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PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

London

A. and G. A. Spottiswoode, New-Street-Square.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
INQUIRIES:
IX A SERIES OF ESSAYS,

INTENDED TO ILLUSTRATE

THE MUTUAL EEUTIONS OF THE PHYSICAL ORGAMZATION

AXD THE MENTAL FACULTIES.

BY

Sir

benjamin

C.
ETC.

BRODIE,

Bart.

CORBESPONDING MEMBER OF THE IXSTITUTE OF FRi>CE,

.-^

CjtL'B'T'4^9^^COND EDITION.

LONDON
LOJs^GMAN,

BEOWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.

1855.

6fi

II

EDUC.

PSYCH ilBRARY

" The perceptions of the senses are gi-oss, but even in the senses there is a differeuce. Though harmony and properties are not objects of sense, yet the eye and the ears are organs which offer to the mind

such materials, by means whereof she may apprehend both the one and the other. Bj' experiments of sense we become acquainted with tlie lower faculties of the soul and from tliem, whether by a gradual
;

evolution or ascent,
to

we arrive

at the highest.

Sense supplies images

;

memory. These become subjects for fancy to work on reason considers and judges of the imaginations, and these acts of reason become new objects to the understanding. In this scale, each lower faculty is a step that leads to the one above it, and the uppennost naturally leads to the Deity, which is rather the object of intellectual knowledge than even of tlie discursive faculty, not to mention the sensitive. There runs a chain throughout the whole system of beings. In this chain one link drags another the meanest things are connected witli the highest. The calamity, therefore, is neither
;

much to be complained of, if a low sensual reader shall, from mere love of the animal life, find himself di-awn in, surprised,
strange nor

and betrayed

into,

some curiosity concerning the

intellectual."

SiKiS,

Cliain of Philosopliical Reflexions concerning the

Virtues of Tar-water, by Geokge Beeklet, D. D., Lord Bishop of Cloyne, s. 303,

PREFACE
TO

THE SECOND EDITION.

In preparing another

edition of the

" Psycho-

logical Inquiries " for the press, I

have taken

the opportunity of correcting whatever inaccuracies I

lication.

had found to exist in the original pub-

At

the same time I have, in different

parts

of

the

work,

introduced

some new

matter, arising out of the further consideration of the subjects wliich I have ventured to
discuss.

HavinGj received communications from various correspondents, I have not hesitated to

avail

mvself of some of the susigestions wliich

they have offered.

There

arei

others of which
If it

I should also gladly have availed myself,

had not been that the greater part

volume was

of

the

in print before I received them.

Among my

correspondents there

is

one who
suffi-

seems to be of opinion that I have not

JL

VI

PREFACE.

clently regarded the dignity of

in speaking of the

human

nature

minds of the

inferior animals

as belonging to the

same mode of existence, or

being of the same essence, with the mind of

man.

I do not myself see

how any

one,

who

does not (with Descartes) believe animals to

be mere unconscious macliines, can arrive at

any other conclusion.

that
it is

I do not, however, feel

necessary for
it

me

to enter further into

the question, as

has been fully considered

by one of much greater authority than myself

and I have only to refer to the observations on
this subject contained in the first chapter of the

Rev. Dr. Butler's Analogy of Religion

Constitution

to

the

and Course of Nature.

ADVEHTISEMENT.

The

subject of the present Volume, although

replete with interest, and of

importance,

is

one as to

much practical which we have no

definite

means of obtaining such complete and

knowledge
as to

admit of

it

being presented in

the shape of a systematic treatise.

Some

points
suffi-

may be
to

considered as established with a

;

cient degree of certainty

there are others as

differ
;

which opinions may reasonably

is still

while

there

a greater
to

number

as to
that,

which we
with our
of form-

must be content

acknowledge

limited capacities,

we have no means
all.

ing an opinion at

The method of dialogue seems

cially

to

be espe-

adapted for inquiries of this description

and

it is

hoped that

this will

be considered as

a sufficient apology for the form in

which the

foUowino" observations are

public.

submitted to the

..-i^"

CONTENTS.
THE FIRST DIALOGUE.
Intrcduction.

Mental Exertion.
of mental as
it is

Pursuits The

in

Retirement.

Limits

of

elTort of Volition the source

of bodily fatigue.

The Imagination

when we

compared with that during Sleep. Analogy of the Poetic Genius to that Dreams. Sir Isaac Newton's account of Discovery in Science. of the Process of Discovery in his own mind. Mental Operations of which we seem to be unconscious. How to be explained. Evils of an ill-regulated Imagination. Fanatics and Impostors. Modern Creduare awake

lity.

Modern Education. Influence of Mathematical

artificially.

Studies.

gift rather

cation.

John
whicli

levellinji

The faculty of correct Reasoning a natural than one acquired Self-edu Sir Humphry Davy. Sir Walter Hunter. Ferguson the Astronomer. The influence of a high Education. Advautasres
Scott.

may be expected to arise from ments of Education now in progress

the improve-

Fage

THE SECOND DIALOGUE.

Mind and Matter.
as

Natural Theology. Views of Sir Reasons for regarding the Mental Isaac Newton. Principle distinct from Organization. The Influence of the one on the other not sufficiently re-

garded by Metaphysicians.

Relations of the Nervous System to the Mental Faculties. Speculations of Hooke, Hartley, &c. The Brain not a single Organ, but a Congeries of Organs co-operating to one Pur-

;C

CONTENTS.
pose.

Flourens.

Physiological The

Researches of Magendie and

different Capacities of Individuals

for the Perception of Colours, Musical Sounds, &c.,

probably dependent on different Organization of the

Brain.

Supposed Connection of the Cerebellum with Locomotion. there an Organ of Speech? InIs

who were neither Stammering. Memory. Dr. Deaf nor Idiotic. Hooke's Speculations. Affections of the Memory
stances of "Want of Speech
in those

on from Cerebral Disease or the Brain not sufficient for Memory, unless accompanied by Attention, which is an Act of the Mind
itself.

Injury. Impressions
Memory beyond
-

The Nature

of the Physical Changes which

the

occur in connection with the

reach of our Observation and Capacities

Page 34

THE THIRD DIALOGUE.

The Subject
of

Memory

continued.

Sequence

and

Association of Ideas.

Suggestion of Ideas by internal

Causes acting on the Brain by the Nerves, or through

the

Medium

of the Blood.

Influence of Narcotics,

Morbid Poisons, Lithic Acid, Impure Atmosphere, and other Physical Agents on the Condition of the Mind. Such Inquiries not only of scientific Interest,

but

also of practical Importance.

Illusions.

Mental

Examples

Physical Causes of
of false

Perceptions

referred to the Sight and other Senses.

Other Forms

of Illusion more frequent in Cases of Mental Aberration than

mere Deceptions of the External Senses.

Definition of Insanity not sufficiently

Mr. Locke's
comprehensive.

too rapid

Succession of Ideas,

with Incapability of fixing the Attention, incompatible

with correct Reasoning.

called " Moral Insanity."

State of Mind in the Question to the Limits

of Moral Responsibility

----as

so-

66

CONTENTS.

XI

THE FOURTH DIALOGUE.

Diflerent Fnnctions of the

Continuance of Life some Animals without the Brain. Automatic motions of Plants and of some of the lower Animals. Multiplication of the by Division. The Diplozoon Faradoxon. BufFon's View
in
latter

Brain and

Spinal

Chord.

of the

Mode

of Existence of the lower Animals.

Nervous System not necessary to simple animal Life. Origin of the Nervous Force. Influence of the Venous or dark-coloured Blood on the Functions of the Nervous System. The Absence of Sensibility or voluntary Power no proof of the Absence of Consciousness. Dr. WoUaston, &c. State of Mind preceding Death. Nature and Phenomena of Sleep. Dreams the Result of the Imagination uncontrolled by the AVill. Rapidity of Dreams. Their Character influenced by accidental physical Impressions. Supposed Solu-

tions of Problems, &c., during Sleep. vations on the Subject. Do Dreams

Purpose
in the

Miiller's

Obser-

answer any
?

Economy

of living Beings

Inquiries
Page 107

Nature of the Changes which occur in the Nervous System in connection with Mental Operaas to the

tions

THE FIFTH DIALOGUE.

Mental Faculties of Animals.
Structure of the Brain.

Their Relation to the Difiiculty of the Inquiry, but

some Kowledge of it not beyond our Reacli. Cerebral Organs connected with the Animal Appetites and Instincts. Organs subservient to the Intellect. Ques-

Uses of the Cerebral Convolutions. The Posterior Lobes of the Cerebrum. The Corpus Caltion as to the

The Development of the Mental Faculties, how far dependent on the Perfection of the Senses, and
losum.


XU
CONTENTS.

other external Circumstances.

of Instinct.
stinct to

The Nature and the lower Animals. Human The

Instincts.

Office

Intelligence not peculiar to Man, nor In-

and the Moral Sense. Some Instincts Animal Existence as the Cii-culation of the Blood, and other mere Animal Functions. Ac(juired Instincts transmitted from Parents to Offspring These considered with reference to Moral and
Social Instinct
as necessary to

Political Science.

The Social Instinct viewed

-----

as cor-

made by the greater Development of the InThe Eeligious Instinct. Primary Truths of tellect. Buffier and Reid Page 164
recting or modifying other Instincts, and as being
efficient

more

THE SIXTH DIALOGUE.

Yiews of Human Nature. The Science of Human Nature its Objects and Applications to be distinguished in its higher Department from the mere Practical Knowledge of Human Character which Men acquire

for their

own

Purposes.

Different Opportunities of
dif-

pursuing the Study of Human Nature presented to

ferent Individuals.

The Observation of the Influence

Mind on
the Body,

of the

Body on

the Mind, and of the

a necessary Part of it.

sions of Phrenology.

essential to the Science of Government.

The Science of Human Nature The Pretenit.

Anatomical Objections to
it

Observations on the Evidence on which

rests.

Consideration of the Question as to the Relation of the

General View of the Circumstances which tend to form or modify Men's Characters. The Science of Human Nature not reducible any Simple Rules. the Pursuit of Qualifications necessary knowledge. Duties and Responsibilities. Conto

Size of the Brain to the Development of the Intellect.

clusion

--------

for

it.

Self-

213

Additional Notes

-251

PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

THE FIRST DIALOGUE.

Introduction.

Pursuits in Mental Exertion. The

of mental as
it is

Retirement.

Limits

of

effort of Volition the source

of bodily fatigue.

The Imagination

when we

Dreams. Analogy
How
lity.

are

awake compared with that during Sleep.

of the Poetic Genius to that

of Discovery in Science.

of the Process of Discovery in his

Sir Isaac Newton's account own mind. Mental

Operations of which we seem to be unconscious.

to

be explained.

gination.

Modern Education. Influence of Mathematical

rather than one acquired artificially.
Scott.

Fanatics and Impostors. Modern Credu-

Evils of an ill-regulated Ima-

Studies.
gift

cation.

John
whieli

levelling

The faculty of correct Reasoning a natural Self-edu Sir Humphry Davy. Sir Walter Hunter. Ferguson the Astronomer. The influence of a high Education. Advantages
may be expected
to arise

from the improve-

ments of Education now

in progress.

The
close.

Session of Parliament was drawlno- to a

Ministers took advantage of the

ap-

proach of the grouse-shooting season to hurry

through the two Houses the various Bills which

INTRODUCTION.

they could not venture to postpone for another

year.
still

Some

official

and professional persons

;

lingered in the Clubs

but the houses in the

squares were deserted, and there was an end

for the season of

what

is

called,

Kar

s^o-)^i]v,

London
friend,

Society.

Meeting accidentally a

whom
in

I shall distinguish

by the name

of Crites, I expressed

my

surprise at seeing

him
'^

still

London.

" Our Court," said he,

;

has been sitting later than usual

but I

am

noAV emancipated, and I

am

about to pay a longI

promised
that
if
It

visit to

our friend Eubulus.

know

would

afford

him the

greatest pleasure

you would accompany me

Eubulus had been

as his visitor."

my

intimate

friend

in
to-

early

life.

As

boys,

we had wandered
;

gether through our native woods

as young:

men we had

similar pursuits

and

tastes

had

admired the same poetry, and had speculated

together on subjects beyond the reach of

human

wit ; but afterwards, being engaged in different

professions,

and our roads in

life

lying in dif-

ferent directions,
as

we had

parted company, and,

we

travelled onwards,

had only occasional

INTRODUCTION.
glimpses of each other.
Still,

3
whenever we

met, the influence of old associations remained

unimpaired;

we were

as intimate as formerly,

and seemed to know more of each other than of

any of the friends

later period of
life.

whom we had

acquired at a

It

was two or three years before the period

of which I

am now

speaking that Eubulus,

finding that his health

was scarcely equal

and

to the
that,

duties of the office which he held,

between what he had obtained by Inheritance

and a retiring pension, he had
to
sufficient fortune

meet the reasonable demands of himself and

had gone
to reside

his family,

on a property, hun-

which he possessed,

at the distance of a
;

dred miles from the Metropolis

and here he

had repeatedly urged me

thin";

to

be his guest.

No-

could be more ao:reeable to

me

than the

proposal which Crites

made

and the result

was

that, in

less

than forty-eight hours,

we

were both seated In a carriage on the railway,

and. In the course of a few hours more, were
set

down within
friend's

a mile of our destination.

Our

house had been built in the 17th

B 2

INTRODUCTION.

century, and, like

date,

many country
situation,

houses of that

was in a low

with a very limited

prospect.

But

this defect

was compensated by

the beauty of the surrounding country, which

exhibited
all

that

variety

of

picturesque

scenery which a A'aried geological structure

usually aifords.

On

one side were steep and

lofty chalk hills, covered

by a scanty herbage,

and

dotted

with

yews
still

and junipers.
loftier hill,

On

another side was a

but of a

more gradual
a thin
soil

elevation,
it,

composed of sand with

over

and covered with heath,

firs

with some clumps of Scotch

scattered here

and

there.
fields

In the intermediate valley there

and meadows, with stubble and

were

green pasture, and intersected by a stream of water

at
;

while at the foot of the chalk

hills,

and

no great distance from the house, there was an

extensive beech wood, which, from the absence

of underwood, and the magnitude and height of

the trees, Avith their branches mingling above,

might be compared to an enormous cathedral,

with
its

columns, and arches, " and dim religious

light."

INTRODUCTION.

On

our arrival

we found

our friend waiting

to receive us, there being

no one with him but

his

some of the junior members of

own

family,

who

joined

with him

in

his

hospitalities.

During the few days which our

visit lasted

we

saw whatever was most worthy

to

be seen in

the surrounding country, walking, or riding,

and resting at intervals for the purpose of conversation.

It

seemed at times as

if

we had

gone back to the period of

oiu" early life.

We

expressed ourselves as freely as

when we were

young, having before us the unknown country

which we were about to explore.

Still

we

were sensible that we were not what we had

been formerly.
faiiy-land

The world was no longer

that

which our imagination was wont to

its

furnish with

own
it,

images.

We

knew

it,

and the people in

better than

and we knew ourselves,

when we began our journey.

We

had

lost the

joys of hope and expectation, but

we had

also lost

many

of the anxieties which

not unfrequeutly obscured our brighter visions,

and years had not

rolled
B 3

over us without

PURSUITS IN
life,

leaving us, in the realities of

subjects of contemplation.

many worthy

I have mentioned that Eubulus had quitted

his official situation
his health to
;

on account of the

state of

but he had

now

so far recovered as

have considerable bodily

lost

activity, at the

same

time that he had

vigour.
It

none of

his intellectual
visit

was on the second day of our

that I expressed to
it

him the

satisfaction

which

afforded

me to find

that the experiment which

he had made had proved to be so successful.

added, " It must, indeed, be delightful to you

to find yourself here,

where everything around

and

you

is

so

cheerful, with every comfort

for,

luxury which you can wish

and

in the en-

joyment of that perfect

leisure

which must be
it

more

afjreeable

from the contrast between

and the incessant exertions of your former

life."

" I have reason," he answered, "

ful to

to

be grate-

God

for

the

many

blessings

which I

enjoy.

But do not speak

It

of perfect leisure as
after I

one of them.

was very soon

was

RETIREMENT.
establlslicd here that I
it

made

the discovery that

was necessary

to

my
so.

happiness that I shoidd

provide some

new

occupation for myself; and I

succeeded in doincc

To those who have been

life

brought up in idleness, a
enouij-h
cjctic
:

of leisure

is

bad

and hence we find that the more cnerit

amonixthem are o;lacl toexchanije

for

some
field-

kind of active pursuit

politics, travelling,

sports, horse-racing, gambling, accordingly as

their natural tastes

and accidental circumstances

give one or another direction to their minds.

The vulgar phrase

of killing time very aptly

expresses the feelings of

many on

this subject.

But
sons,

if

life

of leisure be painful to such perit

what must

be to one like you or me,

the middle period

who have advanced beyond

of
it ?
life,

without having had any experience of

is

This

no speculative inquiry

it

may

be answered from actual observation.

Not a

few persons who abandon their employments

under the impression that they

in

will

be happy
It
in-

doing

so,

actually

die

of ennui.

duces bodily disease more than physical or

mental labour.

Others,
B 4

indeed, survive

the

8
ordeal.

PURSUITS IN

But where
often does.

the body does not suffer, I have

the

mind

known

instances

of persons whose

habits have been suddenly-

changed from those of great activity to those

of no employment at
all,

who have been

for a

time in a state of mental excitement, or of hypochondriasis, bordering on mental aberration.

INIoreover,
it is

with the mind as

it is
;

with the

body

it is

spoiled

from want of use

and the

clever and intelligent

to lead

young man, who

sits

down

what

is

called a life of leisure, invariably

becomes a stupid old man."

Crites.

You,

at

any

rate,

can have had no

difficulty in finding

an occupation for yourself.

At

school and college

you made yourself not

only a good Latin and Greek scholar, but also well acquainted with general literature.
have, I conclude,
studies;
flillen

You

back on your early

and your

library, I perceive, affords

so.

you abundant opportunities of doing

EuBULUS.
source,

It

is

true that this

is

a great reorigi-

and that a person who has been

nally well educated, has a very great advantage

over one

who

has been in this respect less for-

RETIREMENT.
tunately situated.

9
it

But do not take

It

for

more

than

it is

worth.

must be confessed

that to

one who has been engaged in more active and

exciting
pursuits,

whatever

they

may have

been

politics, profession,

commerce, or anyspecific

thing else
object,
is,

mere reading, without any

we

by comparison, but duU work.

In

early

life

read for some definite purpose, to

make

ourselves acquainted with a particular

subject, or to obtain

knowledge which

is

to

be

applied to the attainment of something that

we

have in view afterwards.

Undoubtedly the
is

mere acquirement of knowledge

agreeable
;

in

itself

but something more than

this is

necessary, not only to keep the

mind

in a whole-

some and vigorous

state,

but to happiness. Xot

only must the mental faculties be exercised, but

it

must be on a worthy
It

subject, or with

some

ulterior view.

was better

for Diocletian to
;

plant cabbages than to do nothing

and

it is

to

be supposed that Charles the Fifth derived some

sort of comfort
flagellations
;

from his flying puppets and

self-

but I suspect

that, in spite of his

misfortunes.

Lord Bacon was not

altogether

10

LIMITS OF
in completing his phi-

unhappy while engaged

losophical works;

and I cannot doubt that he

than he would have been
if

was much

less so

he

had shared the occupations and amusements of

the Emperors.

Crites.

But Lord Bacon could not have

been wholly and entirely occupied in the way

which you have mentioned.

He must

still

have had many hours of leisure on

his hands.

EuBULUS.
fession

That

is

true.

A man in a
and

pro-

may be engaged

in professional matters
suffer

for twelve or fifteen hours daily,

no

very great inconvenience beyond that which

may

be traced to bodily fatigue.

The
it is
is

greater
so after

part of what he has to do (at least

a certain amount of experience)

nearly the

same

as that

which he has done many times

before,

and becomes almost a matter of course.

He

uses not only his previous knowledge of

facts, or his simple experience,

but his previous

thouGfhts,

and the conclusions at wliich he had

;

arrived formerly

and

it is

only at intervals that

he

is

called upon to

make any considerable mental

exertion.

But at every step in the composition of

MENTAL
his philosophical

EXERTION'.

11

works Lord Bacon had to

enn^aijed in that

think

and no one can be

which

requires a sustained effort of thought for more

than a very limited portion of the twenty-four

hours.

Such an amount of that kind of occu-

pation must have been quite sufficient even for

so powerful a

mind

as that of

Lord Bacon.

Mental relaxation
is

after severe

mental exertion

not less agreeable than bodily repose after

labour.

bodily

few

hours of bona Jide

mental labour daily will exhaust the craving

for active
in

employment, and will leave the mind

in

state
Is

which the subsequent leisure

Avill

(which

not necessarily mere idleness)

be

as agreeable as it

would have been irksome

and painful otherwise.

Ckites.

And what

limits do

you place

to

mental exertion of the kind to which you

allude ?

EuBULUS.
to lay

I do not see that

it is

possible

down

rules for the

mind
so

in that respect,

more than
on
its

for the

body

much must depend

his previous

original powers,
individual,

on the physical con-

dition of the

and on

12

LIMITS OF

MENTAL EXEETION.

training.

Those whose early education has

for the

been defective,

most

part, labour

under

a disadvantage from not having acquired the

habit

of

attention

at

that

period

of

life

when
vast

habits are most easily established.

effort

may be made

for

short time.

But

great things are accomplished more fre-

quently

by moderate

efforts

persevered

in,

with intervals of relaxation, during a very

long period.
I

have

been

informed that

Cuvier was usually engaged for seven hours

daily in
his
scientific researches;

but these

were not of a nature

thought.
Sir

to require continuous

Walter

Scott, if

my

recollection

be accurate, describes himself as having devoted

about six hours daily to literary composition,

and

his

mind was then

in a state to enjoy

some

lighter pursuits

afterwards.

After his mis-

fortunes, however, he allowed himself no relaxation,

and there can be

little

doubt that

this

over-exertion contributed, as
suffering

much as

the moral

which he endured,

to the production

of the disease of the brain, which ultimately

caused his death.

Sir

David Wilkie found

SOURCE OF MENTAL FATIGUE.

that he

13
in

was exhausted

if

eniphiycd

his
five

peculiar line of art for

more than four or

probable that
it

hours daily

and

it is

was

to

relieve himself

from the

effects of too

great

labour that he turned to the easier occupation

of portrait painting.
hiiiher srades of

In

fact,

even among the

mind there

are but a few that

are capable of sustained thought repeated

after

day
this.

day for a much longer period than

is

For any one who

pursuits there
is

engaged

in intellectual

no more important rule of

conduct than that he should endeavour to take

a just measure of his

own

capacity, so that
ill

he may not be subject to the

consequences

which

arise

from the mind being strained be-

yond

its

natural powers.

Crites.
tltoufjlit

I conclude that you use the words

strict sense

and thinking in their more

as implying not simply attention,

tlie

but also that

in

mind

is

actively
facts,

employed

observing

and comparing

reasoning on them, and

deducing conclusions from them.

EuBULUS.
of the

Certainly.

I refer to an exercise
is

mind beyond that which

required for

14

SOURCE OF

learning what has ah'eacly been proved, and

following in the steps of those before us
;

who have gone

and

this

being the case, the exis

planation of what
sufficiently

I have just mentioned

INIere

obvious.

attention

is

an

act of volition.
this,

Thinking implies more than

greater
It

and a

still

and more constant

is

exercise of volition.
it
is

with the mind as

is

with the body.

is

^Vliere the volition

;

exercised there

fatigue

there

is

none other-

wise

and in proportion
so
is

as the volition is

more

exercised,

the

fatigue

greater.

The

muscle of the heart acts sixty or seventy times

in a minute,

and the muscles of respiration act

eighteen or twenty times in a minute, for

seventy or eighty, or in some rare instances

even for a hundred, successive years

is

but there

no feeling of fatigue.

The same amount of

muscular exertion under the influence of volition

induces fatigue in a few hours.

am

refreshed

by a few

hours' sleep.

I believe

that I seldom, if ever, sleep without dreaming.

But
If

in sleep there

is

a suspension of volition.

there

be

occasions

on which I do not

MENTAL FATIGUE.
enjoy the
it

15
sleep,

full

and complete benefit of

sleep
is

is

when my
ai'e

imperfect

when my

dreams

between

waking

and sleeping,

and a certain amount of

volition

may be

sup-

posed to be mixed up with the phantoms of the

imajjination.

C KITES.

But

are

you

right in limiting the

capability of the higher

kind of intellectual

labour in ordinary cases to so low an average

as

from four

to five hours

daily

You
;

re-

ferred to the instance of Sir

if

Walter Scott

but,

remember

rightly. Sir

Walter has a remark

in his diary that,

"

as to his composition, it

was

seldom

five

minutes out of his head durino- the

whole day."

EuBULUS.

This remark was made after his

misfortunes, and

when

it is

well

known

that he

was exerting himself beyond

let

his powers.

But
says,

us refer to the whole passage.

He

" If any one asks

me what

time I take to

think of the composition, I might say, in one

point of view, of
it

was seldom

five

minutes out
it

my

head in the whole day; in another,

was never the subject of

serious consideration

16
at
all,

THE IMAGINATION IN
for it never occupied

my

thoiiglits for

five

minutes together except when I was dic-

tatino;."*

This brings us to the consideration of another

faculty of the mind, a faculty than Avhich there
is

none more important

is

in

which I
at all,

will not

say that there

no thinking

but cer-

tainly nothing like intense thought.

jrination is here

The

iraa-

more
it is

at

work than the reasonwhich

in

ing powers, and

to this faculty,

a greater or less degree every one possesses,

the child as well as the man, I might even say
the
idiot

as

well

as

the

philosopher, that,

being properly employed,

we owe

the greatest

contributions of genius to literature and science.

As you have

already referred to Sir Walter

Scott, I will take

fictions

him

for

an example.

The

of the "

Lay

of the Last Minstrel," or

of " Waverley," cannot be supposed to have

been the result of any exercise of

volition.
Avith

They presented themselves

no more
effort

to his

mind

than that which precedes the

visions of a dream.
*-

u Diary,"

February 1831.

AVAKIXG AXD IN SLEEP.

Crites.

17
novels and

Then you

consider

Ills

poems

to liavc

been the result of a sort of

wakhio; dream.

EuBULUS.
an absence of
suspended,
it is

By no means.
volition.

In sleep there
it

Is

If

be not wholly
is

because the sleep

imperfect.

The phantoms
stationary.

of the imagination are never

They succeed each other with

such rapidity, that they can never be made the

subject of contemplation
is
;

and very often there

no connection (that

is,

none that we can

first

trace,)

between that which comes

follows.

and that

which
laAvs

That there

really are certain

which regulate their production, I do not

all

doubt, as there are laws which regulate

the

phenomena of the
laws

creation

but whatever these

may

be,

we know

little,

and generally

nothing, of them.

But when awake we have

the power of arresting the current of the imagination;

we can make

the

objects

which
;

it

presents to us the subject of attention

we can

view them under different aspects, and thus

perceive in

them resemblances,

relations,

and

analogies which Ave could not have perceived

18
otherwise.

MENTAL PROCESSES OF
Hence new
objects are presented

to us, not at random, but having a certain con-

nection with those

by which they were pre-

ceded

and from these

we

can reject one and

select another,

and go back to that which we

rejected.

had previously

Our minds

are

so

constructed, that

we can keep

the attention

fixed on a particular object until

we

have, as

it

were, looked

all

around

it

and the mind that

possesses this faculty in the greatest degree of

perfection will take cognizance of relations of

which another mind has no perception.

this,

It

is

much more than any

difference in the

abstract

power of reasoning, which

constitutes

the vast difference which exists between the

minds of

different individuals.

This

is

the his-

tory alike of the poetic genius and of the genius of discovery in science.
said Sir Isaac
''

keep the subject,"

Newton, " constantly before me,

first

and wait until the

dawnings open by
It

little

and

little

into a full light."

was thus

that,

after long meditation,

he was led to the in-

vention of fluxions, and to the anticipation of

the

modern discovery of the combustibility of

WHICH WE ARE UXCONSCIOUS.

the diamond.
It

19

was thus that Harvey disco-

vered the cu'culation of the blood; and that

those views were suggested to Da\'y, which are

propounded in the Bakerian lecture of 1806,

and which

laid the foundation of that

grand

series of experimental researches

which termi-

nated in the decomposition of the earths and

alkalis.

Crites.

If I imderstand

you

rightly,

you

suppose that the mind, under the circumstances

which you mention,

is

to a great extent in a
it,

passive state, objects being presented to

or

conceptions arising in

it,

which are associated

diflPer

according to certain laws, which

accord-

ing to the peculiar structure of individual minds,

but which are independent of any direct act of

volition;

and that the

latter

is

exercised only

in keeping the object or conception in

\iew

while

its

various

relations

gradually unfold

themselves to om- observation.

But

it

seems to

me

that on some occasions a

still

more remarkis

able process takes place in the mind, which

even more independent of volition than that of

which we are speaking;

c 2

as if there

were in the

2'0

MENTAL PROCESSES OP
a principle of order

mind

winch operates

witli-

out our being at the time conscious of

has often happened to
pied

it.

It

me

to

have been occu-

by a

particular subject of inquiry; to have

it;

accumulated a store of facts connected with

but to have been able to proceed no further.

Then,

after

an interval of time, without any

stock of knowledge, I have found

addition to

my

the obscurity and confusion, in which the subject

was originally enveloped, to have cleared

facts

awav; the

have seemed

all to

have settled

themselves in their right places, and their

tual relations to

mu-

have become apparent, although

I have not been sensible of having made any

distinct effort for that purpose.

EuBDLUS.

What you

have now described

It
is

has occurred repeatedly to myself.

tainly not very easy to

cer-

comprehend the nature

Is
it

of this mental operation.

that the subject

every
is

now and then comes

before

us,
it

and

considered without our recollecting

after-

wards ?

or

is it,

as a philosophical friend has

first

suggested, that in the

instance

we

are per-

plexed by the multiplicity of facts presented to

\VniCII
us,
less

WE ARE

UNCONSCIOUS.

21

and that

after

an interval of time those of

importance fade away, while the

memory

retains those

which are

essential, in the subseclassification of

quent arrangement or

which,
is

being thus rendered more conspicuous, there

no

difficulty ?

C RITES.
time,
it

The

latter

seems to be the more

probable explanation of the two.

At

the same

must be admitted that they

are not in-

compatible with each other.

Yet we may

Avell

doubt whether there be not

this.

something more than

pens during sleep. connected dreams
so

Observe what hap-

However vague and un-

may

be, there

is

sometimes

much coherence

in them, that they are very

like realities.

You

hold a conversation with

another person, who, in answer to what you

say, uses

an argument or makes an observation

to

which you believe

dict.

be erroneous, and contra-

This

is

only one of

many examples

of

the same kind which dreams afford.

EuBULUS.

With

reference to such dreams,

Dr. Johnson has somewhere observed that the

dreamer must have invented the argument used

c 3

22
ao-alnst

ONEXESS OF THE MIND.

himself Avithout beino; aware that he
so.

had done

This, however,
fact,

is

merely a stateit.

rjnent of the
late writer,

and no explanation of
in
it

whose mind had

more of inge-

nuity than of philosophy, published a thick

volume, to prove that each hemisphere of the

cerebrum has a separate mind, and that on these

occasions the

two hemispheres might be

consi-

dered as conversino; with each other.*

The

work

to

which I

allude,

however

fantastic it

may

be, contains

many

curious illustrations of

mental phenomena.

But

I do not believe the

it

hypothesis, or rather, I should say, that

is

not in

my

nature to believe

it.

It seems to

me

that the question as to the oneness and individuality of the

mind

is

very clearly and unIt

is

answerably stated by Father Buffier.f

one of those fundamental truths which are inherent in us, and defy
all

argument

which I

can no more help believing than I can help

On

the Duality of the Mind,

by A. L. Wigan,

M.D., 1844.
t Traite des Premieres Verites.
ch. 10.

Deuxicme

partle,

INACCURATE REASONING.
believing in the external world, or even in

23

my

own

existence.

Crites.

The

subject of dreams

is

one of

great interest, and I shall be glad if

we can

have the opportunity of discussing

it

hereafter.

At

present I would rather revert to a former

part of our conversation.

Admitting

all

that

you say

as to the advan-

tage of contemplative habits,

still

you surely do

not

mean

to say that these are

more important

than the capability of forming a right judgment

of the thing before us, and of reasoning accurately.

EuBULUS.
seems to

Certainly not.
that in
all

But then

it

me

cases in

which we have
evi-

to arrive at a conclusion

by comparing the

dence on one side with that on the other (and

these include
all

branches of human knowledse

except pure mathematics), nothing contributes

so

much

to accurate reasoning as the habits of

which we are speaking.

in

The

principal defect
is

those

who

reason inaccurately

that so

happily illustrated by the fable of the two knights disputing about the gold and silver
C 4

24
shield.

INFLUENCE OF
They do not
see, or

they do not take

into

the

account, the whole of the facts on

is

"which their conclusion

is

to

be founded.

