TICKET TO CLASS #2 CHAPTER 11 11-1 Differentiate the alphaproteobacteria

11-2

Differentiate the betaproteobacteria

11-3

Differentiate the gammaproteobacteria

11-4

Differentiate the deltaproteobacteria.

11-5

Differentiate the epsilonproteobacteria

11-6

Differentiate the groups of nonproteobacteria gram-negative bacteria

11-7 Compare and contrast purple and green photosynthetic bacteria with the cyanobacteria. Both the purple and green photosynthetic bacteria and the photosynthetic cyanobacteria use plantlike photosynthesis to make carbohydrates. In what way does the photosynthesis carried out by these two groups differ from plant photosynthesis?

11-8

Differentiate the genera of firmicutes

11-9

Differentiate the actinobacteria

11-11

Name a habitat for each group of archaea.

11-12

List two factors that contribute to the limits of our knowledge of microbial diversity.

CHAPTER 12
12-1 List the defining characteristics of fungi. Assume you isolated a single-celled organism that has a cell wall. How would you determine that it is a fungus and not a bacterium? They are eukaryotic, sterols are present, the cell wall made of glucans, mannans, chitin (no peptidoglycan), they have sexual and asexual reproductive spores, and are

limited to heterotrophic, aerobic, and facultatively anaerobic. Bacteria on the other hand is prokaryotic, absent of sterols (except mycoplasma), has peptidoglycan, endospores (not for reproduction); some asexual reproductive spores, heterotrophic, autotrophic, aerobic, facultatively anaerobic, and anaerobic. 12-3 List the defining characteristics of the three phyla of fungi described in this chapter. Zygomycata are conjugation fungi that are saprophytic molds that have coenocytic hyphae. Microsporidia are unusual eukaryotes because they lack mitochondria. Ascomycota or sac fungi, include molds with septate hyphae and some yeasts. Basidiomycota or club fungi also possess septate hyphae and include fungi that produce mushrooms. 12-4 Identify two beneficial and two harmful effects of fungi. Some beneficial effects of fungi are: producing citric acid for foods and beverages the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used to make bread and wine; it is also genetically modified to produce a variety of proteins, including hep B vaccine. Trichoderma is used commercially to produce the enzyme cellulase, which is used to remove plant cell walls to produce a clear fruit juice. The anticancer drug taxol is produced by yew trees and the fungus Taxomyces. Fungi are also used as biological controls of pests. Some harmful effects are: mold spoilage of fruits, grains, and veggies. The spreading chestnut tree and the American elm population have almost been wiped out because of fungus 12-5 List the distinguishing characteristics of lichens, and describe their nutritional needs. A lichen is a combination of a green alga (or a cyanobacterium) and a fungus. Lichens are often the first life forms to colonize newly exposed soil or rock. Lichens secrete organic acids that chemically weather rock, and they accumulate nutrients needed for plant growth. 12-6 Describe the roles of the fungus and the alga in lichen. What is the role of the fungus in lichen? The lichens thallus, or body, forms when fungal hyphae grow around algal cells to become the medulla. Fungal hyphae project below the lichen body to form rhizines, or holdfasts. Fungal hyphae also form a cortex, or protective covering, over the algal layer and sometimes under it as well. After incorporation into a lichen thallus, the alga continues to grow, and the growing hyphae can incorporate new algal cells. When the alga is associated with a fungus, the algal plasma membrane is more permeable and up to 60% of the products of photosynthesis are released to the fungus or are found as end-products of fungal metabolism. 12-7 List the defining characteristics of algae. How do algae differ from bacteria? From fungi? Algae are relatively simple eukaryotic photoautotrophs that lack the tissues of plants. The identification of unicellular and filamentous algae requires microscopic examination. Most algae are found in the ocean. Their locations depend on the availability of appropriate nutrients, wavelengths of light, and surfaces on which to grow. They differ from bacteria because bacteria have the ability to move. They differ from fungi because fungi do not require photosynthesis. 12-8 List the outstanding characteristics of the five phyla of algae discussed in this chapter. List the cell wall composition and diseases caused by the following algae: diatoms, dinoflagellates, and oomycotes. Brown algae (phaeophyta) are brownish in color, multicellular, store carbohydrate. Red algae (rhodophyta) are reddish in color, store glucose polymer, and have sexual reproduction, green algae (chlorophyta) are green in color, unicellular and multicellular, diatoms (bacillariophyta) have cell walls of pectin and silica, store oil, they are unicellular, and are toxic, dinoflagelltes (dinoflagellata) have cell walls that are cellulose in membrane, store starch, and are toxic. Diatom cell walls are composed of pectin and silica and the diseases it causes are neurological. Dinoflagellates cell walls are composed of cellulose in membrane and the diseases it causes are neurotoxic. Oomycotes cell walls are made of cellulose and the diseases it causes are phytophthora. 12-9 Identify two beneficial and two harmful effects of algae. Two beneficial effects are citric acid in foods and beverages and pest control. Two harmful effects are mold, spoilage on fruits, grains, and vegetables and chestnut trees almost extinct because of molds. 12-10 List the defining characteristics of protozoa. Identify three differences between protozoa and animals. Unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Produce asexually via fission, budding, and scizogony (multiple fission), and sexually via conjugation. Heterotrophs. Protozoa are unicellular, microscopic, and eukaryotic.

