussion. The skills of contributing, crystaUizing, focusing, introducing, closing and questioning were exercised m order to ensure the flow of participation, and to elicit comments, and remarks that would provide insight into teachers' beliefs. leader, the researcher also had to ensure that the motivation in the group remained sufEcient to ensure continued participation of members. Members no doubt needed to feel that the discussion was of benefit to them in their attempt to better understand how to work and leam in the new environment of the Internet. The participants volunteered to join the group knowing that the ultimate purpose was to collect data on their beliefs. At the same time, a second purpose for them or incentive to participate was that, in so doing, they might corne to a better understanding of teaching and learning in OLEs . The role of the leader in the discussion used in this study could also be characterized somewhat as that of the participant-observer. Bniart (1978) descnbes the role of the participant observer in discussion groups: The participant-observer is a person who is a regular member of the group, engaging actively in its deliberations, but who at the same t h e is obsenring, evaluating, and adapting to its processes and procedures. In terms of role, the participant-observer directs part of his attention to task fnctions and part to maintenance functions, trying always to be aware of what the group needs at the moment. (p.45) In the role of participant-observer, the researcher did not actively engage in the deliberations except to provide questioning, probing, direction and focus. It was important, however, as participant observer, to observe, evduate and to adapt the discussion in ways rnost conducive to making beliefs explicit. In this sense, as participant-observer, the researher acted more as a leader-observer thm a tnie participant. Certainly? the online, Wtud nature of the discussion that took place in tbis study allowed the researcher to play a more invisible role than what might have been possible in a face-to-face discussion In the online discussion, there is no physical presence of the participants or the leader. In the case of this discussion, the participants had never met physically. bstead, theU interactions were aIl virtual - i.e. via their

individual e-mail messages sent through the list. Thus the focus becomes less on who is delivering the message than on the message itseIf. As leader and participant-observer, it was important to constmct what Hammersley and Atkinson (1 9 83) refer to as a working identity, This identity allo ws the researcher to exploit any relevant skrlls or h o wledge that she p O ssesses. In this way, the participants cm perceive the participant- observer, no t as an "exploitive interloper", but as someone who has something to contribute. Tc maintain the participants' interest and continued participation in the list, it was necessary for the researcher to provide such a contribution This contn'iution took the form of suggestions of sites, contacts, resources, answers to technical questions, some support with and feedback on projects and occasional summaries of infonnation or research A collaborative and cooperative tone was thus fostered m tiiis discussion, 4.5.2 Discussion List: Procedure Internet discussion lists cm also be referred to by the generic term of mailing lists which is a collection of e-mail addresses (CarroIi & Broadhead, 1994). Thus, any message sent to the list is automatically distributed to all members of the list in asynchronous tirne. Messages and information f?om mailing lists are distributed via regular Intemet e-mail Speciai software is not required to read or send a message to the List (Ibid.). Anyone with an Internet e-mai2 address cm choose to join a maihg or discussion Ikt Mailing lists represent interest groups or topics of discussion (Falk, 1994) and constitute a convenient method for people on Herent cornputer systems ikom different parts of the world to discuss particular topics or share information. This study provided for discussion in both French and English by means of an English list called CREDO and a French Iist called CREO . Invitations to join CREDO were sent to six lists that relate to education andlor language learning (see Appendix B). Invitations to join CREO were also sent to six lists (see Appendic B). These lists in turn distributed the invitation to their members who wodd have immediately received the invitation to subscribe. Subscriptions were processed by a listserve (a specialized piece of software provided by the service provider) that managed the process of list administration (subscribing and unsubscribing). To send out a message to the list or to respond to any message on the Est, subscribers needed only to send their message to credo @stemt.nf.ca or to creo @stemet.nf.ca Kaughey & Anderson (1998) explain ho w the listserve pro gram manages the list: A list server program maintains a b t of the names and e-mail addresses

of everyone who is subscribed to the list. The list owner has the capacity to restrict membership in any way that he or she chooses. When a List member wishes to send a message to the other members on the list, he or she composes the message on e-mail software and addresses it to the k t . When the message arrives at the server, it is reposted to ail the members. Each member then receirves a private e-mail message in his or her "inbox". Replying to this message sends it to all the members of the list, which m tum supports e-mail interaction among many people. (p.23) The questions and topics for the discussion came fiom various sources. Besides topics, issues or questions raised by the participants themselves, questions and topics were aIso generated fiom the topics and issues raised in both the review of the literature in Chapter 3 and the conceptual and historical fkamework in Chapter 2. The discussion lists represented a highly effective means of providing an opportunity for teachers to articulate their reflectiom, recount their experiences, present anecdotes, ask questions, provide comments and suggestions, express fnistrations and seek and share advice. The discussion list was meant to be an indirect means to provide teachers with an opportmity to express beliefs. For this reason, the questionhg did not focus specificaIIy on beliefs but rather on issues that might generate a discussion in which beliefs would be indirectly expressedIn terms of the postings, their fiequency was irregular with an average of approlrimately four to five postings per week over a period of approximately 40 weeks. Certain threads of discussion might prompt numerous responses during a week-long period. Other threads or comments and questions raised by the researcher elicited few, if any, responses. The number of postings and their frequency was highly irregular and unpredictable. The total number of postings, excluding those of the researc her, exceeded 200 for the duration of the study. While some of these may have been as much as two pages in length, others were a few Lines or several paragraphs long (for examples of participant postings see Appendix C). Not all discussion was initiated or directed by the researcher (for examples of postings by the researcher see Appendix D). Participants frequently asked questions or posted comments in reaction to the comments of others. The English list CREDO was more active than the French k t which had fewer members and which represented a more geographicdy dispersed and diverse range of individuals who may have had less in common pedagogically than their counterparts in the English list. 4.5.3 Discussion List: Participants

AU participants in the discussion volunteered themselves after having seen the mvitatiodannouncement about CREDO and CREO which was sent out to other lists m the Internet (see Appendix B). Tmmedately follo wing their subscnp tion, participants were sent an initial message (see Appendix E), a welcome message (see Appendix F) outlinkg procedures for unsubscribing , a fonn indicating their willingness to participate m the study (see Appendix G) and guidelines for participation in the list (see Appendix H). As well, all questio~mairesc ontained an invitation to participate in the discussion list. While some of the individu& who completed the questionnaire agreed to joi. the CREDO k t , none posted any messages. The participants represented a select sample or group in the sense that they would an possess a minimum level of skin in use of the Internet. To be able to receive the initial message, they had to have been already subscribed to a discussion list because it was through the discussion lists that the invitation was distributed. Participation in a discussion list implies that the user has esablished an Intemet account, has achieved a basic comfort level in the use of e-mail and is familiar with ho w to subscribe to discussion lists. As such, the participants in the CREDO and CREO lists represented Internet users as opposed to non-hternet users. Dernographic information on the participants was provided by means of an introduction to the group which each individual was asked to provide using a ''template" in the form of the introduction of the researcher to the group (see Appendix I). Not all participants adopted the format of the introduction template. Thus, some participants provided more demographic information than O thers. This study did no t aim to focus on or control for any variables related to gender, experience, programs, or geographic location. The demographic information was necessary for both the researcher md the participants in order to contextualize certain comments pat-eicularlly in relation to the grade and pro gram that the individual was teaching. The individu& came from diverse backgrounds with a range in teaching expenence from pre-kindergarten to college and university level. The rnajority of participants were, however, teaching school-age children Core French and French Immersion progams were represented among the participants. Many of them had been mvolved in Intemet projects and some were mtensely imolved in integrating the Intemet into their teaching. m e r o u s continents were represented by the participants- WhiIe the majority of CREDO participants were fiom Canada and the U.S.A, there were also participants from Australia and Austria. In the CREO list, there were participants