Who

so little liable to fall into this error as the

individual

who keeps

the subject to which his

inquiries are directed constantly before him,

until all its relations gradually are presented
to his

view

Observe, that I

am

speaking of
is

a well-regulated imagination, which

astray
logies.

not led

by prejudice or

passion, or fanciful ana-

The
is

ill-regulated imagination of infe-

rior

minds

quite a different matter, and pro-

duces nothing but enthusiasts, fanatics, and, I

may

add, impostors.

Crites.

But, unfortunately,

it is

these last

classes of persons

who, by means of their acin-

tivity

and earnestness, are often the most

fluential in the world.

A fanatical monk perLord George

suaded the Avhole of Christendom to embark in

the wild scheme of the Crusades.

Gordon, a crazy
to

fanatic, led the

London mob
to involve

burn down Newgate, and nearly

the whole of the metropolis in the conflagration.

It
is

not long since no small nmnber of persons.

ENTHUSIASTS AND FANATICS.

and not merely those belonging
to the

25

unedu-

cated classes, were led to believe that a dropsical

old

woman was

about to be the mother of

tlie

real Shiloh;

and, even at the present day,

attest their belief

many thousand Mormonites

in the divine mission of a

half-madman and

half-impostor in the person of Joe Smith.

How

many similar
race!

histories

may be

furnished

by any

one who studies the past history of the human

EuBULUS.

am

afraid that

we need

not go

so far back as the age of the Crusades, nor

refer to the disciples of

Joanna Southcote, or

the ^Mormonites, for instances of such credulity

on the part of a considerable portion of mankind.

We have, indeed,
:

discarded our faith in

pity the ignorance of

astrology and witches

we

the poor African, who, in a season of drought,

seeks the conjurations of the rainmaker;

we

cannot well comprehend hoAv

it

was that the

civiKsed Athenians of the third century should

have believed that marble statues would

feel

themselves to be offended, and show their displeasure

by leaving

their pedestals

and walking

26

ENTHUSIASTS AND FANATICS.

Nevertheless, with
all
all

about at night.*

our

boasted wisdom, and

our advance in know-

ledge, there are at the present

day many who

believe in things not supported

by

better evi-

dence than these.

nion as

There are epidemics of opiand they prevail

weU

as of disease,

at least as

much

amono; the well-educated as

among

the uneducated classes of society.

is

The

energy and sincerity of enthusiasts

in all ages, and carries with
it

powerful

the conviction

of that large portion of mankind

inquire and think for themselves.

who do
It
is,

not

indeed,

a melancholy fact, that a great extension of

education and knowledge does not produce any

corresponding
Still,

improvement in
good sense

this

respect.

in the end,

prevails.

Errors

and deceptions

last

only for a time.

Those

which disgrace one age vanish, and are succeeded by those which disgrace the next.

But

a truth once established remains undisputed,

and

society,

on the whole, advances.

Ceites.

But does not what you have now

Lucian

in Philopseudes.

EDUCATION.
stated tend to

27
is

show that there

some defect

in

modern education ?
it

Might

it

not do more than

does towards the improvement of the reason?

ing faculty

EuBULUS.
great deal.

I doubt

it.

Education does a

It imparts knowledge,

and gives

the individual worthy objects of contemplation

for the

remainder of his
;

life.

It streniijthens
is

his

power of attention

and such

especially

the case with the study of mathematics; and

in doing so
assist the
it

cannot

fail,

to a certain extent, to

judgment.
is

Still it

seems to me, that

to reason well

the result of an instinct ori-

ginally implanted in us, rather than of instruc-

tion;

and that a

child

or a peasant reasons

quite as accurately on the thing before

him
as

and within the sphere of

those

his

knowledge

who have gone deep

a science.

into the study of

loo;ic as

With

reirard

even to matend

thematics, I
to

much doubt whether they

improve the judgment on those subjects

to

which they are not immediately

applicable.

Dugald Stewart makes the

vation:

followino;

obser-

"In

the course of

my own

expe-

28
rience

MATHEMATICAL STUDIES.
I have never met with a mere ma-

thematician

who was not

credulous to a fault,

not only with respect to

human

testimony,

but credulous
prone on
all

also in matters of opinion,

and

subjects which he

had not carefaith in illus-

fully studied, to repose too

much
The

trious

and consecrated names."*

difficult to explain.
all

Xor

is

this

at

aU

principal errors

of reasoning on

subjects

beyond the pale

of the exact sciences arise from our looking

only on one side, or too exclusively on one side,

of the question.

But

in nmthematics there

is

no

alternative.

It has nothing; to

do with de-

grees of probability.
side only,

The truth can be on one

at a conclusion about

and we arrive
is

which there
none
at
all.

no

possibility of doubt, or at

In making these observations,

suffi-

however, do not suppose that I do not

ciently estimate this

most marvellous

science,

which, from the simplest data, has been

to

made

grow up

into

what

it

now
;

is

by the mere

force of the

human

intellect

the truths of which

Moral Philosophy, 4th

edition, 1827, vol.

iii.

p.

280.

SIR

HUMPHRY DAVY.
if

29

would have been the same

had never existed
they were
;

heaven and earth

still if

would be the same

now

to pass

away

and by means of
to

which those branches of knowledge

is

which

it

applicable have been brought to a state of

perfection which others can never be expected

to attain.

Ergates.

It certainly seems to

me, as

it

does to Eubulus, that the faculty of reasoning

correctly (or

what

is

commonly

called having a
gift,

clear head) is for the

most part a natural

artificially

and that

it

admits of being

improved
admits of

only in a limited degree.

a question, whether

Indeed,

it

modern education, instead

does not, on the whole, err

of doing too

little,

on the

side of attempting to

do too much ?
boy, was

Sir

Humphry Davy,
and adverting to

w^hen

placed

under a schoolmaster who neglected

his duties

this subject in a letter ad-

dressed to his mother after he was settled in

London, he
that I

says,

" I consider
to

it

as fortunate
child,

was

left

much

myself as a

and

put on no particular plan of study, and that I

enjoyed

much

idleness at

Mi\ Coryton's school.

30
I,

SELF-EDUCATION.
perhaps,

owe

to these circumstances the little

talents I have,

and their peculiar

application.

What

am

I made myself.

I say this without

vanity, and in pure simplicity of heart." *

John
is

Hunter, who, in the department of science,

one of the most remarkable individuals
this

whom
little

country has produced, had applied very

to study of

any kind

until

he came to London,

and began that of anatomy, under his brother

William.

Like Davy, he was distinguished

and comprehen-

for his industiy, the originality

siveness of his views, and the clearness of his

intellect.

Would

not these faculties have been

cramped and deranged, rather than improved,

by a more systematic education

EuBULUS.

In accordance with your view

of the matter, Sir Walter Scott has somewhere

observed, that " the best part of every man's

education

is

that which he gives himself; " and

I willingly admit that,

among

those whose in-

tellect is of the higher order, there are

many

who would
*

ultimately accomplish greater things

Memoir, by John Davy, M.D.,

vol.

i.,

chap.

1.

FERGUSON THE ASTRONOMER.

if in early life tlicy

31

were

left

more

to their
is

own

meditations and inventions than

the case

among

the more highly educated classes of the

community.*

Ferguson, the astronomer and

mechanical philosopher, told Dugald Stewart

that

"he had more than once attempted

'

to

study the

Elements of Euclid,' but found him-

self quite incapable of entering into that species

of reasoning.

He

satisfied

himself of the truth

of the various geometrical proj)osItions of which

he had daily occasion to make use, by means of

compasses and other mechanical contrivances, "f
It
is

well

known
If
it

that Ferguson had

little
it is

or no

education.

had been otherwise,

more

than merely probable that he would have been

held to be a dunce, and that the peculiar talent

by which he acquired

his reputation

would have
education
is

been crushed or wasted.

a leveller, which, while

A high
it

tends to improve

ordinary minds, and to turn idleness into industry,

may, in some

instances,

have the

effect

of preventing the full expansion of genius.

* See additional note A.

The

t Stewart's Moral Fliilosophy, 1814,

vol.

ii.

p. 196.

32

SYSTEMS or EDUCATION.

great amount of acquirement rendered necessary

by the higher

class of examinations, as

they are
versities,
it

now

conducted, not only in the uni-

but in some other institutionSj while

is

strengthens the power of learning,

by no

means favourable
flection.

to the higher faculty of re-

But

it

must be borne

in mind, that

in this world

none of our schemes are perfect,

and that in

all

human

affairs Ave
is

must be con-

tent to do that which

best on the whole.

Geniuses are rare exceptions to the general

rule
;

and a mode of education, which might be

well adapted to the few Avho think for themselves,

would be ruinous

to the

unreflecting

majority.

As

to

making one system of educaand another for

allowed to use a
difficulties

tion for one class of minds,

another, there are, if I

may be
who
is

metaphorical expression, mechanical

in the way.

Besides,
is,

is

to

know what

boy's

mind

or

what

his peculiar tm'n,

is

until the greater pai't of his education

com-

pleted

Ceites.
tent,

I agree with you to a great ex-

but not altogether.

SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION.
" Est quadam prodire tenus
si

33
ultra."

non datur

I apprehend that

tlie

changes as to education,
in this country, of

which are now in progress

whiclf the principal result will be the introduction of

new branches

of study into our schools

and

colleges, will do

much towards remedying

Those who

the defects of the present system.

have

it

not in their power to excel in one thing

will find that they

may, nevertheless, excel

will naturally,

in

another

and each individual

and

almost imconsciously, direct his attention to

those subjects which are most congenial to his
taste,

and best adapted

to the peculiar struc-

tm'e of his mind.

34

THE SECOND DIALOGUE.

Mind and Matter.
Isaac

Natural Newton. Reasons

Theology.

Views of Sir

for

regarding the Mental

Principle as distinct from Organization.

The

In-

fluence of the one on the other not sufficiently re-

garded by Metaphysicians.

Relations of the Nervous

System to the Mental Faculties. Speculations of Hooke, Hartley, &c. The Brain not a single Organ, but a Congeries of Organs cooperating to one FurPhysiological Researches of Magendie and pose.

Flourens.

The

different

Capacities of Individuals

for the Perception of Colours, Musical Sounds, &c.,

probably dependent on different Organization of the

Brain.

Locomotion.
stances of

Supposed Connection of the Cerebellum with there an Organ of Speech? InIs

Deaf nor
Hooke's

Stammerinc:. Memorv. Dr. Speculations. Affections of the Memory

Idiotic.

Want

of Speech in those

who were

neither

Impressions on from Cerebral Disease or Injury. INIemory, unless accomBrain not sufficient for the panied by Attention, which is an Act of the Mind
itself.

The Nature

of the Physical Changes which

occur in connection with the

Memory beyond

the

reach of our Observation and Capacities.

It was on

tlie

day following that of the fore-

going discussion that our friend invited us to

accompany him

to a spot in the neighboui'hood

MIND AND MATTEll.

which, from
its

35

greater elevation, aflPorded an

extensive panoramic view of the whole of the

surrounding country.
easy ascent
;

Our road was by an

;

the weather was fine

leisurely,

and, as
to

we proceeded

we

were able

combine the pleasures of conversation with

those of breathinjT the fresh air and admiring
the beauties of the scenery.

When we
it.

had

reached the summit of the

hill,

we were amply
It

rewarded for the trouble of ascending

was one of those days which

cede a
fall

so frequently pre-

of rain, Avhen the transparency of

the atmosphere renders distant objects unusually distinct,

and apparently
are.

less distant

than

they really
miles,

For twenty-five

or

thirty

on every
its

side, the

country lay before us,

villages

with

woods and meadows,

and

chiu'ches, as plain as if they

had been repreat this time

liis

sented on a map.

The sun was

about two hours above the horizon,

beams

being occasionally intercepted by some light

clouds, the shadows of
ourselves,

which sometimes

fell

on

and at other times were seen rapidly

the

traversing

landscape below.
D
2

slender

36

MIND AND MATTEE.

old,

moon, not more than three days

was seen

following the sun towards the west.

" I never,"
to

said

Eubulus, " find myself

left

my own my own
feel

contemplations in a situation such

as this without a feeling of

wonder
I,

at

myself

and

existence.

Here am

mean

I,

who

and think, pent up within the narroAV

dwelling of

my own

body, yet taking cogni-

sance of things remote in space, not only of

those which belong to our

own

world, but of

those in the vast universe around us.

vellous as this

Mar-

may

be, let us wait but for a few

hours, and

we have what is still more marvellous.

By

the aid of a tube and a few glasses, I

may
and

become acquainted with other

objects, suns

worlds, distant from us not only in sjmce, but

also In time,

which I see not as they now

are,

but as they were

fore I myself

many

thousands of years beI do not say

was in

existence.

that such reflections prove moi'e than

may be

proved in other ways, but they certainly impress

my mind

more strongly with the convicand

intelli-

tion that, as a percipient, conscious,

gent being, I belong to a mode of existence

MIND AND MATTER.

37

wholly dlfFerent from that of the senseless

bodies by which I

am

surrounded, and that

(even independently of the evidence afforded

by

revelation) there

is

nothing unreasonable in

the universal expectation of mankind (so universal, indeed, that it

may
is

well be regarded as

an instinct) that there

will remain,

something in us which

and be capable of perception and

it

thought, and
rations,

may be

of pure and high aspi-

when
now

the gross material fabric with

associated has

which

it is

become resolved

into its original elements."

Crites.

I can perfectly enter into the sen-

timents which you have

properties of

now

expressed.

The
from

mind

are so wholly different

so

those of matter, the two are

completely

asunder, that they do not admit even of the

most distant comparison with each

other.

can easily imagine that motion, gravitation,

heat,
light,

electricity,

magnetism, chemical
that

attraction,

have something in common;

(as,

they are

indeed, ]Mr.

Grove has shown

to

them

to be) so far of the

same essence as
but
it is

be

convertible into each other;

to

me

D 3

38

MIND AND MATTER.

wholly inconceivable that any exaltation of the

known

properties of matter

should produce
I feel

_the conscious indivisible

monad which

myself to be.
that

When

the materialist argues

we know nothing

of

mind except

as being

dependent on material organization, I turn his

argument against
existence of

himself,

and say that the

is

my own mind
positive

the only thing of

which I have any

ledge.

and actual know-

I cannot help believing in the existence

Still

of an external world.
its

the hypothesis of

non-existence
it is

implies

no

contradiction,

whereas

as

much

a contradiction to doubt
as
it

the existence of
to

my own mind

would be
to four.
it

doubt that two and two are equal

excuse me, however,
if I

You must
notice
it

say that

occurred to

me

yesterday (though I did not

at the time) that in one of

your re-

marks, you seemed to identify the functions of

the mind with those of the body more than
are disposed to identify allude to the comparison

you
I

them

at present.

which you made of

the effect produced

tary
effort

by long-continued volunof muscular

in

the maintenance

NATURAL THEOLOGY.
contraction,
tellect.

39

and

in the operations of the in-

EuBULUS.

When we

say that

we

believe

in the independent existence of the percipient

and thinking principle, I apprehend that neither

you nor
of
it

I can

mean

to

deny the obvious

fact

having a connection with our bodily

organs,
sions

by means of which

it

receives impres-

from without, and operates in return on

itself.*

bodies external to
peculiar to such

This, however,

is

not

humble beings

as ourselves.

"When I contemplate the evidence of intention

and design which present themselves every-

where around

us,
is

but which, to our limited

comprehensions,
in the vegetable

more

especially manifested
creations, I can-

and animal

not avoid attributing the organization of the

universe to an intelligent being, whose power

and knowledge are such that

for

it

is

imjDossible

me to form any adequate conception of them,

any more than I can avoid referring the motions

of the planets and stars to the same law of gravitation as that

which directs the motions of our

Note B.

* See Additional

40

SIR ISAAC

NEWTOX.
I apprehend, will main-

own globe. But no one,

tain that the

mind of the Deity depends on a

and nerves
;

certain construction of brain

and

Dr. Priestley*, the most philosophical of the

advocates of the system of materialism, ventures

no further than to say that we have no knowledge on the subject.

Sir Isaac

But, to use the words of

Newton, " This powerful ever-living

all places, is

agent being in

more able

to

move

the bodies within his boundless uniform senso-

rium, and thereby to form and reform the parts

of the universe, than

we

are,

by our

will, to

move

the parts of our

own

bodies."

The

re-

mainder of the passage from which I have

made

this quotation, is

not without interest, as

indicating the view which

Newton took of

the

matter in question:

" And yet we are not to

God.

consider the world as the body of God, or the

several parts thereof as the parts of
is

He

an uniform being, void of organs, members,

or parts, and they are his creatures, subordi-

nate to him and subservient to him, and he

* Priestley,
sect. 9.

is

Disquisitions

on

Matter

and

Spirit,

SIR ISAAC

NEWTON.

41

no more the soul of them than the sonl of man

is

the soul of the species carried tlu'ough the

its

organs of sense into the place of

sensation,

where

it

perceives

them by

its

immediate

presence, without the intervention of any third

thino;.

The

oro-ans of sense are not for enablino;

its

the soul to perceive the species of things in

eensorium, but only for conveying them thither;

and God has no need of any such organs, he

being everywhere present to the things themselves."

Ergates.
opinion that

I entirely agree with

you

in the

we must admit

the existence of the

Deity as a fact as well established as that of the law of gravitation, and that in doing so we

must further admit that there

is

no necessary

connection between mind and bodily organization.

It

must be remembered that mind,

is
still

in its

humblest form,

mind, and that,

immeasurable as the distance between them

may

be,

it

must nevertheless be regarded

as

being o of the same essence with that of the

* Optics, book

iii.

p. 379,

4th edition.

42
Deity, by

RELATIOXS OF MIND

whom
no

it

has been created as a fahit

reflection of " his

part,

own

image."
in

For

my own

I find

difficulty

conceiving the

existence of
organs.

mind independently of corporeal

actual

But our
is

experience of the

hvmian mind
condition,

only under the last-mentioned

it

and in no other way can

It seems to

be the
the

proper object of study.

me that

best writers on the philosophy of the

mind have

erred in considering the

mind

too abstractedly,

not taking sufficiently into the account the

physical influences to which
it is

subjected.

EuBULUS.

There

are,

however, those who

;

form an exception to

this rule

for example,

Descartes, Hartley, and that universal genius

Dr. Hooke.
the

Moreover, Dr. Reid's inquiry into

is

human mind

founded on a
;

critical

exa-

mination of the
ley's essay

sevei'al senses

and Dr. Berk-

on the corporeal function of vision

contains

the

genu

of

all

his

metaphysical

investigations.

Crites.

The two

latter

were certainly anyothers to

thing but materialists.

The

whom

you

allude have been guilty of an error the

AND ORGANIZATIOX.

43

very opposite to that which I have mentioned,

giving as an explanation of mental phenomena
that which not only has no foundation In observation and experience, but which
is,

Indeed,

no explanation

at

all. is

When

I learn from

Hartley that thought

of the brain
;

a vibration of the fibres

is

and from Hooke that there

matter in the brain intended to receive the impressions of sound, which

may be compared

to

the bells and vases Avhich Vitruvius describes

as being placed in the ancient theatres *
;

and

that thinking-

is

the radiation of the soul from

I

one part of the brain to another,

do not find

myself to be a whit wiser than I was before.

EuBULUS.

That may be

true.

But when

Hooke

states that there are various structures in

it

the brain adapting

for the part

which

it

has

to perform in connection with the mental principle,

that there

as
-

is

an organ of memory, for

example,

I find so

many

facts

which are

favourable to this opinion, that I cannot but

regard

it

more than a mere hypothesis.

As

* Postliumous Works.

Lectures on Light, sect

7.

44

RELATIONS OF MIND
had greater

to this point, however, Ergates has

opportunities

than I have had of obtaining

information; and I should be well pleased to

hear what he has to say on the subjects

Ergates.

If I comply with your wishes, I

must make some small demand on your patience,

as,

although what I have to say

in substance,
it

may

not be

much

cannot be compressed

into a very few words.

We

may

safely

assume, as an established

fact, that it is

only through the instrumentality

of the central parts of the nervous system that

the

mind maintains

its

communication with the

is

external world.

The eye

necessary to sight,

and the ear

to hearing;

and so with the other

see,

organs of sense.

But the eye does not

;

and

the ear does not hear

and

if

the nerve which

forms the communication

between any one

organ of sense and the brain be divided, the

corresponding
sense
is

destroyed.
all

In

like

manner

it Is

from the brain that

those ImInfluences

pulses proceed

by which the mind

the phenomena of the external world.

division of the nerves

The

which extend from the

AND ORGANIZATIOX.
brain to the larynx destroys the voice.
division of the nerves of a

45

The

limb causes the

or, in

muscles of the limb to be pai'alysed,

other

words, withdraws them from the influence of

the will
;

and the division of the spinal chord

destroys at once the sensibility and the poAver

of voluntary motion in
at

all

the parts below that

which the division has been made.

If

we

investigate the condition of the various

orders of vertebrate animals, which alone admit

of a comparison with our

own

species,

we

find,

on the one hand, great

diflferences

among them

with regard to both their physical and mental

faculties,

and on the other hand a not

less

marked
brain.

difference as to the structure of their

In

all

of
is

them the brain has a

central

organ, which

a continuation of the spinal

chord, and to which anatomists have o-iven the

name of medulla

oblongata.

In connection with

this there are other bodies placed in pairs, of a

small size and simple structure in the lowest

species of fish,

becoming gradually larger and

as

more complex

we

trace

them through the

other classes, until they reach their greatest

46

ORGANS OF THE BRAIN.

degree of development in each of these bodies has

there

man

himself.

That

its

peculiar functions

cannot, I
;

apprehend, be

the

smallest

doubt

and

it is,

indeed, sufficiently probable

is

that each of

them

not a single organ, but a

congeries of organs, having distinct and separate

uses.

Experimental physiology, joined with

the observation of the changes produced by

disease, has

thrown some
There
is

light

on

this

myste-

rious subject.

reason to believe that,

whatever
cerebellum

it

may do
to

besides, one office of the

is

combine the action of the vo-

luntary muscles for the jjurpose of locomotion.

The

corpora quadriyemina are four tubercles, the

cerebrum, cerebellum,

Avhich connect

and

medulla oblongata to each other.

If one of the

uppermost of these bodies be removed, blindness of the eye of the opposite side
is

the con-

sequence.

If the upper part of the cerebrum

be removed, the animal becomes blind, and

apparently stupified, but not so
that he

much

so but

may be

roused, and that he can then

precision.

walk with steadiness and

The most

important part of the whole brain seems to be

MAGEXDIE AND OTHERS.

47

a particular portion of the central organ or

medulla oblongata.
the animal retains

While
its

this

remains entire,

sensibility, breathes,

and

performs instinctive motions.

But

if this

small
is

mass of the nervous system be injured, there

an end of these several functions, and death

immediately ensues.

These

facts,

and some

others of the same kind, for a knowledge of

which

Ave are indebted to

modern

physiologists,
]\I.

and more especially

to

M.

ISIagendie and

riourens, are satisfactory as far as they go,

and warrant the conclusion

various

that

there

are

other oro-ans In the

brain, deslo-ned

for other purposes,

and that

if

we cannot

point

out their

locality. It Is
exist,

not because such or-

gans do not

but because our means of

a matter are very

research into so intricate

limited.

Crites.

Your

proposition being granted,

and not denying that there may be original

dliferences In the mental principle itself,

we

perceive to
ties

how

great an extent the propensi-

and characters of individuals may depend on

their physical organization.

One

person, for

48

PERCEPTION OF COLOUES, ETC.

instance,

may have

a nicer perception of colours

than another in consequence of the organ by

which colours are distinguished being

one more, and in the other
less,

in the

developed.
so imper-

Ergates.
fect that the

Or

the organ

may be

perception of colours

may be

in

a great degree, and as to

some colours
this

entirely, wanting.

In

fact,

examples of

imperfection are not very uncommon.

are

There

some persons who are incapable of recog-

nizing the difference of colours which are quite

different to ordinary

observers, and

who

are

especially liable to confound the

two comple-

mentary colours of red and green with each

other, so that

where a

scarlet cloth is laid out

on the green turf they perceive no difference

between them.

The great

difference

which

exists in different individuals as to the percep-

tion of musical sounds, or the

rical calculation, is best
it

power of nume-

explained by attributing;

to a difference of organization

and

it is

pro-

bable that the imperfection or absence of other

faculties

which we occasionally meet

Avith is to

be explained in the same manner.

For ex-

ORGAN OF SPEECH.
ample,
if

49

there be a part of the brahi whose

office it is to
tlie

combine the action of muscles

it

for

purpose of locomotion,
is

is

a fair concluit

sion that there

some other part of

answer-

ing the same purpose as to the muscles of speech

;

an organ which,

if

not peculiar to

them,

is

most complete and perfect in the

"
ixspoirss av^pojTroi."

human

race, the

C RITES.
But

If so, an imperfection or absence

of this organ should be a cause of dumbness.

I have understood that

dmnb

persons are

either those

who

are cono-enitallv deaf, so that

they cannot hear the sounds which they are required to imitate, or those

who

are idiotic, and

deficient in other faculties as well as in this.

Ergates. AVhat you have

edly the general rule.

stated

is

undoubthowever,

There

are,

cases of incapability of articulate speech which

cannot be referred to either of these categories.

There are individuals who, having suffered from

disease of the brain, are unable to express theu'

thoughts by speech, although, their faculties

being

little

or not at

all

impaired otherwise, they

have a perfect comprehension of what others

50
say,

OEGAN OF SPEECH.
and of what they wish
to say themselves.

Some
-

of them can utter a few words, others

at all,

none

and others again, when intending

to say one word, use another.

But

there are
facts of

other cases

still

more remarkable, the

which may

Avell lead
if

us to believe that the

organ of speech,
tally

not originally and congenl-

wanting, has been at any rate from the

beginning so imperfect as to be useless.

Two

examples of Avhat I have now mentioned have

come under

my own

observation.

Several

years ago, I saw a

little

boy, then about five

years old, whose faculty of speech was limited

to the use of the

word papa.

This,

it

may be
to pro-

observed,

is

so simple a sound, that dolls are

made, by some very simple mechanism,

duce
it

very distinctly.

soon ascertained
perfect,

that the sense of hearing

was

and that

there was nothing peculiar in the formation

of the soft palate, mouth, and

lips.

There was

no want of inclination
to

to speak, but the attempt

do so produced sounds which were wholly

inarticulate.

So
to

far

was the

child

from being

deficient

as

his

powers of apprehension.

ORGAN OF SPEECH.
that he

51
chil-

seemed

to be

even beyond wliat

generally are

dren of the sanie

respect.
self,

age

In this

Although he could not speak him-

he understood perfectly what was said

others,

to

him by

and expressed

his

answers by

signs and gestures, spelling with counters

syllabic
ing.

mono-

words which he was incapable of utter-

I should add, that the external senses and

all

powers of locomotion were perfect, and that

the animal functions were properly performed.

The only

other sign of disease or imperfection

of the nervous system was that, for two or three

years before I saw him, the child had been subject to

fits

or nervous attacks, attended with

convulsions, but Avhich (as I

was informed)

his

medical attendant in the country regarded as

having the character of hysteria rather than

that of epilepsy.

I have had no other opportunity of making

my own

observations on the case; but eight

years afterwards
authority, that he

was informed, on good

still

was

unable to speak,

though he had made much progress otherwise;

and

that,

among
2

other acquisitions, he

52

OEGAN OF SPEECH.
was very clever
in

wrote beautifully, and

arithmetic.

The

other case to which I have referred

was

that of a girl, who, at the time of

her,

my

seeing

was eleven years of

age.

She had no

faculty of speech, uttering merely a few inarticulate sounds, which her parents in

some degree

understood, but wliich were wholly unintelligible to others.

It

was

easily ascertained that

her sense of hearing was perfect, and that there

was no defect
organs.

in the formation of the external

After a careful examination, I was

satisfied that the parents

were correct in saying

that

that she comprehended

all

was

said to her.

She was perfectly tractable and obedient, and

did not differ either in her appearance, or as to

her general behaviour, from other intelligent

children.
it

Being

in

an humble sphere of

life,

seemed that very little trouble had been taken

still,

with her education ;

when

I placed before

her a book which she had never seen before,

and desired her

to point out different letters,

she did so with readiness and accuracy, making

no mistakes.

She had never

suffered from

fits

MEMORY.

DR.

IIOOKE.

53

of any kind, nor were there any indications of

cerebral disease or other physical imperfection.

Her

parents said that from her earliest age she

had been as she was when I saw her, equally

intelligent,

but incapable of speech.

EuBULUS.

The

facts
;

which you mention

it

are very interesting

and

seems to

me

that

they throw light on at least some cases of

stammering, in which
the organ of speech
fect,
ino;.

we may suppose
is

that

more or

less

imper-

although

it

may be
cro

not altogether want:

But

let

us

back to Dr. Hooke

he

says,

"I

suppose

memory

to be as

much an
its

organ as the eye, ear, or nose, and to have

situation (in the brain)

somewhere near the

place Avhere the nerves from the other senses

concur and meet."

He

then goes on to explain

life,

in detail, that the soul, or first principle of

though
forming
organs
;

it

be an incorporeal being, yet in perits

actions,

makes use of corporeal

is

that in the brain there

a repository

of impressions

made by the

senses for the pur-

pose of memory; but that no idea can be stored

uf)

in

this

repository without the

E 3

directing

54
power of the
is

MEMORY.
soul,

and that

this act of the soul

what

is

called attention.

Ergates.
is
it

am

not prepared to admit, nor

worth while

to discuss, the explanation in the

which Hooke has given of what goes on

brain in connection with the

memory, and other

mental processes,
tastical,

it

being for the most part fan-

and unworthy of so great a philosopher;

but that he and others are correct in regarding

memory

as

being in some

way connected with

our physical organization, there can be, I conceive, not the smallest doubt.

The

eye, the ear, and the other organs of

sense, are physical instruments

by means of

which impressions are communicated through

the nerves to the brain.

Without

this

appa-

ratus, in our present state of existence, there

would be no sensations

no knowledge of any
It does not,

thins: external to ourselves.

how-

ever, follow that the brain itself feels, or that

it

performs any other than a subordinate

office,

conveying the impressions received from the

organs of sense to a superior principle in connection with
it.

Memory

is

a recurrence of

MEMORY.
sensations, wliicli

55

existed formerly, produced

by

tlie

operation of some internal changes, after

first

the causes, by which the

sensations were

excited, have ceased to exist.

These renewed
rare

sensations
fainter

are

(with some

exceptions)

and

less distinct

than those in which

is

they originated.

There

also this difference

between them, that the renewed sensations are

subject to the influence of volition, vanishing at

once on the

sli2;htest effort beinc;

made
;

to direct

the attention to

anything else

whereas we

have no such power over the impressions which

are

made on our

senses

by the immediate
Notwithstanding
it is

presence of external objects.

these
points
is

of

difference,

plain

that

memory
mena

closely allied to sensation,

and the

resemblance between the two orders of phenois

so great as to justify the suspicion that

is

the nervous system

instrmnental in producing

the one as well as the other; while a multitude

of facts show that the suspicion

Is

well founded.

A blow on the head may destroy the memory altogether, or (which

it is

more usual) it may destroy

interrupt
E 4
its

partially, or it

may

exercise for

56

MEMOEY.
it

a certain time, after which

may be

gradually,
also,

or even suddenly, restored.

After fever,

and some other bodily ailments, the memory

is

not unfrequently impaired or

lost.

A genpower of
it

tleman found that he had

vision in one eye.
tially in that eye,

lost the

Then he regained
but
lost
it

par-

in
it

the

other.

Afterwards he partially regained

last affected.

in the eye

He

could

now

see objects

when

placed in certain positions, so that the image

might fall on particular parts of the

he was
still

retina, while

unable to see them in other positions.

These

facts sufficiently
disease.

prove the existence of

Avhat hapaffected as

some actual
pened

But observe

besides.

His memory was

well as his sense of sight.

at a
bet,

Althouffh in looking;
letters of the alpha-

book he recognised the

he forgot what they spelled, and was under

the necessity of learning again to read. Nevertheless,

he knew his family and friends; and his

facts

judgment, when the

mind, was perfect.

were clear in his

In another

case, a

gentleman who had two

years previously suffered from a stroke of apo-

MEMORY.
plexy (but recovered from
it

57
afterwards) was

suddenly deprived of sensation on one side of

his body.

At

the same time he lost the power,

not only of expressing himself in intelligible

language, but also that of comprehending what

was

said to

him by

others.

He
it

spoke what
to

might be called

gibberish,

and

seemed

him

that his friends spoke gibberish in return.

But

while his

memory

as to oral

language Avas thus

it

aifected, as to written

languao-e

was not
it

aifected at

all.

If a letter was read to him,

his

conveyed no ideas to

mind

but when he
it

had

it

in his

own

hand, and read

himself, he

understood

it

perfectly.

After some time he

recovered of this attack, as he had done of that

of apoplexy formerly.
attack afterwards.

He

had another similar

A blow
when

on the head which causes insensi-

bility generally affects the

memory

so far that

the patient has recovered from the state

of insensibility he has no knowledge of the accident.

But in some
is

instances the effect of a

blow

on the head

merely to disturb the memory, the

other functions being unimpaired.