12-11 Describe the outstanding characteristics of the seven phyla of protozoa discussed in this chapter, and give an example of each. Do protozoa have mitochondria? Amoebozoa (entamoeba), ciliophora (balantidium), archaezoa (giardia lamblia), microspora (rabenhorst), apicomplexa (malaria), euglenozoa (trypanosome), slime mold (plasmodial). Protozoa do not have mitochondria. 12-12 Differentiate an intermediate host from a definitive host. An intermediate host: eggs are excreted with feces and when ingested become infected. The eggs hatch in the small intestine and the larvae migrate to the liver and lungs. Larva develops into a hydatid cyst. A definitive host: eggs are excreted with feces and when ingested the larvae hatch from the eggs and bore through the intestinal wall. Larvae migrate to the muscle and encyst as cysticerci. The scolex anchors itself in the small intestine and begins producing proglottids. 12-13 Compare and contrast cellular slime molds and plasmodial slime molds. Why are slime molds classified with amoeba and not fungi? Cellular slime molds are typical eukaryotic cells that resemble amebae. In the life cycle of cellular slime molds the amoeboid cells live and grow by ingesting fungi and bacteria by phagocytosis. Plasmodial slime mold exists as a mass of protoplasm with many nuclei. Slime molds are closely related to amebae and are therefore classified as amoebozoa. 12-14 List the distinguishing characteristics of parasitic helminths. Why are the drugs used to treat parasitic helminths often toxic to the host? They may lack a digestive system, their nervous system is reduced, their means of locomotion is occasionally reduced or completely lacking, and their reproductive system is often complex. Drugs used to treat parasitic helminths are often toxic to the host because they are animals and there physiology is very similar to our own. 12-15 Provide a rationale for the elaborate life cycle of parasitic worms. Because of the complexity of the life cycle. In some instances it takes two parasites of opposite sex and others are hermaphrodites where they can reproduce without a second parasite. 12-16 List the characteristics of the two classes of parasitic platyhelminths, and give an example of each. Termatodes (flukes) are often flat, leaf-shaped bodies with a ventral sucker and an oral sucker. The suckers hold the organism in place. They obtain food by absorbing it through their nonliving outer covering. Cestodes (tapeworms) are intestinal parasites. The head has suckers for attaching to the intestinal mucosa of the definitive host and some species also have small hooks for attachment. They do not ingest the tissues of their host and lack a digestive system. They obtain nutrients from the small intestine and absorb food through their cuticle. The body segments are called proglottids and they contain male and female reproductive organs. 12-17 Describe a parasitic infection in which humans serve as a definitive host, as an intermediate host, and as both. Definitive host: Taenia saginata. Intermediate host: Echinococcus granulosus Both: Taenia solium. 12-18 List the characteristics of parasitic nematodes, and give an example of infective eggs and infective larvae. Nematodes (roundworms) are cylindrical and tapered at each end. They have complete digestive systems. Most are dioecious. Males are smaller than females and have one or two hardened spicules on their posterior ends. Infective eggs would be like an Ascaris lumbricodes and infective larvae would be like a Necator americanus. 12-19 Compare and contrast platyhelminths and nematodes. You find a parasitic worm in a babys diapers. How would you know whether its a Taenia or a Necator? Platyhelminths do not have digestive systems and nematodes do. Platyhelminths take in and excrete from one opening where nematodes have two openings, one for take in and one for excretion. Platyhelminths are flat where nematodes are round. Taenia would be flat and Necator would be round. 12-20 Define arthropod vector. Vectors can be divided into three major types, according to the roles they play for the parasite. List the three types of vectors and a disease transmitted by each. Arthropods that carry pathogenic

microorganisms are called vectors. Arachnida (Rocky Mountain spotted fever), Crustacea (white spot disease), Insecta (epidemic typhus). 12-21 Differentiate a tick from a mosquito, and name a disease transmitted by each. Assume you see an arthropod on your arm. How will you determine whether it is a tick or a flea? A tick differs from a mosquito by being in different classes of arthropods and having a different number of legs. A tick can transmit Lyme disease and a mosquito can transmit malaria. A tick is an archnida and has eight legs. A flea is an insecta and has six legs.

CHAPTER 13 13-1 Differentiate a virus from a bacterium. Viruses do not reproduce or divide on their own, lack machinery for protein synthesis use host cell machinery to divide, contain a single type of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) 13-2 Describe the chemical and physical structure of both an enveloped and a nonenveloped virus. Enveloped: chemical composition-the envelope usually consists of some combination of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates; some animal viruses are released from the host cell by an extrusion process that coats the virus with a layer of the host cell's plasma membrane; that layer becomes the viral envelope. In many cases, the envelope contains proteins determined by the viral nucleic acid and materials derived from normal host cell components physical structure-depending on the virus, envelopes may or may not be covered by spikes; enveloped viruses are roughly spherical Non-enveloped: chemical composition-just has a protein coat over it called a capsid Physical structure- The capsid is composed capsomeres, not covered by an envelope the capsid protects nucleic acid from nuclease enzymes and promotes the viruss attachment to susceptible host cells. 13-3 Define viral species. Viral species: a group of viruses sharing the same genetic information and ecological niche. 13-7 List three techniques used to identify viruses.