primarily fi-om Europe ie., France and Italy. Ho wever, there were also some participants fkom South America, M c a and Qubec. 4-54 Discussion List: Dialogues In the course of the discussion which ran for a period of ten months, it was often necessary or usefl to contact certain participants individually ie., without posting to the entire list. Such was the case, for example, when clarification was required on a point or when the researcher wanted to probe more deeply or even when the researcher wanted to encourage greater participation fiorn a member of the group. As well, it was not uncommon for some participants of CREDO or CREO to send an individual e-mail to the researcher to request information on a topic, to express an opinion which, for participants' own reasons, they chose not to express to the entire group. This type of exchange is referred to in tbis study as dialoguing as opposed to the multiloguing exchanges which took place between aU members of the group in the context of the discussion lists. Besides the informal dialoguing that took place as described in the above section, a more formalized system of dialoguing was also incorporated into the discussion list. The purpose of the formalized dialoguing, like that of the informa1 dialoguing, was to probe more deepLy into beliefs of some of the discussion list participants, to seek further ~Iarificationo n comments made in the context of the kt, to encourage participation and exchange and flow of "conversation". The prirnary difference between the informal versus the forma1 dialoguing was that the latter involved the sanie question sent out approdtely once per week to each participant in the dialogue. The question served as a catalyst for M e r questionhg or dialoguing with the participant (see AppendYc J for s ample dia10 gue questions) . In terms of the participation in the diaIoguing, 22 members of CREDO and 14 members of CREO each received an individuai e-mail fiom the researcher inviting them to participate in dialogues (see Appendix K for the invitation). These 36 individuals were hvited to participate based on a variety of factors. The majority were invited to participate because of what the researcher perceived as an ability on the participants' part to articulate their beliefs and experiences. Others were chosen with an am to increase participation fiom a wider range of experience in t e m of geographic location or pro gram. Whereas 16 of the 22 individu& invited from the CREDO Est agreed to participate, no members of the CREO list agreed to join in the dialogues. We can speculate that as to why no C m 0 members agreed to participate. The general degree of participation on CREDO

was greater than on CREO for the discussion list as a whole. As such, the researcher was more easily able to create a rapport with the participants of CREDO than with those of CREO. Although it cannot be determined conclusively that the rapport contributed to the wiIlingness of participants to dialogue, it may have been a contnbuting factor in their decisio n. For those who did agree to participate, their involvement amounted to responding to approeately one question every one or two weeks. The questions were determined by the researcher. In terms of the number of p o s ~ gbsy individual dialogue participants, these were iiregular. niere were some weeks when certain individu& did not respond because they were unavailable for various reasons ( see Appendix L for an example of a dialogue posting or message). It is possible as weD that they did no t respond because the question was no t meaningfbl for them or sirnply because they were too busy to fnd the tirne to respond. The nurnber of posthgs for the dialogue as well as the rnultilogue were irregular. Their length also varied considerably. W e some may have been more than two pages in length, others were no more than a few Iines. Certain threads of discussion for the multilogue or questions for the dialogue might prompt numerous responses during a week-long period. Other threads, or questions raised by the researcher elicited few, if any, responses (see Appendix M for an mdividualized summary of the postings of the multilogue and dialogue participants). For certain participants, their multilo gue and dia10 gue postmgs combined exceeded 20. Others exceeded 10 or 15 which represented a large amount of m-depth data (see Appendyc N for a numerical comparison of the participation in the multilogue and cidogue). Those participants who posted little nonetheless provided an important peripheral contribution jn the sense that their messagedp ostings often served to stimulate discussion in O ther participants. 4.6 Questionnaire: MonoIogue and Didogue The online discussion list provided an opportunitv for teachers to reflect, share information, express concerns and to articulate their own theories about teaching and leaniing FSFL in online learning environments. Those who volunteered to participate in the onhe discussion Iist generaliy represented a group of individuals experienced in using the Internet. The fact that these individuals were willing and able to participate in an online discussion meant that they had to have a certain level of competency in the use of e-maiL Many of the participants were mvolved in Internet p rojects and some were even responsible for trainhg other teachers in use of the Internet in teaching.

These teachers represented a select group who, it might be expected, would hold some similar beliefs about use of the Internet in teaching and Iearning. The aim of this study was not only to profi the beliefs of teachers who were comfortable and competent Hi teaching mOLEs, but also, to gainnsight into the beliefs of those teachers who work in these environments very little or not at a?l. Even though these individu& do not work in these environments, they are still adequately famiZiar with them to be able to express their beliefs about them. It may well be because of their beliefs that these uidividuals do not choose to expetiment with online Iearning environments. Thus, the beliefs of these individuals are important in building an understanding of teachers' beliefs in general. These beliefs provide a point of comparison to the beliefs of those who work fiequently in onIine environments. 4.6.1 Questionnaire Design In order to capture the beliefi of a wider group of teachers, a mail-out, open-ended questionnaire was used. The sampling for the questionnaire targeted a wide geographic range including all ten school districts in the provbce of Newfoundland and Labrador as well as a range in grades, programs and smdl versus large schook The instrument (see Appendix O) mclluded a consent fom and a two-page questionnaire with eight, openended questions. The questions were designed to elicit responses that would reved underlykg beliefi. No attempt was made to ask explicit questions such as ' m a t are your beliefs about the value of the Internet as a teaching and learning environment?'. Mead, the aim was to provide teachers with an oppomnity to provide information on or to ccdiscuss", in general, issues related to the following: their approach to teaching with and without the Internet; the strategies needed by teachers and students for Internet use; m the impact of the Internet on their teaching; 1 their experiences in using the Internet; rn the types of activities m which they engage when using the Jitemet ; why they do or do not use the Intemet. The questiomaire was designed to assist teachers in revealing jmplicitly their persona1 theories about the teaching of FSFL in onhe learning environments. The following section of this chapter outlines the procedures of the questionnaire. 4.6.2 Questionnaire: Procedure

The questionnaire was piioted by 1 1 individuals during the months of Octo ber and November, 1998. The participation m the pilot study was requested b y the researcher. The individuals chosen represented a range of participant types and included a university professor, teachers in training, Core French and Immersion teachers. The mos t important changes made in the design aliowed for wording that would accommodate users who either did not use the hternet or who used it 1ittle. The questionnaires were mailed to French Program SpeciaEsts during the month of January and distri'buted to schook and the individual teachers through district rnaii. Teachers were asked to retum the questionnaile by Febmary 15'4 1999. This time of year was chosen to avoid the busier times of year such as at the beghmhg or end of year or reporting times. Each questionnaire included a return, stamped envelope as well as a smail button with a slogan related to the teaching of French such as J'aine parler franais. If the questionnaire had not been retunied by the end of Febmary, a follow-up letter was sent to the teacher (see Appendix P) . If the questio~maireh ad not been received by the middle of March, a second follow-up letter and questionnaire were sent out (see Appendix Q. This letter also included an Internet address of a site created by the researcher where participants could complete the questionnaire online. The hal response rate was approximately 68% with 88 out of 130 questionnaires returned. 4.6.3 Questionnaire: Participants The questionnaire was distributed to 130 teachers fkom Kindergarten to grade 12 in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. AD ten districts were represented in the study. The districts represent ten geographic regions of the province iacluding the ishd portion of Newfoundland as weIl as the mainland portion of Labrador (see Appendix R for a map). The regions represented include scho 01s in urban as weIl as rural centres, large and small schools, centrally located as well as extremely isolated schools. The inclusion of ail ten districts as well as a selection of schools from within the district was based on the premise that technoiogy integration and teacher exposure to the Intemet would Vary based on a large number of factors some of which would include the size of school as well as its location. A foxm was sent to French Program Specialists in each of the ten boards to request participation (see Appendix S ) . The Pro gram Specialists were asked to cho ose teachers fiom as Wde a range of school as possible as opposed to choosing all the teachers from the one schooL The selection included Core French and French Immersion programs and ail grades fiom K- 12. Using combinations of grades and pro gram (i-e. Core French K-3,

Core French 4-6, etc), each Program Specialist needed to select 16 teachers. Since some districts do not offer certain programs such as French Immersion at the primary level, they were not able to provide the researcher with a name of a teacher at that leveL For this reason, specialists provided 130 names as opposed to the 160 requested (10 districts X 16 names). 4.6.4 Questionnaire: Dialogues Recipients of the questionnaire also had the opportunitty to participate in mdMdual dialogues or questioning in the same way that participants in the discussion list were involved in individual dialogues with the researcher. The cover of each questiomaire contained a section inviting participants to participate in an odhe discussion and/or an interview. Twenty two individuals expressed an interest in participahg in inte~ews. Five individuals fkom this 22 were selected to participate. These individu& were selected because they indicated in their questionnaires that they never used the Intemet for teaching. Some of them had not used the Internet at all for any purposes. The discussion list profled primarily the beliefs of individu& who were comfortable with online technologies and who were, in the case of many of the participants, teachg and Iearning iIsing the Internet. An essential aim of the research was to capture a range of beliefs. The dialogues between the researcher and these f i e indMduals provided the means of capturing beliefs of individuals, who, in tems of their online comfoa level, were at the opposite end of the continuum of use as compared to the discussion list participants. The dialogue was conducted using the telephone smce the participants all lived in rural areas at some distance fkom the researcher. Our discussion began by taking about Our experiences. The researcher as weli as the participant, exchanged stories about professional and, sometimes, personal lives. Following the establishment of a basic rapport, the discussion centered around responses made in the questionnaire. From this discussion, we engaged in a more general dialogue about the Internet, its use m the classroom and, most often, the participants then taIked about the challenges related to Intemet use. The dialogues could be descnbed as open-ended and non-directive (Hammersky & Atkinson, 1983). The participant was encouraged to converse at Iength and on hifier own terms4.8 Data Analysis, Coding and Categorization The purpose of analysis is to "make sense of the data" and to "make meaning" (Merriam, 1998, p.178). It is an "ongoing cyclical process integrated into alZ phases of the