A groom

58
in the

MEMORY.

semce

of the Prince

Resent was clean-

ing one of some horses sent as a present to His

Royal Highness by the Shah of Persia.

It

was a vicious animal, and he kicked the o-room

on the head.

He

did not
;

fall,

nor was he at all

stunned or insensible

but he entirely forgot

at the

what he had been doing

the blow was inflicted.
time, as
it

moment when

There was an interval of

were, blotted out of his recollection.

able to account for
it,

Not being

he supposed

that he had been asleep, and said so to his

fellow servants, observing

at the

same time

" that he must

set to

work

to clean the horse,

which he had neglected to clean in consequence

of his having fallen asleep."

In other cases the

effect of a

blow on the

head has been not only to erase from the

memory

the events which immediately preceded

it

the accident, but also to prevent

retaining

the impression of those which occurred immediately afterwards.

A young man was thrown

He was
;

from

his horse in hunting.

stunned,

but only for a few minutes

then recovered,
his friends.

and rode home

in

company with

MEMORY.
twelve or
usual.
tlilrteen miles, talking

59
with them as

On

the following day he had forgotten

itself,

not only the accident

but

all

that hap-

pened afterwards.
It

would be easy

to multiply examples such

as these, both

from

my own
;

experience, and

from the observations of others

it

and from them

seems to be a legitimate conclusion, that the

is

nervous system
the

instrumental in producing
as well as those of
it

phenomena of memory

sensation.

They show

also that

is

not in

every part of the nervous system, but in the

brain, that

memory

resides.

This faculty

is

injured

by a blow on the head, or a

;

disease

affecting the brain

but not by an injury of the

of the spinal chord.
;

spine, or a disease

The

eyes

may be

amaurotic

but Milton and Huber

retained the

memory

of objects which they had

It
is

seen previously to their blindness.

not

the spinal chord, nor the nerves, nor the eye,

nor the ear, but the brain, which

is

the store-

house of past sensations, by referring to which

the

mind

is

enabled to renew

its

acquaintance

with events which are passed, and at the same

60

MEMORY.

time to obtain the means of anticipating, to a

great extent, the events which are to come.

Ceites.

Your view of

the

matter then

seems to be that impressions made on the

organs of sense, and transmitted to the brain,

produce some actual change in the minute

organization of the latter, and that this
servient,
is

sub-

and

in

our present state of existence,

essential to, the

memory.

Ergates.

I do not see

how

the facts which

I have mentioned, and a hundred others which

I might mention, can be otherwise explained.

"\Yliat

the actual changes in the condition of the

brain

may

be,

it is

impossible for us to compre-

hend.

Yet

it is

in

no degree remarkable that

such changes should take place.

We

see a tree

which has been exposed

for centuries to the

heat of summer, and the cold of winter, and the

influence of the winds and tempests.

Every

change of temperature, every gust of wind,

every storm of rain or
hail,

and probably even

every change in the electric condition of the

atmosphere, must have
left its

mark behind by
its

producing some slight alteration in

root.

MEMORY.
and trunk, and branches.
the general result,

61

AVe recognise only

see the

when we
its

aged

tree,

with

its fissui-ed

bark, and

branches inclined

to that side fi'om

which

it

has been the least

a being of superior

assailed

by the wind.

But

knowledge, and possessed of the faculties necessary for more minute and accurate observation,

woidd be able

to distinguish the effect of every

individual impression

made by

the operation of

the causes which have been enumerated, and of

others

more obscure.
let

In offering these remarks, however,

me

not be misapprehended as giving our knowledge

for

more than

it is

actually worth, or as pre-

tendlno; to understand

more than we understand

state of existence,

in reality.

In om' present

in like

manner

as the eye, the ear, the touch,

and the other organs of sense, and, I may add,

the action of our muscles, are the means by

which we obtain a knowledge of things external

to om-selves
;

so

it

woiild appear that the orgais

nization of the brain

made subservient

to the

function of memory.

As

to

what there may

be besides, or what

may be

the capabilities of

tie TBtenta!
'

Tiriii

a..

snc:

mcsi

'iwt-

.xirnxbeai:

^MadAr
i-

tir^

acr-

tnnswtettrrt

law

1*k .snatter

Tm

; 'flr

mm

hpy:mal -1^

-remiab -of

mar i^ez&e!&.

s aaaU ifamfaaaami
iesl.

'

ui7

vae

zsast.

nr

or

MigiBBb
rsxnxviir^

"Smi.

m^ ^a; mmitiamtitjj ii?^

veassL..

^tin'vmamp

"Mmtt wait waiw

ifer US'

txtfiK ^ttimr*^ t^ 'vcias^ vat'

^k'smk "tfimiAW-

JCEKOKT.
facj

DO atteBtkn
to lu

at alL

Xotr, ae Fibi ex

piiiinrr!

oa a

fixaaer ocfarioM, titewtkm

impBcM Tofitien;
Ttdiljoa

tJbat

m,

it

tfait

cfibrt

of

bv whkh aa

ol^eet,

whkb woold
ararsj,

odkerwiae have iaHMifiaftefy

pwmcH

kept present to the miod

period of tizne.

dnng

a eertda
are ihe

SeandoB and
tt

TiofidcMi

two fcmctioBS bj meaae

principle
is

wkidi the
its

enabled to mafntaJTi

tion witli the external world.

It is

influence of Tobiioa. tint the eouttacdam of

mnacies takes plaee ibr lornritkM, ipeeA, iIk

procuring of food, aaid otker pafpowegj aad that
the

torpedo discharges
is

las dectrie

Iwdoj.

Here there
the

aa iMpwfap eammu
j

mind to the bnin, front tfaeace to de

and &(an these to odier ot^u^s, and ptodaeiag

a maiked diange in the conditkm of the
and, a priori, there
is iko

litter;

reason t9 dndit tint

the operaticm of a gimflaT cause jaaj

pn^ee an

eqnal change, though of sntaAer kaad, aad

more permanent, in the minute stzsetnre of de

brain itsel

Ceites.

If these TieTrs be correct, and if

64

MEMORY.
sj)eculation also

your

be correct as to the exist-

ence of special organs in the brain for the purposes of locomotion and speech,
it

would ap-

pear probable that there

that of

is

a special organ for

memory

also.
is

Ergates.

That

true.

But

there

our
it

knowledge ends.
for

We

may, I suppose, take

is

granted that there

is

no

animal whose

memory

equally capacious with that of

that,

man

and we know

with the exception perhaps

of the dolphin (of whose faculties

nothing), there
is

we know

no other animal in

whom
call

that
its

portion

of the

cerebrum which we

hemispheres, and which are bounded externally

by

the convolutions,
said,

is

equally developed.

It

may be
reason,

and not without some show of

facts

" Do not these

how
it is

seem

to indicate

where the faculty of memory

resides ? "

Willis

answered the question in the affirmative.*

observe
in birds.

But

In them there are

* " Multiplices

cerebri plicae et convolutlones requiin

istis,

runtur, nempe ut

tanquam

in diversis cellulis et

apothecis, sensibilium species reservari, atque illinc pro

data occasione evocari queant."

Cerebri, cap. 10.

Willis, de

Anatome

MEMORY.
no convolutions
;

65
])rain

and the only part of the

which can be said to correspond to the cerebral

hemispheres of man,
is

merely a thin layer of

cerebral substance expanded over

some other

structures which are

developed to an enorthat birds wliich

mous

size.

Yet we know

are domesticated exhibit si2;ns of considerable

memory,

parrots and cockatoos recognising in;

dividuals after a long interval of time

and that

birds in their natural state return to their old

haunts after their annual migrations.

ploits of the carrier-pigeons

The

ex-

cannot be explained

without attributing to them no small powers of

observation, and of recollecting

what they had

observed.
effects

Perhaps future observations on the

produced by disease of the brain in conaifections

nection with
throAV

of the

memory may

some

light

on

this

mysterious subject.

At

present

we must be

content to acknowledge

that

we know

nothing as to the locality of the

function, nor of the minute changes of organization

which are connected with

it.

66

THE THIRD DIALOGUE.

^Tlie Subject

of IMemory

continued.

Sequence

and

Association of Ideas.

Suggestion of Ideas by internal

Causes acting on the Brain by the Nerves, or through

the

Medium

of the Blood.

Influence of Narcotics,

Morbid Poisons, Lithic Acid, Impure Atmosphere, and other Physical Agents on the Condition of the Mind. Such Inquiries not only of scientific Interest,

but also of practical Importance. Physical Causes of Examples of false Perceptions Mental Illusions. Other Forms referred to the Sight and other Senses.

of Illusion
ration

Mr. Locke's
called " ]\Ioral

more frequent in Cases of Mental Aberthan mere Deceptions of the External Senses.
Definition of Insanity not sufficiently

comprehensive.

too rapid

Succession of Ideas,

with Incapability of fixing the Attention, incompatible

with correct Reasoning.
of Moral Responsibility.
in

State of Mind the soInsanity." Question as to the Limits

The

conclusion of our journey had somewhat

abruptly terminated our conversation.

llTien

we were assembled
of
it

in the evening, the subject

w^as thus

resumed by Eubulus.

EuBULUS.

Although some of the opinions

this afternoon

which Ergates expressed

may be

regarded as hypothetical, and not admitting of

MEMORY CONTINUED.
actual and positive proof, yet
it

C7

must be owned
facts,

that they are supported

by many

and by

some

in addition to those

which he has himself

adduced. of

Especially his views as to the nature

to
afford

memory seem

an explanation of
to the connection

some circumstances, relating

of the mind with the body, which cannot well

be explained otherwise.

For

instance

we remember nothing

of what
life

occurred in infancy.

That part of our

seems afterwards to be a blank in our existence

and

it is

not unreasonable to suppose that the

brain, like

some other of the organs of the

child, is in

newly born

an imfinished

state, and,

therefore, not fitted to retain the impressions

made on
time.

it

during any considerable period of

Then

the impressions

made on

the

memory

gradually become fainter and fainter as time

elapses;

and

this

is

in

accordance with the

gradual alteration which our physical structure

undergoes as

we advance

in

life.

If there be

exceptions to the rule, they are such as tend to

prove the rule

itself.

For example, Avhere the

F 2

68

MEMORY,

ASSOCIATION",

recollection of an event wliich occurred long

ago
it

is

unusually vivid,

we

say "

it

seems as

if

had happened only yesterday," and, on the

other hand,

when

the recollection of an event

lately
is

which occurred only

it

unusually faint,
it

appears to us at
;

first

that

happened long

ago

and

it is

only after some consideration,

cir-

and by recalling to our mind some other

cumstances in connection with
enabled to correct the error.
it,

that

we

are

Ergates.

Allow me to inteiTupt you

for a

moment by

observing that, besides those which

I have already mentioned (namely, diseases

and injuries of the brain), there are other physical

agents which prevent the impression of

things, of

which we are conscious

at the time,

from being imprinted on the memory.

Thus,

a drunkard either forgets altogether, or has

only a vague recollection of the nonsense which

he talked, and the

guilty,

follies

of which he was

on the previous day while under the

influence of alcohol; and those who, for the

purpose of undergoing a surgical operation, are

placed under the influence of what are called

AND SUGGESTION OF

IDEAS.

69

annesthetic agents, as ether or chloroform, al-

though in most instances they appear to pass

into a state of entire insensibility, in other in-

stances groan and struggle, and give evident

signs of suffering while

the

operation lasts,
it

although they remember nothing of

after-

wards, and can scarcely be persuaded that what

they had so

much dreaded

is

really completed.

'

Edbulus.

I cannot complain of the interfjicts

ruption, as the

which you mention are

very

much

to the purpose.

But

was going

on

to observe, in connection with our present

inquiry, that, without denying the generally

received doctrines as to what metaphysicians

have called the association or

ideas,
still

suQ-o-estion

of

these do
it

not explain the whole.

arise,

How

often does

happen that thoughts

and images present themselves to the mind,

which cannot be traced
as the

immediate result

of impressions on the external senses, or of

anything that was passing in the mind previously.

But may not

this

be explained by sup-

posing that the brain, as the organ of memory,

and therefore of the imagination,

f 3

is liable

to

be

70

SUGGESTION OF IDEAS BY by physical impressions of various

influenced

kinds communicated from other parts of the

corporeal system besides the immediate organs

of sense, through the

medium

of the nerves.

Whoever will carefully inquire

within himself,
there are
Avill,

into

what passes

I suspect, be satisfied that

many

of his thoughts, and trains of

thought, and, I

may

add, of the agreeable or

disagreeable feelings with which they are associated, that cannot

be accounted for otherwise.

striking

Ergates.

Dreamy present some

examples of what you have

now

mentioned.

You

are

awaked by a

distressing dream,

and

find yourself labouring

under the uncomfortable

acid in yovir stomach.

sensations occasioned

by

You

take some magnesia, which will neutralise,

or drink a glass of cold water, which will dilute, the acid,

sleep.
lie

down

again, and enjoy a refreshing

A lady had a small

Avell defined,

tumour

in one leg.

It

was hard,

exquisitely tender,

so that even a slight pressure

on

it

occasioned

a severe pain, not only at the instant, but lasting;

a considerable time afterwards.

It

seemed

to be a

tumour of a peculiar kind, well known to

INTERNAL PHYSICAL CAUSES.

surgeons as being occasionally found
fibres of a nerve.

71

among

the

This lady observed that she

night suffering from a
it

frequently awoke at
frightful

dream, which, although

different

related to

some other and quite

subject,

she

could always trace to an accidental pressure on

the

tumour.

In

like

manner children who

labour under disease of the hip joint are often

prevented from falling asleep by pains in the

hip and knee, and painful startings of the limb

but when they are asleep, instead of these

local

symptoms, they are tormented by

distress-

ing dreams.

In cases such as these we must suppose that

the order of the phenomena
is

as follows.

An
its

impression

is

made on
to

a nerve, and from thence

brain,

transmitted

the

producing in

minute structure certain changes, which

the

affect

mind

itself.

But

there

is

no doubt that the

without the inter-

same

effect

may be produced

vention of the nerves, by the blood acting on

the brain.

Bichat has shown that the influence

is

of the scarlet or arterial blood

necessary to

the due performance of the cerebral functions.

F 4

72

INFLUENCE OF OPIUM,

ETC.,

If dark-coloured, or venous Mood, be substituted for

it,

and transmitted to the brain by the

animal lapses,

Arteries, the

I will not say into

we know
This fact being esta-

a state of unconsciousness, for of that

nothing,

but

into a state of total insensibility

to external impressions.
blished,

we cannot be

surprised that blood of an

improper quality, or containing something which

healthy blood should not contain,
the functions of the
biTiin, so as

may

disturb
influ-

even to

ence the mind

itself.

The

habitual
is

opium-

taker, while his favourite

drug

circulating in

his vessels, instead of being set asleep is visited

by soothing and luxurious thoughts, and enjoys

the contemplation of the great tilings which he

means

to accomplish,
;

but which he never acwhile the Malay, under

is

complishes in reality

the influence of the East Indian hemp,

into a state of excitement,

thrown

and runs a muck*

man

has been exposed to the contagion of

small-pox.

minute quantity of the poison

tlie

introduced into

blood acts as what

tlie

* See Additional Note C.

ON THE MIND.
chemists
call
it

73

a ferment,

and occasions the

generation in

of a larger quantity of poison

similar to itself;

and when a certain degree of

it

accumulation of

has taken place, there

is

severe attack of fever, and the

is

mind probably
After

haiuitcd

by the phantasms of
is

delirium.

a time the poison

is

ejected from the blood,

and

found deposited in pustules on the surface of

the skin, and simultaneously with the appear-

ance of the eruption the fever subsides, and the

delirium subsides with
it.

In a person who

has the misfortune of inheriting a gouty habit,

or

who

has (which
it

is

much more common

by a lazy and luxu-

case) produced

in himself
is

rious

life,

there

a superabundance of lithic

acid in the blood.

This fact has been esta-

blished

by the researches of Dr. Garrod. Then

uncomfortable thoughts are presented to his

mind

he becomes

fretful
if

and peevish, a

trouble to himself and,

he be not trained to

exercise a moral restraint over his thouo-hts and

actions, a trouble to every one about him.

After

a while the poison, as

it

were, explodes

he has
placed

a severe attack of gout in his foot ; he

is

74

INFLUENCE OF THE STATE

diet
;

on a more prudent
of the
lithlc acid

the system
it

is

relieved

by which
;

was poisoned.

Then

the gout subsides

happy and cheerful

thoughts succeed those by which the patient

was previously tormented, and these continue

until he has

had the opportunity of relapsing and thus earning a fresh

into his former habits,

attack of the disease.

There

is

nothing more interesting In philoso-

phy, nor more important as to practical purposes, than a just appreciation of the influence

which the body exercises over the conceptions

and

feelin2;s

of the mind.

Certain conditions of

the former induce certain conditions of the

latter.

This

Is

one of the principal

;

trials to

which we are here subjected

and according to

our original construction, and some circumstances extraneous

to

ourselves, the trial

It is

Is

greater to some of us than

result

to others.
;

The

may be

for

good or
is,

for evil

and the
to j)ro-

practical question

what can we do

mote the former, and

latter?

lessen or prevent the

diseased

condition

of the

blood,

where a morbid poison,

as that of the small-pox,

OF HEALTH ON THE TEMrtHI, ETC.

or the

75
lias

more

terrible

one

of"

hydrophobia,

been

adiuittecl into

it,

will disturb the nervous

system in spite of ourselves.

cannot, there
is

But though

this

much

that can, be helped.

No

one having the smallest capacity for observation

can doubt the vast influence which the condition of the

body has on the temper, and even

There are certain
which the sim-

on the moral character.

states of the general health in

plest impressions

on the organs of sense may be

transmitted to the sensorium with somethinsj

superadded to them, which produces a painful

or uneasy feeling in the mind. others in which the effect
is

There are

opposite to this.

Hence we

find

one individual cheerful and

is

hopeful under adversity, while another

unall

happy and

tired of life in the

midst of

worldly prosperity.

We are

told,

on high au-

thority, of the necessity of self-control.

We
may

are also told

how

the effort of self-control

be rendered more easy by avoiding those sensual

indulgences which tend to derang-e the functions of the animal system.

This rule applies

not merely to the profligate and the drunkard.

76

PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE
is

There

many

a person In

whom

muddled

intellect

and a peevish temper may be traced

lo a too great indulgence of the appetite

to

eating more than the stomach can digest; to

drinking a bottle, or even half a pint of wine

daily,

and leading otherwise a lazy and luxulife,

rious

but who would be found to have no

contemptible powers of mind,

spirits, if restricted to

and cheerful
diet,

more abstemious more

and

to drlnkino; nothing;

stimulating; than

toast

and water.
est ut sit

"

Orandum

mens sana

in corpora sano."

We
tion,

are all anxious to obtain rank, reputa;

and wealth

but that for which we have

for our

most reason to be anxious, not only

sake, but also for that of others,
is

own

such a state

of our bodily functions as will enable us to

make use of our higher

in us

faculties,

and promote

happy and contented

all, is

feelings.

Happi-

ness, after
this

not so unequally distributed in

suj)erficial

world as to a

observer

it

seems to

be.

Poverty

is

terrible if

it

be such as to prelife.

vent the obtaining the actual necessaries of

UF THESE INQUIRIES.
But
the ao-ricultural labourer

who

has enough
for

of wholesome food, and

self

warm clothing

lum-

and

his family,

and who has the advantage,

which cannot be too highly estimated, of living

in the
life

open

air,

has more actual enjoyment of

than the inheritor of wealth, living in a

splendid mansion,
acid in his blood.

who

has too

much

of lithic

You
But
let

will say that this is a

worn-out

tale.

us pursue the subject further, and

we

shall find that it has extensive ramifications,

questions arising out of

it

appertaining not only

to individuals, but to the

whole fabric of society.

Much

is

said at present as to the necessity of

extending education, as the means of improving

the condition of the multitude.

am

not so

great a heretic as to deny the advantages of

knoAvledge and of early instruction, especially

if it

be combined with a proper training of the

self-

mind, so as to give the pupil habits of

restraint.
sides.

But

there

is

much

to be desired be-

Nothing can tend more to every kind

of moral and intellectual degradation than the

vice of gin-drinking so prevalent in some, but

78
not In

BAD AIR AND GIN-DRINKING.

all,

of the lower classes of society.

In a

conversation which I had with a very intelli-

gent person employed by the " City Missionary

Society," whose location

was

in

London among

the inhabitants of St. Giles's parish, he said, " I

assure

you that there is scarcely any one of them

a comfortable livelihood if

who might not obtain

he could leave

off drinkino; cfin."

But

see

how

one thing hangs upon another, and

evil leads to another evil.

how one

Mr. Chadwick has

shown

that

many

are driven to drinking gin as

affording a temporary relief to the feelings of

depression and exhaustion produced

in a noxious atmosphere
;

by

living

and he gives instances

of individuals
the habit,
in a less

who had

spontaneously abandoned
to reside
locality,

when they were enabled

crowded and more healthy
air,

where they could breathe a pure

loathsome exhalations.
sons
is

instead of

The

case of such j^er-

analogous to that of others,

who become

addicted to the use of opium, as the means of

relief

from bodily pain.

Schools and churches

it is

are excellent things, but

a vast mistake to
that
is

suppose that they will do

all

required.

ILLUSIONS OF MIND.

79

There can be no feeling of contentment where

there
is

an

insufficient supply

of wholesome

food; and the

"Temperance Society" can make

live in

few converts among those who

buildings,

crowded

unventilated,

and

with imperfect

drainage.

Our late
as

legislation has accomplished

much, and

much

as

it

can reasonably be

expected to accomplish, towards the attain-

ment of the
arc

first

of these objects; and measures

now

in progress

which

justify the expecta-

tion that eventually

much good may be done

in the other direction also.

C RITES.
you

If such causes as those to which

lately referred

may produce
;

the effects

which you have described

state of the blood

if

an unhealthy

may

give rise to delirium in

in

fever, or illusions

and horrors of mind

fills

hydro-

phobia

if

opium

the

mind with luxurious

thouo;hts
reality;

and visions havinoj no foundation in

is

it

not probable that those greater

and more permanent distractions of the mind

which constitute the various fonus of mental
alienation
is,

may

be traced to similar causes, that

affecting the

to

some physical derangement

80

FALSE PEECEPTIONS
the

organ of memory, and thus disturbing

imagination
?

Eegates.
alienation
is

cannot doubt

that

mental
of

generally the

result

some

wrong condition of the body,

organic.

either functional or

Wliether there be any exceptions to

this rule, it

would require more actual know-

ledge and experience of the subject than I pre-

tend to possess, and more thought than I have

bestowed on

it,

to enable
is

me

to determine.

Probably there

no degree of knowledge,

which

it

is

in the

power of man

to attain,

which could enable us

to this question.
for

to give a positive
it

answer

Putting
there
are

aside,

however,
proofs

the

present,

abundant

that impressions

may be made on

the brain

by other

causes simulating those

it

which are

made on

by

external objects through the

medium
false

of the organs of sense, thus producing

perceptions,

which

may,

in

the

first

instance,
reflect

and before we have had time

to

on the subject, be mistaken for

realities.

I have, indeed, already furnished an example of

SIMULATING REALITIES.
this in the virions presented to us in

81
our dreams

under the influence of physical causes. Crites.

I have been accustomed to believe

that the latter are not, in reality, different from

the objects

commonly presented
the ima2;ination
;

to us

by the

mcmorv and

but seeming: to

be more distinct than usual, because durinjT

sleep

we have no
;

real objects

with which

we

can compare them

in the

same manner as the

deception of a panorama depends in part on

the circular form of the painting, which excludes real objects from the view.

Ergates.

In the visions

belono-ino; to

our

dreams there must be more than what you

mention.

friend of mine, on awakino-

in

the morning, saw standing at the foot of his

bed a figure in a
as plainly to

sort of Persian dress.

It

was

be seen, and as
in

distinct, as the

chairs

and tables

the

room, so that
it,

my
that

friend

was on the point of going up to

he might ascertain what, or rather who,

it

was.

Looking, however, steadfastly at

that, although the figure

it,

he observed
as possible,
also,

was as plain
to

the door behind

it

was plainly

be seen

82

PHANTOMS.
Con-

and presently the figure disappeared.

sidering the matter afterwards, he recollected

that he had had a dream, in which the Persian

figure played a conspicuous part
;

and thus the

it

whole was

satisfactorily

explained,

being
it

evident that the dream, as far as this part of

was concerned, had continued

awake, and so that
the

after

he was
of
the

perception

imaginary object had existed sunultaneously

with that of the real ones.

The same thing

occurred to the same person on another occasion,

and similar
others.

histories

have been related to

is

me by

It

is

probable that this

the

history of

many

startling

and mysterious

tales

of ghosts and spirits.

But phantoms
to dreams,

similar to those
like

which belong

and which

them do not vanish by

an

elFort of the will,

may, under certain circum-

stances, present themselves to those

really awake.

who

are

They may be

the result of some

actual organic disease of the brain.

A gentle-

man, eighty years of age, had been for some time

labouring under hypochondriasis, attended with
other indications of cerebral disease.

On

a cold

niANTOMS.
day In winter, while
at cluircli,

83 he had a
fit,

which was considered to be apoplectic.

He
his

was taken home and

bled,

and recovered

consciousness, not being paralytic afterwards.

He died, however, in a few days after the attack.

During
this interval,

though having the perfect

use of his mental faculties, he was haunted

the appearance of
in

by

men and women, sometimes

These

one dress, sometimes in another, coming

into,

and loitering in the room.

distinct that, at first,

firjures

were so

he always mistook
his fiimily

them

for realities,

and wondered that

should have allowed such persons to intrude

themselves upon him.

But he

soon,

by a proand then

cess of reasoning, corrected this error,

talked of them as he would have talked of the

illusions of

another person.

You have

probably

read the history of Nicolai, the bookseller of

Berlin,

who was haimted by

visions of persons
sitting

coming into his apartment,

down, and

even conversing with him and with each other,

and
also

this

during a period of several months.

at first taken to

He

was

by

surprise, believing the

phantoms

be real objects; but was soon

G 2

84

PHANTOMS.

enabled to convince himself that they were not

so.

His recovery

Avas attributed to

an im-

proved

state of his bodily health.

I must not

weary you by referring

the same kind.

to other instances of

The

late

Dr. Alderson, in an

essay which he published nearly fifty years ago,

gave an account of several which had occurred

under his own observation, in individuals of

perfectly sane minds*, and others have
since then recorded

been

by other

authors.

Examples of deceptive appearances analogous

to these,

but

less

remarkable, are not very un-

common.

A gentleman of my acquaintance, of
me
that, not unfrequently,

a very sensitive and imaginative turn of mind,

informed

when he

had had

his thoughts intensely fixed for a con-

siderable time

on an absent or imaginary

object,

he had at
wall,
all

last seen it projected

on the opposite

though only for a brief space of time, with

the brightness and distinctness of reality.

Crites.

If such a person had the misfor-

tune to lose one of his family or a dear friend

An

Essay on Apparitions, by John Alderson, M.D.

PHANTOMS.
by
death,

85
it

how

easy woiihl

be for liim

to

believe

tliat

he had been visited by his

!

ai)i)ari-

tion afterwards

It

is

probable

that

wlien

Swedenborg supposed that he met Moses or

Elias
really,

in

the

street,

some such object was

;

presented to his mind

and that even

l)een

Joanna Southcote, and others who have

regarded as a low order of impostors, were not

altogether impostors, but in part the victims of
their

own

imaginations.
Avell

The

subject

is

one

which may

excite our curiosity,

and I
insio;ht

should be glad to obtain some further

into
it.

Under what circumstances do

these

visions, so like those of our dreams, present

themselves to the waking person

where do

they really exist, and Avhat

is

their origin ?

Ergates.

I have already stated that in the

instance which I quoted on

my own
I

authority,

the existence of actual disease of the brain was

indicated

by other symptoms.

have also

mentioned that in that of the bookseller of

Berlin there

was a deranged

state

of

the

general health, and that he recovered under

a course of medical treatment.

G 3

In

all

the

86

PHANTOMS.
by Dr. Alderson, the appear-

instances recorded

ances were connected with actual bodily disease,

which in two of them was of such a nature

especially to affect the nervous system.

as

We

may
the

suppose the part actually affected to be

expansion of the nerve of sight in the

;

retina of the eye

it is

but

it is

more probable that

that part of the brain itself which belongs

to vision.

In confirmation of

this opinion, I

may

refer to a case recorded

by Esquirol.

Jewess,

who had been

insane.

for a long time blind,

illusions

became
sight,

Her

were of the

and

she

was constantly haunted by

After her death
it

strange visions.

was

ascer-

tained that the two optic nerves, from the part

at

which they are united within the head

call

(which anatomists

their commissure), to

their termination in the retinas,

were shrunk

and wasted, so that

they must have been

wholly incapable of performing their functions.*

I

may

also refer to another case

which came

under

my own

observation.

A man
i,

met with

* Des Miilades Mentales,

vol.

p. 195. edit.

1838.

DECEPTIONS OF OTHER SENSES.

on
injurv of the head, which, as the

87
event

proved, occasioned an extensive fracture in the

basis of the skull, with such a displacement of

bone as to press on the optic nerves, and render

thcni wholly incapable of transniitting impressions
to

the brain.

He

was

totally

blind:

otherwise he was not insensible, though he

was slow

in giving answers,

and peevish when

disturbed.

On

the second day after the acci-

dent, there Avere manifest

symptoms of inflamwas
In a state of

mation of the brain.

He

great excitement, delirious, believing that he

saw objects which did not

exist;

and he con-

tinued in this state until within a short period

of his death.

Crites.
the sight.

You have

spoken of deceptions of
like this

Does nothing
?
It

happen

as to

the other senses

Ergates. Certainly

docs.

The phantoms
are said to have

by which Nicolal was haunted

conversed sometimes with him, sometimes with

each other.
din of

know a

person,

who amid
name,

the

London

streets occasionally has the per-

ception of his being called

c 4

by

his

so that

88

DECEPTIONS OF
calls

he Involuntarily turns round to see wlio

him.
Sir

Henry Holland has given an account

of a- much more remarkable case.

A gentleman
which

had symptoms of an

affection of the brain,

was attributed
head.

to an accidental

blow on the

On

the following day he had pretty

well recovered.

Two

days afterwards he was

well enough to drive out in his carriage.

But

now, "

for the first time after the accident,

" there came on the singular "

lusus

of two

voices, seemingly close to his ear, in rapid

" dialogue,

unconnected

with

any

present
*

" occurrence, and almost without meaning."

It is not

uncommon
is

to find persons,

who, w^hen

their attention

not otherwise occupied, are

bells ringing.

distressed

by the sound of
is

gentleman, having what

commonly

called a

highly nervous temperament, had some teeth

drawn while under the

influence of chloroform.
Iris

From

that time,

whenever

mind was not

otherwise engaged, he was tormented

as if a

by sounds

number of persons were

yelling and

Medical Notes and Reflections, 2d

edit. p.

232.

OTHER
hooting him.
mutiical genius,

SENSES.

89

have been told of a great

earliest i)eriod

who, from the

of his

life,

has never been without the sounds of

music of the most harmonious kind.

to the other senses.

Then

as

remember a man who

hud a severe blow on the head, occasioning the

symptoms which surgeons

cussion of the brain.

attribute to a con-

He

recovered from the

;

other consequences of the injury

but for a

long time afterwards everything that he ate

had a

bitter taste.

The

case of another person

if

who had
coal

a constant sensation as
his

a burning
to

had been applied to

arm belongs

the same category.

Crites.

But

are not

all

such cases as those

which you have described, to be considered as

examples of mental derangement, though not
in
its

worst and most aggravated form

and

does not this correspond with the view of the

subject

taken

by Locke, who regards

this

disease as affecting the imagination only,

and

not at

all

the reasoning faculty

Ergates.

Certainly not

for with the ex-

ception of Swedenborg, no one of the in dividuala

UNIVEBSITT

90

MENTAL DEEANGEMENT.
I liave just

whom
It
is

now mentioned mistook

the

-deceptions as being connected with real objects.

true, that

some of those who are the sub-

jects of

mental derangement
;

may

see

phantoms

and hear strange voices but they believe them

to be realities, and cannot be persuaded that

they are otherwise.

believe,
it is

Besides, as I

am

led to

not by this class of illusions that

they are most liable to be tormented.

As

morbid condition of the brain may produce

the impression of visible objects, or of voices,

which have no

real existence, so it

may

also

produce notions of a more complex and abstract

character, and these

may be

constantly obtruded
is

on the mind, so that the individual

unable to
as it

withdraw his attention from them, being,

would seem,

as

much beyond

the influence of

volition as the

muscles of a paralytic limb.

Thus, one person believes himself to be ruined

as to his worldly affairs,

and that he and his

family, though really in affluence, are reduced

to extreme poverty
;

while another

is

persuaded

that he

is

in possession of

unbounded wealth,
is

the consecLuence being that he

in danger of

MENTAL DERANGEMENT.
being ruined by extravagance
;

91
tliiiil

and a

is

under the apprehension of

lli^^

being accused of

some dreadful crime, and perhaps seeks a refuge

from his fears
difficult to

in self-destruction.