Serological methods, such as Western blotting, are the most commonly used means RFLPs (restriction fragment length polymorphisms) PCR (polymerase chain reaction)

13-8 Describe the lytic cycle of T-even bacteriophages.

Attachment:

Phage attaches by tail fibers to host cell. Penetration: Phage lysozyme opens cell wall, tail sheath contracts to force tail core and DNA into cell. Biosynthesis: (eclipse period) Production of phage DNA and proteins. Maturation:

Assembly of phage particles. Release: (lysis) Phage lysozyme breaks cell wall. 13-9 Describe the lysogenic cycle of bacteriophage lambda. Penetration Originally linear phage DNA forms a circle The circle can multiply and be transcribed circle can recombine with and become part of the circular bacterial DNA inserted phage DNA is now called a prophage most are repressed by 2 repressor Leading to the production of new phage and cell lysis (lytic cycle) Also replicates the prophage DNA the prophage remains latent within the prodigy cells However, a rare spontaneous event, or the action of UV light or certain chemicals, can lead to the excision of the pahge DNA and initiation of the lytic cycle.

Vibrio cholerae produces toxin and is capable of causing cholera only when it is lysogenic. What does this mean? It has been infected by the virus and the virus has incorporated itself into the chromosome.

13-10 Compare and contrast the multiplication cycle of DNA and RNA-containing animal viruses. DNA, single stranded virus family: Parvoviridae Special features of biosynthesis: cellular enzyme transcribes viral DNA in nucleus DNA, double stranded virus family: Herpesviridae, Papovaviridae, Poxviridae Special features of biosynthesis: Herpesviridae-cellular enzyme transcribes viral DNA in nucleus; Poxviridae-Viral enzyme transcribes viral DNA in virion, in cytoplasm DNA, reverse transcriptase virus family: Hepadnaviridae Special features of biosynthesis: cellular enzyme transcribes viral DNA in nucleus; reverse transcriptase copies mRNA to make viral DNA RNA, + strand virus family: Picornaviridae, Togaviridae Special features of biosynthesis: Viral RNA functions as a template for synthesis of RNA polymerase which copies-strand RNA to make mRNA in cytoplasm RNA, - strand virus family: Rhabdoviridae Special features of biosynthesis: Viral enzyme copies viral RNA to make mRNA in cytoplasm

RNA, double stranded virus family: Reoviridae Special features of biosynthesis: Viral enzyme copies - strand RNA to make mRNA in cytoplasm

RNA, reverse stranded virus family: Retroviridae Special features of biosynthesis: Viral enzyme copies viral RNA to make DNA in cytoplasm; DNA moves to nucleus

13-11 Define oncogene and transformed cell. What is a provirus? Oncogene- A gene that can bring about malignant transformation. Transformed Cell- when a cell undergoes transformation they acquire distinct properties that are different from the uninfected cells- have increased growth, loss of contact inhibition, tumor specific, transplant antigens, and T-antigens Provirus: Viral DNA that is integrated into the host cells DNA, never leaves the chromosome, sometimes remains latent only replicating when the host cell replicates

13-12 Discuss the relationship between DNA- and RNA-containing viruses and cancer. How can an RNA virus cause cancer if it doesnt have DNA to insert into a cells genome? The ability to induce tumors is related to their production of a reverse transcriptase. The provirus is double stranded DNA synthesized from the viral RNA becomes integrated into the host cells DNA, new genetic material is then introduced into the hosts genome 13-14 Differentiate persistent viral infections from latent viral infections. Is shingles a persistent or latent infection? Latent 1. A latent viral infection is one in which the virus remains in the host cell for long periods without producing an infection. 2. Examples are cold sores and shingles. Persistent 1. Persistent viral infections are disease processes that occur over a long period and are generally fatal. 2. Persistent viral infections are caused by conventional viruses; viruses accumulate over a long period.

13-16 Differentiate virus, viroid, and prion. Contrast viroids and prions, and for each name a disease it causes. Prions (pp. 392393) 1. Prions are infectious proteins first discovered in the 1980s. 2. Prion diseases, such as CJD and mad cow disease, all involve the degeneration of brain tissue. 3. Prion diseases are the result of an altered protein; the cause can be a mutation in the normal gene for PrPC or contact with an altered protein (PrPSc). Plant Viruses and Viroids (pp. 393395) 1. Plant viruses must enter plant hosts through wounds or with invasive parasites, such as insects. 2. Some plant viruses also multiply in insect (vector) cells. 3. Viroids are infectious pieces of RNA that cause some plant diseases, such as potato spindle tuber disease.