research" that begins with the data collection ( McMillian & Schumacher, 1997, p. 502). As Merriam (1988) e x p h : Data collection and dysis is a simultaneous activity m qualitative research. Analysis begh with the fht inte~ew, the fkst observation, the Eirst document read. Emerging insights, hunches, and tentative hypotheses direct the next phase of data collection, which in turn leads to refinement or reformulation of one's questions, and so on. (p. 1 19) In the case of this study, there were seven stages of data analysis. In each stage, the data underwent a certain reduction and transformation. The stages which are each described separately in this section of the chapter, are as fonows: 1. On-going analysis during data collection; 2. organization of the data; 3. reading of and conversation with the data; 4. data reduction; 5. descriptive coding leading to the presentation of the data; 6. pattern coding leading to the interpretation of the data; 7. thematic coding leadmg to conclusions and recommendations about the data The e s t stage was conducted during the gathering of the data In the context of the discussion lists, ongoing analysis of participants' postings Ied to the researcher's posthg of paaicular questions or comments. The analysis of the postings led, as well, to the formulation of questions for the dialogues with discussion list participants. A preliminary analysis of the responses m the questionnaire led to the formulation of parti& questions m the discussion k t Finally, analysis of the questionnaires led to the formulation of questions for the dialogue with the 6ve questionnaire respondents. The second stage of the andysis begm once an the data had been collected fkom aii sources. The aim of this stage was to organize the data mto manageable formats. All the posthgs fiom the discussion list multilogues and dialogues were frst organized chronologically and incIuded the postings of the researher. Such organization was necessaq in order to follow the 'train of thought7' of the discussion. The total p o s ~ g s amounted to approlamately 300 pages and filled two large binders. The questionnaires were assembled together into a binder but not accordhg to any classification system. The third stage of the research involved becorning familiar with the data that had been collected. Unlike the ongoing analysis where the data are viewed in isolated bits,

this stage dowed for viewing of the data fiom a holistic perspective. The multilogue and dialogue postings as weil as the questionnaires were read through several times. The tapes were played through numerous h e s . Memam (198 8) descnbes this stage of the andysis as one of %oIding a conversation with the data, asking questions of it (sic), making comments, and so on" (p.131). Notes taken during this process cornprised a preliminary organization and sorthg which led to the foIlowing stage: that of data reduction. The data collection yielded several hundred pages of postings, 176 questionnaire pages as well as approxhately two hours of recorded telephone dia10 gues with the fke questionnaire participants. Some data could not be used because of risk to anonymity of informam. Reporting of certain comments made would have possibly revealed the identity of some of the participants. Many pages of data could be compressed because of the nature of discussion List postings. On occasion, an mdividual's response may have constituted only two or three lines. However, their message may have comprised as many as two or three pages because of the i d e n m g headers, signature mes, and, rnost of all, because, they were replying to previous comments made and these comments were included in their message. Thus, once the postings were printed, it became O bvious that there WM considerable repetition of postmgs. Other postings were not relevant to the issue. For example, at one point m the discussion, a long posting was made by one participant in relation to an ongoing political dispute between the United States government and a middle-eastern countrytryO ther postings were of a personal nature or simply unrelated to the discussion whereby individuals may have related anecdotes, described their education, or asked questions related to personal issues. FWy, the postings of the researcher were removed from the collection of data Reduction or elhination of material fkom the discussion list postings could be easily accomplished. The entire collection of postings hom CREDO and CREO codd be retrieved as one file from an archive created on the computer of the service provider, The files were imported into a word processor where cutting and pasting aIlowed for easy organization of the data. Any data not relevant to the study were cut fkom this He. Headers were removed, repeated postings were deleted, signature nles removed and comments fiom the researcher were removed as weU The dialogue postings could not be retrieved rom the archive but were saved m a 'cmailbox" from which they could be easily retrieved. For each message, the headers and repeated or second postings were removed. The remaining postings were combined or added onto those of the mdilogue

to create one large file which comprise& at the end of reduction, approximately, 70, smgle spaced pages of data In terms of the questionnaires, it was possible once again to eliminate some of the data however, there was far less data reduction than with the discussion list postings. This is not surprishg given that the questionnaires were fat more stmctured and responses were directed by the questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire comment5 were read and reread. Using a highlighter, it was possible to isolate dl parts of the data that were relevant. Once these comments were highlighted, they were then typed into a word processor. While there were 88 questionnaires each two pages long, many respondents did not d e for the fuIl two pages. The reduction in the data resdted kom abbreviating the respondents' coments m order to highlight the essential points. A similar procedure was follo wed for the cassette reco rdings of the dialogues with the five participants fiom the questionnaires. A certain portion of these dialogues could be elimmated or reduced because the discussion centered around developing rapport, getting to know the individual, making M e r feel comfortabb, explaining the purpose of the research and answering questions about the research. The tapes were listened to repeatedly, notes were taken on the comments made to assist in the later development of themes and patterns. The final product of merging all the data into one text resulted in approltimately one hundred single-spaced pages of typed text. The next important step in the process of analysis was to code the data. "Codes are tags or labels for assigning units of meaning to the descriptive or iderential information compiled during a study" mes & Huberman, 1994, p.56). They are astringent in the sense that they pull together a lot of matenal (Ibid.). The initial coding simply involved writing a descriptive word next to a given excerpt in order to siimmarize what the excerpt was about: for example, resources, training, time, teaching, learning, Internet, equipment etc. Once aii the data had been coded in this way, categories and subcategories codd be established. All of the data were coded manually with the categories written in the margins alongside each excerpt. Then, through the use of the cut and paste features of a wordprocessor, all excerpts could be moved into the categories into which they had been coded. At this stage, the data could be reported or descriied. Chap ter 5 thus presents the data grouped into categories. This presentation of the data does not include any

mterpretation. The presentation provides an answer to the Eirst research question which wax What are some of the beliefi of teachers about teaching and learning FSFL in OLEs? Once the beIiefs had all been identified, it was possible to move to the next level of analysis, stage six, the aim of which was to interpret the data. The data were interpreted in light of the conceptual and historical fi-arnework which was outlined in Chapter 2 of this study and the aim was to provide an answer to research question 2: What do these beliefs reflect in terms of the evolution of approaches and use of technology in the teaching of FSFL? The interpretation was accomplished through a search for patterns in the data which related to elements identified in Chapter 2. In the descriptive coding of the data, key words were used in order to group the data according to topical categories. In order to iden* patterns, similar types of beliefs were grouped analyzed, explained and interpreted. The final stage in the analysis of the data involved i d e n m g overall themes. These themes dow us to draw conclusions fkom the data, to determine the implications of the fndmgs and to d e recommendations for educationd practice. The conclusions, implications and recommendations are presented in Chapter 7. 4.8 Data Reporting The process of reporting the data did not aim to group all the beliefs of one individual together. Instead, the aim is on grouping the beliefs based on the codes, patterns and themes. This means that the data are reported as excerpts. In the course of a discussion, a teacher might have revealed numerous beliefi some of which might relate to dinerent topics. Such beliefs may therefore be reported in dinerent sections under different categories. Insome cases, it was necessary to report onlypart of a sentence in order to focus on particular beliefs. Every atternpt was made to ensure the integrity of the individual's comments and beliefs in spite of the fact that oniy parts of comments might have been reported and in spite of the fact that many beliefs are not presented in the context of the discussion in which they were generated. Every effort was made to ensure the anonymity of the participants. Therefore, names of places or persons which might serve to attribute a comment to a particular individual were replaced by fictitious names. In cases where reference was made to a country or continent and where the reference is significant in terms of the meaning, the place name was not changed if it did not appear to compromise the identity of the participant. In cases where the identity could not remain anonymous in spite of changing the names of the place or person, the data were discarded.