It

is

more

escape from the latter than from the

illusions, as the ai)peal lies

former class of

not

from one sense to another, but to a more refined

process of thought and reflection, and the ex-

amination of evidence.

With regard

to the opinion of

INIr.

Locke,

(and I beg of you to observe that I speak not

pretending to have any practical knowledge of
the subject, but viewing
logist,)
it

merely as a physio-

own

that

it

seems to

me

that he has

laid

down

the rule too broadly, and that his

explanation will not include the wdiole pheno-

mena

of insanity.
to

In many insane persons, in

illusions

addition

the

under which

they
is

labour, the capability of fixing the attention

almost entirely destroyed.

The mind
if it

hurries

on from one thing to another, as

could find

no resting-place
it is

and under these circumstances

plain that correct reasoning,

which Locke

defines as " the perception of the agreement or

92

MENTAL DERANGEMENT.
our
ideas,"
is

disagreement of
question.

out of

the

At
The

the

same time,

this
is

does not
primarily

prove that the reasoning faculty

affected.

increased intensity of the action

of the nervous system, and the imperfect subjection of

it

to the will, sufficiently explain the

case, the

whole.

In one

mind may be occupied

with a single object, or a single idea, or combination of ideas.

In another

case, a constant

and rapid succession of

heterogeneous, ideas
will
is

different,

and perhaps
it:

is

presented to

and the

equally powerless to dismiss the single

idea in the former case, and to stop the current

of different Ideas in the

latter.
it

In confirmatiom of these views,

observed,
that

may be
is

mental

derangement

In

numerous instances preceded by a disordered

state of the general health
;

that

It

Is

not undiseases

common
which

to find

It

alternating with

affect

merely the corporeal functions

or occurrino; under other circumstances which

show that

it

must have been the

result of

mere

physical agencies.

EuBULUs.

You

have

certainly

adduced

MENTAL DERANGEMENT.
facts
-wlik-li

93

jiutlfy

the

opinion

tliat

mental
arise

derangement may, and generally does,

as the result of
fection,

some actual physical imperto

which we may suppose

be functional
;

in

some

instances, organic in others

is

and I own

that this

to

me

a very acceptable and con-

solatory view of the subject.

But you cannot

it

deny that

in

many

instances

may be
at once

traced

just as plainly to the operation of moral causes.

The mind may break down

some sudden
affliction
;

all
it

under

or

may

yield

more

gradually where the attention has been long

and constantly and anxiously directed

subject

to

some
the

of unusual of
the

interest

and
the

thus,

apprehension
arising

poverty,

excitement
of

from

unexpected

possession

wealth,

a gloomy and unholy religion, or a

^^ride,

long indulgence in di'eams of vanity and

may

upset a vigorous

intellect.

Such
is

facts as

these cannot be questioned

and
?

not the

conclusion from

them

inevitable

Ergates.
derangement

am
in

quite aware that mental

may

many

instances be traced

to moral causes as

its

original soui'ce,

and

far

94
be
it

MENTAL DEKANGEMEXT.
from

me

to assert that the

one Indivisible

percipient and thinking being, which each of

us feels himself to be,

liable to changes.

may

not be in

itself

Independently of any previous

Avliich It

change in the material structure with

is

associated.

Still, in
is

the facts which

you have

mentioned, there

nothing to contradict the

opinion that the essence of the disease, even

when produced by
causes,

the

operation

of

moral

may be

in

the nervous system.

A
is

physician,

whose knowledge of the subject

not surpassed by that of any one in Europe,

assui'es

me

that "

when mental derangement

seems to have been induced by moral causes,

it

is

generally to be presumed that there was

originally an imperfect state of the brain, form-

ing a predisposition to the disease."

it

Then be

observed, that as the brain

may

influence the
It

mind, so
is

may the mind

influence the brain.

volition acting

in this
first,

manner that

on the
j)ro-

brain

and on the nerves afterwards,

;

duces muscular contractions

tears to flow

that grief causes

from the lachrymal gland: and

diges-

that the

mouth becomes parched, and the

MENTAL DERANGEMENT.

95

tion of the food interrupted, as a part of the

consequences of mental anxiety.

persons have been

So,

also,

known

to sufter

from Imagi-

nary hydrophobia, experiencing not a few of

the

symptoms of that

terrible disease.

In such
nervous

cases the

mind

is
;

affected first, the

system afterwards

the latter re-acting on the

illu-

mind, and confirming and continuing the

sion.

If the functions of the brain should be

thus disturbed during a very long period of

time,
it

may

well be supposed that some actual

last

change will at
tion
;

be produced In
it is

its

organiza-

and indeed,

not very easy otherwise

to understand

how mental derangement, induced

be permanent, when

by moral

causes, should

the causes themselves have been In operation

only for a limited period.

Nor

is

there in this

anything more remarkable than the fact of organic disease of the heart being in some instances
distinctly to

be traced to anxiety of mind.

All this
is

Crites.

to
It

me

matter of
to another

curious speculation;
subject, in

but

leads

which I

feel a still greater Interest

partly because, from the special nature of

my

96
pursuits,
it is

QUESTION AS TO
sometimes forced on
it

my attention,
questions,

^and partly because out of

arise

which, as they affect our social system, are of

great practical
Avriters

importance to us

all.

Some
of

have described, under the

name

Moral or Instinctive Insanity, a

in

state of

mind

which they say that there are no

illusions,

nor any affection of the intellect ; but in which

there
is

simply a perversion of the moral sentithe

individual

ments

labouring

under

an

impulse to perform certain extravagant and

outrageous acts, injurious to himself or others

such impulse being

to
his

irresistible,

so that

he

is

be held as being no more responsible for

conduct than an ordinary lunatic.
that, looking at the question

Now

own

merely as one
nature, and

Avho has some knowledge of

human

with no other aid than that of

sense, I

my own common
am
certain

am
is

very

much

inclined to doubt the

correctness of this doctrine, and I

that
it

dangerous

to

admit the

plea

of

irresponsibility for those

who

labour under this

the

so-called

Moral Insanity,

to

extent

to
it

which Dr. Pritchard and others have claimed

MORAL INSAXITY.
for them.

97

Observe, that I use the term floral

Insanity not as comprehending cases in which

there
is

a belief

in things that

do not exist in
approach-

reality, or cases of idiotcy, or those

ing to idiotcy

but limiting

it

strictly

and

exclusively to the definition given

by writers

on the

subject.

The law makes

a reasonable

allowance for the subsiding of passion suddenly

provoked.

But we

are

not,

therefore,
is

to

presiune that the

same allowance

to

be

made
fire

for those in

whom

a propensity to set or

to

their
is

neighbours' houses,

commit

murder,

continued for months, or weeks, or

Is
it

even for hours.

true that such persons

ill

are really so regardless of the

consequences

which may

arise, so

incapable of the fear of

absolutely
as
?

punishment, and

so

without the

power of

self-restraint,

they have been

If not, there
is

sometimes represented to be

an end of their want of responsibility.

refer here to the instance of the

Let me

gouty patient,

some time since adduced by Ergates.

Under

the influence of his disease every impression

made on

his nervous

system

is

attended with

98 uneasy

QUESTION AS TO
sensations.

If

such a person

lias

exerted himself to acquire the habit of

control, the evil ends with himself;

self-

but otherflies

wise, he

is

fractious

and peevish

into a

passion, without

any adequate cause, with those

around him, and uses harsh words which the

occasion does not justify
:

conduct, of which he

can

offer to

himself no explanation, except that

it
;

he cannot help

and for which,

is

if

he be a

right-minded person, he

sorry afterwards.

If he were to yield to the impulse of his temper

so far as to inflict

on another a severe bodily

be admitted as an excuse,
his blood,

injury, ought

it

to

that Dr.

Garrod had examined

it

and
?

found in
Yet,

too large a proportion of lithic acid

when Oxford

yielded to what was pro-

bably a
to

less violent impulse,

which caused him

life

endeavour to take away the

of the

Queen, the jury acquitted him, on the ground of

his being the subject of "

Moral Insanity."

It

seems to

me

that juries have not unfrequently

been misled by the refinements of medical

witnesses, who, having adopted the theory of a

purely moral insanity, have applied that term

MORAL IXSAXITY.
to cases to to

99

which the term insanity ouglit not

all.

be applied at

It

is

true,

that

the

difference in the character of individuals

may
their

frequently

be

traced

to

difference

in

organizations, and to different conditions as to

bodily health; and that, therefore, one person

has more, and another has

controlling
his

less, difficulty

in
liis

temper, and
all

regulating

conduct.

But we have

our duties to per-

form, and one of the most important of these

is,

that

we

should strive against whatever evil

tendency there

may be

in us arising out of our

if

physical constitution.

Even

we admit (which

I do not admit in reality), that the impulse

which led Oxford to the commission of

crime was at the time
irresistible,
still

his

the

question remains, whether,

it first

when

the notion of
it

haunted him, he might not have kept

under his control ; and thus prevented himself

from passing into that
state of

mind which was

If I have been

beyond
riijhtlv

his control afterwards.

informed, Oxford was himself of this

;

opinion

as

he

said,

when another attempt had

life

been made

to take

away the
H
2

of the Queen,

100
**

QUESTION AS TO
hanged
this

that if he himself had been

would

liot

have happened."

"VVe

have been told of

acquired the

a very eminent person

who had

habit of touching every post that he

in his walks, so that at last it

met with

seemed to be a

part of his nature to do so; and that if he

found that he had inadvertently passed by a

post witliout touching
it,

he would actually
I
to

retrace his steps for the purpose.

knew

gentleman who was

certain

accustomed

mutter

words

to

himself (and they were

always the same words), even in the midst of

company.

He

died at the age of ninety, and

I believe that he had muttered these words for

fifty or sixty years.

These were

foolish habits

but they might have been mischievous.

correct

To

them

at last

would have been a very

arduous

undertaking.

But

mio;ht

not this

have been easily done in the beginning ? and

if so,

if instead

of touching posts, or muttering

unmeaning words, these individuals had been

addicted to stealing or stabbing,

ought they

to have been considered as absolved from all

responsibility?

It

has been observed by a

MORAL INSANITY.
physician,

101

who
in

has had large opportunities of

these

experience

matters,

that

" a

man

may
until

allow his imagination to dwell on an idea

it

acquires

an unhealthy ascendancy

over his intellect."*

And
he

surely,

if,

under

such

circumstances,

were

to

commit a

murder, he ought to be held as a murderer,

and would have no more claim to be excused

than a

man who

has voluntarily associated with

all

thieves and murderers until he has lost

sense

of right and

wrong

and much

less

than one

who

has had the misfortune of being born and

bred amono; such malefactors.

Ergates.
expressed
it,

I have no doubt, as

you have

that those

who have maintained

name

the doctrine of " Moral Insanity," have often

applied that terra to cases to which the

of Insanity ought not to have been applied at

all.

But I

also

have no doubt that there has

been much mystification of the subject, by the

application of the

same term

to other cases in

which

illusions really existed,

and Avhich might,

* Anatomy of Suicide, by Forbes Winslow, M.D.

102

QUESTION AS TO
more properly
classed with

therefore, have been

cases of

ordinary mental aberration.

At

the

same time, we must not overlook the

there

fact that

may

be,

and sometimes

is,

a real diificidty

in determinlns: whether a

man who abandons

himself to an evil passion, or a mischievous or

absurd propensity, labours under illusions or

not.

For example

disease has

been dein Avhich

scribed under the

name of Bulimia,

the patient
tite,

is

affected with

an inordinate appe-

which nothing can

seems powerless to
is

satiate,
resist.

and which

his

will

One

individual,

whose case

recorded in the Transactions of

the Royal Society, Avould eat an ordinary leg of

veal at a single meal, adding to
thistles,
it

a store of sow-

and other wild vegetables.*

Another

would devour raw, and even

and dogs, the

living, cats, rats,

entrails of animals,

and candles,
daily. f

to the extent of fourteen

pounds

Now,

except that the passion has another object, there

seems to be no essential difference between

these cases and that of a

man who

squanders

* Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxii. f London Medical and Physical Journal.

MORAL INSANITY.
his property, purchasing articles for

103

which he

has no use, and which he Immecllatcly lays

aside, reckless of the ruin

which he

is

bringing
it

on himself,

his wife,

and children.

But

may

be urged, on the other hand, that in Bulimia

the sense of hunger, where food
is

not really

required, and which nothing can allay,

may

not improperly be regarded as an illusion

having, at any rate, a considerable resemblance
to the visions, voices, or

unfounded conceits,

which haunt the imagination of an ordinary

lunatic.

Crites.

There seems to be some truth

in

this comparison.

But

let

us suppose that your

patient with Bulimia were to be in the habit

of robbing butchers' shops and larders, ought

he to be considered as not being responsible

for his actions, because he

was driven to do

so

by

his inordinate appetite?

And

this leads

me
ties

to offer one farther observation.

If

we

are

not to confound merely mischievous propensi-

with

illusions,

we

are also not to admit the

illusion, as

mere existence of an
H

being in

all

cases an excuse for crime.

4

thorough-going

104
Socialist

QUESTIOX AS TO

may be

conscientiously persuaded that

is

the unequal distribution of property

to religion and morality.

contrary

The

conviction

may

be so strong that he not only disregards, but

cannot comprehend, the arguments which satisfy

men

of sober sense that his views are erroneous

Is this anything
if,

and absurd.

more or less than

were

an illusion; and

under

its

influence, he

to appropriate to himself his neighbour's pro-

perty, or abet others in taking

is

it

for themselves,

he, therefore, to be held as not being respon-

sible for

what he does?

it

being always borne in

is,

mind

that the object of

human punishment

not to revenge society on the malefactors, but

to deter others from following their example.

There are many dogs whose natural and original

instinct leads

them

to

run after and

kill

sheep

but a proper discipline teaches them that they

are not to do so,

and counteracts the

instinct.

There

are,

undoubtedly, instances
illusions,

without

number of

which not only have a

tliis

firmer hold on the

instinct in dogs,

mind than

particular

but which neither argument

:

nor discipline can remove or even control

but

MORAL INSANITY.
it is

105
i.s

not so as to others

and surely there

no

reason -why those of the latter class shoukl not

be overruled by means analogous to those which

overrule the instinct of the brute.

Dr. Mayo,

whose attention has been directed, with much

success, to this class of inquiries, has arrived at
this conclusion,

and I do not see how any one

from the opinion which he has

can well

differ

expressed.*

EuBULUS.

Believing as I do, with Crites,

that the subject which

is

you are now discussing

it affects

one of great importance as

society

at larffe, I have listened with

much

interest to

the observations Avhich you have made.

Crites,

You,

have pointed out the necessity of not

confounding, as has been sometimes done, mischievous or absurd propensities, however strong,

with actual insanity.

You, Ergates, have enis

deavoured to show that there

no broad

line,

by which the fonner can always be distinguished

from the
latter
;

and I

am

inclined to agree

with both of you.

But

I also cannot but assent

* See Additional Note D.

106

QUESTIOK AS TO MOEAL ixsAxrrr.

to the opinion of Crites,

when he

farther stated

that the existence of illusions is not in ererr

instance to be regarded as jnstifjing the plea

of want of responability. It certainly eeems to

me
one

to be not less absurd in itself than it is

dangerous to society at large, to hold that any

whom

the dread of being ponidied might

deter
fit

&om

the oommi^ion of crime,

is

not a

subject for pmiishment.

At

the same time

I folly admit that a more or less nnsoimdness

of mind

may affintd a

soffidient reason for

com-

muting, or modifying, the nature of the penalty.

Allow me to add, that

it is

a Tcry great nuba qnestioii which

take to suppose that diis

is

can be determined only by medical pvactitioners.

Any

one of plain common sense,

and having a ur knowledge of human nature,

who

will give

it

due con^eration,
it,

is
it.

compebeloag^
to

tent to form
fully as

an opnion on
to those

and

much
tibe

whose
it

office it is

adnunister

law, as

does to die medical


107

THE FOURTH DIALOGUE.

Different Functions of the
in

Continuance of Life some Animals without the Brain. Automatic motions of Plants and of some of the lower Animals. Multiplication of the by
latter

Brain and

Spinal

Chord.

Division.

The Diplozoon Paradoxon. Buffon's View

of Existence of the lower Animals.
to simple animal

of the

Mode

Nervous System not necessary

Life.

Origin

of the nervous Force.

Influence of
Sensibility

The Absence of or Dr. WoUaston, &c. State of Mind preceding Death. Nature and Phenomena of Sleep. Dreams the Result of the Imagination uncontrolled by the Will. Rapidity of Dreams. Their Character influenced by accidental physical Impressions. Supposed Soluof Problems, during Sleep. Obser vations on the Subject. Do Dreams answer any
the

the Venous or dark-coloured Blood on the Functions of

Nervous System.

voluntary Power no proof of the Absence of Consciousness.

tions

&c.,

Miiller's

Purpose

in the

Economy

of living Beings

Inquiriea

Nature of the Changes which occur in the Nervous System in connection with Mental Operaas to the
tions.

Tpie clear transparent atmosphere of the preceding clay was followed, as might have been
anticipated,

by

rain,

which confined us

to the

house.

In the afternoon we were assembled

in Eubulus's librarv,

and had been

for

some

108

FUXCTIOXS OP

time conversing in a desultory manner,

when

the subject of our former discourse was thus

resumed-

Crites. Ergates regards the brain, properly

so called, as the physical orsran

bv means of
the one

vrhieh alone (to use his

indivisible percipient

own expression)

and thinking being, which

its

each of us feels himself to be, maintains

communication with the external material world.

But I own

that he did not quite satisfy

me that

this opinion is correct,

and I should be glad to

make some

forther inquiries

on the subject.
the

priori, there is

no reason

why

mind should

not be in connection with any, and every, other

part of the nervous system
;

why

it

should not

be present in the eye, and

at once,

and without

the intervention of anv other orsnin, have a

direct perception of the picture of external objects

which

is

painted on the retina

or a similar

perception of the impressions which the waves

of sound

make on the nerves

;

in the labyrinth

of the ear

or of those

which we refer to the

sense of touch in the hands or feet, or elsewhere

on the surface of the bodv.

Then,

if

am

THE BKAIN,

ETC.

109

not misinformed, the spinal chord in some of

the lower animals of the vertebrate class
is

of

considerably larger size than the brain

itself.

May we
of
its

not, therefore, conclude that

it is

at

least equal to the brain as to the importance

functions

Again, mankind have, very

generally, referred hope and fear, joy and sor-

row, love and hatred, to the heart.

May

they

not have theu' special seat in the nerves of that

organ ? I have understood that a distino-uished

French physiologist has supposed what you

anatomists
call

the great sympathetic nerve,

(which I imderstand to be connected with, but

nevertheless distinct from, both the brain and

the spinal chord) to be the actual seat of that

class of

mental conditions which we

call

the

passions or emotions.

Ergates.

I agree with

you

in the opinion

that, a priori, there is

no reason

why

all this

should not be as you have

now

suggested.

The

only question

is

as to the matter of fact.

You
one

may

recollect that in the course of our conver-

sation yesterday, I refen-ed to

two

cases, in

of which pressure on the optic nerve, and in

110

FUNCTIONS or

the other disease of the same nerve, occasioned

total blindness
;

but in which nevertheless the

individuals thus aiFected

sions, believing that

were haunted by

illu-

they saw objects which did

not actually exist.

So

if

the nerves be divided

or materially injured in the thigh, the sense of

touch

is

destroyed in the foot

while, if the leg

after-

be amputated, the patient for a long time

wards

feels his feet

and toes

as if they

still

be-

longed to him.

The

conclusion to be

drawn

from these

facts is sufficiently obvious.

AVith regard to the spinal chord,

that
it

we know

exercises functions of the greatest im-

portance in the animal economy, generating the

nervous energy, which

action
;

is

required for muscular

;

influencing the secretions

in part re-

gulating the motions of the heart; and probably

helping to maintain the action of different organs

in that sympathetic union,
is

and harmony, Avhich

necessary to the due performance of their

several functions.

The

size of the spinal

is

chord

bears an exact proportion to what

required

of

it

in those respects, while

it

has no relation

whatever to the

faculties of perception

and

TUE BRAIN,
thouglit.

ETC.

Ill
is

It

is

true that the spinal chord

composed of the same materials as the brain,

in the

form of the grey and vesicular, and the

;

white or fibrous substance

these are disposed in the

but in the former

same simple form

indeed I ex-

throughout, while in the

plained formerly, there
variety as to the

latter, as
is

an almost endless

mode

in

which they are

it,

ar-

ranged

and we recognise

in

not a simple and

uniform organ, but a congeries of organs, each

having a peculiar structure, and being evidently
intended to answer a special and peculiar purpose.

large extravasation of blood within

it

the head, by the pressure which

causes on
is

the brain, induces a state in which there

total insensibility to all external impressions,

and at the same time an

the influence of volition.

entire suspension of

But

the effect of a
is

suuilar injury of the spinal chord

ferent.

widely

dif-

The

parts below the injury, the

is

comthus

munication of which with the brain

interrupted, are deprived of their sensibility.

The muscles

are no longer subjected to the

Avill,

dominion of the

although they

may

still

112

FUNCTIONS OF

contract on the application of mechanical stimuli

or electricity.
to start

The lower limbs may be made But

by

tickling the soles of the feet.

those motions are merely automatic, and

we
any

have no reason to believe that they are attended

with sensation, or preceded by
volition,

more than those of the

sensitiva.

leaves of the

Mimosa

At

the same time, in those parts of

the body Avhich are above the injury, and whose

nervous communication with the brain

interrupted, the sensibility and

is

not

power of volunalso

tary motion are unimpaired, as are

the

mental

faculties.

Singular indeed

is

the con-

dition of the individual, in

whom

there

has

been a laceration, or equally severe injury of

the spinal chord in that part of the neck which
is

immediately below the origin of the nerves

belonging to the diaphragm.

tion,

In him respira-

though imperfectly performed, continues,

so that life

may be

maintained during a period

five or

which varies from twenty-four hours to

six days.

He

retains his consciousness; he can

see

and hear, and comprehend what passes

his head,

around him, but except

and the u|)per

THE BRAIN,
part of his neck, his body
lonj' to
is

ETC.

113

as if it did nut l)c-

him.
I

He

is

livinG;

head and notliinn

more.

saw a lady under these circumstances

Avith

with her mind as active, her sympathy

others,

and her sense of duty as

perfect, as

before the injury had occurred.

result

In fact the

which follows any severe injury of the

though greater in extent,
is

spinal chord,

of the

same kind
a nerve.

as that

which follows the division of

Then

as to Bichat's hypothesis of the

passions or emotions having their seat in the

great sympathetic nerve

we know
;

that the

heart palpitates with hope

that

its

action

may

cease under the influence of fear; that grief

may
gland

cause tears to flow from the lachrymal

;

and that anxiety of mind may cause the

secretion of

mouth to be parched by stopping the

saliva, and interfere with the digestion of the

food

by the stomach.

But surely

it

would be a very

far-fetched conclusion to assume from such facts

as these that hope

and fear reside

in the car-

diac plexus of nerves, or grief in the ophthalmic

branch of the nerve of the

they show nothing but

fifth pair.

Indeed,

this, that as certain states

I

114

INSTINCTS

AND

PASSIONS.

of mind affect one class of muscles

volition, so other states of

by means of
affect other

mind

muscles, or other organs, without the volition

beino; exercised.

We

must regard the animal

appetites

and

instincts as

being intimately connected with the

nervous system, and as having their special

places allotted to

them

in

it.

But we

are not

warranted in drawing the same conclusion as

to the emotions

and passions, properly so

called.

Hope and fear, joy and

these,

sorrow, pride and shame,

and such

as these, are conditions of the

mind, which have no abstract or independent

existence; but which, as they

may be

super-

added to our perceptions and thoughts, admit of

beino; excited

and acted on through the medium

of the nervous system.

as

At

the same time, as far

it.

we can

see,

they have no special locality in

EuBULUS.

But has

it

not been stated that

there are some of the less perfect vertebrate

animals, which actually survive decapitation,

and

live

even for several months after beina:

?

thus deprived of the brain

case that

and

is it

not the

some of the lower grade of animals

AUTOMATIC LIFE.

11.5

admit of being divided into parts, and that each

of these becomes a distinct individual, as
if in

them the mental

generally,

principle resided in the animal

it^self

and were

capable of division ?

Ekgates.
of

Le

Gallois,

You refer to the observations who found that certain lizards

and
that,

lived for a very considerable time after the

loss of the

head

when they

died

at last, the

immediate cause of death appeared

food.

to be the

want of

But

creatures under

such circumstances exhibit no sign of anything

more than automatic

is

life.

Even breathing
probably deriving
required, not from

suspended, the
little

blood
is

the
air

oxygen which
into

drawn

the luno-s,

but from

beins:

exposed to the atiuosphere in the superficial

vessels of the skin.

It

is

also true that if the

legs be pinched under these circumstances the

muscles are made to contract: but

this is

no

more a proof of

sensibility

than the starting of

the limbs, which I have already mentioned as

occurring in the

human

being, on tickling the

soles of the feet after

an injury of the sjnnal

ofs\fl.

chord; or the convulsions

I

epileptic patient.

116

AUTOMATIC LIFE.
as to the multiplication of

Then

some of the

lower orders of animals by division,

so little of their

we know
it is

mode

of existence, and

so

entirely different

from that of animals of the

it

higher orders, that

really seems to

me

that

we

can draw from

it

no conclusion that would

latter.

be well applicable to the

certain that a polypus
is

Is

it

at all

endowed with any

higher properties than those which belong to

vegetable
afford
life ?

Do

the motions of

its

filaments

any better evidence of

sensibility

and

volition,

than those exhibited by

the
or

many
the

plants,

such

as

Miinosa
the

sensitiva,

Dionaa
?

muscipula,

Hedysarmn gyrans

or
in

than
the

the

folding
in

up of many flowers
rainy

night and

weather

or

than

the

motions of the minute bodies described

?

under the name of dlia in animals

the sensibility of the

or,

if

polypus be taken for

granted,

may

it

not be a compound animal with

distinct centres of sensation

and

volition, in
is

like

manner

as In a tree every

bud

in fact a

distinct individual,

which may

live

and grow
?

though separated from the parent stock

An

TlIK l^IPLOZOON.

POLYrr.
Is

117

example of this mode of existence

supplied by

an animal much above the polypus in the scale

of living beings.
described by

The

diplozoon paradoxoii

is

Nordmann

as a parasitic animal

which attaches

itself to the gills

of the Cyprinus

Brama.

It consists in fact of

two animals,

united in the centre so that they have a part of

their viscera in

common, but with two

distinct

nervous systems.
cerned there
is

As

far as the latter are con-

no reason
should

why

each half of this

double creature

not live very well,

though separated from the other.*

I

am aware

that one of our most celebrated

modern

physiologists,

from observing the multidivision of the

plication of polypi

by the mere

animal, and from some other circumstances, has

come

to the conclusion

which you have sugwhich to our

gested, that the mental principle,

conceptions presents itself as being so preeminently, above

all

other things In nature, one

and
not

indivisible, is nevertheless itself divisible,

less

than the corporeal fabric with which

it

* Annalcs des Sciences Naturelles,

I

vol.

xxx. 1833.

118
is

ANIMAL LIFE WITHOUT

But
it is to

associated.
is

be observed that,

great as

the authority of Miiller generally in

questions of physiology, in the present instance

he

is

not quite an unprejudiced witness, inis

clined as he

to the pantheistic theory,

which

has descended from the school of Pythagoras to

these latter times, as
it

had before been derived

by him from the Buddhists of the East; and

which teaches that
all

the innumerable variety

of living beings which

we

see around us, are

it

but different manifestations, and as

were

emanations, of the one vast intelligent spirit

which pervading the universe

" Agitat

molem
If

et

magno

se corpore miscet."

EuBULUS.

my

recollection

be accurate,

Buifon regards the condition of some of the

lower animals, taking the oyster as an example,
as being that of constant

and profound

sleep,

meaning thereby that they have neither sensation nor volition.

Ergates.

However that may be, there

life

is

no

doubt that mere animal

may

exist without

either the one or the other, or without anything

A NERVOUS SYSTEM.
that l)ears even
tlie

119

most remote

relation to the

mental

])rinciple.

For instance, Dr. John Clarke

has given an account of

"an extraordinary

pro-

duct of
*'

human

generation," in which there was

neither brain, spinal marrow, nor nerves, nor

heart, nor lungs," but which

llvinor org-anized

was nevertheless a

mass, containinf>; several bones

tolerably well formed, and vestiges of

some

other organs.*

As

I have already mentioned, the nervous

is

system

composed of two substances of different

is

organization ; the one, which

commonly called

the medullary, being of a white colour, of a soft

consistence,

which may be proved by a careful

composed of
fibres
;

dissection to be

the other
still

of vesicular or cellular structure, of a

consistence,

softer

more largely supplied with bloodno fibrous appearance, and

This gray matter exists in

vessels, presenting

of a gray colour.

much

smaller

quantity than the medullary,

being disposed in layers in w^hich the fibres of

the latter seem to have their origin.
It
is

generally supposed that the function of the

* Philos. Transactions, 1793, p. 154.
I

120

ORIGIN OF THE
is

mediiUaiy substance

to conduct, direct,

and

make

use of the nervous force, the latter being

generated in the gray substance, and being in

itself

always one and the same, though con-

verted to different purposes in different parts

much

as the electricity generated in a voltaic

is

batteiy

made by means of one apparatus

to

produce chemical decomposition, and by means

of others to direct the needles of a telegraph, or convert

common

ii'on

into a magnet.

We

may

carry the parallel between the nervous and the

electric force further
still.

Although the gray

matter of the nervous system is necessary for the

production of the former,
ficient,
it is

not in

itself suf-

any more than the alternate plates of zinc

sufficient for the

and copper are

latter.

production of the

The
is

acid solution added to the voltaic

battery

required in the one case, the presence

of blood which has obtained a scarlet colour and

undergone other changes by exposure to the

in the lungs,
is

air

necessary in the other. In some

animals of the cold-blooded classes the sensibility

as to external

impressions, and the

power of

voluntary movement,

may

indeed remain after

it is

the supply of scarlet blood has ceased, but

NEUVOUS FORCE.
only for a Hmltcd period of time;
Avliilc in

121

man

and

in other

warm-blooded animals the suspenfaculties,

sion of the

same

under the same

cir-

cumstances, seems to be, not absolutely, but

almost instantaneous.

In a person who

is

drowned, or otherwise suffocated, and in

the dark-coloured blood
brain
is

whom

transmitted to the

bv the

action of the heart,

two or three
effect

minutes are sufficient to produce the

which has been described. This has been

explained

fully

by Bichat, whose observations on the

If
it,

subject I had occasion to mention formerly.

you wish
and

to obtain further information

on

will refer to the

" Recherches sur

la vie et

la mort^''

you

will

be well rewarded for your

labour.

EuBULUS.

Under

this ^-iew of the subject,

the dark-coloured blood affects the brain simply

by

a negative influence ;
it

by depriving

it

of that,

whatever

mav

be,

which

exists in the scarlet

blood, but not in the dark-coloured blood, and

which

is

necessarv to the generation of the

nervous force.

But,
its

if this

were

all,

the brain

ought to resume

functions immediately on
Is

the supply of scarlet blood being restored.

122
it

NARCOTIC ErFECTS.
I have heard of drowned
insensible for a long time

SO In reality?

persons

who remained

after they

were taken out of the water, although

they recovered ultimately.

Ergates. Your observation

In
fainting, or, as

is

quite correct.
it,

we

technically term

in
is

syncope, the supply of blood to the brain

interrupted altogether
scarlet,
if
;

both of that which

is

is

and of that which

dark-coloured
is

and

the syncope be complete, there

a state of

apparent insensibility, from which, however,

when

the action of the heart

recovers.

is

restored, the

patient presently

But

the

dark-

coloured blood,

if it

has once been transmitted

to the brain even for

two or three minutes,

it,

leaves an impression on

from which

it

may

not recover for half an hour or even

longei*.

After strangulation, especially, individuals have

sometimes remained in a state of apparent insensibility for

some hours.

In fact the dark-

coloured blood transmitted to the brain operates

as

a narcotic poison.

need scarcely re-

mind you

that there are very

many

foreign

substances, as for example alcohol, chloroform,

opium, the woorara, which introduced into the

OF VENOUS BLOOD, ETC.

circulation i)rocluce the

123

same

effect,
is

even thoui^h

the supply of scarlet blood

not interrupted.

Of we

the modus operandi of such terrible agents

are wholly ignorant.

All that

we know

is
is

the simple fact, that

when

their operation

complete they render the brain insensible to

the impressions

made on

the external senses,

and incapable of transmitting the influence of

volition to the muscles.

Pressure on the brain

or a stroke of lightning
eifect.

may produce

the same

EuBULUS. In

short, a condition of the brain

producing unconsciousness
various ways.

may be produced

in

Ergates.
the

I have purposely avoided using

for as to that it is

word unconsciousness,

plain that

we know

nothing.

The mind may

be in operation, although the suspension of the

sensibility of the

nervous system, and of the

influence of volition over the muscles, destroys

its

connection with the external world, and preall

vents
It
is

communication with the minds of others.

difficult to

indeed

say even

when

the exter-

nal senses are completely and absolutely closed.