In relation to gender, use of ''his/her" was avoided. Teachers are referred to instead with the ferninine "she" or 'lier". Also in terms of the reporting, it shouId be noted that teachers' discussion postings often contained errors. Logan (1995) reminds us that e-mail correspondence is often l a s formal that other forms of wRtten correspondence, Errors are noted with a "sic". However, missing accents, in the case of the French postings are not noted with a While some participants were able to make use of the computer's capacity to transmit accents, others were not. Some participants asked of others that they expressly not use accents because their own e-mail software did not support them and because they had difficulty reading them. 4.9 Condusion Shuhan (1986) reminds us that, in terms of the classroom, there is no "real world". The worlds experienced by teachers may each be different. However, they have in common that they are all complex worlds. What the teacher believes about these worlds is no doubt eqiidy complex and, added to that, it is O ften hidden, no t conscious but tacitThe only way to effectively 'observe' these multiple, complex and hidden worlds was, therefore, to become a part of them. Thus, the researcher joined in a discussion with participants m order to improve the vantage point fiom which to 'observe' these worlds. Senge (1995) reminds us that 'bve do not describe the world we see; we see the world we can descnbe". However, perhaps too, our efforts in describing these worlds, in bringing to the surface our beliefs, leads us to see this world dBerently and more clearly. In this sense, the research has served more than one purpose. The teacher was @en the opportunity to see how others view their world and to thirik about ho w they see their own world. The participants may well now have a greater ability to describe their world and therefore to see it. In the chapters that preceded this one, a conceptual and historical fiamework was presented. The review of the literature presented relevant studies of beliefs. This present chapter has expiamed the approach which was taken to collect the data. This chapter has also shown how the informationpresented in Chapters 2 and 3 were incorporated into the analysis and interpretation of the data. In the chapters that foIlow, the results of the study are presented and interpreted. 4 Research Methodology This chapter explains the research methodology used in this study. It begins with an introduction to the signifi cance of research methodology. This is followed by a description of the research design, population, sampling, and sample

size; it also involves a compact description of the research instruments used in this study. The validity and reliability of this investigation are described, as well as the data collection methods. The last section is comprised of well-constructed data analysis techniques. This study employed both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Precisely, the methodology used in this research to reach conclusions revealed the strength of this research work. The study is empirical; although it made use of documents and observation, it relied heavily on data from interviews and questionnaires. This study is a process of reasoning which draws a general conclusion from a set of premises based mainly on experience and empirical evidence (Strauss, 1987; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Creswell, 1998). 4.1 Introduction By research methods, we mean the range of approaches used in educational research to gather data, which is to be used as a basis for inference and interpretation for explanation and prediction (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Mouly, 1978). Traditionally, the word refers to those techniques associated with the positivistic model of eliciting responses to predetermined questions, recording measurements, describing phenomena and performing experiments (Cohen & Manion, 1994, p. 38). However, while the term methodology is sometimes applied to the methods and techniques used by social researchers, the methodological aspects of a study more accurately refer to the philosophy of science embedded both within these methods and within the researchers approach to data collection and analysis (Pole & Lampard, 2002, p. 290). To Kaplan (1973), research methodology is used to describe and analyze the research processes, throwing light on their limitations and resources, clarifying their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the frontiers of knowledge. It is to venture generalizations from the success of particular techniques, suggesting new applications, unfolding the specifi c bearing of logical and metaphysical principles on concrete problems, as well as suggesting new formulations. Robertson (1987, p. 2930) sees research methodology as a system of rules and principles that guide scientifi c investigation. Research methodology pro104 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube vides guidelines for collecting evidence about what takes place and for explaining

why it takes place, and it does so in a way that enables other researchers to check the fi ndings. In the words of Galtung (1977, p. 13), research methodology is perceived as the organized method employed by a researcher towards the making and completion of a research goal. Generally, the method(s) used must be scientifi c and specifi c in relation to the questions and issues at hand, which should also be straightforward and generalizable to the research, but relevant to other future researchers. The idea here is that research methodology establishes a form and relation toward the making of a research plan and contributing to the organized frame of a research goal. On this basis, it might be inferred that the aim of a research methodology is to help us comprehend in the broadest term possible the process of a scientifi c inquiry as well as the product itself. Research methodology can best be perceived as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. It is the most important tool for advancing knowledge, promoting progress, and enabling man to relate more effectively to his environment, accomplish his purposes and resolve his confl icts. In sum, research methods in my opinion are merely the means of formulating the research data and outcomes. 4.2 Research Design Most educational research methods are descriptive (Cohen & Manion, 1994). Descriptive research according to Best (1970) is the conditions or relationship that exist; practices that prevail; beliefs, point of views, or attitudes that are held; processes that are going on; efforts that are felt; or trends that are developing. Sometimes, descriptive research is concerned with how what exists is related to some preceding event that has infl uenced or affected a present condition or event. The descriptive research method is primarily concerned with portraying the present. In fact, the descriptive research method in educational research is not exactly a method because many approaches of data collection are grouped together. However, they have one element in commoneach endeavors to depict the present position of a given situation. The main difference between various types of descriptive research is in the process of description (Verma & Beard, 1981, p. 57). The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere collection and tabulation of factual data. It is not only a structural attempt to obtain facts and

opinions about the current condition of things, but it involves elements of comparison and relationships of one kind or another. Descriptive research may not answer all of the fundamental questions, but it provides useful data which can serve as a basis for further research using more rigorous experimental design. Research Methodology 105 Thus, the discovery of meaning is the focus of the whole process (Ibid, p. 58). Yin (1989, p. 29) stated that research design of a study is the logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a studys initial research questions and hypotheses and ultimately to its conclusions (see Fig 4.2.1). As a result, I included specifi c research design features from the broad empirical and theoretical perspectives to assess the quality and verify my 1997 study. This is a study that integrates both quantitative and qualitative estimation design, aimed at emulating or improving best available practice, process and performance to aid improvement in quality of secondary education in Nigeria. This perspective is very useful since it will help me to understand and explain the way in which school effectiveness and improvement functions. Fig: 4.2.1: Research questions, hypotheses and design summarized The fundamental purpose of this research is to develop new knowledge about the phenomenon of this study. More precisely, the purpose of this research is to develop our confi dence that a particular knowledge claim about educational phenomena is true or false. This is because researchers attempt to design a study that will yield strongest possible evidence to support or refute a knowledge claim. Researchers sometimes mistakenly come to believe that research planning or design is unnecessary (Strauss, 1987, pp. 297298). However, Kerlinger (1973) pointed out that: Gender Age Status Subject taught Qualification Length of service Respondents Background Information Variables Competencies variables Methodological competencies H 2

Motivational competencies Q 3 Material utilization competencies H 3 Instructional competencies Q 4 Evaluation competencies Q 5 H4 Higher academic qualification Q1 Professional training of teachers Q 2 &H1 Aims and objectives of research School Effectiveness and Quality Improvement 106 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube Research design sets up the framework for adequate tests of the relations among variables. Design tells us, in a sense, what observations to make, how to make them, and how to analyze the quantitative representations of the observations. Strictly speaking, design does not tell us precisely what to do, but rather suggests the directions of observation making and analysis. An adequate design suggests for example, how many observations should be made, and which variables are active and which are attribute. We can then act to manipulate the active variables and to categorize the attribute variables. A design tells us what type of statistical analysis to use. And fi nally, an adequate design outlines possible conclusions to be drawn from the statistical analysis (p. 301). It was on the previously mentioned ground that two designs were fashioned Survey and Case Study Research. The research designs chosen for this study are relevant because they are plan, structure and strategy conceived to obtain answers to this studys research questions and hypotheses. It is also presumed that the outcome of this study will not be the generalization of the result obtained, but give a profound understanding of the experiences from the perspectives of the selected participants for this study (Borg & Gall, 1989; Creswell,

1998; Hopkins, 2000; Maxwell, 1996; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Strauss, 1987). 4.2.1 Survey Research Survey research is considered a method of systematic data collection (Borg & Gall, 1989, p. 416). The purpose of survey research is to describe specifi c characteristics of a large group of persons, objects, or institutions (Jaeger, 1988, p. 303). Surveys are one of the most commonly used methods of descriptive research in education and the other behavioral sciences. A survey involves the gathering of limited data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time. This method is frequently employed to indicate prevailing conditions or particular trends. It is not concerned with characteristics of individuals as individuals, but it is concerned with providing information about population variables (Verma & Beard, 1981, p. 59). Nworgu (1991, p. 55) observed that in survey research a group of people or items are studied by collecting and analyzing data from only a few people or items considered to be representative of the entire group. Turning to Kerlinger (1973), the survey or study design, the so-called fl ow plan or chart of survey research, is the check of the reliability and validity of the sample and data gathering methodsSurvey researchers use a fl ow plan or chart to outline the design and subsequent implementation of a survey. The fl ow plan starts with the objectives of the survey, lists each step to be taken and ends with the fi nal report (p. 414). There seems to be little or no disagreement over the meaning of survey research. Research Methodology 107 Therefore, this study is essentially a descriptive survey research. It involves a study which is aimed at collecting data and describing it in a systematic manner, including the characteristics, features or facts about the given population in this study. It is aimed at describing certain variables in relation to the population. As a correlational descriptive survey, it seeks to establish what relationship exists between two or more variables. Here it is directed at testing the hypotheses investigating the perception of teachers academic and professional training on their job effectiveness in Nigeria. The descriptive survey method is used because it seeks to elicit the opinion of heads of departments and teachers in secondary schools on whether academic and professional training has an effect on teachers job effectiveness.

My choice of survey method is because survey focuses on people, the vital facts of people and their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behaviors (Kerlinger, 1973). Survey research12 has contributed much to the methodology of the social sciences. The most important contribution perhaps has been the rigorous sampling procedures, the overall design and the implementation of the design of studies, the unambiguous defi nition and specifi cation of the research problems, and the analysis of the data. It allows for standardization and uniformity both in the questions asked and in the method of approaching subjects, making it far easier to compare and contrast answers by respondent groups. It also ensures higher reliability than some other techniques (Dilbert, 2004). 4.2.2 Case Study Research I also used the case study approach in this study because it has been noted as suitable for theory creation or cases in which the theory is at an early formative stage and for sticky practice-based problems where the experiences of the actors are important and the context of action is critical (see Benbasat et al., 1987; Eisenhardt, 1989; Jrvinen, 2001). However, Creswell (1998, p. 186) believes that there is no standard format for reporting case study research. 12 Survey research is a research approach designed to collect systematic descriptions of existing phenomena in order to describe or explain what is going on; data are obtained through direct questioning of a sample of respondents. According to Palmquist (1993), surveys represent one of the most common types of quantitative social science research. In survey research, the researcher selects a sample of respondents from a population and administers a standardized questionnaire to them. The questionnaire, or survey, can be a written document that is completed by the person being surveyed, an online questionnaire, a face-to-face interview, or a telephone interview. Using surveys, it is possible to collect data from large or small populations (sometimes referred to as the universe of a study). 108 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube There are several other defi nitions of case study, but Benbasat et al. (1987) presented a comprehensive defi nition that draws from a variety of sources. They defi ned case study as a research approach that examines a phenomenon

in its natural settings, employing multiple methods of data collection to gather information from one or few entities (people, groups, or organisations) on a phenomenon that is not clearly evident at the outset. In support of case study, Yin (1994), in his popular book on case study research, considered investigation of a contemporary phenomenon or event in its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context are not clearly evident. In a case study, the researcher does not or cannot control or manipulate the situation. Case study method does not necessarily require stepbystep data analysis, and this allows for various interpretations of research data. Admittedly, interpretation could introduce bias and affect the outcome of the research. However, case study method allows the use of multiple methods of data collection such as interviews, questionnaires documentary reviews, archival records and direct participant observations (Okunoye, 2003, pp. 6364; Yin, 1994). The triangulation13 of these data sources could reduce the problem of bias and greatly increase validity (Cohen & Manion, 1994, pp. 233251). In another instance, Palmquist (1993) has extensively examined case study research and considered this method as the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Unlike quantitative methods of research like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. Likewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifi cally directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logicreasoning from specifi c to more general terms. 13 According to the research methods glossary, this term is used in a research context to describe

the use of a variety of data sources or methods to examine a specifi c phenomenon either simultaneously or sequentially in order to produce a more accurate account of the phenomenon under investigation. Triangulation: means the collecting of information from a diverse range of individuals and settings using a variety of methods. This strategy reduces the risk of chance associations and of systematic biases due to a specifi c method and allows a better assessment of the generality of the explanations that one develops (Maxwell, 1996, p. 9394; Denzin, 1970) (see also, Fielding & Fielding, 1986). Research Methodology 109 4.3 Research Population In a more general sense, a research population includes all members or elements, be they human beings, animals, trees, objects, events, etc., of a welldefi ned group. It defi nes the limits within which the research fi ndings are applicable. In other words, it should be defi ned in such a way that the result of the investigation is generalizable unto it. A research population is categorized into target and accessible population. A target population is classifi ed as all the members of a given group to which end the investigation is related, whereas the accessible population is looked at in terms of those elements in the target population within the reach of the researcher (Pole & Lampard, 2002). The research population for this study is drawn from Rivers State (accessible) of Nigeria (target). It is one of the States in the south-south geo-political zone of Nigeria. The population comprises of principals, subject heads and teachers from ten (10) randomly selected secondary schools. The reasons for choosing subject heads is that they directly supervise teachers activities as regards teaching and therefore stand a better chance of measuring their teachers input and output. The services of the supervisors of education are not left out. It was relevant that the researcher choose Rivers State because it is a surrounding that he is familiar with and will not fi nd it very diffi cult to access the chosen respondents with the help of his research assistant. This is one of the reasons why the number of responses received was high. 4.4 Sampling A sample is the smaller group of elements drawn through a defi nite procedure from a specifi ed population; the elements making up this sample are those that

are actually studied. Kerlinger (1973, p. 118) gave a comprehensive defi nition of random samplingit is that method of drawing a portion (sample) of a population or universe so that all possible samples of fi xed size n have the same probability of being selected. This defi nition is general and thus satisfactory. My choice to put into use the simple random sampling is because it is by far the easiest and simplest probability sampling technique in terms of conceptualization and application. It does not necessarily require knowledge of the exact composition of the population, so long as we can reach all the members of the population. However, when a sample is used as a way of estimating the characteristics of a population, a consequence is that the sample is unlikely to be exactly representative of the population. Even when random sampling is used, a certain amount of sampling error will usually occur. For example, a random sample of women will usually be slightly taller or slightly shorter on average than the average height of women in the population. However, when 110 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube a sampling process is not random, an additional source of potential error, i.e. bias, exists (Pole & Lampard, 2002, p. 293). Rivers State is made up of twenty-three (23) local government areas. Ten (10) schools were randomly selected from the twenty-three (23) local government areas. The names of all the 146 public schools were written on folded pieces of paper and selected randomly. The ten (10) schools selected are different in sizes and types. They may be considered representatives of the different schools. A total number of three hundred and fi fty questionnaires (350) were distributed, and out of which three hundred and fi fteen (315) were returned, from which three hundred (300) questionnaires were selected. Included in this numbers are ten (10) principals and twenty (20) supervisors of education from the post primary schools board and the Ministry of Education who were also randomly selected. Fifteen of the questionnaires were not used because of errors in the ways they were fi lled out by the respondents (see table 4.4.1). Table 4.4.1: Categories of Respondents and the number of Responses Used Categories of Respondents Number of Responses Used Teachers 270 90.0% Principals 10 3.3% Supervisors 20 6.7%

To Number of Responses 300 4.5 Validity of the Study The quality of research is related to the possession of the quality of strength, worth, or value (Keeves, 1997, p. 279). A valid research fi nding is one in which there is similarity between the reality that exists in the world and the description of that reality. Validity is concerned with the degree to which a test appears to measure what it purports to measure (Borg & Gall, 1989, p. 256). A measure is valid if it measures what it is intended to measure (Zeller, 1997; Zeller & Carmines, 1980). According to Kerlinger (1973, p. 457), the commonest defi nition of validity is epitomized by question: what are we measuring? The emphasis in this question is on what is being measured. Validity refers to the degree of success with which a technique or other instrument is measuring what it claims to measure (Verma & Beard, 1981, p. 87). Therefore, it is a relationship between what a test purposes to measure and what it actually measured. In this research endeavor, I use terms in a fairly straightforward, commonsense way to refer to the correctness or credibility of my description, explanation, interpretation, conclusion, or other sort of account. I think that the comResearch Methodology 111 monsense uses of terms are consistent with the way they are generally used by researchers, and it does not pose any serious philosophical problem. The use of the term validity does not imply the existence of any objective truth to which an account can be compared. However, the idea of objective truth is not essential to a theory of validity that does what most researchers want it to do, which is to give them some grounds for distinguishing accounts that are credible from those that are not. Nor are we required to attain some ultimate truth in order for our study to be useful and believable (Maxwell, 1996, p. 87). Maxwell, citing Campbell, Putnam and others, argued that we do not need an observer-independent gold standard to which we can compare our account to see if it is valid. All we require is the possibility of testing these accounts against the world, giving the phenomena that we are trying to understand the chance to prove us wrong. The key concept for validity is the validity threat: a way you might be wrong. These threats are often conceptualized as alternative explanations, or what Huck and Sandler (1979) called rival hypotheses. However, validity is a component of ones research design which consists of