124

APPARENT BUT NOT

I might refer to numerous facts whicli liave

..fallen

under

my

observation as illustrating this

subject; but the following will be sufficient.

An

elderly lady

had a stroke of apoplexy

she

lay motionless, and in

stupor, and

what

is

called a state of

no one doubted that she was dying.

But

after the lapse of three or four days, there

were signs of amendment, and she ultimately

recovered.

After her recovery she explained

that she did not believe that she had been unconscious, or even insensible, during

any part
and

of the attack.

She knew her

situation,

heard
her.

much

of what was said she

by those around

Especially

recollected observations

intimating that she would very soon be no more,

but that at the same time she had

that she would recover
;

felt satisfied

that she had no

power

of expressing what she

felt, but

that nevertheless

her feelings, instead of being painful or in any

way

distressing,

had been agreeable rather than

as very pecu-

otherwise.
liar;

She described them

as if she

were constantly mounting up-

wards, and as something very different from

what she had ever before

exj)erienced.

Another

REAL INSENSIBILITY.
lady

125

who had met with

a severe injury of the

head, which caused her to be for some days

in a state of insensibility, described herself as

having been in the enjoyment of some beatific

visions, at the

same time that she had no know-

ledge of what had actually happened, or of what

was passing around

to

her.

I have been curious

this

watch the
and I

state of

dying persons in

respect,

am

satisfied that,

where an

ordi-

nary observer Avould not for an instant doubt

that the individual
stupor, the
is

in a state of complete

mind

is

often active even at the very

moment
been
for

of death.

friend of

mine who had

many

years the excellent chaplain of a

large hospitiil, informed

me

that his

still

larger

experience had led him to the same conclusion.

A remarkable

example of

this occurred in the

case of the late Dr. Wollaston.

His death was

occasioned by a tumour of the brain, which, after

having attained a certain

size,

encroached on the

cavities (or as they are technically

termed the
effusion

ventricles) of the brain,

and caused an

of fluid into them, producing paralysis of one

side of the

body

and

it

is

worthy of notice

126
that certain

DR.

WOLL ASTON.

symptoms which he had himself

noted, and as to the cause of which he had been

in the habit of

speculating, proved that this

organic disease must have existed from a very

early period of his
life,

without interfering with

those scientific investigations which

made him

one of the most eminent philosophers, and one

of the o;reatest ornaments of the
ao-e in

which

he

lived.

During

his last illness his mental

faculties

were perfect, so that he dictated an

scientific observations

account of some

which

would have been

lost to the
life

world otherwise.
finally extinif

Some time

before his

Avas

guished he was seen pale, as

scarcely

there were

any circulation of blood going on,

all

motionless, and to

appearance in a state of

complete insensibility.
his friends

Being

in this condition,

who were watching around him

ob-

served some motions of the hand, which was

not aiFected by the paralysis.

it

After some time

occurred to them that he wished to have a

pencil and paper, and these having been supplied,

he contrived to write some figures in

arithmetical progression, which,

however imper-

DROWNING.
fectly scrawled,

127

were yet

sufficiently legible.

It

was supposed that he had overheard some

remarks respecting the state in which he was,

and that his object was to show that he preserved his sensibility and consciousness.
thintr like this

Sorae-

occurred some hours afterwards,

died,

and immediately before he

of these last

but the scrawl

moments could not be decyphered.*

refer as confirming

EuBULUS. You might

the observations which you have just

made

to

that interesting letter of Sir Francis Beaufort

(which some of us had seen long ago in manuscript, and

which is now generally known, having

late Sir

been published by the

Jolm BarroAV

in

his autobiography), in which the writer describes

what happened

to himself
;

when he was

preinci-

served from being drowned

when " every

dent of his former

life

seemed to glance across

his recollection in a retrograde succession, not

in

mere

outline,

but the picture being

filled

with every minute and collateral feature," forming " a kind of panoramic view of his entire

See additional Kote E.

128
existence, each

DROAVNIIS'G.

act

of

it

accompanied by a

sense of right and wrong," * &c.

Ergates.

I have been informed of

some

other cases in which the same thing happened,

and

all this

must have been

in the brief space

of a very few minutes.

But

I have also been

informed

of

other

instances

of

individuals

whose minds had been

in the

affected

very

much

same way when they were suddenly

placed in a situation which threatened immediate

death, although

they were not at

all

deprived of their sensibility and self-possession.

It
is

probable that histories

such as these

suo-fTCsted that rather curious tale of the

Chec

Chehabeddin and the Infidel Sultan of Egypt,

which used
to astonish

my youthful imagination,
and Turkish
tales.

in reading the Persian

The

accounts, however, given after recovery from

drowning vary very much. Some, whatever they

may have

felt at

the time,

remember nothing

except their having been overcome by a sense of

insuperable drowsiness.

In one instance, as a

* Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow,

Bart., p. 398.

DUOWXIXG.
naval officer informed me, a sailor

129

who had

l)cen

snatched from the waves, after lying for some time

insensible

on the deck of the

vessel, proclaimed

on

his recovery that

he had been in Heaven,

and complained
life as

bitterly of his being restored to

a great hardship.

The man had been

;

regarded as a worthless fellow

but from the

time of the accident having occurred, his moral

character was altered, and he became one of the best conducted sailors in the ship.

EuBULUS.
you now have
it

We
is

may

conclude from what

stated, that

drowning, terrible as
all,
;

appears to be,

not after

either morally

or physically, a painful death

and

this is con-

firmed by the experience of a friend of

my
this

own, who very nearly

manner.

lost

his

life

in

He

says that the last thing which

is

he remembers

looking at the pebbles and

river,

weeds

at the

bottom of the

with

little

or

no fear of what was about to happen, and no

bodily suffering.
I suppose that
it is

the same

Avhenever death takes place in the same manner

in cases of strangulation, for example.

Ergates.

Really, according to

my

obser-

130
vation, the

STATE OF MIND
mere
act of dying
is

seldom, in any
It is

sense of the word, a very painful process.

true that some persons die in a state of bodily

torture, as in cases of tetanus
ard,
;

that the drunkis

dying of delirium tremens,

visions;

haunted by

terrific

and that the victim of that

all diseases,

most horrible of
addition
to

hydrophobia, in
sufferings
its

those

peculiar bodily

from which the disease has derived

name,

may be
him

in a state of terror

from the supposed

presence of frightful objects, which are presented

to as realities, even to the last.

But

these

and some other instances which I might adduce are exceptions to the general rule, which
is,

that both mental and bodily suffering teris

minate long before the scene

finally closed.
:

Then
to

as to the actual fear of death

it

seems

me

that the

Author of our
it

existence, for the

it is

most
that

part, gives

to us

when
it

intended

we

should

live,

and takes

away from us
die.

when

it is

intended that

we

should

Those

who have been

were
to live.

long tormented by bodily pain

are generally as anxious to die as they ever

So

it

often

is

with those whose

PRECEDING DEATH.
life

131

has been protracted to an extreme old age,

beyond the usual period of mortality, even

when they labour under no

is

actual disease.

It

not very
:

common

for

any one to die merely

of old age

" Like ripe fruit to drop Into his mother's lap."

But

I have

known
it

tlils

to happen;

and a happy

conclusion

has seemed to be of worldly cares

and joys.

It

was

like falling to sleep,

never to

awake asain

in this state of existence.

Some

die retaining all their faculties,

and quite aware

Others
offer

that their dissolution

is

at hand.

no signs of recognition of external

that
it is

objects, so

impossible for us to form any positive

opinion whether they do or do not retain their

sensibility
;

and others, again,

to

as I

have already

stated, scious,

who appear
when

be insensible and uncon-

carefully watched, are found not

;

to be so in reality

but they die contentedly.

I have myself never

in

known but two

instances

which, in the act of dying, there were

manifest indications of the fear of death.

individuals to

The

whom I allude were

B.

unexpectedly

132

STATE OF MIND

destroyed by hasmorrhage, which, from peculiar

eircvimstances,
it

which I need not now explain,

to suppress.
loss of

was impossible

The depressing
blood produced

effects

which the gradual

on their corporeal system seemed to influence

their minds,

and they died earnestly imploring

that relief which art

was unable

to

afford.

Seneca might have chosen an easier death than

that from opening his arteries.

EuBULUS.

In the account which you have

it

now given
made
you have
religious

us,

seems to

me

that

you have

a considerable omission, in as

much

as

said nothing as to the influence of

sentiments on the minds of dying

of the hopes and fears connected with
life,

persons

the retrospect of a well-spent or ill-spent

and with the prospect of what

after the greatest

is

to

happen

and most mysterious change

belonging to humanity has taken place.

Ergates.

You have
indifferent.

called our

attention

to a subject involving considerations to

which

no one can be
injustice, if

But you do me an

you suppose that I have been unit.

mindful of

What

I have said refers only

PRECEDING DEATH.

133

to the last stage in the process of dissolution.

There

is

no doubt that a pure and

sim})le reli-

gious faith, and a firm reliance on the Being

who

has placed us here, contribute more than

its terrors,

anything besides to disarm death of

deprive " the grave of
its

victory,"

and smooth

the passage of the humble and sincere believer

to the termination of his worldly career.
theless, according to

Never-

my own
for the

experience, and

what I have heard from

religious feelings
is,

others, the influence of

most

part, not so
is

much when

perceptible at the

moment when death

at

actually impending, as

it is

an

earlier period,

the individual,

who was

previously in

health, or supposed himself to be so, first dis-

covers that

it is

probable that he will

die.

Crites.

You have compared

to falling asleep

death from

mere old age

never to awaken

again in this world.

This brings us to another

subject, not very distantly related to that

which
so

we have been
"

just

discussing

at

least

thought the Latin poet, when he wrote

Quid
is

? "
*

est

somnus, gelidte

nisi mortis

imago

What

sleep itself?

Wlierefore

is it

required?

134

NATURE AND
is

What

the condition of the nervous system

it

en which

immediately depends? and what,

is

during sleep,

the actual condition of the

?

physical and mental faculties

Ergates.

One

of your questions certainly

It
is

cannot be answered.

plain that in

some

respects the condition of the nervous system

must be

different during sleep

from what

it is

when we
that
sists,

are

awake

but

it

seems impossible

we should know
when we

in

what that difference con-

consider that neither our unas-

sisted vision,

nor the microscope, nor chemical

analysis, nor

any analogy, nor any other means

form any kind

at our disposal, enable us to

of n(jtion as to the actual changes in the brain

or spinal chord on which any other nervous

phenomena depend.
points to which

Then, as to the other

you have adverted, the subject

has been so frequently treated of by others,

that there
is little

or nothing

new

to

remark

upon

it.

It appears that in

human

beings, and in all

animals of the higher classes, those functions,

which Bichat has described

as constituting the

PHEXOMEXA OF
system of organic
life,

SLEEP.

135

may

continue to be per;

formed without the need of repose

is

but that

it

quite otherwise with regard to those which

the same physiologist has referred to animal

life,

and which are connected with the mental

It
is

principle.

for the latter,

is

and not

for the

former, that sleep

required.

As Eubulus

observed on a former occasion, the action of the

heart,

and of the muscles of respiration, the

digestion of the food, the various secretions, the

generation of animal heat,

all

these functions

are performed during sleep, as well as

when

we

are

awake

and, so far, the sleep of

human

beings differs very

much from
In

the torpor of the

hybemating

animals.

whom, during

winter, these functions are reduced to the very

lowest degree of activity.

But,

If

we extend
life,

our Inquiries to the functions of animal

find, that If
If

we

we

act with the voluntary muscles.

If

we

think,

and even

we merely

attend to

the sensations which are derived through the

organs of sense, or to those which arise spontaneously In our minds, after a time what
eense of weariness arises, and

we

call

we

require

r'^i>03e;

K 4

136

NATURE AND
it is tliis

and

repose which sleep affords us.

sleep there
is

It

would appear that during

an
is

accumulation of the nervous force, which

brought into use, and

after sleep is terminated
;

gradually

exhausted
it

the expenditure of

being greater, and the exhaustion more complete in proportion to the degree in
volition is exercised.

which the

The muscles

of the limbs

may be

for a long time in a state of involun-

tary contraction (as in cases of tetanus or catalepsy) without weariness being induced
;

but

under the influence of the

will

they cannot re-

main contracted
at a time.

for

more than a few minutes

In like manner visions

may

pass

before the

mind when

it
;

is

entirely passive,
it is

without causing fatigue

wise

but

quite other-

when we endeavour

to arrest their pro-

gress, to

view them vinder different aspects,

other.

and

to

compare them with each

This

occasions weariness, and the necessity of repose,

and

at intervals of that complete repose

which

belongs to sleep, as

much

as voluntary

muscu-

exertion; and these things justify the opiit

nion, wliich thouo-h

misfht not have origi-

PHENOMENA OF
nateJ with lilm, was
first

SLEEP.

137

brouglit into notice

by Dr. Darwin, that the

is

essential part of sleep

the suspension of volition.

Crites.
to
this

But some

objections

may be made
persons turn
in

explanation.
sleep,

"We

see

round in their
their sleep,

and hear them talk

which must be regarded

is

as a proof

that their volition

exercised.
is

Besides

we

breathe in our sleep, and

process ?

not this a voluntary

Ergates.
swered.
It

Such objections are

easily an-

There

are, in fact, degrees of sleep.

may be so incomplete that the individual may be moving and awaking at intervals during the whole night. As to breathing, I apprehend
that no one

who

is

at the pains to consider the

subject can doubt that, although to a certain

extent

it

may be

influenced

by the

Avill, it is,

under ordinary circumstances, as independent

of
it

as the action of the heart, or the peristaltic

intestines.

motion of the

We may by a powerIt
is

ful eiTort svispend the action of the respiratory

muscles during a limited time.

said that

the divers for pearls can do this for a minute.

138
or even longer.

NATURE AND

At

last,

however, the will

it.

is

powerless, and

we

breathe in spite of

Again,

you may say that

be heard or
affect
felt
all

a sound or touch, which

would

by a waking person, may not

are asleep
;

us at

when we
is

and that

this

shows that there

somethino;

more than
observe,

the mere absence of volition.

at all times,

But

what a multitude of impressions

senses, of

are

made on our
I

which we take no

coirnisance.

am

engao-ed in writino; a letter,

or in reading
interested
;

a book in which I

am much
may even
and
that

a friend

comes into the room,

opens and shuts the door, or he speak to

I

me

in his ordinary tone of voice,

know nothing

of

it.

It

is

obvious,

unless our attention be directed to them, the

impressions on our senses are not communicated to the mind; and such an effort of attention implies an effort of volition
friend speaks to
?

But

my
that

me
;

in a louder tone,

which

rouses

my

attention

and then I hear

all

he says in his ordinary voice afterwards.

it
is

So

during

sleep.

Those

smaller
lie

sounds

which we hear

distinctly

when we

awake.

PHENOMENA OF
111

SLEEP.

139

the stillness of the nlglit, are during sleep

unnoticed.

So

is

the light from the rushlight.

or the

But a tempest of wind,

morning sun

l)ouring in his rays through the

window, rouses

our attention, and with this

sleep
.

effort of attention

is

terminated.

may
is

here refer to the state of mind during

popularly termed " the nightmare," as

what

illustrating this subject.

In

this case sleep is

imperfect.

We

are to a certain extent aware

of our situation.

We

know where we

are,

but

we

feel

as if

some power oppressed

us,

and
fact

prevented our moving our limbs.

is,

The

not that the muscles will not obey the will,

itself is

but that the will

not exercised.

The

paralysis and catalepsy of hysterical patients

is

of the same kind, and both the one and

the other immediately vanish if a strong impression be

made on

the senses, or even on the

imagination.

Sound

sleep

is

incompatible with voluntary

exertion, mental or bodily.

fulness, or severe labour,

After long watch-

we

sleep in spite of

ourselves, because the

power of exercising the

140
volition
is

NATURE AND
exliausted.

If

we would
first

sleep

-under other circumstances, the

thing that
it.

we do

is

to abstain

from

exercislno;

We
we

place ourselves in that position, in which

can remain without calling into action any of

our voluntary muscles
;

we

close our eyes that

we may
objects
;

not be tempted to attend to visible

we
or

exclude from our minds

otherwise
exciting

all

dis-

agreeable

subjects

to

which our attention might be too earnestly

directed.

We cause
his
cradle.

a child to sleep

by rocking
mesmeric

him

in

The

so-called
eifect.

passes

may produce
fall

the same

When

do not easily

asleep at night, I frequently

succeed in obtaining sleep by watching the

strange, indescribable, and ever varying spectra,

which I

refer to the eye,

though they are proand which present

bably in the brain

themselves
the sight.

itself,

when real
It
is

objects are excluded

from

not that on such occasions as

is

those to which I have referred, there

lutely

abso-

no

effort of attention,
it is

but the

effort is
all,

so slight that

next to none at

and
it

readily ceases of

itself, at

the same time that

:3fe4:-

PHENOMENA OF

SLEEP.

141

prevents the greater effort which I should be led

to

make

if

things of higher interest were to

occupy the mind.

There are physical causes within ourselves,

and independent of
all

external circumstances,

which

interfere with sleep,

bodily

pain, for

example, or acid in the stomach.

said

It

may be
prevent
it,

that

actual

pain,

and the disagreeable

sensations
sleep,

produced by indigestion,
a strong light might

as

prevent

by too powerfully

exciting the attention.

is

At

the same time, there

is

no doubt that there

sometimes a morbid condition of the nervous

system, the nature of which

explain,

we cannot
with

well

Avhich

is

incompatible
'*

sleep.

The
ried,

patient says,

I feel fatigued and weato sleep,

and that I Avant

but I cannot

sleep."

EuBELUS.
of the system,

I have understood that this state

when long

continued,

is

some-

times the forerunner of mental derangement

and I can well understand

it

to be so.

It is
its

reasonable to suppose that the absence of

natural

refreshment would powerfully affect

142

NATURE AND
Indeed,
it

the nervous system.

happened to

-myself to be acquainted with a case of this kind.

A
to

gentleman of

my

acquaintance, in whose

family circumstances had occurred which were

him a source of intense anxiety, passed

and nights without
sleep.

six entire days

At

the end of this time he became affected with

illusions of

such a nature that

in confinement.

it

was necessary

to place

him

After some time

he recovered perfectly.

He

had never shown

any signs of mental derangement before, nor

had any one of
since
his family,

and he has never

Tliis

been similarly
case.

affected.

was an

extreme

But do not examples of the

want of
though

sleep producing very similar results,

in a

very

much less

degree, occur under

our observation constantly?

the state of

How

altered
after

is

mind

in

any one of us

even

two

sleepless nights!

Many

a person, who,
is

under ordinary circumstances,

cheerful and

unsuspicious, becomes not only irritable

and

peevish, but also labours under actual though

transitory
illusions;

such,

for

example,

as

thinking that others neglect him, or

aflfront

PHENOMENA OF
lilm,
(loiniT

SLEEP.

143

who have not

the smalle^^t intcutlon of

either the one or the other.

Ekgates.
these

I have observed such effects as

in

repeatedly

nurses

who have been

harassed by an incessant attendance on sick

persons during many successive days and nights;

and

this

goes far towards explaining the origin

tliis

of a vice to which individuals of

frequently become addicted.

class too

Alcohol removes

the uneasy feeling, and the inability of exertion,

which the want of sleep

sometimes,
at night,

occasions,

I have
late

when

I have

been writing

and much fatigued,

so that I could

scarcely fix

my
as if

attention on the tiling before

me, feeling
for the
relief

my head were
it,

almost too large

room

to contain

obtained complete

by taking a
is

single glass of wine.

But

such relief

only temporary.
;

Stimulants do

not create nervous power

you, as
it

they merely enable

is

were, to use up that which

left,

and then they leave you more in need of

than you were before.

rest

The same observation

excitement, with
it

applies to powerfid mental

this difference,

however, that

enables

you to

144

STATE OF MIND

overcome the sense of exhaustion more completely, at the

same time that

it

has a less

transient operation than

stimulus.

any merely physical

Crites.

The

obserA^ations

which you have

now

offered relate chiefly to our physical con-

dition during sleep.

But

the state of the

mind

during sleep

is

to us,

who

are not physiologists,

this.

a question of even greater interest than

Eubulus made some remarks on

a former occasion.

this subject

on

Perhaps he can give us

into
it.

some further insight

Eubulus.

Indeed,

it is difficult

for

me

to

say anything without the risk of repeating

what I have incidentally

sides,

said

already.

Be-

I have no knowledge of the subject

is

beyond that which

other person with
vation.

within the reach of any

of obser-

common powers
sound

During what may be

called

sleep, those

impressions on the external senses, of which

we

take cognisance while

we
it

are awake, are

is

altogether unnoticed.

But

not so with

regard to those changes which are taking place

DURING SLEEP.
in the brain itself;

145

and that which constitutes

is

the imagination during the day

tion of our

the foundais,

dreams at night.

There

however,

a great difference in the two cases, to which I

adverted formerly.
are

The imagination while we

by the
will.

awake

is

regulated

We
as

can

arrest its visions as they pass before us,

compare

them with each

please.

other,
is

and dismiss them

we

But

it

not so with our di'eams at

visions
will,

night.

Here the

which
succeed

arise,

uninother
are

fluenced

by the
to

each

according
acquainted,
often

no

rule

with which
strange

we

forming
unlike

combinations,
that
really

wholly
;

anything

occurs

and not

less differing

from

reality in

the rapidity with which they

come and
and

depart.

You
or

are called in the morning,

fall

asleep

again.

Perhaps, you have

slept

only -one

two minutes, but you have had a long

dream.

The

late

Lord Holland was accustomed

what had

to relate the following anecdote of

happened to hunself.

On

an occasion, when

he was much fatigued, while listening to a

friend

who was

reading aloud, he

fell asleep,

146

DEEAMS.
it

and had a dream, the particulars of which

would have occupied him a quarter of an hour

or longer to

express in

writing.

After he

awoke, he found that he remembered the beginning of one sentence, while

he actually

heard the latter part of the sentence mimediately following

it,

so that probably the

whole

time during which he had slept did not occupy

more than

few seconds.

I mention
illustration,

tliis,

however, only in the way of

as

not

any very singular occurrence.

Instances

of the same

thing are referred to by Lord

his " Discourse

Brouoham in
logy
;

on Natural Theoif

"

and similar instances may,

we

look
oiu'

for them,

be found within the range of

If

individual experience.
this subject it

we were
to

to pursue

would lead us

some curious

speculation as to our estimate of time, and the

difference

between the
life.

real

and the apparent

of time which
is

duration of

The measure

we make by

our

own

feelings

a very dif-

ferent matter from that which uncivilised

makes by the moon and

stars,

man and which we

The

now make by

clocks

and almanacks.

DREAMS,
apparent duration of time
is

147
longer or sliorter

in proportion as a greater or smaller numl)er

of different states of
succession.

mind follow each other

in
is

To

a child, Avhose imagination

constantly excited

by new,
easily

objects,

and Avhose

temper passes more

another, a year
is

from one passion to

longer period of

much

time than to the grown-up man.

in age so

As we advance
"We

do the years pass more rapidly.

life

may

suppose the

of the vivacious butterfly,

which

exists only for a single season, to be

apparently longer than

that of

the
is

slowly

moving

tortoise,

whose existence

prolonged
is

for one or

two centuries; and that there

though in a
less

similar

difference,
life

degree,

between the
progress
is

of the enterprising man, whose

crowded with events, and with

and
fears,

alternate hopes

and that of another,

desires,

who, with more limited

even tenour of his way."

keeps " the

During sleep ordinary

noticed.

imjiressions pass un-

But impressions of a stronger kind

rouse the attention, and in so doing put an end

to sleep
;

while those of an intennediate kind

L 2

148
affect

DREAMS.
us in another way, by giving a peculiar

^character to our dreams.

Ergates made the

same remark

in

one of our former conversations,

referring to acid in the stomach, and

cases, as ilhistrating the subject.

some other

It occurs to

me

to

add another example to those which he

It lately

has adduced.

happened

to

myself to
shellfish
;

dream that some one had given me a

in a shell something like that of a

muscle

that

I ate

it,

and that

after

it

had been swallowed, I

and that
it

felt it to

be very

acrid,

produced a

pain in

my throat.

T\Tien I awoke I found that

I labovired under a sore throat, which must have

suffsested the dreaiu.
It
is

a curious fact that

we may have a
from our

long dream in the act of aAvaking

sleep.

military officer informed

me, that while serving in the Peninsular war he

had frequently been roused from

his sleep

by

the firing of a cannon near his tent, and that

he had a dream, including a

series of events,

which might be
pression

distinctly traced to the

his senses

im-

made on

by the

explosion.

Facts of this kind have inclined Lord Brougham

to the opinion that

we never dream

except while

DREAMS.
in the state of transition
beino-

149

from being asleep to

that this seems to

awake.

But I own

me

to be a mistake.
it

First, there is
;

no

suffi-

cient proof of

being so

and secondly, we

have a proof of the contrary in the fact that

nothing
is

more common than

for persons to

moan, and even talk in their sleep without

awaking from

it.

Even

in the case of a dog,

fire, if

who

is

sleeping on the rug before the

you watch him, you can scarcely doubt that he

is

sometimes dreaminjT thouoh he

I should myself be

still

remains
to

asleep.

more inclined

doubt whether we ever sleep without some

degree of dreaming.

At any

rate,

not to dream

seems to be, not the rule, but the exception to

the rule
:

for

it

rarely happens that

we awake

without being sensible of some time having

elapsed since

we

fell

asleep

which

is

in itself

a proof that the mind has not been wholly unoccupied.

That on such occasions we have

dreams proves

no

distinct recollection of our

nothing.

Referrins; aijain to the instance of

persons

who

talk in their sleep,

we

often find

that they have not the smallest recollection of

L 3

150
their having

DREAMS.
dreamed afterwards.
It
is

only

those dreams which affect us very strongly,

and which occur immediately before we awake

from
sleep, that

we

really

remember and even

;

of these the impression

ficient for

is

not in general sufit

us to retain

for

more than a

very few minutes.

longer,
it is
it

If a dream be

remembered

only because

we have thought
it

of

it

after

occurred, and have thus given

place in our

memory which

it

could not have

obtained otherwise.
serve that, although
to dreams,

And

this leads

me

to obas

memory

does so

little

dreams throw some light on

faculty.

this

wondrous

know not indeed what

it

has happened to others, but

often happened to myself to

certainly has

dream of someboyish days, and

thing that had occvirred in

my

of which, as

it

had not been present to

years,
it

my
one

thoughts for

many

might well be sup-

posed that

it

was wholly

forgotten.

On

occasion, I imagined that I

was a boy again,

tale

and that I was repeating to another boy a

with which I had been familiar at that period

of

my

life,

though I had never read

it,

nor

DREAMS.
thought of
it since.

151
it

I awoke, and repeated

to myself at the time, as I believe accurately

enough, but on the following day I had forgotten

it

again.

We
seem

may
be

conclude from this

facts, that

and from some other analogous

thino-s

many
that

which

to

erased
it

from our
;

memory

are not erased from

in reality

the impression remains, and that if conscious of

it,

we

are not

it is

merely because the secret

spring has not been touched, which would bring

it

again under our observation.

Ckites.

What you

have now mentioned

shows

that,

however capricious and irregular

dm-ing sleep the imagination

may

be, there are

exceptions to the general rule.

I have heard

of mathematicians

who have

solved problems,

and of others who have composed poetry in

their sleep.
citor,

An

acquaintance of mine, a
as to the legal

soli-

was perplexed

manage-

ment of a
clients.

case which

concerned one of his

In a dream he imagined a method of

proceeding which had not occurred to him

when

he was awake, and which he afterwards adopted

with success.
L 4

152

DEEAMS.
I

EuBULUS.

may

refer to

some analogous

instances which have

come within

my own
me

knowledge.

A friend of mine,

a distinguished

chemist and natural philosopher, has assured

that he has

more than once contrived an appa-

ratus for an experiment which he proposed to

make, in a dream and another

;

friend,

who comwhich

bines mathematical with

all sorts

of knowledge

besides, has solved problems in his sleep,

had puzzled him when awake. But these things

are rare exceptions to a general rule.
notj as it seems to

They do

me, at

all

controvert the
is

opinion that the essential character of sleep

the suspension of volition

thesis,

and, on this hypo-

they are easily explained. There are, as

Ergates has observed, degrees of sleep, and in

a dream which occurs between sleeping and

waking, the power of attention may be exercised,

thouo;h not to the same extent as

when we

are
it

completely awake.

Besides

this,

however,

would indeed be a strange

chapter of accidents,
if

thing, in the

crowded

among

the vast

number

of combinations which constitute our dreams,

there were not every

now and then some having

DREAMS.

l.)3

the semblance of reality.

that in
coveries

Further, I suspect

many
made

of the stories of wonderful disin dreams, there

is

nmch of either
if

mistake or exaggeration;
could have been written

and that

they

down at
to be

the time, they

would have been found

nothing.

worth

little

or

Knowing how
all

imaginative a person

Coleridge at

times was, I may, I hope,

it
is

be excused for saying that

more easy

to believe that he imagined himself to have

composed
sleep,

his

poem
he

of

Kuhla Khan
so in

in

his

than that

did

reality.

may

here refer to the experience of a distin-

guished physiologist on this subject.

times,"

" Some-

says

Miiller,

" we reason more or

less accurately in

our dreams.

We reflect on
But

problems, and rejoice in their solution.

on awaking from such dreams the seemino;

reasoning
is

found to be no reasoning at

all,

and the solution over which we had rejoiced

be mere nonsense.

to

Sometimes we dream that

another proposes an enigma, that

solve
it,

we

cannot

and that others are equally incapable

so,

of doing

but that the person who proposed

154
it

DEEAMS.
the
explanation.

himself gives

We
we had
on

are
so

astonished at the solution, which

long endeavoured to
diately aAvake,

find.

If

we do not immereflect

and afterwards

this

proposition of an enigma in our dream, and on

its

apparent solution,
if

we

think

it

wonderful

but

we awake immediately
to

after the

dream,

and are able

question,

compare the answer with the

it

we

find that

was mere nonsense.

I have at least several times observed this in

my own
exercises

case."

*
Still,

Ekgates.

without referring to such

Miiller has de-

of the

intellect as

scribed in the passage which

you have noAV

is

quoted,

it

must be owned that there

often a

remarkable degree of coherence in our dreams.

drama

is

performed, including a series of

events in which

we

ourselves are concerned,

to each other.

and having a mutual relation

There are other actors

in

it,

who seem

to speak

and act independently of ourselves,

as if influ-

enced by other motives, and aiming at other

Miiller's Physiology, translated

by Baly,

p. 1417.

DREAMS.
objects,

155

with regard to which

we do not concur,
opposed. Scenes
it

or to which

we may be actually

are presented to us, in which

intelligence
is

seems that an

exercised, although

we do not
happen ?

imderstand

how
is it

that intelligence can be our

that these things

own.

How

own

that I search in vain for any very satisfac-

tory explanation.

EuBULUS.
dreams,

Another question
it

arises

as to to

which

is

even more

difficult

answer than that which you have suggested.

Are they merely

incidental effects of the exist-

ing order of things, as determined

the Creator of the universe
;

by the

will of

or do they answer

any

special purpose,
?

and lead to any ulterior

in-

consequences

In a machine of human

vention effects arise which are truly incidental,

that
is,

which were never contemplated or

intended by the inventor.

For

instance,

it

was

casually discovered that an abundance of electricity

may be

obtained from the steam supplied

by the
result

boiler of a steam-engine.

But such a

had never been anticipated by those to

are indebted for this great invention.

whom we

156

NATURE OF THE CHANGES

like this

Does anything

happen with regard to

Is
it

the machinery of the universe?

not

more probable that everything that occurs has

been anticipated, and has
pointed purpose
?
its

definite

and ap-

I believe that no one has

hitherto offered any certain or satisfactory ex-

planation of the uses of the spleen, and that

it is

known

that animals

may live, and

apparently in

good health,

after that

organ has been removed.

So, also, no satisfactory explanation has yet

been offered of the functions of the thyroid gland

or the renal capsules.

Yet no one

believes the

formation of these organs to be merely incidental, or doubts that they have

offices allotted to

some

special

them.

Dreams

are, at

any

rate,

an exercise of the imagination.

We may
may be
to

well conceive that one effect of them

increase the activity of that faculty during our

waking hours

and

it

would be presumptuous

to say that they

may

not answer some purpose

beyond

this in the

economy of percipient and

thinking beings.

Ceites.

Before our conversation for this

is

day

is

concluded, there

one other inquiry

IN

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

157

which I would make of Emates.

Believliis;,

as I do, that the percipient, conscious,

telllsent

and

In-

mind

beloncrs to a

mode of

existence

Avholly

different

from that of the senseless

avc

bodies

by which

are

surrounded,

still

cannot but admit that there must be certain

changes taking place In the nervous system In
connection with mental processes, some of these

being transient In their nature, while others are

so far

permanent that they may not be effaced

life.

during the longest

Now, with regard

to

these changes, Ergates has stated that "

theii*

exact nature

is

a mystery which
that this

we have no
Is

means of unravelling, and

a kind of
as that of

knowledge as much beyond our reach

the structure of the sun, or of the central parts

of the earth."