the strategies one uses to rule out these threats (Maxwell, 1996, p. 88). The instruments used in this research were valid because the researcher has taken time to comply with the formalities and procedures adopted in framing a research questionnaire (see Nworgu, 1991, pp. 9394). To validate the instrument the questionnaire was given to the researchers supervisors who read through and made necessary corrections. The second process that was used to validate the research instrument was that the questionnaire was pre-tested and the responses from the respondents were used to improve on the items. In summary, the validity of this study rests on an overall evaluative judgment founded on empirical evidence and theoretical rationales of the adequacy, appropriateness of inferences and action based on the test scores. It is an inductive summary of both the adequacy of existing evidence for and appropriateness of potential consequences of test interpretation and use (Messick, 1988 1994, p. 34; Xiaorong, 2001, p. 54). 4.6 Reliability of the Study The quality of a research is necessarily dependent on the consistency with which the observations are made. Consistency in turn is dependent on the precision with which an observable is specifi ed (Keeves, 1997, p 281). Kerlinger (1973, p. 442) is of the view that words that are synonyms for reliability are: dependability, stability, consistency, predictability and accuracy. He defi nes reliability in three different ways. One approach is epitomized by the question: If we measure the same set of objects repeatedly with the same or comparable measuring instrument, will we get the same or similar results? This question 112 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube implies a defi nition of reliability in stability, dependability, and predictability terms. This is the defi nition most often given in elementary discussions of the subject. A second approach is epitomized by the question: Are the measures obtained from a measuring instrument the true measures of the property measured. This is an accurate defi nition compared to the fi rst defi nition, it is removed from common sense intuition, but it is also more fundamental. These two approaches or defi nitions can be summarized in the words stability and accuracy. The third approach to the defi nition of reliability is that it is an approach that not only helps us better defi ne and solve both theoretical and practical problems, but also implies other approaches and defi nitions like errors

of measurement. Reliability by defi nition refers to the level of the internal consistency or stability of the measuring devices over time. It concerns the consistency with which an instrument measures whatever it measures. In addition, reliability can be defi ned as the relative absence of errors of measurement in a measuring instrument. The strength of the instrument used in this study was reliable because it was able to elicit the required information concerning teachers job effectiveness in Nigerian secondary schools. However, a true measure of reliability should be based on statistical data14. To make the research instrument in this study worth relying on, it was pre-tested by administering the questionnaire to a group outside the sample. This was done by means of the pre-test posted design. From their responses, some changes were made to the structure and some of the questions. Statistically testing the reliability of the measurement instrument is to provide non-random results. A measurement to assess reliability was seen as suitable in this investigation since the respondents, especially teachers, answered the questions because they were directly affected in that the study focused on them as regarding their professional competencies. A quantitative analysis of the inquiry was performed using the SPSS 11.5 computer program to statistically test the reliability of the research instrument because in research statistics when a research instruments reliability has been assured it gives the bases for continuity. In the analysis, the sum variables were used, because the reliability is very high compared to a single variable. The reliability estimates for the sum variables were computed by the following: (Mean square variance between subjects residual variance) / (mean square variance between subjects) (Koponen, 1977, p.104; Kautto-Koivula, 1993, p.161). (see table 4.6.1). 14 A number of techniques can be used to ensure the reliability of a standardised measuring instrument such as an attitude questionnaire, personality test or pressure sore risk calculator. These include test-retest, split-half and alternate forms. There are also statistical tests that can be used to assess reliability such as Cronbach Alpha and the Spearman rho correlation coeffi cient test. Research Methodology 113 The reliability of the variables in this study might be termed to be high

enough judging by the fact that it varies between 0 and 1 and the nearer the result is to 1-, and preferably at or over 0.8- the more internally reliable is the scale (Bryman & Cramer, 2001, p. 63). The results from the table reveal differences in the paired reliability estimates, which is normal. However, the cumulative reliability of (0.91) shows a strong reliability of the research instrument. Table 4.6.1. The reliability of paired variables for academic and professional teachers in the questionnaire Variables Reliability Estimates METHODOLOGICAL COMPETENCIES 1. (a) academic qualifi cation use problem-solving methods effectively (b) professional qualifi cation use problem-solving methods effectively .95** 2. (a) academic qualifi cation adopt the use of individual teaching method effectively (b) professional qualifi cation adopts the use of individual teaching method effectively 1.0** 3. (a) academic qualifi cation dramatize (Demonstrates) teaching situation effectively (b) professional qualifi cation dramatize (Demonstrates) teaching situation effectively 1.0** MOTIVATIONAL COMPETENCIES 4. (a) academic qualifi cation demonstrates familiarity with co-teachers effectively (Exchange ideas) (b) professional qualifi cation demonst. Familiarity with co- teachers effectively (Exchange ideas) .76*

5. (a) academic qualifi cation encourages co-teachers to work effectively (b) professional qualifi cation encourages coteachers to work effectively .76* 6. (a) academic qualifi cation use reward and punishment wisely (b) professional qualifi cation use reward and punishment wisely 1.0** 7. (a) academic qualifi cations guide co-teachers on how to plan and carry out their jobs professionally (b) professional qualifi cation guides co-teachers on how to plan and carry out their job prof. 1.0** MATERIAL UTILIZATION COMPETENCIES 8. (a) academic qualifi cation selects appropriate teaching materials (b) professional qualifi cation selects appropriate teaching materials 1.0** 114 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube 9. (a) academic qualifi cation prepares and uses teaching materials effectively (b) professional qualifi cation prepares and uses teaching materials effectively 1.0** 10. (a) academic qualifi cation operates projected tools effectively (b) professional qualifi cation operates projected tools effectively .73* INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS COMPETENCIES 11. (a) academic qualifi cation apply the use of contemporary knowledge, ideas etc. to their job (b) professional qualifi cation apply the use of contemporary knowledge, ideas etc. to their job

.63* 12. (a) academic qualifi cation use appropriate questioning skills (b) professional qualifi cation use appropriate questioning skills 1.0** 13. (a) academic qualifi cation develops course curricula properly. (The contents of the course) (b) professional qualifi cation develop course curricula properly. (The contents of the course) 1.0** 14. (a) academic qualifi cation ensures effective time management (b) professional qualifi cation ensures effective time management 1.0** 15. (a) academic qualifi cation show suffi cient mastery of subject matters (b) professional qualifi cation show suffi cient mastery of subject matters .73* 16. (a) academic qualifi cation effectively manages and arrange classroom (b) professional qualifi cation effectively manages and arrange classroom 1.0** 17. (a) academic qualifi cation clearly states their objectives (b) professional qualifi cation clearly states their objectives 1.0** TEACHING EVALUATION COMPETENCIES 18. (a) academic qualifi cation constructs various evaluation instruments effectively (b) professional qualifi cation constructs various evaluation instruments effectively 1.0** 19.

(a) academic qualifi cation employs various evaluation techniques correctly (b) professional qualifi cation employs various evaluation techniques correctly 1.0** 20. (a) academic qualifi cation assesses students behavior effectively (b) professional qualifi cation assesses students behavior effectively .81** 21. (a) academic qualifi cation use evaluation data to improve job situations (b) professional qualifi cation use evaluation data to improve job situations 1.0** Research Methodology 115 22. (a) academic qualifi cation keeps records of individual students accurately (b) professional qualifi cation keeps records of individual students accurately .76* 23. (a) Do you agree or disagree that academic qualifi cation improves teachers job effectiveness? (b) Do you agree or disagree that professional qualifi cation improves teachers job effectiveness? .81** 24. (a) In your opinion is the ability to perform effectively in teaching inborn? (b) In your opinion is the ability to perform effectively in teaching acquired? 1.0** NTERACTION PROCESS COMPETENCIES

25. (a) academic qualifi cation interacts with their students respectfully (b) professional qualifi cation interacts with their students respectfully .69* Cumulative Alpha (Reliability) .91** * accepted as reliable ** accepted as very reliable 4.7 Data Collection There are two main sources of data collection in educational research: primary and secondary sources. The data collected for this research are from both sources. A primary source is an original document or account that is not about another document but stands on its own. For example, interviews which come straight from participants replies. Primary sources enable a researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during a historical event or period. A secondary source are those that do not have a direct physical relationship with the event being studied, which are made up of information that cannot be described as being an original source data. A secondary source would thus be one in which the person describing the event was not actually present but who obtained description from another person or source such as textbooks, quoted materials, and so on. Best (1970) pointed out that secondary sources of data are usually of limited worth because of the errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another. Nevertheless, secondary sources of data are still very relevant in educational research. Cohen and Manion (1994) opined that the value of secondary sources should not be minimized. There are numerous occasions where a secondary source can contribute signifi cantly to more valid and reliable sources than would otherwise be the case because education is primarily concerned with the individuals physical, social, intellectual 116 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube and emotional growth, in which developmental studies continue to occupy a central place in the methodologies used by educational researchers. Interviews, questionnaires, documents and observation were the ways through which data were gathered. The data from documents and interviews were intended to give information in the qualitative analysis section, while the data from questionnaires was intended to provide information in the quantitative

analysis (inferential statistics) section. Inferential statistics is concerned with gaining knowledge of a populations characteristics from information collected from a random sample of a population. In other words, it is concerned with drawing inferences or generalizations about the characteristics of a population based on data collected from a random sample of that population. Therefore, with inferential statistics, we can draw conclusions that apply beyond the actual subjects studied and extend to other subjects that belong to the same population. Other than that, our conclusions can only validly apply to those elements or subjects which have actually been studied. It should be obvious that any research whose aim is to draw conclusions that can apply only to the actual elements or subjects studied will be of limited applicability; and this can hardly be the aim of any meaningful research. Rather, meaningful research should be interested in conclusions that are based on a limited number of subjects or elements actually studied. Generally, this is what we desire to achieve in research; and only inferential statistics can help us realize such a desire. To this extent, inferential statistics have contributed immensely to the development of educational and behavioral science research by providing effi cient ways of handling data and dealing with complex educational problems. Our understanding of educational effects has been widened through the application of inferential statistics (Nworgu, 1991, p. 150). However, Pole and Lampard (2002) argued that statistical inference is the process by which researchers use a sample to learn or make inferences about patterns and relationships in a corresponding population. Statistical inference relies on signifi cance testing, which in turn requires that random sampling be used so that the inferences made cannot be a refl ection of biases in the sampling process (p. 294). 4.7.1 Interview Interview is a face-to-face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to the research problem (Kerlinger, 1973, p. 481). While Cohen and Manion see interview as a research technique that is normally considered one of a range of survey methods in social researchthe purposes of the interview in the wider context of life are many and varied. It Research Methodology 117

may thus be used as a means of evaluating or assessing a person in some respect: for selecting or promoting an employee; for effecting therapeutic change as in the psychiatric interview; for testing or developing hypotheses; for gathering data, as in surveys or experimental situations; or for sampling respondents opinions, as in doorstep interviews (Cohen & Manion, 1994, p. 271). To this end, my resolve has been to produce a clear view about every piece of information obtained during the research period and fi nd some unifying characteristics that will portray a holistic feature of them all. Therefore, I used interview for gathering data, as in surveys or experimental situations; or for sampling respondents opinions. As a doorstep interview, it was a face-to-face meeting with the respondents, which was unstructured to meet the realities on ground in terms of job effectiveness. The interviews for this research were scheduled to last for forty-fi ve minutes in a convenient and peaceful atmosphere in the respective schools, the Ministry of Education and Post Primary Schools Board. However, the interviews lasted beyond the expected scheduled time. After the actual interviews, some of the respondents had separate appointments with me on my request to discuss some personal and pressing issues that infl uence the educational system in Nigeria. Overall, the interviews lasted for a period of four months. At the inception of the interviews, I discussed with my interviewees my purpose in carrying out this research; in addition, a leafl et was handed to the participants stating my reasons and the basis for the research and guidelines for the conduction of the interviews. However, despite the leafl et and my explanations, I found some of the participants very suspicious of participating in the interview process and my intentions as a researcher. In addition, some persons expressed their intents directly to me about the diffi culties they had in participating in a project like this because they are suspicious that it might be used against them in the future. It was in this process that I found out that one of the supervisors I interviewed has a Masters degree in one of the academic fi elds. Some persons also expressed dismay at me and told me that, in whatever capacity I intend to carry out this study, as long as this country (Nigeria) is concerned, nobody is interested in whatever and however good your research fi ndings are; it would make little or no impact toward the educational development of the country.

However, I tried as much as possible to convince them of the importance and implications of the research effort. I also tried to let them know the importance of research to national development. Despite the fact that I was well prepared, I was astonished at the diffi culties I encountered in the process, but I did not allow it discourage me. I made every effort possible to explicitly discuss any doubt or questions people expressed, and I tried tirelessly to get them to work with me reassuring them of confi dentiality. Still, I was looked at as a stranger and they observed me as much as I did them. However, some 118 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube people cross-examined me to fi nd out if I actually knew what I was doing as a researcher in education, which I established, and they were convinced. On the second appointment, which I demanded, I was quite prepared because I was a bit nervous about how the participants would view and respond to my questions this time. I was glad to fi nd that it went as smoothly as possible. When I met with some of them a few times during the distribution of the questionnaire and the fi rst interview sections, a sort of rapport was established. We knew each other better than the fi rst time we met. This was manifested in the discussion, which was more open and welcoming unlike the fi rst session of the interview process in which I had to be more active and verbally coax them to make them speak. However, most of the comments at the end of each days interview were positive. Following my conviction, all of the interviewees were interested and anxiously looking forward to the result of the fi nal research work. Nevertheless, the initial step that I adopted in this study with particular reference to the qualitative data was fi rst listening to the tapes prior to the transcription as a method of analyzing the data. After the transcription, I read the interview transcripts repeatedly and wrote observational notes: memos, categorizing strategies (such as coding and thematic analysis) and noted contextualization strategies. I was regularly writing memos while doing the analysis; memos not only captured my analytic thinking about the data I collected allowing me to facilitate my thinking, but they stimulated my analytical insight. Another approach that helped me in generating themes from my data was the categorization strategy through the use of coding method. Its main objective was to crack the data and reorganize it into categories that facilitated

the comparison of data within and between the categories, which aided me in my analysis. The next stage is the contextualization strategythis is not the stage of me fracturing the data, rather it refers to linking the data or looking for various methods to identify the relationships among the different elements of my data. This enabled me to look for relationships that connected statements and events within a context into a coherent whole. Finally, I sorted out ways to display the obtained data in a way that will have meaning for my audience. Thus, tables were employed to make the ideas and analysis visible and permanent and facilitate my thinking about the relationships among different elements. The tables reduced and presented the data in a form that allows it to be grasped as a whole, which gave it the most detailed presentation. The main reason I achieved the goal of data analysis in this research study was that I tried as much as possible to graph my data on the same day I collected it. From day to day, the points on the graph tell me about my progress. It is like a fox pursuing a hare. The graph is the hares track, and I must stay close to that hare. I had to react and change course frequently. Since Research Methodology 119 nature is complex, I let it lead me, trying not to get too far ahead, so that I did not have to backtrack (Heinrich in Maxwell, 1996, p. 77). 4.7.2 Questionnaire The most natural tool with which to compare interview is the so-called questionnaire. Questionnaire is a term used for almost any kind of instrument that has questions or items to which individuals respond. Although the term is used interchangeably with schedule, it seems to be associated more with self-administered instruments that have items of the closed or fi xed-alternative type (Kerlinger, 1973, p. 487). The questionnaire is in no small measure the most frequently used instrument in educational research. Its popularity is demonstrated by the number of published studies and students projects in education that employ this instrument for data collection. The one I used in this research is a structured or fi xed response questionnaire as against the unstructured or open-ended questionnaire. Nworgus (1991, pp. 9394) characteristics of a good questionnaire were applied in designing the questionnaire for this study. The characteristics are: relevance, consistency, usability, clarity, quantifi ability and legibility. As a result,

a questionnaire was designed with the help of my supervisor to elicit information from the respondents that to help me gather information on teachers job effectivenesss in relation to their competencies. A suitable design was structured along a four-point likert-type scale (summated) of strongly agree (4), agree (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1). A summated rating scale, one type of which is called likert-type scale is a set of attitude items, all of which are considered of approximately equal attitude value and to each of which subjects respond with degree of agreement or disagreement (intensity) (Kerlinger 1973, p. 496). The simplicity of the questionnaire was the result of choosing different categories of people as my respondents thereby necessitating a simplifi ed questionnaire. 4.7.2.1 Section A of the Questionnaire (Contents) Section A of the questionnaire focuses on items such as gender, age, length of service, status, subject taught, academic qualifi cations and professional qualifi cations. 4.7.2.2 Section B of the Questionnaire (Contents) Section B focuses on possible competencies which may or may not be perceived as being capable of improving teachers job effectiveness, such as: 120 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube Methodological Competencies Motivational competencies Material utilization competencies Instructional process competencies Evaluation competencies Interaction process competencies 4.7.3 Observation Observation was another research instrument used in my data collection. A non-participant observation was employed in this case where I was not a member of the setting in which the observation took place (Nworgu, 1991, p. 81). Since no systematic observation was undertaken whereby I participated fully in the lives and activities of the subjects and thus became a member of the group in order to share experiences by not observing what was happening but also feeling them. In short, the type of observation used in this study did not imply a research strategy of immersion by me in the research setting, with the