Not disputing the

correctness

of this statement, yet I see no reason

why we

might not be able to form some general notion

on the subject, and the following questions
naturally present themselves to us.

Are the

changes which the nervous system undergoes

simply mechanical? or are they of the same

kind as those chemical changes which take

158
j)lace
ill

NATURE OF THE CHANGES

inorganic matter? or do they rather

belong to that class of phenomena which

we

refer to imponderable agents, such as electricity

and magnetism, by virtue of which a piece of

sealing-wax rubbed with a
silk

handkerchief

draws light bodies to

itself,

or a bar of iron

becomes endued with the attractive property

of a magnet
?

Ergates.

Although these subjects have

still

not been hitherto formally discussed,

you

may on some

points anticipate

my

answer from

observations which I have already

dentally.

made

inci-

The very

little

that

we

actually

know may

be comprised in a few words.

1.

The transmission of impressions from one

part of the nervous system to another, or from

the nervous system to the muscular and glan-

dular structures, has a nearer resemblance to

the
eifects

produced

by the

imjDonderable

agents to which you have alluded tlian to anything

else.

It

seems very probable indeed,

is

that the nervous force

some modification of

that force, which produces the

phenomena of

IN
electricity

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

;

1j9
re-

and magnetism

and you may

collect that I

have already ventured to compare

it

the generation of

by the action of the oxy-

genised blood on the grey substance of the

brain and spinal chord, to the production of the
electric force

by the

action of the acid solution

cells of a voltaic

on the metallic plates in the

battery.
2.

We

know

that the solid parts of the

body
is

are in a state of perpetual change.

There

a constant influx of

new

materials supplied

by

the digestive organs, and in other

ways

and

a corresponding eflSux of the old materials by

means of the various

that of the kidneys.

excretions, especially

by

The brain

itself

forms no cannot

exception to the general rule.

otherwise account for
part of
life,

We
its

its

growth

in the early

nor for the alterations in

struc-

ture which arise as the consequence of disease,

nor for those other changes which occur in

extreme old
in a

acje.

The molecules of

the brain

man

of twenty years of age are not the

same with those which formed the brain of the same individual when he was ten years
old.

IGO
nor
Avitli

NATURE OF THE CHANGES

those of wlilcli
it

will

be composed

when he

arrives at the age of fifty years.

its

The
is

mind preserves

identity, but there

no

corresponding identity of the corporeal organ

with which

it is

associated

and we

may even
is

venture to assert that the brain of to-day

not precisely and in

all

respects the
it

same with
be

the brain of yesterday, and that the brain of to-morrow.

3.

will not

We

cannot suppose that such deposition

of

new

materials and abstraction of old ones

can be effected by mere mechanical means, as

you would take one brick from a building and

substitute another in
its place. is

The elements
composed
exist

of which the nervous system

in the blood, but they

must undergo a new

chemical combination before they can be incorporated with it; and in like manner they

must undergo a chemical change of an opposite

kind before they can re-enter the current of
the circulation.

The

precise character of these

chemical changes

we have no means
it

of asceris

taining, but whatever

may be, there

reason

to believe that in proportion as the nervous

if:''^':

IN
system
is

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

less exercised,

161
it

more or

whether

be

in connection

with mere corporeal functions, or

with mental processes, so do they take place to

a greater or less extent.
subject
it

As

relating to this

may
is

be observed that the nervous

all

substance

distinguished from

the other

tissues (with the exception of the bones)

by

the very large proportion of phosphorus which

enters into
its

composition, amounting to 1*5

parts in 100, and to as

much

as one-thirteenth

of the solid matter which remains after the

evaporation of the water
;

and that one

result
is

of over-exercise of the ner^-ous system

the

elimination of an unusual quantity of salts con-

taining phosphorus

by means of the
first

secretion

of the kidneys.

This fact was

has given
it

observed by

Dr. Prout,
tlie

who

as his opinion
is

" that

phosphorus in organized beings

in

some

measure connected with nervous tissues and nervous action," and

who

in another place refers to

" severe and protracted debilitating passions, and

excessive fatigue, as the general exciting causes

of" what he terms " the phosphatic diathesis."*

*

On

the Stomach and Renal Diseases, third edition.

162
4.

NATURE OF THE CHAN&ES

With regard
to those

more permanent

changes in the brain to which Crites has referred as

connected with the memory, and

what

is

called the association of ideas,

and I

may
far

add, with mental habits and dispositions as

as these are

dependent on our physical

organization, I have nothing to offer

beyond
is,

what I have expressed

already.

There

apprehend, sufficient e^'idence that such changes

do certainly take place, but as to theu' real

nature

we

not only

know

nothing, but have no

means of obtaining any

actual knoAvledge.

The

improved microscope of the present day has

enabled us to unravel to a considerable extent
the minuter tissues of the animal body
;

but

nevertheless, in pursuing an inquiry such as

this, it affords

us no assistance.
is

There can be
in the animal

no doubt that there

structures
as

as

much

beyond the reach of the microscope,

is

there

in

the vast universe

around us
;

beyond the reach of the telescope

whatever

so

that,

we might
is

thus discover,

we may be
still.

sure that there

let

something further
it

But

us suppose that

were otherwise, and

IN

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

163

(assuming the molecular hyiwthcsis to be true)

tliat

with more perfect organs of sense, or more

perfect instruments,

we

could trace exactly the

changes which take place in the arrangement

or ao-ffrecation of the ultimate molecules of the
brain, I do not see tliat

we

should be
shall

much

advanced in knowledge.
far

We
as

be just as

from identifying physical and mental phe-

nomena with each other

we

are at present.

The
and

link
it

between them would

still

be wanting,

would be
the

as idle to speculate

on the

nature of

relation

between

mind and

matter, as on the proximate cause of gravitation, or of

magnetic attraction and impulsion.


164

THE FIFTH DIALOGUE.

Mental Faculties of Animals.
Structure of the Brain.

Difficulty
it

Their

Relation to the

of the Inquiry,

but some Knowledge of

not beyond our Reach.

Cerebral Organs connected with the Animal Appetites

and

Instincts.

Organs subservient to the

Intellect.

Question as to the Uses of the Cerebral Convolutions.

The Posterior Lobes of the Cerebrum. The Corpus Callosum. The Development of the Mental dependent on the Perfection of the Senses, how and other external Circumstances. The Nature and Intelligence not peculiar Man, of nor Instinct to the lower Animals. Human The Social Instinct and the Moral Sense. Some
Faculties,
far

Office

Instinct.

to

Instincts.

Instincts as
i

necessary to Animal Existence as

of the Blood, and

the

Circulation

Functions.

Parents to
ence
to

Acquired Instincts transmitted from Offspring. These considered with Moral and Science. The Social
refer-

other mere Animal

Political

Instinct viewed
Instincts,

as

correcting

or

modifying other
efficient

and

as being

made more

by the

greater Development of the Intellect.

Instinct.

Primary Truths of Buffier and Reid.

clays

The Religious
the conver-

It was one or two

sation wliicli has

after

been just recorded, that we

found ourselves in the afternoon on the side of

a
hill

on which some sheep were scattered.

MENTAL FACULTIES OF ANIMALS.

165

watching the operations of the sheep-dog, who

was collecting the

being driven

flock
for the

previously to their

home

night

This led to

a conversation respecting the habits and faculties

of animals

and Eubulus related the

his-

tory of a dog who, having been taken In a

carnage, and by a cbcuitous route, to a distant place, nevertheless,

some time afterwards,

home, ha^dng,

found
as
it

liis

way back

to his former

appeared, gone across a tract of country,

with which he could have had no previous

acquaintance.

Ergates.

There

are

very

many

wellIt

authenticated instances of the same thing.

is

even said that dogs carried across the sea

to their

have travelled back

of abode,

former

place

having established
for

themselves

on
this

board
faculty

sliip

that
to

purpose.
dogs.

Xor
least

is

peculiar

At

have

read an account of herds of cattle in

New

South Wales which,

having

been

removed

from their accustomed haunts to new pastures

at

a considerable distance,

have nevertheless

returned, not

by the road which they had gone

M
3

166
before,

MENTAL TACULTIES
but

by

going

straight

across

the

country, through wilds which they had never

before traversed.

EuBULUS.

There are few more Interesting

subjects of inquiry than that of the moral and

intellectual qualities of other animals, yet there

are few of which

are, it is true, a

we know

so

little.

There

good many scattered observait

;

tions relating to

and I may especially refer

to the very interesting collection of facts Avhich

are recorded in one of

Lord Brougham's

dia-

logues.*
self to

'No one, however, has devoted him-

such inquiries in the same

way

as

many

have done to other departments of knowledge.

The papers of Frederic Cuvier

tific,

are truly scien-

and contain much important matter, but

they relate to a very limited number of animals.

He

began the study too

late,

and died too

it.

early, to

make any

considerable progress in
is,

Such an investigation
peculiar
difiiculties,

indeed, attended with

it

and to pursue

with

advantage would afford ample occupation, even

* Dissertations on Subjects connected with Natural Philosophy, by Henry Lord Brougham, vol. i. dial. 3.

OF ANIMALS.

167

with the largest oiii)ortunities, for the entire

tenn of a man's

life.

Ergates.

It

may

be, as I observed on a

former occasion, that some of those which are

usually regarded as the very lowest form of

animal
those

life,

have no endowments superior to

Setting

which belong to vegetables.

these aside, however, I apprehend that

no one

who

considers the subject can doubt that the

is
;

mental principle in animals

essence as that of
in

of the
so that

same
even
the

human
classes

beings

the humbler

we may

trace

rudiments of those faculties, to Avhich in their

state

of more complete development

we

are

indebted for the grandest results of

genius.

human

We

cannot suppose the existence of

is

mere sensation without supposing that there

something more.

In the stupid carp which

spot, at a certain hour, or

comes to a certain
on a certain

signal, to

be fed, we recognise at

any rate the existence of memory and the

association of ideas.

But we
the doc;

recognise

much
the

more than

this

in

who

assists

shepherd in collecting his sheep in the wilds of

168
the

MEXTAX, FACULTIES

Welsh mountains.
followmg

Locke, and Diigald

Stewart

him, do not allow that

" brute animals have the power of abstraction."

Now

taking

it

for granted that abstraction

can

mean nothing more than

paring

the power of com-

our

conceptions

with

reference

to
as,

certain points to the exclusion of others;

for example,

when we

consider colour without

reference to figure, or figure without reference

to colour
;

then I do not see

how we can deny

In

the existence of this faculty in other animals

any more than in man

himself.
is

this sense

of the word, abstraction

a necessary part of

the process of reasoning, which

as being

Locke

defines

" the perception of the agreement or

disagreement of our ideas."

But who can

is

doubt that a dog reasons, while he

for his master,

looking

whom

he has

lost

or (as in the

instance of which

when he

is

we were sj^eaking ju^t now) seeking his way home over an

unknown country ?

C RITES.
rate,

But

if

my

recollection

be accuto

Dugald Stewart does not mean

deny

that brute animals are capable of the simpler

OF ANIMALS.
forms of reasoning.
being unable to

169

He

merely states that

cany on

processes of thought
is,

by the help of
guage),

artificial

signs (that

of lan-

they have no power of arriving at

general or scientific conclusions.*

Ergates.

"Without doubting for an in-

stant the vast superiority of the

still it

human mind,
say

appears to

me
It

to

be

difficult to

how

far the capacities of brute animals are limited

in these respects.

is

not to be denied that

necessary to the car-

the aid of language

is

rying on any long, or complex, process of

reasoning.

But we

see,

nevertheless,

that

those

who

are born deaf

;

and dumb reason to a

it

great extent

and, on the other hand,

may

well be questioned whether some animals are

so wholly unprovided with language as

Dugald

Stewart supposes.

EuBULUS.

am

inclined to believe with

Ergates, that the minds of the inferior animals

are essentially of the same nature with that of

the

hmnan

race,

and that of those various and

Moral Philosophy,

vol.iii. p.

393. edit. 1827.

170

EELATION OF THE BRAIN

it,

ever-changing conditions of

which we term

the mental faculties, there are none of which

we may not
distinct

discover

traces

more
Still,

or
in

less

in

other

creatures.

the

degree in which these faculties exist, there

is

a vast difference, not only between what

they are in
other

man and

in other animals, but in

animals amons; themselves.

And

this
shall

leads us to another subject, on

which I

be glad
tion.

if Erg-ates

can

o-ive

us some informa-

It

beino;

admitted that

the

brain

is

the

material oro;an in connection with the mental

principle
is
;

and

it

being also admitted that there

in the different species of animals, on the

one hand, a great difference as to the extent of

their moral

and

intellectual faculties,

and on

the other hand, a not less remarkable difference

in the size and formation of the brain
;

so

we

cannot well avoid the conclusion that these

two orders of

facts are, in a greater or less

degree, connected with each other.

I do not

mean
mind

to infer
is

from

this

connection that the

always the same, and that the greater

TO THE MENTAL FACULTIES.

or less development of
it

171

depends altogether

on the greater or
organ.
It

less perfection of the material

may

well be
is

supposed that the

original difference
tliat

in the

mind

itself,
it

and

the Creator has so ordered

that the

brain in the diftcrent species of animals should

be such as will meet the requirements of the

peculiar

mind with which

it is

associated;

a view of the subject, which, if I

am

not mis-

informed, derives no small support from the

researches of

modern

physiologists.
all

I under-

stand that the embryos of

the vertebrate

animals have in the

first

instance the same

character, or so nearly so, that they cannot be

distinguished from each other

as
it

that starting,

were, from one

common

point, the changes

differ,

which the embryo undergoes

different classes,
species,
as if

not only in

but in different genera and

something were superadded to

organization,

the

physical

by which those

changes are regulated, and differently directed,

thus giving origin to that immense variety of

forms of animal

life,

which we see everywhere

that

around

us.

However

may be

(and I

172
admit that

MENTAL FACULTIES
it is

idle, if

not presumptuous, to

speculate on a subject, as to which

entu'ely without the

we

are so

means of obtaining any

does not at
all affect

actual knowledge),

it

the

question as to the relation which exists be-

tween the organization of the brain and the

mental faculties
;

and what I wish

to

know

is,

how

far does our

knowledge of
it

this relation

really extend?

Is

possible

from any expe-

rience that

we have

of the habits and character

of a particular tribe of animals, to predicate

what kind of brain we should

on
dissection, or

find

them

to

have

from our observations on the

latter, to

form an opinion as to their moral and

intellectual capacities ?

EPvGATES.
ledge
is

To

a limited extent this knowIf

within our reach.

two

brains

were placed before me, in one of which the

cerebral hemispheres were largely developed,

while in the other they were very

little

de-

veloped, or altogether absent, I should at once

pronounce the former to indicate the existence

of a

much
see

greater intelligence than the latter.

But I

no reason to doubt that we might

OF ANIMALS.
Icam more than
who,
in
tliis
;

173

and that an individual,

addition

to

ample opportunities of

examining the brains of different animals by

dissection,

had equal opportunities of studying

the habits and behaviour of the same animals

while alive, and Avho himself possessed the

necessary qualities

for

such

investigations,

might, in the course of time, and after some

years of thought and labour, arrive at some

very interesting and satisfactory

hitherto, so little progress has
this

results.

If,

been made in
is

department of knowledge, that

for.

easily

accounted
nities

The combination of opportuis

which I have suggested,

and,

of very rare
occur,

occurrence,

when

it

does

few

persons are qualified to take proper advantage of

it.

It

is,

indeed, very far from being

a matter of course that the anatomist,

successfully pursued his
fact science, should

who

has

own

plain matter-offitted for

be the one best

observing and comparing the fleeting pheno-

mena

of the mind, the study of which, pre-

sented as

they are to us only through the

medium

of their external manifestations, must

174

ADAPTATIOX OF THE BRAIN

difficult as

be proportionally more

they

differ

from the only standard of comparison which

we

possess in oiu' individual selves.

EuBULUS.

You might

have

mentioned

another difficulty,
animals
in then*

that we
free

seldom see other

state,

and natm-al

or

otherwise than as being cowed and oppressed

by the
from

superiority of man.

I suspect that,

this cause,

we

are led to under-estimate,

intellectual qualilittle

on the whole, the moral and

ties

of inferior creatures. of

How
if

should

we know
only

man

himself

we

studied

him

among

the slaves of a Vhginia planter

The rook
but
little

confined in a cage would afford us

information as to what the rook

may
The
is

be in the republic of his native rookery.

horse tied to his manger in our stables

a
is

very different animal from the horse which

domesticated
in
his

master's

family
still

in

the
dif-

Arab's tent; and he must be

ferent from

more

hun who wanders over the

prairies

of America under the dominion of his chief.

Even

if

we

could live in a colony of rooks, or

in a herd of wild horses, not having the

means

TO THE MENTiVL FACULTIES.

of communicating

175

with them, such as these

animals certainly have

difficult Avoukl it

among

themselves,

how

be for us to obtain any real

knowledij-e as to their moral

and

intellectual

condition

How

little

should

we know even

of our

own

species in this respect, if

we had

not the power of mutually communicating our

desires
oral

and thoughts through the medium of

!

and written language

Ergates.
to learn

You
little

will not then

be surprised

how

has been done towards con-

necting physical organization and mental phe-

nomena with each

other.

The

observations of

Magendie, Flourens, and some other physiologists are interesting as far as

they go; but they

throw no light on the more

dite

difficult

and recon-

subject,
is,

which we are now discussing.

There
it

indeed, only one fact connected with

established.

which can be considered as well

Those bodies, situated in the base of the brain,

to

which in the human subject we give the

oblongata, cerebellum, thalami,

names of medulla
corpora striata,

and

tubercula

quadrigemina,

and the parts corresponding

to these in other

176

STRUCTURE OP THE BRAIN.

animals,

vertebrate
class of

are

connected with that

to the animal

phenomena which belong

and
instincts;

appetites

and the two larger

masses, which are placed above them, and are

known

as the cerebral hemispheres, are

more

especially subservient

to the higher faculties

belonging to the
I have

intellect.
is

The proof of what

now

stated

that in the lower classes

of vertebrate animals, in

whom

the appetites
intellect,

and

instincts

predominate over the

bodies

the first-mentioned
entire brain,
lect
is

form almost the

and

that,

very
so

much

as the intel-

more developed,

are the cerebral

hemispheres more develojDed also; the degree

of their development being more remarkable
in

man

than in any other animal.*

to
this

Some
easily

apparent exceptions
explained.

rule

are

In
or

birds,

which are so much more

quadrupeds, under
the

than

man,

than

dominion of
appear at

instinct, the cerebral

hemispheres

first

sight to be of great size in pro-

portion to the rest of the brain.

But you may

* See Additional Note F.

STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN.

recollect that

177

on a former occasion, I explained

that they are not so in reality,

and that the

only part, which can properly be compared

with the hcmit^phcres,

is

a layer of cerebral

substance laid on the surface of two otlicr

bodies (the corpora striata), these being of an

enormous
ous,

size.

Again, in some of the cetace-

and in one or two of the quadrumanous

animals, the cerebral hemispheres are so large

in proportion to the rest of the

body

as to

approach very nearly to what they are in

himself.

man

But

their size

is

only one thing to

be taken into the account.

Although a steam-

engine of great power must be of certain dimensions, something will depend on

liar
its
is

pecuAvitli

construction.
to

So

it

probably

regard

the

cerebral

hemispheres.

They

consist of

two

parts, the white,

medullary or
the
greater

fibrous

substance,

which forms

portion of their bulk, and the

more vascular

gTcy substance, which

surface.

is

expanded on their
is

I stated formerly that the latter

supposed to be the part in which the nervous

force
is

generated

and, therefore, the most

178

ADAPTATION OF THE BEAIN

The
surface

important of the two structures.

of the hemispheres
is

formed into

folds,

or

convolutions, and as the fissures

are separated are deeper and
so

by which these

more numerous,

does the grey bear a larger proportion to

substance.

the medullary

In animals of a

very low degree of intelligence, as in the

kangaroo for example, the convolutions are

almost
entirely Avanting.
as to

In

man

they are

more remarkable
in

number and depth than

any other animal, and hence some very

eminent physiologists, not without some show

of reason, have been led to believe that
it is is

by

his organization in this respect that he

adapted to the exercise of that high degree of

intelligence

which places him at

so vast a dis-

tance above the rest of the animal creation.*

Whether
founded,
it

this hypothesis
is

be or be not wellit

to be observed that
its

is

not

merely as to
greater

greater volume,

and the
of the

extent

of the

convolutions

cerebrum, that the brain of

man

differs

from

* See Additional

Xote G.

TO TUE MENTAL FACULTIES.

that of other annuals.

179

Coniparhig

it

with the
it
is

brains of the other manunalia (and

only

with these that

in reality),

it

much

admits of comparison

we

find tliat the posterior lobes of

the cerebrum are almost peculiar to the

race.

human

The only

other animals in which they

exist are those of tlie tribe of

monkeys, and
size

in

them they are of a much smaller

than

they are of in man.

of the

The absence

of this part

brain includes the

absence of what

seems to be a special organ situated in the

posterior

elongation of the

lateral ventricle,

known by

anatomists under the

it is

name of

the

hippocampus minor ; and

that even in monkevs,

worthy of

notice,

who

are not alto2;ether

this
is

without
wanting.

the

posterior

lobes,

organ
the

is

The

corpus callosum

name

o^iven to a

broad thick band of nervous fibres

as

which unites the two cerebral hemispheres,

if for

the purpose of bringing

them

into har-

monious action with each

garoo,

other.

In the kan-

which

I have

already mentioned as

having a very low degree of intelligence, the

corpus callosum
is

altogether wanting.

This

180

INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL
might lead us to conjecture that
office is allotted to it
;

fact in itself

some important
opinion
is

and the

confirmed by observations
subject.'

made on

the
this

human

Cases are on record in which

organ was wanting either wholly or in part.

it

In none of them could

be said that the

intellectual faculties Avere altogether deficient.

But

in all of

them there was an

incapability

of learning, producing an apparent dullness of

the intellect, so that the individuals were unfit
for all

but the most simple duties of life.*

I grant that

EuBULUS.

you have

sufficiently

established the proposition with which

out.

you

set

At

the same time

it

would seem that the

organization of the brain does not indicate the

actual extent to

which the mental

faculties are

exercised, nor anything more than the capability

of exercisino; them.

Havins; certain original

differ

endowments, which
viduals, the

in

different
it

indi-

mind

is

made what

is

by the
different

force of external circumstances.

How

* See

Mr. Paget's and Mr. Henry's observations

in

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vols. xxix. and xxsi.

the

.Ji*>

SENSES, ETC.

ON THE MIND.

181

was that of the savage of Aveyron from what

it niiglit

have been

if

he had been trained to

early habits of obedience

and

self-denial,

and

had been taught

to

make use

of those powers

of attention and reflection which

God

has conof us,

is

ferred to a greater or less extent on

all

but which run to waste

if

neglected.
in

It

by

no means impossible that

savages there

some nation of

may be an

individual with such

natural endoAvments, that, if placed under exactly

similar circumstances, he miglit

have become
assured that

another Xewton; and

we may be

Newton would have been

what he
really was, if

quite diiferent from

he had been born and

bred among the Aborigines of Australia.

external circumstances on which the

The

mind more

immediately depends are the organs of sense,

as it is

through them that

derived,

all

kuowledo;e

is it

originally

and

as

without

them

would have none of the materials of thought.

The mind

of an individual
or

who

labours under
deafness,

congenital blindness,

congenital
as

cannot

fail

to

be imperfect

compared with

that of others, except where great pains are

N 3

182

INFLUENCE OE EXTERNAL

bestowed on the application of those means

which science has furnished

deficiency
;

for supplying the

and the imperfection

in those instances in

must

be

greater

still

which these

two calamities are unhappily combined.

Ergates.

You may

extend your observa-

tions to other animals,

and add, that as among

them there

is

a considerable difference as to the

structure and relative value of the oro;ans of

sense, so this

must be taken

into the account if

we would form even

In birds the eye
evidently a

a rough estimate (and

we

can form no other) of their mental condition.

is

a more complicated, and

it

more

perfect, organ than

is

in

our

own

species, or in the

mammalia

generally.

The eye

of an eagle
;

is

nearly as large as that

of an elephant

he has a wider range of vision,

at

and can distinguish objects which they would be

tible.

distance at

to us altogether unpercep-

In

this respect

he has means of obtain-

ing knowledge which

men

do not possess, and

so far has an advantage over us.

Having the

power of ascending
atmosphere,
it is

to the higher regions of the

plain that the external world

SENSES, ETC. ON

THE MIND.

183

must be presented

to

him

iimlcr a very difFcrent

it is

aspect from that under wliich

ourselves.

presented to

But

this

is

no solitary instance.

There are many other animals Avhich have

organs of sense more perfect, and

many

others

which have them

the

less perfect,

than they are in

human
be,
it

race

and whatever that difference

to a like result
if

may

must lead

by modi-

fying their perceptions, and,

may be allowed

the expression, their notions of things external

to themselves.

EuBULUS.
otherwise.

We

cannot suppose

it

to

be

The astronomer who contemplates

the planets and the Milky

Way, and

discovers

revolving stars and remote nebulas

the telescope,

by means of

may be

regarded, as far as the

heavenly bodies are concerned, as being endowed with another sense, so that the impressions which they produce on his mind must be quite different

from those which they produce on the mind of

the peasant,
that which

who knows nothing

of them beyond

is

disclosed to his unassisted vision.

But how much

be
if his

greater difference would there

eye were so constructed that, without

N
4

184

INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL
it

the aid of glasses,

answered the purpose of a

telescope for distant objects, and of a microscope

for others

Erg AXES.
sight than

The dog

distinguishes external

objects from each other less

by

his sense

of

by

his sense of smell, of

which

last

we
to

ourselves

make

so little use.

The whiskers

of a cat, each having a special nerve belonging

it,

form a much more delicate organ of touch

than the

human

fingers.

There

is

reason to

believe that some insects are enabled to take

cognisance

of the

electric

state

of the

at-

mosphere, as
cold.

we

take cognisance of heat and

of insects are very different
classes of animals,

The eyes

from the eyes of the higher

consisting sometimes of as

many

as a thousand

hexagonal and transparent

plates, arranged, not

in the same plane, but at angles to each other,

so as to

form altogether a large portion of a

it

sphere, each having belonging to

to

what seems
eyes such
differ-

be

its

own

peculiar retina.

With

as these the vision of insects

must be very

ent from ours, having an enormous range, with

no such

distinct picture as is

formed on the hu-

SENSES, ETC.

ON TUE MIND.
its

185

man

retina,

and i)robably affording

possessor

less perfect

means of

distinguisiiing near

and

distant objects from each other.

On

the other

hand, the mole has an imperfect eye, and the

mus

ti/phlus, or

subterraneous

rat,

the pi'oteus,

and the

siren, are altogether

deprived of the

sense of sight.

It is plain that the relations of

these animals to the external world, and their

conceptions of objects external to themselves,

must

differ

according to the difference in their

respective faculties of sense.

Still,

as

Frederic Cuvier justly observes,

not, therefore, exaggerate the influ-

"

we must

ence of the organs of sense on the mental

functions
;

nor can we admit the doctrine wliich

held, that the perfection of

some authors have

the intellect depends very

much on

the greater

or less perfection of these physical organs."*

This

is,

indeed, clearly an hypothesis unsupfacts.

ported by

The eye and

ear of the seal

are so constructed that

he must have very

moderate powers of sight and hearing, and,

*

Annales du

Museum d'Histoire

Xaturelle, tome xvi.

p. 5-4.

186

KATUEE AND OFFICE

medium
of his whiskers,
it

except through the

may be

said that

he has no sense of touch at alh

Nevertheless, the philosopher

whom I have just

named, who had ample opportunities of studying

the habits of the seals in the Jardin des Plantes,
describes

them as being possessed of intelligence

above the average of that which belongs even

to the higher classes of the

mammalia.*

EuBULUS.
just

The remarks which you have

are equally applicable to the

now made

hypothesis which some one has advanced, that

man

is

made what he

is

by the possession of

the hand, as a more perfect organ of prehension

peculiar to himself; and thus Ave
fall

back on
liis

your original proposition,

physical organization
is

that, as far as
it is

concerned,

in that

of the brain alone that

we

are to look for the

evidence of his superiority to other creatures.

Crites.

may now

venture to

make an
before,

observation, which I should have

if

made

I had not been unwilling to Interrupt the

conversation.

When

you speak of

instinct, as

* Annales
p. 397.

du Museum

d'Histoire Naturelle,

tome

xvii.

OF INSTINCT.

187

contradistingulslied to the higher faculties of

the intellect, 1 conclude that you refer to a principle

it

as

by

Avhlch animals are induced, in-

dependently of experience and reasoning, to the

performance of certain voluntary

are

acts,

which

necessary to their preservation as indi-

viduals, or the continuance of the species, or in

some other way convenient

would ask
tinction
is

to them.

Kow
this

if it

be quite clear that

dis-

well founded ?

Has

it

not been the

opinion of some physiologists that by a careful

analysis of

what are

called instinctive actions,

they

may be

traced to the operation of ex-

perience, quite as

much

as

those which are

this source ?

more palpably derived from

Ergates.
first

You may
was apt

refer especially to the

Dr. Darwin, whose great but too discurto travel too fast for the

sive genius

cautious pursuits of science.

Let me
to

state

a few facts, and then leave

yourself.

you

judge for

Food

is

required

because
it.

life

cannot be

maintained without

But no one under

ordinary circumstances thinks of this ultimate

188
object.

NATURE AND OFFICE

We

have an uneasy sensation which

it is

we

call

hunger, and

merely to remove
This
is

this

sensation that

we

are led to eat.

it

the

simplest form of instinct, and

goes far towards

explaining others which are more complicated.

The

desire for food

as

is

the same in the newly-

born child

in

the grown-up

man

and

when

applied to his mother's breast he

knows
several

at once

how

to obtain

it

by bringing

pairs of muscles of his

mouth and

throat suc-

cessively into action,

suction.

making the process of

calf

The newly-born

knows

at once
legs, to
is

how

to balance himself

on his four

walk, and seek the food with which he

plied

sup-

by

his mother.

The duckling hatched

muscular powers are

by the hen,

as soon as his

sufficiently developed, is impelled

by the

desire

to enter the neighbouring pond,

and when in

the water, without example or instruction, he

calls certain

muscles into action, and

a sow
it is is

is

enabled
litter,

to swim.

When

delivered of a

each young pig as

born runs at once to

take possession of one of his mother's nipples,

which he considers

as

his peculiar

property

OF INSTINCT.
ever aftenvards.

189
prepares
his
in-

So the bee

honey-comb, and the wasp his paper nest,

dependently of
It
is

all

experience or instruction.

worth your while to refer to the luminous

exposition which

Lord Brougham has given of

accuracy with which the

the

mathematical

former does his work.

it is

Yet I do not

see that see

at all

more marvellous than what we

calf.

in the

yoimg

It

would require a profound

knowledge of mechanics, and a long investigation, to

determine beforehand what muscles

should be called into action, and in what order

they should
self this

act, to

enable him to balance him-

on

his feet, to stand

and walk.
if it

Yet

all

he accomplishes at once, as

were a
these

mere matter of course.

I do not see

how

and a thousand other things can be explained

on the hypothesis of Darwin, or otherwise
than by supposing that certain feelings exist

which lead

to the voluntarv exercise of certain

muscles, and to the performance of certain acts,

without any reference at the time to the

ulti-

mate object

for

which these
It

acts are required.

it is

EuBULUS.

would seem that

in the

190

INTELLIGENCE AND

proportion which their instincts and intelligence

bear to each other that the difference between

the mind of

man and

that of other animals

is

chiefly consists.

Reasoning
is

not peculiar to

the former, nor

instinct peculiar to the latter.

Even

as regards insects,

which are generally,

as

and properly, regarded

being below the

vertebrate animals in the scale of existence, and

whose nervous system

is

of so simple a struc-

ture as to admit of no comparison with that of the

human

subject,

we cannot

well hesitate to

believe that they are not altogether deprived of

that higher faculty which enables ourselves to

apply the results of our experience to the

circumstances under which

new

we

are placed.

" Esse apibus partem divina3 mentis,"

is

no mere

fiction of poetry.

It

is

by

instinct

that the bee collects his honey, and constructs

the hexagonal cells of

liis

honey-comb (always

according to the same pattern) from the

furnished for that purpose
tions.

wax

by

his

own

secreall

But

instinct will

not account for

t,SAt.

INSTINCT OF INSECTS.
that he docs besides.
ferred to a

191
Is

When
placed

swann

trans-

new hive

among many others,

at first they arc found frequently mistaking

other hives for their own, and

it

is

only by

experience that they are taught after some time

to distinguish the particular hive in

which

their

queen

is

lodged.*

Their habit

is

to build their

honey-comb from above downwards, attaching

it

to the

upper part of the hive.

large portion of the
oif

On

one occa-

sion
liad

when a

honey-comb

been broken

they pursued another

course.

The fragment had somehow become

and the bees
structure of

fixed in the middle of the hive,

immediately began to erect a

new

comb on

the floor, so placed as to form a pillar

its

supporting the fragment, and preventing

further descent.