objective of sharing in peoples lives while attempting to learn their symbolic world. However, some observations were made of physical settings of the schools and the behaviour of those working in them in the form of descriptive data. Descriptive observation involves concentrating on observing the physical setting, the key participants and their activities, particular events and their sequence and the attendant processes and emotions involved (Anyamele, 2004, p.164). I was able to gather data as it emerged from the research setting, and taking all of this into account, observation is perhaps the most demanding of all research methods, necessitating a great deal of thought and practice. The problem here, of course, is that practice can only effectively occur in real research situations (Pole & Lampard, 2002, p. 71). 4.8 Data Analysis Techniques In method literature, there is not one single right way or most appropriate way to analyze qualitative or quantitative data. Analysis implies and indeed requires a principal choice (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996, pp. 24). For example, in analyzing and interpreting both qualitative and qualitative datait is the process of systematically organizing the materials collected, bringing meaning to them so that they tell a coherent story and writing it all up so that others can read what one has learned. Based on this premise, the data collected was analyzed using Research Methodology 121 both the qualitative and quantitative methods to enable me to give a reasoned meaning to my study. 4.8.1 Qualitative Analysis In qualitative analysis, the data is usually gathered using less structured research instruments. The fi ndings are more in-depth since they make greater use of open-ended questions. The results provide many more details regarding behaviour, attitudes and motivation. The research is more intensive and fl exible, allowing the researcher to probe since he or she has greater latitude. However, the results are based on smaller sample sizes and are often not representative of the population. The research can usually not be replicated or repeated given its low reliability, and the analysis of the results is much more subjective (Dilbert, 2004). Ou Yongsheng says qualitative research for the most part uses participant

observation and in-depth interviews to enter the world of the subjects, systematically record what they see and hear, and then analyze what they have recorded and supplement it with other materials, such as school memoranda, records, school journals, photographs and other articles. It is a fl exible research method (Ou Yongsheng, 1989). Creswell (1994, 1998) defi ned qualitative research as: An inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting (Creswell 1994, p. 2; 1998, p. 15). Creswell emphasized a complex, holistic picture, a reference to a complex narrative that takes the reader into the multiple dimensions of a problem or issue and displays it in all of its complexity. According to Punch, qualitative research is an empirical research where data is not in the form of number (Punch, 1998, p. 4). Gay and Airasian (2000, p. 627) see qualitative research as the collection of extensive data on many variables over an extended period of time, in a naturalistic setting, in order to gain insights not possible using other types of research. This defi nition has little or no difference from the one cited by Creswell. However, Gall, Gall and Borg (1999, p. 13) defi ned qualitative research as making little use of numbers or statistics but instead rely heavily on verbal data and subjective analysis. Some critics of this method argue that there are a lot of replications in qualitative research. However Leivisk (2001, p. 182) argued that qualitative research is not to immaculately replicate what has gone before; in fact, such replication is 122 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube impossible, given the dynamic nature of the social world and given that the researcher is not an instrument in the experimental sense. In fact, for qualitative studies, the concern shifts from the objectivist and positivist perception to a consideration of how thoughtfully and dependably the researcher conducted the study, rather than judging whether replication would yield the same results. This standard of practice assesses the extent to which an outsider would agree with the results of the study given the data collected and displayed (Rossman & Rallis, 1998). In any case, Critics of qualitative methods have mentioned a number of

what they perceive to be weaknesses of this method. First, it is claimed that qualitative research is unscientifi c since it is alleged to be full of bias. Second, qualitative research lacks the rigors of quantitative studies, and third, qualitative research lacks measures of validity and reliability (Silverman, 2001). It has been argued that qualitative research is full of unquantifi able data and, therefore such data cannot be subjected to a statistical analysis. It is argued that without statistical analysis, a study loses its scientifi c fl avor. However, it should be mentioned that fi gures alone do not make much sense unless they are explained qualitatively. Furthermore, mere fi gures do not render a study scientifi c (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Further doubts about the strengths of qualitative research are linked to the idea of the generalizability of the fi ndings. However, not all studies are concerned with generalization of fi ndings. Another criticism leveled against the use of qualitative research is that it is a personal experiment that cannot be reproduced and thus cannot claim to have any kind of scientifi c status. Nevertheless, it is still possible to employ specifi c methods in order to have the fi ndings of fi eldwork reproduced, falsifi ed or verifi ed (Kamwendo, 2004; Dilbert, 2004). However, Creswell (1998, p. 3) believes that qualitative research has reached the same point in its development as quantitative research. 4.8.2 Quantitative Analysis Gay and Airasian (2000, p. 627) see quantitative research as the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and/or control phenomena of interest. A more simplistic defi nition was the one given by Punch (1998, p. 4) when he depicted quantitative research as an empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers. An up to date defi nition was the one given by Creswell (1994) where he stated that quantitative is: An inquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in Research Methodology 123 order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true Creswell (1994, p. 1). Gall, Gall and Borg (1999, p. 4) see quantitative research as relying heavily on numerical data and statistical analysis. Quantitative analysis is built upon statistical materials relating to samples and focuses on the analysis of a casevariable

matrix containing survey data, which has either been collected by the researcher or which was collected by other researchers and has been obtained from them either directly or via a data archive which also considers the analysis of tabulated offi cial statistics and other published tables or quantitative materials (Pole & Lampard, 2002, p. 210). Pole and Lampards study further revealed that quantitative data analysis is far from being simply a technical exercise. It involves a process of decision-making and data manipulation which is guided by a mixture of the followingtheoretical ideas, the researchers substantive insight, his or her degree of experience as a data analyst and the data itself. In conclusion, therefore, quantitative research data is usually gathered using more structured research instruments. The results provide less detail on behaviour, attitudes and motivation. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population. The research can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability, and the analysis of the results is more objective (Dilbert, 2004). Finally, quantitative research is distinguished from qualitative research primarily because of the large numbers of people who are sampled and the type of questions they are asked. Generally, sample sizes of 100 are adequate for sampling yes/no questions to get results that are 95 percent reliable as being accurate for the entire market of buyers. To increase the accuracy to 97 percent to 99 percent, the sample sizes would have to increase to 400 to 2,000 or more, depending upon the subject matter and complexity of questioning (CCH, 2004). 4.8.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analyzes at Crossroad The selection of an appropriate research method has always been a dilemma for researchers and evaluators. While the quantitative-qualitative research debate ravages, what is obvious is that there is no one best research method for all research and evaluations. Different research purposes require the use of different research methods separately or in concert with each other. For all practical purposes, both quantitative and qualitative methods have different but complimentary roles to play in a research process and outcome. The fray between champions of these distinguishable research approaches is essentially ideological and political. Basically, these two approaches differ in their ways of conducting research, and each tends to claim superiority over the other. 124 Nwachukwu Prince Ololube

Ironically, each tradition overtly discredits the other as if it is infallible. The stage is always charged so that, given the chance, these champions would fi ght at any setting to defend their research philosophies. Fueling this charged situation is the subconscious luring of graduate students into these dichotomous camps of research methodologies and paradigms, especially from the standpoint of the research orientations of the professorsinstructing or advising (Olusegun, 2001, pp. 310). To carry this idea one-step further, according to Reichardt and Cook (1979, p. 23) researchers can not benefi t from the use of numbers if they do not know in common sense terms what the numbers mean. Punch (1998, p. 240), warned that these differences should not obscure the similarities in logic which makes combining the approaches possible. In spite of the researchers recognition of the distinctions that exist between the qualitative and the quantitative methods of research fi ndings, both methodologies are increasingly compatible and have profound roles to play in educational research. In brief, I tend to disagree completely with those who favor one method at the expense of the other because no single methodology is most appropriate for a particular research design. Thus, it will be to the interest of a researcher to combine both methodologies (quantitative and qualitative) to better comprehend the purpose for which a study is carried out. Similarly, according to Allen-Meares (1995, p. 58), researchers must discard the idea that the two paradigms are inherently incompatible or that one is better or more accurate than the other, and must creatively integrate them. The educational preparation of social work practitioners and researchers must include knowledge about both methodologies and the importance of contextual analysis and computerassisted models of qualitative analysis. In support of this, Olusegun (2001) maintains that research being a truth-fi nding construct aimed at verifying and authenticating phenomena, evidence abounds that the use of a combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methods results in a stronger validity to outcomes. Since strict adherence to the qualitative-quantitative divide is not helpful, it is better to see qualitative and quantitative methods as complementing each other rather than fi ercely opposing one another. Rather, study objectives and the kind of data being sought should dictate which approach could be followed.

Therefore, in this study, the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods added rigor, breadth and depth to the study. This is also in line with Kamwendos (2004) fi ndings. In any case, there is nothing about a research method per se which makes it weak or strong. The argument about research method depends on two factors: fi rst, the relationship between theory and method, and second, how the researcher attends to the potential weakness of the method (Hartley, 1994; Kamwendo, 2004). Teacher Education, School Effectiveness and Improvement 125