They then

filled

up the space

above, joining the

comb which had become deit

tached to that from which

had been separated,

and they concluded

theu' labours

by removing
;

the newly-constructed

comb below thus prov-

* Principles of Physiology,

by

W.

Carpenter,

M.D.

Second Edition,

p. 224.

192

INSECTS.
it

ing that they had intended

to

answer a
on

merely temporary purpose.

I state this

the authority of a gentleman whose attention has been

inquiries.

much

directed to these and similar

The

observations of

M. Dujardin

place

it

beyond a doubt that bees have some means

of

communicating with each other, answering the

purpose of speech.

When

a saucer containing

syrup was placed in a recess in a wall, and a

bee conveyed to
it

on the end of a stick which

had been

also

smeared with syrup, he remained

there for five or six minutes, and then flew back

to his hive.

In about a quarter of an hour

thirty other bees issued from the

same hive, and

came

to regale themselves

on the contents of
hive con-

the saucer.

The bees from the same

visits as lono; as

tinued their

the sugar remained

for their purpose,

in the state of syrup and

fit

but none came from another hive in the neighbourhood.

When

the sugar was dry, the saucer

was deserted, except that every now and then

a straggler came, as
if to

inspect

it,

and
it

if

he

found that by the addition of water

was

INSECTS.

93

again in a state of syrup his visit was presently

followed by that of numerous others.*
If even a portion of the observations

made

by the younger Huber on ants be well-founded,

these
little

creatures

must be regarded

as pos-

sessing, in addition to their instincts,

no small

portion of intelligence.

It
is

is

observed by a

modern writer that " there

cal pursuit in

hardly a mechaniexcel.

which insects do not

They

are

excellent weavers, house-builders, archi

tects.

They make

diving-bells, bore galleries,

raise vaults, construct bridges.

They

line their

houses with tapestry, clean

them, ventilate
fitted

them, and close them with admirably

s^ving-doors.

They build and

store warehouses,

construct traps in the greatest variety, hunt

skilfully,

rob and plunder.

They

poison, sabre,
social

and strangle their enemies.

laws, a

They have

common

language, division of labour,

and gradations of rank.

They maintain

armies,

go to war, send out scouts, appoint

sentinels,

carry off prisoners, keep slaves, and tend do-

Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tome

xviii. p.

233.

194
mestic animals.

INSECTS.

In

short, tliey are a miniature

copy of

man

rather than that of the inferior

vertebrata." *

Of

these things

which have

been thus

graphically

described

much may

indeed be referred to the operation of instincts,

or to Avhat Dr. Carpenter terms

" unconscious

cerebration " but surely

it

involves a consider-

able petitio principii not to refer a part of

them

to a higher principle, bearing a resemblance,

however remote,
It

to

human

intelligence.

would be easy to extend observations such

as these to other parts of the animal creation.

We see,

among

the

mammalia and

birds,

even

those which are the least intellio;ent neverthelesa availing

themselves of the lessons of extheir proceedings to the

perience,

and adapting

new circumstances under which they

are placed

while with respect to the gregarious animals,

it is

plain that their association could not be

maintained unless they had certain rules of

conduct among themselves, and the power of

communicating their wants and feelings

to

* British

and Foreign Medical Keview, No. 23.

p. 10.

HUMAN

INSTINCTS.

195

each other by some kind of language, however imperfect

it

may
is

be.

On

the other hand,

man, gifted

as

he

with such (comparatively)

reflection

vast capacity of

memory and
;

with
gift,

such powers of observation

having the

not merely of language, but of articulate speech,

and the use of words

"those shadows of the

which render the mere
orators,

soul, those living sounds,

clown an
poets,

nations immortal philosophers, divine!"* by means

artist

of

which he lays up stores of knowledge, not only

for

himself and for those

now

in existence,

but also for generations which are to come;

living not

merely in the present time, but also

in the past,

and even in the future; Avhose

aspirations lead

him

to

inquiries of a higher

nature,
in

beyond the
is

visible

and tangible world

as

which he
in

placed;

even man, such

when he

he

is, is

many

respects the creature of instincts

and what would he be without them?

Ergates has already remarked,

As
seeks

The

versal

Pliilosopliy of Language, comprehending unigrammar, by Sir John Stoddart, LL.D., second

edition, p. 1.

See additional note H. o 2

196
food
it is

HUMAN
at the

INSTINCTS,
his reason

moment, not because

tell

and experience
without
it,

him

that he
is

would die

but because he

impelled to do so
it

by the uneasy sensations which the want of

occasions.

So

also is thirst

an

instinct.

The
by

child

is

attracted to the mother's breast

instinct.

The

love of the parent for the chUd,

and the desire to avoid danger and prolong

life,

are instincts also.

Man could not exist as He has neither swiftness

a solitary being.
of
feet,

nor any

natural means of offence and defence, which

would enable him to compete with the

the lion, or the wolf.
little avail

buffalo,

It

would have been of

it

to

him

if

the Creator had left

to

himself to learn

by hard

experience, and any

wisdom

of his own, that he can procure his

own
by

safety,

and

his

means of

subsistence, only

associating with others.

is

The

desire to live

in society
is

as

much an

instinct in

him

as

it

in the bee, or the ant, or the beaver, or the

prairie dog.

Ought not

this to settle the dis-

puted question as to the existence of a moral

sense
?

For how could mankind

live in society.

HUMAN

INSTINCTS.

197

helping and protecting each other, and joining

in

common

pursuits, if they

were not so con-

structed as to sympathise with each other in

tlieu*

joys and sorrows, and

if

they did not feel

indi\-idually that

they owe to others what they

oflfcr

expect others to

them

in return.

Ex-

perience and reason, and, if

interest,

you

please, self-

tend to confirm, to refine, to exalt

these sentiments, but they do not create them.

The

cliild is

led to seek the society of other

resist,

children

by an impulse which he cannot

is

and which
operation.
qualities,

independent of any intellectual

so,

But having done

his

moral

which would otherwise have remained

gradually developed,

in

abeyance, are

and

(except there be some actual imperfection of

the mental faculties) the

power of distinguish-

ing right from wrong, justice from injustice,

follows as a matter of necessity, the result of

an innate
acquired.

principle,

and

not

of

anything

C RITES.
to
tliis

All that you have

now

stated leads

conclusion, that although

it is

only as to

the higher faculties of the

o 3

mind

that

mankind

198

INTELLIGENCE
;

propius accedunt ad Deos

that

it is

only as to
in his

these that the Deity has created

man
less

own image

it is

not

less true that as to

mere

animal existence these are of

much

importIf

ance than the lower faculties of

instinct.

the Deity had no other intention than that of

maintaining on the surface of the globe a large

number of

living beings susceptible of enjoy-

ment and indulging in sensual gratifications, with

a very small proportion of painful feelings, such intention would have been suflSciently carried

out by the creation of animals endowed with

imperfect memory, with no capability of experience, with no thought as to the future, and

acting solely under the direction of instinct.

That the scheme of creation

and that
object,
it

is

not thus limited,

tends to some ulterior and grander

well conclude from the existence

we may

of that principle of intelligence, the dawning of

which we observe

in the lower animals,

and

which we find more completely developed in

the

human

race.

EuBULUS.

It seems, indeed, to

be as you

have stated, that animals may, and that some

!*V

AND

INSTINCTS.

199

animals probably do, exist by means of instinct

alone,

and without possessing

any

of

the

superior intellectual faculties.

The converse
would be

of this proposition, however, does not hold

good, and
it is

plain that the latter

quite insufficient unless they were accompanied

by

instinct.

Without

it,

experience and the

anticipation of

what

is

to

come founded on the

would be the only

recollection of the

past,

guide, and these of course cannot belong to the

newly-created or newly-born animal.

Indeed,
first

we cannot but suppose

began to
exist,

that

when man

and

for
liis

some generations
instincts
it is

after-

wards, the range of

must have been

at the present

much more
time.

extensive than

We

see the infant first dcrivino- nom'ishhis mother's breast,

is

ment from

but when the

period of lactation

over, the experience of his

fit

parents supplies him with the

kind of food
of

derived from other sources.

The absence
first

such experience must. In the

instance,

have been supplied by a faculty which he does

not

now

possess (but which

we

see manifested
to seek that

in the lower animals), directing o 4

him

200
which
is

INTELLIGENCE
nutritious,
is

and to avoid that which

actually poisonous.
It

is
is

not so, or which

easy to conceive that

habits and actions of

much

besides

in

the

human

beings which seem

now

to be the results of experience

and imiinstinct

tation,

was

originally to

be traced to

and indeed there are many things which cannot

well be explained otherwise.
ture
to

I do not venfirst

say that from this source he

fire:

derived the use of

yet

it

does

not

seem that in such an

instinct there Avould

be

anything more remarkable than in that which

leads the bee with the skill of a mathemati-

cian

to

construct his hexagonal

cells;

and

considerino-

how

terrible

and destructive an

agent

fire, if

discovered accidentally, must have

it is diflicult

appeared to be,

to conceive

how

uncivilized and untutored

man

could have been

it

led

by mere experience

to convert

to the

purposes of his
It

own

comfort and convenience.

may be

further observed that except in the

is

tropical regions of the globe fire

almost as

necessary to his existence as food or clothing,

ind that without
it

he could not have

filled

AND

INSTINCTS.

201'

that place which he seems to have been destined

to
fill

in the creation.

It

was probably under

tlie

influence of views similar to these that the

fable of

Heathen mythologists invented the

Prometheus havins; stolen
it

from the Gods.

study the habits of

On
many

the other hand, if

we

other animals,

we

cannot doubt that there are

which, however

much they
also

are dependent

on their

instincts, profit
less

by experience,

though in a

degree than

man

and

it

is

probable that these, not less than the

species,

human
were

when

first called

into existence

endowed with
possess.

instincts

which they do not now

Eegates.
ment, I

Continuing your line of arguobserve that the circulation of the

may

blood, respiration, digestion, the secretion of the kidneys, being immediately necessary to
life,

are

nearly the same under

all

circum-

stances, being subject to

no material variation

except

when

interrupted

by accident

or disease.

There are certain

observation
lunatic

instincts to

which the same

may be

applied.

patient in a

asylum may, as a consequence of his

202

ACQUIRED AND

malady, lose the instinct which constitutes the

desire for food, so that he
if

would

die of inanition

food were not introduced into his stomach by

artificial

means

or he

may

lose the instinct of

suicide.

self-preservation

and commit

But

otherwise these particular instincts are as invariable as the functions of the vital organs.

There are other

instincts

which are intended

to

adapt the animal to the peculiar situation in

which he

is

placed,

and

liable to

vary with the

circumstances for

which they are required.

Acquired habits in several successive generations

become

permanent, and

assume

the

character of instincts, and thus

we have

the

opportunity of seeing
I walked in the
fields

new

instincts generated.

during the autumn with

a young pointer dog which had never been

in the fields before.

He

not only pointed at a

covey of partridges, but remained motionless,

like

a well-trained dog.

M. Magendie

relates

an analogous anecdote of a retriever.

liim as a

He bought
trained

puppy

in

England, and took him to

France.

Though never having been

for the purpose,

he knew his duty as a retriever,

it

and performed

sufiiciently well

when taken

HEREDITARY INSTINCTS.
into the fields.

203
rrlven

Mr. Andrew Knight has

facts of the

an account of other
is

same kind.

It

probable that

if

we had

the opportunity of

studying the conditions of the herds of wild

horses which

roam over the

prairies of

America,

we

shoiild find that

they are born with instincts

in their

which their ancestors did not possess

domesticated state, and which they would lose

if again

brought under subjection to man.

Crites.
right

May

not the habit of using the

hand

in preference to the left

be one of

the acquired instincts to which you have

referred ?

now

Ergates.
is

Certainly

it

may be

so.

But

it

at least as probable that it

was an

original

instinct.

We

know

that

some

individuals are
is

left-handed,

but the proportion of them

very small, and I

am

not aware that there has

ever been a left-handed nation.

The reason

of

our being endowed with this particular instinct

is

sufficiently obvious.

How much
it is

inconveni-

ence "would arise where

necessary for dif-

ferent individuals to co-operate in

tions, if

manual opera-

some were

to use

one hand and some

the other?

204

ACQUIRED AND
that

However

may

be,

we must

suppose that

the conversion of an acquired habit into an

instinct
is

attended with some actual change in

;

the organization of the brain

is

and

in this there

nothing more remarkable than in

many

other

changes which occur in animals in consequence

of an alteration in their
the

mode

of

life.

Tims

thorough-l)red horse

has more

compact

bones and a thinner skin than the cart-horse.

The

elei)hant Avhich
ice

had been preserved

in a

mass of

on the borders of the Northern

is

ocean was covered with hair, which

altogether
;

wanting among
still

his kindred of the

South

and

more remarkable examples of changes of

kind

this

may

be found among our domesticated

animals, especially in dogs.

Crites.

Tills is

a subject which

is

not only

interesting as a matter of science, but also of

considerable practical importance. Setting aside

his

physical

condition, and

the

influence

of

another climate on his health, would the infant

born of Esquimaux parents, living in huts of

snow, in the dreary regions of the north, be
equally fitted with the negro to assume the

HEREDITARY INSTINCTS.
habits and

205

mode

of

life

of those whose ancestors

have resided during

many successive generations

or would the infant

under a tropical sun, amid the luxuriant vegetation of a tropical climate

?

nesrro be fitted to vmdertake the life

of the

Esquimaux ? The negroes of

at once

Haiti,

who

passed

from a
the

state of slavery into that of free-

dom and

imitation

of civilized

life,

are

already relapsing into barbarism, and returning,

in spite of the
ianity,

humanising influence of Christ-

to

the superstitions of their African

progenitors.

In

like

manner, nations become

adapted to the peculiar mode of government

under which their ancestors have lived

experience has shown that
it is

and

equally dan-

gerous suddenly to change a despotism for a

free constitution, or the latter for a despotism.

The

original founders of the

French revolution

had grand objects in view.

They saw how

much
racter

free institutions tend to elevate the cha-

and extend the happiness of mankind, and

they had a strong apprehension of the opposite

tendency of the former government of their

country.

But they overlooked the

fact, that

206

OTHER INSTINCTS MODIFIED

is

no government
to live

good

for

which those who are

under

it

are unprepared, and they failed

by attempting

too much.

If they had been

content with beginning the work of regeneration with a prospect of a further, but gradual

improvement
it is

in the course of after generations,

probable that their country would never

have groaned under the tyranny of the mob,

nor have sought refuge from
it

under the

milder despotism of the Emperor.

On

the

same principle

it is

that civilization can be only

;

gradually advanced

and that

all

that the Czar

Peter could accomplish was to produce an out-

ward semblance of

it

in his capital, while the

masses of the large population of his empire

remained as barbarous as they were before he

attempted to force civilization on them.

The

sudden emancipation of the negroes in the

slave-holding states of

America would be pro-

ductive

of

notliing

but misery and ruin to

;

themselves and the white popidation

there
result
is

whUe

good reason

to believe that a different

if

would follow

they and their masters

for so great a

were gradually prepared

change

BY THE SOCIAL INSTINCT.

during even
rations.

207

two or three successive gene-

EuBULUS.
have
in

In what you
anticipated
oflPer.

liave

now

said

you

part

some observations

which I was about to

While the study

is

of instincts in other animals

the naturalist and
instincts of the

interesting to

physiologist,
is

that

of

the

himian race

not less interest-

ing to the moral, and, I

philosopher.

may add, to the political

of instincts belong-

The majority

ing to

man resemble those of the inferior animals,

as they relate to the preservation of the

inasmuch

individual and the continuation of the species.

To

tliese

the social instinct

is

superadded, not

indeed, peculiar to man, but in

him

attaining a

greater degree of development than in other

creatures.

This

may be

regarded as being in
to the other instincts;
exist, it is

many respects antagonistic

and in order that society should

necessary that the latter shoidd be in a great

degree subjected to the former.

The

first

impulse of a hungry man, not less than that of

a hungry wolf,
is

to possess himself with food

it.

wherever he

finds

AYhfiCJiu^ Davy, on

208

THE EELIGIOUS INSTINCT.

young
newly-

the bank of a river in Ceylon, found the

alligator just escaping

from

his egg, the

born animal, assuming an attitude of defiance,

bit the stick

which opposed

his progress.
is

So

the natural disposition of

tion

man

to defy opposi-

and resent an

inj ury.

The

child

who can

scarcely walk, beats the table against

which he
is

has struck his head.

The

social

instinct

intended not to extinguish but to modify and

correct his other instincts.

But

for the attain-

ment of

this object it is not in itself sufficient.

It requires the aid of experience, education,

example, and reason.

tellectual faculties are
social instinct

In proportion as the

in-

elephant
tio:er.

cat, so

COO
more
efficient.
is

more

perfect, so is the

The gregarious
solitary

more

intelligent than the

is

As

the dog;

more

intelligent than the

has he social and moral qualities wh'ch

;

the latter does not possess

and in

like

manner

human

society

is

a more perfect institution than

that of any other animals which live in association.

Nor must we omit the operation of another

cause which mainly contributes to the attainment

of that higher degree of civilization in which the

THE KELIGIOUS INSTINCT.

sentiment of duty prevails over the more
apj)etites.

209
selfish

The

disposition of

man, even

in

liis

most degraded
agencies
is

state, to believe in

supernatural

so universal,

and

so manifestly the

result of his peculiar constitution, that

we must

regard

it

as ha^'ing very

much

of the character
in

of an instinct.

As he advance^

knowledge
reflection,

and has

leisure for observation

and

the perception of

the beauty, grandeur, and

hannony of the universe, of the evidence of

intention and design,

and of the adaptation of

and

means

to ends in everything around him,

of the large

amount of good with the small prowhich

is

jjortion of e\i\,

manifested in the con

dition of all living creatures, leads

him

to the

knowledge of an
Creator, to
sponsible

intelligent

and beneficent

whom
is

he 7ay at any rate be refaculties

for

the right use of the

with which he
lifHous

endowed; and thus the

re-

sentiment becomes eno-rafted on the

rude instinct of the savage.

Thus,

man

as

he exists under the best form of

is

civilization,

made what he

is

by the operation of various

his original instincts, with-

causes.

There are

210

PRIMARY TRUTHS OF

out which he could no more have continued

to exist than without the action of the heart.

There are

habits,

which begun

in one,

and

continued in subsequent generations, become

confirmed in him, and bear a close resemblance to instincts.

These modify and correct

all,

each other, and they are

less degree,
lect.

in a greater or
intel-

under the dominion of the

is

Such

the

general
;

view wliich we
if

must take of
to

his condition

but

we attempt
it,

make

more exact

analysis of

we

find

the problem too complicated for a satisfactory

solution
;

the various influences to which he

is

subject being so intermixed with each other,

that

it

is

unpossible for us

to

determine in
of his sen-

each particular instance

timents and conduct
is

how much
to another.

to be attributed to

one

of them, and

how much

Crites.
tion of

You have

referred to the disposi-

human

beings to believe in supernatural

agencies as partaking of the character of instincts.

If you are correct in so doing,

it

seems

to

me

that

you may with equal reason include

in the existence

in the

same category our belief

; ;

BUFFIEE AND EEID.

of a material world
;

211

our belief that what

we
in

remember
reality
;

as

having happened, happened

in short, in all that

some have

in-

tended to describe under the name of innate

ideas;

and that

Buffier,

and Reid

after him,

regarded as primary and fundamental truths

the knowledge of wliich
is

forced upon us
is

by

our

own

constitution,

and

independent of
I

experience and reasoning.

Xow, although

do not admit the exactness of the catalogue of

these primary truths, which has been furnished
to us

by the

writers

whom

I have mentioned,

and, indeed, do not doubt that they have in-

cluded in

it

some kinds of knowledge which

are derived from other sources, yet I do not

dispute the correctness of their general views

and, indeed,
tically

it is

plain that

it

has been prac-

admitted by even the most sceptical of

those philosophers
subject.

who have

written on the

But

are

we

really justified in regard-

ing such kinds of belief as being of the nature

of instinct
?

EuBULUS.

They

difier

from them in one

It has

very essential circumstance.

F 2

been shown

212

PRIMARY TRUTHS,

ETC.

that instmcts are far from being constant and

immutable, as under a change of circumstances

certain instincts are lost, so are others generated.

Even

those which are of the greatest

necessity,

which seem to be the most constant,

to

may, under certain circumstances, be found

be wanting in an individual on

whom

they had
it

been fully developed previously.

But

is

otherwise with those articles of prunary belief

which are represented

our knowledge.

as the foundation of all

However

strange

may be

the

illusions of the lunatic, or

however convincing

the arguments of the metaphysician, neither the one nor the other can escape from the belief that

there

is

an external world independent

of himself, or that what he remembers to have

happened did actually occur.

things
into

Taking these
seems not un-

consideration,

it

reasonable to suppose that this class of convictions has

some higher source than that which

belongs to mere instincts, and that they are

actually inherent in the mental principle
itself,

and independent of our physical organization.


213

THE SIXTH DliVLOGUE.

Views of Nature

Human
its

Nature.

The

Science

Objects and Applications

of
to

Human
be
dis-

tinguished in its higher

IVactical

Department from the mere Knowledge of Human Character which Men acquire for their own Purposes. Different Opportunities of piirsuing the Study of Human Nature pre-

sented to different Individuals.

the Influence of the

The Observation of
the Mind, and of the

Body on

Mind on
Science of

the Body, a necessary Part of

Human Nature essential Government. The Pretensions Anatomical Objections to it. Observations on the Evidence on which It rests. Consideration of the

The to the Science of of Phrenology.

it.

Question as to the Relation of the Size of the Brain to

the Development of the Intellect.

General View of
or modify

the Circumstances which

The Science of Men's Characters. not reducible to any Simple Rules.

necessary for the Pursuit of
it.

tend to form

Qualifications

Human Nature

Self-knowledge.
visit

Duties and Responsibilities.

Conclusion.
On
the day preceding

The

term which we had allotted for our

to a close.

was drawing

that of our departure, after wandering for

some

time exposed to the rays of an August sun,

we

found ourselves enjoying the shelter of the beech

P 3


214

TIEWS OF

wood, which I have already mentioned as being

in the

neighbourhood of our

friend's habitation.

A tree which had been lately felled afforded us a

seat.

The

cool shade

was refreshing

to us after

the glare and heat of the sunshine in the open

country

and the

stillness

and

silence

which

prevailed afforded us the opportunity of renew-

ing our conversation on subjects connected with

those which

we had

discussed previously.

"

It

is

probable," said Crites,

" that such

;

feelings

might not be of long duration

but I
scene

own

that at the present

is

moment

the

which

presented to

me

forms a delightful

contrast to the bustle and activity of

my every-

day

life

and that

it

seems that I should be

well contented to escape from the turmoil of

the world, and the anxieties of a profession,

and pass the

tirement as
"

rest of

my

days in some such re-

this,

'

The world

forgetting,

by the world

forgot.'

exchanging the study of the

vices, caprices,

and

vagaries of mankind, for that of books and the

contemplation of the beauties of the country."

HUMAN NATURE.
EuBULUS.

215
in

You judged

rightly

saying

that these feelings

tion.

might not be of long dura-

I can assure

you from

my own

expe-

rience, that such a

mode

x)f life as

you seem to

contemplate would never satisfy you unless you

were

to

combine with

it

some worthy pursuit

appertaining to others as well as to yourself.

You

would,

if

thus living only for yourself,

soon find the social instinct of which

we were
by
if

speaking yesterday, as irresistible as that of

hunger

so that

you might

as well pretend

a process of reasoning to abstain from eating

you were famished,

as

from seeking the society

of your fellow-creatures,
for

when you had been

it.

some time deprived of

it

Further,

seems to

me

that

you are not like

your usual
justice to

self,

and that you do not quite do

to

mankind, when you refer merely

caprices,
is

theii- vices,

and vagaries.

It

is

true

that of these there

much

in their composition,

which we mio-ht well wish to have been otherwise

;

but

let

us not overlook the numerous

examples which

we meet
p 4

with, of kind

and

216

THE STUDY OF
sacrifices

generous actions, of

of self-interest
private,

made

for the

good of others in
life.

and

sometimes even in public

lived long in the world,

I have

now

and have been mixed

;

up with various

classes of persons

and I may
evil

truly say that, although I have

met with

more than enough

in others,

and am not, I

hope, altogether insensible of

my own

defects

and faUiugs,

my

individual experience has led

me
of
if

to entertain,

on the whole, a better opinion

mankind than that which I should have had

I had studied the subject only in books.
it

speak, be

observed, of moral qualities.

As

to those of the intellect I

since,

own, that some time

when

I had the opportunity of passing

an evening in the company of two lads belonging to the aborigines of Australia, I was lost in

wonder, and could scarcely comprehend that

from so rude a stock should have proceeded

a race of beings so gifted as some

of these

with

whom

it

has been

my

good fortune to
;

be acquainted;

so full of

knowledge

pene;

trating into the mysteries of the material world

subjecting the physical forces to their will

at

HUMAN NATURE.
the same time analysing the

217

phenomena of the
to

mind

itself;

and ascending from thence

some

knowledge, however limited, of the one Supreme

Intellect
verse.

which supports and regulates the unius,

To

situated as

we

are,

with our
is,

duties and in our sphere of action, there

apprehend, no more woi'thy object of study

than

man

himself;

his

instincts

and higher

faculties, his

past history, his futm*e destiny

in short, the in its

it is

" science of human nature" taken

sense.

most extended

And

in this sense

a most extensive science indeed, including

does anatomy and physiology
;

as

it

intellectual,

moral, and political philosophy

I

ethnology, and

know

not

how much

besides.

Even

the most

abstract sciences, though not directly, are indirectly related to

it,

as

we

value them only in

proportion as they tend to gratify the curiosity,

supply the necessities, or elevate the character

of man.

As we commonly imderstand
human nature

it,

how-

ever, the science of

has a more

limited signification, implying a knowledge of

the instincts, the passions, the intellectual capacities, the active

power of our

species,

and.

218
above
all,

THE STUDY OF
the motives
is

by

whicli the conduct of

individuals

regulated.

Crites.
it, it

Such

as

you have now described

which belongs
as to

may be

said to be a science,

as

much

to every individual

among us

the philosopher, dependant as

other,

we

are

on each

and compelled as we are to learn somewith

thino; of the characters of those

whom we

associate.

The

rich

man's valet studies his

master's temper and caprices, learns to antici-

pate his wants

in those matters in

which he

is

himself concerned, saves him the trouble of act-

ing and even of thinking for himself ; and thus

at last acquires an influence over him,

which

is

not the less real because his master

scious of
it.

is

uncon-

The

statesman, the lawyer, the

merchant, the medical practitioner, the speculator, these

and others, in their several ways,

it

study the disposition of other men, as far as

is

necessary for them to do

so,

with a view to

their

own

advantage, or to enable them better

to perform the duties belonging to their respective callino;s.

EuBULUS.

It seems,

however, that

we

are

HUMAN NATURE.
scarcely justified in

2 9
I

dignifying the practical

knowledge of human nature which men generally possess

with the

title

of a science.

For

the most part they view

its

it

under only one of

numerous aspects

the sight of each indilittle

vidual not extending beyond the

clique to

which he himself belongs

to

and there are none

appli-

whom

this

remark

is

more generally

cable than to those, who, independent of their

own

exertions, are born to the inheritance of

ease and affluence.

Those who study human

nature as a whole form an exception to the

general ride.
servation
;

Some have

not the talent of ob-

others have not the necessary lei-

sure

and of those who are not wanting in

these respects the greater part have not the

inclination to do so.

Crites.

You may add

that

many have

not

the opportunity.

Inquiries such as these can-

not be carried on in a closet.

altogether to active
life.

They belong
it

Then be
you come

observed

that in some situations

in contact

only with a particular

field

class,

while in others the

extensive. It seems

of obser\-ation

is

more

220
to

THE STUDY OF
that medical practitioners, if they
it,

me

know

how

to avail themselves of

have in

this re;

spect an advantage over most other professions

partly, because they have to deal with every

order in society, from the high-born patrician

and prosperous millionnaire, down to the poor

man
are,

in the hospital, seeing

them

as they really
trial,

under those circumstances of

else,

which,

more than anything

distinctions
;

level all artificial

but more

especially, because they

are necessarily led to contemplate the mind,

not simply in the abstract, as

the
tlie

is

the case with

mere metaphysician, but

physical
structure

in connexion with
it is

with which

as-

sociated.

Ergates.
have

Certainly the opinion which you

now

expressed seems not to be without

It
is

foundation.

the business of medical prac-

titioners to study, not only the influence of the

mind on the body, but

the mind
;

also that of the

body on

and, in so doing, they have the oppor-

tunity of learning more than others to trace

moral

effects to physical caviseB.

Where

others
it

complain of a fretful and peevish temper,

HUMAN NATURE.
may be
that they are led to

221

make allowance
where there

for the difficulty of self-restraint,

is

a superabundance of

litliic

acid in the blood,

or an organic disease of the viscera.

catalepsy induced in a nervous girl
called

In the
so-

by the

mesmeric passes, they see only one of

the numerous phases of that multiform disease

hysteria
;

and in the mischievous, and sometimes

his

even in the benevolent enthusiast, who, by

sincerity

and earnestness,

enlists in the cause

which he undertakes the sympathy of the multitude, their

more experienced observation

will

often detect the conunencement of illusions and

the

germ of

insanity.

It would, however, be a very great mistake to re2;ard

tliis

kind of knowledjTC as beino;

alto-

gether peculiar to medical practitioners.

fact the
is

In

connexion between the mind and body

instances too palpable to be over-

in

many

looked by any practical observer of mankind.

For example,
field,

it is

referred to

by Lord Chestera battle has been

fit

when he

says that

many

lost

because the general had a

of indigestion

and you may

recollect that I stated

on a former

222
occasion that

THE STUDY OF
INIr.

Chadwick had

clearly ex-

posed the operation of living in an unwholesome

atmosphere as inducing the habit of gin-drinking with

nil

the frightful moral consequences

its train.

which follow in

Still it

must be ad-

mitted that members of the medical profession

have better opportunities of obtaining knowledge of this kind than most other persons

and hence

it

is

that in

many

tilings

which

even in these days of education, and in spite

of the advancement of knowledge, others regard

with wonder as the result of some unknown

and mysterious agency, they, with some rare

exc<?ptions, see nothing that is not to
l)lained

be exin

on well-known principles, or

any

degree more remarkable than the exploits of

M. Robin

or other conjurors.

EuBULUS.
with more or

Some may pursue

the inquiry

less of a philosophical spirit

and

others merely as a matter of practical obser-

vation and experience

stated that
is

but Crites has truly

some knowledge of human nature

all

necessary to

those

who have any

duties

(however small) to perform in society, and the

HUMAN NATURE.
liieher

223
are, the
is

and more arduous these duties

is

greater
quired.

the

amount of knowledge
most

that

re-

It forms the

essential part of the

science of government, and to the

want of

it

may be
those to
trusted.

attributed

many

national

calamities,

and the greater part of the mistakes made by

whom
The

the affairs of nations are en-

principal advantage possessed

by

an adventurer such as Cromwell, or the

Napoleon,
is,

first

that he cannot have risen

by

his

own

exertions

through

the various
in

grades,

which he has occupied

the course of his

career, associating with others

on equal terms,

without acquiring an insight into men's minds

and characters, which he could not have acquu-ed otherwise.

The unhaj^py Louis XVI.

and Marie Antoinette, surrounded as they had

been by the etiquette and adulation of a Parisian court, received almost their first lessons

in

human

nature from the brutal frenzy of a

revolutionary mob.

How

different

might have

been

tlie

result both for themselves

and

for

Europe,

if

they had enjoyed a

less

restricted
;

intercourse with their fellow-creatures

or if at

224

PHRENOLOGY.

the head of a constitutional government, they

had

tlie

opportunity of seeing the thoughts and

feelings of the public,

and the

spirit of
!

the

times reflected by an independent press

great Duke,
if

The

he could have had an army such

as he required,

made

to his hand, might,

by

means of

his military skill,

have been a success-

ful general,
battles,"

and " the conqueror of a hundred

it

but

would have been

still

a problem

how

that

anny had been

created,

and how he

eumiounted the various

difficulties

which he

had to encounter,

if

the publication of his de-

spatches had not disclosed to us the great insight

which he possessed into the moral and

of others.

intellectual qualities

statesman

may form grand

these will be of

conceptions in his closet, but

little avail if

he knows not how

to select the right

men

to carry his plans into

execution
of,

or

if,

overlooking, or being ignorant

the different characters of the different races

of mankind he applies to one of them a of government which

is fitted

mode

only for another.

Ceites.
the

From

the

way

in

which you

treat

subject, I

suspect that

you have

disre-

PHRENOLOGY.

225

garded, or are not a convert to, the doctrines of

phrenology.
I

Nevertheless,

among my

friends

am

acquainted with some, and those too

persons of

much

intelligence, Avho believe that

these afford a sort of Royal road to a knowledge

of men's dispositions and

well

characters

and I

remember

that,

some

years

ago when

Lord Glenelg occupied the

nial

situation of Colo-

Secretary, a memorial, signed

by many

persons of repute, was addressed to him, seriously

proposing that he

should adopt the

phrenological method of investigation, with a

view to a
they

classification of the convicts before

were transported

to

the

colonies

it

being further proposed that an experienced

plu'enologist should be taken into the service

of the state, for the purpose of making the

necessary examination of their heads.

I do not mean to say that I

either

am
it

myself
in

a
;

believer

or

an

unbeliever

the

system

and I

am

led to mention

chiefly

because Ergates,

who

has attended more than

I have to questions of this kind, seemed, in

one of our former conversations, to admit that

226
there
-.trines,

PHRENOLOGY.

may

be some foundation for these docopinion that the

when he expressed an
Is

brain

not a single organ, but a congeries

its

of organs, each having

allotted to
it.

peculiar function

EiiGATES.
at

Such, certainly,

is

the conclusion

which I have arrived, and which seems to

derive confirmation, both from the anatomical

structure of the brain, and from the observations of experimental physiologists.

But you

must

not, therefore, suppose that I have the

faith in

smallest

what

is

called

phrenology,

which

is

quite a different matter.

is

The phre-

nological theory
dispositions,

that, of the various instincts,

talents,
it;

and

each has a separate

organ allotted to

that these organs, with

only a single exception, are situated in the

hemispheres of the cerebrum

tion as they are

that, in propor-

more or
or less

less developed, so is

there

a greater
or

development of the

faculties

qualities

which they represent;

figure of the head the

that

bv the external

relative

size of these various

organs

may be
thus

ascertained;

and,

lastly,

that

we have

PHRENOLOGY.
afforded to us the

227

means of determining the

characters of Individuals, so as to form a pretty

accurate notion of what their future conduct

will be, independently of all experience as to

their conduct formerly.

Now,

there are

two

simple anatomical facts wliich the founders of

this

system have overlooked, or with Avhich

they were probably unacquainted, and which

of themselves afford a sufficient contradiction of
it.

1st.

They

refer the

mere animal propensities

chiefly to the

posterior lobes, and the intel-

lectual faculties to the

anterior lobes of the

is

cerebrum.

But

the fact

that the posterior

bi*ain,

lobes exist onlv in the

that of

human

and

in

some of the
Avanting

tribe of
in

monkeys, and are

absolutely
there
is

quadrupeds.
is

Of

this

no more doubt than there

of any
;

other of the best-established facts in anatomy

so that, if phrenology be true, the
distinction

most marked

between man, on the one hand, and

a cat, or a horse, or a sheep, on the other,

ought to be, that the foi-mer has the animal

Q 2

228

PHRENOLOGY.
tlieir fullest

propensities developed to

extent,

and that these are deficient in the

latter.

2ndly. Birds have various propensities and

faculties

in

common with
from

us,

and

in

the

writings of phrenologists
trations are derived

many

of their illus-

this class of vertebral

animals.
is

But

the structure of the bird's brain

essentially different, not only

from that of
tlie

the

human

brain, but from that of

brain of

the manunalia generally.

In order that I

may
if

make

this

plain,

you must excuse me

repeat what I said on the

subject formerly.

In the mammalia, the name of corpus striatum

has been given to each of two organs of a
small size compared with that of the
brain, distinguished
entire

by a peculiar

disposition of

the grey, and the fibrous, or medullary substance, of wliich they are composed,

and placed

under the entire mass of the hemispheres of

the cerebrum.

In the

bird's brain,

what ap-

pears to a superficial observer to correspond to

these hemispheres
is

found, on a

more minute
corpora

examination,
striata

to

be

apparently the

developed to an enormous size; that

PHREXOLOGY.

229

Avhich really corresponds to the cerebral hemi-

spheres being merely a thin layer

expanded

over their upper surface, and presenting no

appearance of convolutions.
that there can be

It is plain, then,
in

no phrenological organs

the bird's brain corresponding to those which

are said to exist in the

human
Yet
:

brain, or in

that of other

mamynalia.

birds

are as

pugnacious and destructive

to the localities in
careful of their

as

much

attached

which they
as

reside,

and as

offspring,

any individual
will

among

us;

and I suppose that no one

if

deny, that

there be special organs of tune or

of imitation in man, such organs ought not to

be wanting in the bullfinch and parrot.

EuBULUS.

I do not pretend to have

much
it

knowledge of anatomy, but even without

from the perusal of the writings of Spurzheim

and some other phrenologists

had come

very nearly to the same conclusion with that

which may be deduced from the

tioned by Ergates.
classification

facts

men-

It seems to

me

that the

of faculties which these writers

altogether
Q 3
artificial,

have made

is

and that

it

230
is

PHREXOLOGY.
all

not at
these

reasonable to suppose that for each

special

of

material

organ must be

required.

If Ave admit the separate existence

of the thirty-three faculties, or propensities,

enumerated

by Spurzheim, we might with

fifty

equal propriety admit the existence of

others, for which,

however, the phrenological

map

of the head leaves no vacant space.

Then, when I consider the evidence on which the determination of the seat of the
several

organs

is

founded,

can conceive

nothing more fantastic or unsatisfactory, or

more unlike that which

is

considered to be

necessary to the formation of just conclusions

in other sciences.

Sometimes the seat of a particular organ

ascertained
beino;

is

by a

particular part of the

rest.

head

warmer than the

first

It

was thus that

Dr. Gall was

led to detect the seat of the

sexual passion in the cerebellum.*

But

is it is

really the fict that one part of the head

Avarmer

than another

if

they

are

equally

See additional Xote

I.

PHRENOLOGY.
covered or uncovered
?

231
it

Was

ever found to
is it

be so by a delicate thermometer? or
all

at

probable that so

much more

heat should be
is

generated in one portion of the brain than

generated in other parts, as to be perceptible

through the bone and skin, and the hairy

scalp
?

The organ

of philoprogenitiveness,

by which
is

parents are impelled to love their offspring,

said to

be placed in the back part of the head,

in the posterior lobes of the cerebrum,

immeobserve

diately above the cerebellum.

in Avhat

Now
was

manner

this discovery

effected.

Dr. Gall found a protuberance in this part of

the heads of

women, and

for five

years he

considered the subject, but could advance no

fjirther.

At

last

he discovered a similar pro-

tuberance in the heads of monkeys.

question then arose, what
is

The

there in

common

between women and monkeys ?

At

this point

he obtained the assistance of a clergyman, who

observed that monkeys are very fond of their
offspring,

and thus solved the

Q 4

difficulty

the

232

PHRENOLOGY.

conclusion at which he had arrived bcinG" after-

-wards confirmed
stance,

by
in

the

following

circum-

woman may

whom

this part of the

ill

head
fever,

Avas

unusually prominent being

of a

and (we

suppose) delirious, believed

herself to be pregnant with five children.

shall

trouble

you

by
in

giving

another

example of the manner

searches were conducted

which these re-

by the two founders

of the phrenological system.

They
is

are both
situated
it is,

of opinion that the organ of pride

in the

back part of the head, and hence

as Dr.

Spurzheim has observed, that " all the

i)ride

motions of

take place in the direction

upwards

and

backwards."
it

But Dr.

Gall

further believes that

is

the greater develop-

ment

of this organ which leads certain animals

to prefer to live in elevated situations.

Thus

there

is

a proud rat

which

lives in hay-lofts,
;

and

in the attic story of a house

rat,

and another,
in

an humble
cellars

which

is

content to live
is

and gutters.

It

under the same

little

influence that certain children and

display a proud disposition

men

by climbing on the

niKEXOLOGY.

233

backs of chairs, and that kings and emperors

are seated on elevated thrones.

Crites.
far-fetched

I do not undertake to defend such

illustrations

as

those

to

which

you have

referred,

and I

am

ready to ad-

mit that even

]\Ir.

those

which are offered by

his phrenological

George Combe (though

very

treatise displays

much more

of a philo-

sophical spirit than those of his predecessors)

partake too
scientific

much

of the same loose and un-

character.

Being no anatomist, I

cannot venture to make any observations on

the anatomical statement which has been

made

by Ergates.
siderations, if

Still,
it

setting aside all other con-

be true that there are persons

who, from the examination of the shape of a

man's head, can form a pretty accurate notion
as

to

his character,
for,
is

however the

fiict

is

to

be accounted

there

must be something

more than what

logy.

merely fanciful in phreno-

Facts are not to be rejected merely

because the explanation offered of them proves

to

be erroneous

and I have not only heard of

but have myself known

them from

others,

234

PHRENOLOGY.

instances of such shrewd observations on character

made by
them
to

phrenologists that I can scarcely

believe

have been purely accidental.

I do not in the least doubt the

EuBULUS.

accuracy of your statement;

and indeed I
experience in
still

might
its'-

refer to a part of

my own

favour.

But

I mioht also refer to

in

more

numerous instances

which the phrenological

examination of the head has proved to be a

failure.

You may

perhaps regard

me

as being will

in

some degree a prejudiced witness, and I

therefore merely refer

lished

you

to

an account, pubvisit of

some years ago, of the

Dr. Gall,

the inventor of the

science, to

Sir Francis

Chantrey's studio;

when he pronounced

the

head of Su* Walter Scott (who had not the

smallest turn for mathematics) to be that of a

great mathematician

that of Troughton, the

mathematical instrument maker, to be the head

of a poet ; and at the same time discovered the
indications of a superior intellect in another

head, the living proprietor of which had certainly as little claim as

any man could possibly

have

to

be thus distinguished.

niuExoLOGY.
But even
less
it"

235

the errors of phrenology were

I believe

numerous than
far
art.

them

to be, that

would not go
value of their

towards convincinjj

me

of the

It is not very difficult for a

clever observer of

human

nature to foi'm

notion of some part of a man's character in the course of a brief conversation with him
;

and

an enthusiast in phrenology

may very

honestly

persuade himself that he has obtained from the

examination of his head that knowledge which

he has really obtained

from other sources.

the faculties

Then observe how comprehensive

and propensities of the phrenological system

are su})posed to be.

large development of
in

the organ of destructiveness

the
it

head of

Hare the murderer, explained how

was that

he was led to murder sixteen human beino-s

that he might sell their bodies.*

But

in the

head of another person who never committed a

murder

it is

sufficient to find that it exists in

satire, or to

combination with a disposition to

deface mile-stones;
*

and

in

the

beaver and

System of Phrenology, by George Combe, 5th

i.

edition, vol.

p.

262, &c.

236

PHKEXOLOGY.

squirrel, it explains

how

it is

that these animals

are impelled to cut and tear in pieces the bark,

leaves,

and branches of

trees, for the innocent

purpose of constructing their cabins and nests.

So the large

size of the

organ of acquisitiveness

not only leads one person to be a thief and

another to hoard, but

it

also explains the habits

all)

of the spendthrift (who does not hoard at

and

it

impels storks and swallows to return

after their migrations to establish themselves,

each succeeding year in the

same

locality.

Following these examples, I do not see that a

phrenologist can be

much

at a loss in finding a

character for any individual suited to the peculiar

confiixuration of his head.

But observe
easily

further, if a difficulty
it

were to occur, how

may

be explained away by an ingenious

If ever there was a race

phrenologist.

of

thorouMilv remorseless murderers in the world,

such were the Thucrs of India.

after generation they

Generation
to

were born and bred

to

murder.

They looked

murder

as the source

not only of profit but of honour.

Dr. Spry

sent the skulls of seven of these demons, Avho

PHRENOLOGY.

237

had been hanged at Saugor, to some plirenological friends in

Scotland.

To

their surprise,

destructiveness
in

was not a predominant organ

any one of them.

But the anomaly was

it

soon explained.

The Thugs,

was

said,

had

no abstract love of murder, but murdered for

the sake of robbery.*
to It

would not be easy

difference

show that there was any

between

the Thugs and Hare, or Burke, or Bishop in

this respect.

Ergates.
you

After what I have already

said,

will scarely suspect

me

of being a convert

to the doctrines of phrenology.

We

must

not,

however, lose sight of the

facts, that idiots for

the most part have small heads, and that

we

are generally agreed in considering a large head

and a capacious forehead as indicative of superior intellectual endowments. In like

manner

as the ancient sculptors gave to the figures of

some of the Heathen Gods the appearance of

youth, by shortening the jaws so that they

coidd not be supposed to contain the entire

number of teeth belonging

to the adult, so they

356.

* India, Pictorial and Historical, London, 1854,

p.

238

SIZE OF

THE BRAIN

expressed the Divine intelligence of others by

increasing the dimensions of the forehead.

But

even to

this rule there are exceptions.

Some

very stupid persons, within my

own knowledge,
other hand,

have had very large heads.

if

On the

we may

trust to the authority of the bust of

Newton

in the

apartment of the Royal Society,

the head of that mighty genius was below the

average size

and Moore describes the head of

been unusually small, with
;

Byron

as having

a narrow forehead

the fact being confirmed

by an anecdote

related

by Colonel Napier,

of

a party of fourteen persons having tried to

put on his hat, and having found that

too small to
fit

it

was

any one of them.

On

a former

occasion I adverted to an hypothesis these anomalies

force
is

by which

may be

explained.

The nervous

supposed to be generated in the grey or

vesicular substance, of which the greater part

is

expanded on the surface of the cerebral

hemispheres, the extent of that surface dependino;

not so

much on

the

bulk of the entire

the con-

brain as on the
volutions.

number and depth of

Without, however, having recourse

AND MENTAL FACULTIES.

to this explanation,
it is

239

easy to suppose that a

more

oi*

less refined

organization

may make

all

the difference, so that the smaller brain of one

individual
for the

may be
to

a more perfect instrument

mind

use than the larger one of

another.

EuBULUS.
compounded of
fluenced
that
it

Men's characters are indeed

so

many

elements, and are in-

by

so great a variety of circumstances,

is

difficult to

understand

how they can

be determined by any such simple rules as

those laid

down by

the phrenologists.

First, there are those original

instincts,

and necessary
race could

without which the

all,

human

not exist at
like
ties,

but which are nevertheless, in

manner

as the higher or intellectual facul-

more complete and of greater

intensity in

some individuals than they are

in others.

Then
by

there are those habits which are gradually ac-

quired during several successive generations,

which

chiefly the different races of

;

mankind

are distinguished from each other

which cause

one nation to be peaceful and another warlike;

Avhich engender low-mindcdness and cunning

240
in those
life,

CAUSES INFLUENCING

who have had an

uncertain tenure of

or liberty, or property, under an arbitrary

;

and oppressive government

liberal

and give

rise to

sentiments,

and an open and manly

the advantage

bearino; in those

who have had

of belonging to a free and well-regulated com-

munity.
habits

To

these Ave

may add

those other

and modes of thinking which are the

and training in indi-

result of early discipline

vidual cases

which dispose him who has been

brought up among thieves to become a thief;

which cause the spoiled

original disposition

child,

whatever his

may have
;

been, to grow up
it

into the selfish

man

which explain how

is

that of

two persons with the same amount of

natural talent, one remains from the beginning

to the

end of and

his life absorbed in

frivolous

pursuits,

dies unregretted, or perhaps deis

spised

while the other

distinguished for his

genius

and superior intellectual attainments,

transmitting his

name

to jDosterity as that of a
race.

benefactor of the

human

If

we pursue

the inquiry further,

we

find that in addition to

moral agencies such as I have enumerated, there

men's characters.

241

arc various physical agencies ^Yhicl^ co-operate

with them

in

forming individual characters.

One man

is

in that state of bodily health, that

is

even in spite of adverse circumstances he

always cheerful and contented, ready to sympathize with others,

and obtaining

their

sympathy

in

return.

Another

oppressed

by chronic
having his

dyspepsia, or visceral disease, or

nervous energies exhausted by excessive labour,

is

in that condition whicli causes every impres-

sion

made on

liim to

be attended
;

Avith

more or
is

less of
ful

an uneasy feeling

and hence he

fret-

and peevish, doubtful as to himself, suspicious

;

of others

so that

it is

only under the influence

of a high moral principle, and by a constant effort of self-control, that he can avoid beinij unG;racious in his general behaviour, and in his dealings

with mankind, bring himself up to the level of

his

more fortunate competitor.

Nor

are phy-

sical

agencies of another kind less influential in

It cannot

Other ways.

be supposed that the

young gentleman of

fashion,

whom

remember

to have seen described in one of the police

reports as never being without a cigar in his

242

CAUSES INFLUENCING

mouth, except when he was at his meals or

when he was
muddled

asleep,
;

had any other than a

intellect

and the alcohol circulating

drunkard must

in the vessels of the habitual

have even a more injurious influence than the

poison of tobacco.
further
to
still,

We may carry our inquiries

find the

and in doing so we

problem
often

become
it

still

more complicated.

How

does

happen that the character

!

alters as years

advance
career

The young man who

possession

enters on his
are called

in the

of what

great worldly advantages, full of hope, flattered

by those around him, and expecting of more than

life

life

can bestow, incurs a great risk

of becoming in the end a disappointed misanthrope.

So the spendthrift of one period may

;

be the miser of another

efforts obtain for

and he whose early

him the reputation of superior

where he

intelligence, not unfrequently ends

began, having allowed his talents to run to

waste, and never accomplished anything after-

wards by which he might be distinguished

from the herd of ordinary mortals.

Ergates.

You may

include in the same

men's cuaracters.

243

category the changes which take place in ad-

vanced

life,

and which are undoubtedly to be

attributed to an altered condition of the brain

beginning with the imperfect recollection of

late

events,

and ending with that more com-

plete failure of the

memory, which seems

to

be

the

tioie, as it is

the all-sufficient, explanation

of the fatuity occasionally met with in extreme

old age.

Edbulus.

There can be no question as to

the occurrence of the changes which

tion.

you men-

But

it is

worthy of notice

that, while in

old age the recent impressions of the are evanescent,

it is

memory

quite otherwise as to those

;

which were made formerly

that the old man, whose

and hence

it

is

mind wanders when

he speaks of what has happened to-day or yesterday,

may be

quite clear and coherent

life

when
;

he goes back to the scenes of his early

that
it
is

and

on these especially that he loves to

dwell during the day, while they form almost

the entire subject of his dreams at night. the same time

At
to

my own

observations lead

me

believe that the failure of the

mind

in old

age

244
is

THE MIND IN OLD AGE.

more apparent than
real.

often
is

The

old

man
he
life

not stimulated by ambition, as

that he might have

when

felt

many

years of

before him.

He

has probably withdrawn

from his former pursuits, and has substituted

no others for them
;

and

Ave

know

that the

mind

as

well as the body requires constant

to

exercise

maintain

it

in

a healthy

state.
it

"Where

it is still

occupied

we

frequently find

to survive the decay of the body, retaining its

energy and vigour even to the

last.
it

Taking
is difficult

all

these things into consideration,

to understand

how any

simple rules

can be laid

down

for explaining

and determin-

ing men's characters.

of a

It

has been reported

of the
to
last

celebrated prime

minister

century, that he held every

price.

man

have his

The anecdote may

be
so,
is

or

may

not be true,

but

if it

the answer to such an uno-rasufficiently obvious.

cious doctrine

He

drew

his conclusions

from a too limited experience,

and did not bear in mind that those who had

not their price were just the persons with

whom

it

was

least likely that

he should come

THEORY OF ADAM SMITH.

in contact.

245

Adam

Smith has been

to a consi-

derable extent successful in referrint; to that

involuntary sympathy (or instinct) which causes

us to participate in what
is

felt,

or

what we

suppose to be

felt,

by

others, as the foundation

of our moral sentiments.

But

this simple

and

beautiful theory does not explain the whole.

It overlooks the disturbing influences arising

out of peculiarities of the physical organization,

and

it

has not sufficient reference to the intel-

lectual faculties,
life

which

in all the concerns of

are so

mixed up with the moral sentiments,

each influencing the other, that to study either

of them separately
is

as useless as

it

would be

to study geology without reference to chemistry

and mineralogy or the phenomena of the living

;

body disregarding the laws which operate on

inorganic matter.
call

What
in

I have ventured to
is

" the science of

human nature"
which I

a depart-

ment of knowledge,
that

will not say

we

recognize no leading principles, but in

which we recognize none that will supersede

the necessity of minute observation, and an

extended individual experience.

R 3

For

all

prac-

246
tical

SELF-KNOWLEDGE.
purposes the study of
it

must be conducted

very

much

in detail,
it

and no man can make

much
to

progress in

whose views are limited

one variety of the human species, or to one

in society;
is

class

or whose situation

is

such

that he

merely a looker on, and not himself

life.

an actor in the busy drama of

Crites.

You may add

that whoever

would

understand the minds of others, and exercise

an useful influence over them, must

stand himself.
of his

first

under-

He who

forms a wrong estimate

own

capabilities, of his

own
own

prejudices,

and of the weak points of

his

character,

measures the characters of others by an erroneous standard.

Xot only

is

he in constant
is

danger of undertaking that which he

qualified,

not
is

and of neglecting that which he

but he
is

qualified, to perform,

at the

mercy of

others,

who although they may very probably

dominion over him by study-

be inferior to himself in some of the nobler

qualities, obtain a

ing his defects, and making them subservient

to their private purposes.

EuBULUS.

Whatever they may have been

SELF-KNOWLEDGE.

247

otherwise, the priests of the Delphic Oracle

were certainly no impostors when they

dis-

played that simple but significant inscription

" Tvcodi asavTov" over the portico of the temple

of the heathen
portant as the
2;od.
first

If self-knowledore be imstep towards a

knowledge

of the characters of others, on other grounds

it is

more important

still.

Though we may

admit, with Ergates, that the mental principle

must be of the same essence, under whatever

form
it

exists, still there

can be no question as

to the vast superiority of the

mind of man

to
is

that of

all

the created beings

by whom he

surrounded.
consist
?

But

in

what does that superiority

Other animals, and more especially the

gregarious, are not without an ample share of

the moral sentiments.

in the dog,

We

see

them displayed
your comif

who

rejoices in being

panion,

who
;

flies

to

your assistance

you

are attacked
to his

in the attachment of the elephant

keeper

who

treats

hmi kindly, and

in his

resentment of injuries; in the roebuck,

pines and dies
if

who
;

separated from his mate

and

even in the

cat,

who, peaceful at other times,

R 4

248

DUTIES AND

turns round on you in anger if you interfere

with her kitten.

It

is

not as to these, but as

is

to his intellectual faculties, that there

so vast

a difference between

man and

other animals,

that none can be said even to approach

this respect.

him

in

But

this distinction is

not with-

out

its price.

It imposes on

him

duties of a

higher order, and greater responsibilities.

is

He

required not to yield to the impulse of the

to look to the

moment, but

more remote conse;

quences of what he says and does

and

to

keep not only his instincts and passions, but

even his thoughts, in subjection to his
will.

Nor can
one

this

be rightly accomplished by any

who

does not regard his

own
by
as a

powers, his

own

disposition,

and

his peculiar
it is

moral temhis physical

fit

perament, influenced as
condition and his

mode of life,

object of
to

study, even
himself.

more than anything external

This brings us to other inquiries of

the highest interest, involving as they do so

much

of what

is

of the greatest importance to

;

om'selves and others

inquiries

which have not

been neglected by heathen philosophers, but

RESPONSIHILITIES.

249

winch assume a more exalted character, when

pursued by those who, guided by the light of
revelation, feel that they are answerable to one

almighty power for the right use of the faculties

with which they are endowed.

But on

these

we have no
ever

leisure to enter at present.

What-

may be

the value of our discussions, from

the arrangements which you,

my

friends,

have

made, we must consider them as terminated.

" QucB cum
umhulandi
et

essent

dicta,

Jinem fecimus

et

disputandV^

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE
The
Newman's

A.

Pase o 31
Dr.

following eloquent passage, extracted from

lectures, will be

read with

interest in con-

nection with
Sir

the observations of Sir AValter Scott and

referred to in the text
:

Humphry Davy,

Self-educated

persons

" are

likely

to

have

more

thought, more mind, more philosophy, than those earnest but ill-used persons,

who

are forced to load their

;

minds with a score of subjects against an examination

who have

too

much

on their hands to indulge them;

selves in thinking or investigation

who devour premiss

;

and conclusion together with indiscriminate greediness

who
to

hold science on faith, and commit demonstrations

too often, as might be expected,
passed, throw

memory, and who

when

their period of education is

up

all

they have learned in disgust, having gained nothing by

their

anxious

labours

except,

perhaps,

the habit

of

application.

" Yet such

is

the bitter specimen of the fruit of that

ambitious system, which has of late years been making

way among

us.

But

its result

on ordinary minds, and

is less

on the common run of students,

satisfactory

still.

252
They

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
leave their

place of education simply dissipated

subjects,

and relaxed by the multiplicity of

which they

have never really mastered, and so shallow as not even

to
it

know

their

own

shallowness.

How much
intellect,

better is
is

for the active

and thoughtful

where such

to be

found,

to

eschew the college and the university

altogether,

than to submit to a drudgery so ignoble, a

!

mockery

so contumelious

How much
after the

more

profitable

for the independent

mind,

mere rudiments of

education,

to

range through a library at random, taking

down books
trains of

as they

meet with them, and pursuing the

mother wit suggests
into the fields,
'

thoughts which his

healthier to

How much

wander

and there

with the exiled prince to find

tongues in the trees,

books in the running brooks.'

an education
is

How much

more genuine

that of the poor boy in the poem,

in

poem, whether
most touching
world,

conception or execution, one of the

in our language,

who, not

in the

wide

but

ranging

day by day round his widowed

field,

mother's home, a dexterous gleaner in a narrow

and with only such slender

"
'

outfit
supplied,'

As

the village school

and books a few

"

contrived,
boat,

from the beach, and the quay, and the

fisher's

and the

inn's

fireside,

and the trades-

man's shop, and the shepherd's walk, and the smuggler's

hut,

and the mossy moor, and the screaming

to

gulls,

and

the restless waves,

fashion for himself a philosophy

and poetry of his own."


NOTE
B.

253

NOTE
The
" The advocate
for an

B.

Page

39.

question referred to in the text has been well stated

by an accomplished friend of the author.

immaterial principle
is

often

unjust to his argument, in his assiduity to rid himself

of those facts which attest the close and constant action of matter upon mind.
in matters of
sense,

They
but

are too palpable, not only

also as regards

the

purely

mental processes, to admit of any evasion.

doctrine lies beyond this
;

His true

in asserting a principle sub-

mitted indeed to these influences, but different from

them

capable

of

independent changes and

all,

actions

within itself;
in

and, above

capable of self-regulation
to

those functions of thought and feeling

which

external agents minister in the various processes of Ufe.

The

ministering agents

may become

disturbing ones,

and such they frequently are

in this

to a singular extent.

But

we have no proof

of identity.

A\'hatever of

reason

we can apply
reason
is is

to

an argument
it ;

insuperable

by

human

against

and the record of such

that

instances
relation,

wholly comprised within

one great

which pervades every part of our present being

is

but the intimate nature of which

a sealed book to

human
Sir

research."

Medical Notes and Reflections, by

Bart.

Henry Holland,
to refer to

M.D.

2nd

edit. p.

46l.

Those who
do well

are curious in inquiries of this nature will

another work by the same author,

to

" Chapters on Mental Phi/siology," especially

the

chapters which relate to sleep, dreams, and insanity.

254

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE
If a comparison of the

C.

Page to^

72.

effects

produced by various

stimulant and narcotic agents on the nervous system be

interesting to the physiologist,
to the
it

ought not

to be less so

moral philosopher and the statesman.

period

At one

opium was much

in request

among
on

the inferior classes of the metropolis, and there were

chemists

who

disposed of

many boxes

of opium

pills

a Saturday night.

Then gin became cheap;

opium was
neglected.

the gin-

palaces arose, and

This was
it

greatly to the advantage of the revenue.

But was

of

advantage
into the

to society ?
is

The

effect of

opium when taken

stomach

not to stimulate, but to soothe the

nervous system.

It

may

be otherwise in some instances,

to the general rule.

but these are rare exceptions opium-taker

is

The

in a passive stale, satisfied

with his own

dreamy condition while under the influence of the drug.

He

is useless,

but not mischievous.

It is quite other-

wise

with alcoholic liquors.

When

Bishop and his

partner murdered the Italian boy, in order that they

might

sell his

body,

it

appeared in evidence that they

prepared themselves for the task by a plentiful libation

of gin.

The same

course

is

pursued by housebreakers,

and others who engage in desperate criminal undertakings.

It is

worthy of

notice,

also,

that

opium

is

NOTE
much
less deleterious

C.

255
or

to

the individual than gin

to a great age,
liver,

brandy.

Many

opium-takers live

while
its

dram-drinking induces disease of the

with

attendant bodily suffering, ill-temper, wretchedness, and

premature death.

The

effect

of malt-hquor, like that of gin, depends

it

on the alcohol which

contains, modified, however, in

some degree, by the sedative properties of the hop.

But

it

is

much

less

dangerous.

According

to

Mr.
is

Brande's

tables, the

proportion of alcohol in gin

it

as

much

as

50 per cent., while in London porter

per cent.

is

not

much more than 4

fore,

The

porter-drinker, there-

must drink 6j pints of porter to obtain gradually the effect which the gin-drinker obtains at once from
Gin-drinking, moreover,

half 3 pint (8 ounces) of gin.

is

in

some other respects

better suited to the ill-disIt

posed part of the population.

does not distend the

stomach as

is

the case

with the more diluted liquor

;

when taken
at It

in large quantity

and therefore does not

with
active

the time interfere

is

so

much

exertion.

also

more economical.

Eight ounces of the

strongest gin (at the present price) costing about one-

sixth part less than their equivalent in porter.

Tobacco, as

it

is

commonly

used,

is

certainly less

mischievous both as to the individual, and as to society

at large,

than alcohol.

At

the

same time (indepenit

dently

of

the unwholesome

influence which
is

has

on the digestive organs) there

sufficient
it

evidence

that an excessive indulgence in the use of

produces

256

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
ill eflPect

ultimately a very
distinction,

on the nervous system.

A
It

however, must be made between smoking

it

tobacco and the employment of

in other ways.

has

lieen

shown

that

by the application of heat above

water,
a

the temperature of boiling

new compound
is

(the empyreumatic
a very

oil) is generated,

which

not only

much more

active poison, but one

in a

which operates

especially

on the brain

manner

entirely different

from the unprepared tobacco.*

* See

" Experinu-nts
in

Modes
1811.

which Death

and Observations on the different is produced by certain Vegetable

F. R.

Poisons," by B. C. Brodie,

S. Phil.

Transactions,

NOTE

D.

257

NOTE
Testimony and Evidence
on one point referred

D.

Pao-c o 105
Lectures on Medical

Although Dr. Mayo's "Croonian

in to in

Cases of Lunacy" have been

the text, they were not

published until a considerable time after these papers

were ready for the

Dr.

press.

jMayo has carefully analyzed the facts which

bear on the question as to what has been called "moral

insanity."

He
as
less

has

shown

that

many

of the

cases

described

belonging to this category were neither

than examples of insanity, according
to

more nor
the strict

and ordinary interpretation of that term.

He

has shown that others, in which the plea of "moral

insanity "

was

set

up

as an excuse for crime deserved

no better appellation than that of " brutal recklessness

;

" and that to acquit criminals of this class on

is

the ground of irresponsibility,

to follow in

only to induce others

the

same

course,

who might who

otherwise be

restrained by a

wholesome

fear of

punishment.
are actually insane,

Even with regard

he
is

to those

of opinion that there

is

a defect

"

in the nature

of our criminal code, which recognizes no punishment

for offences

committed by the insane

visit

and forces the

inflic-

Courts either to
tions as

them with the same penal

to the

would apply

same

acts

committed by the

258

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
them

sane, their derangements being ignored, or to let

pass unpunished, however partially responsible they

may

appear."

Dr.

Mayo

has treated the whole subject, including

in the

that of

mere unsoundness of mind,

;

most able
it

and lucid manner

the

and his observations on

are

more

valuable,

and

will

have the greater weight,

just theoretical

as they

come from one who combines

views with the practical knowledge of an experienced

physician.

NOTE

E.

259

NOTE
Even
those
ficient

E.

Pacre o 127

setting aside the cases of dying persons, or of

who

labour under serious disease, there

that
in

is

suf-

evidence
to

many

instances

those

who

appear

be insensible to external impressions are not

;

so in reality

the apparent insensibility being the result

of a strong dislike, or disinclination, to

necessary for giving expression to

make

the effort
feel,

what they

and

of nothing more.

Esquirol describes the case of a young

after
to

man who,
his

some disappointment

in life, fell into

what seemed
:

be a state of idiotcy.

His eyes were fixed

It

physiognomy was without expression.

sary to dress and undress

was neces-

him

and

to

put him in bed.

into his
to

He He He

never

ate,

except

when food was put

mouth.
do
so.

never walked, except

when compelled

recovered after the use of some remedies, and the

appearance of an eruption on his skin.

After his

recovery he confessed that he had never been insensible

at all,

but that an internal voice was always repeating

that fear

to

him "A'c houge pas ! ne bouge pas !" and him immovable.*

alone had rendered

In other instances the apparent insensibility

result of

is

the

mere imposture.
Esquirol, op.
cit. vol.
ii.

p.

287.

8 2

260

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
young woman
(a hospital patient) under the care

of Esquirol, seemed to be in a state of profound stupor.

She lay motionless in her bed, never speaking, even

when pinched
seton was

or pricked with a sharp instrument.

in her neck,

made

and

blisters

were applied

in various parts of her body, but she

gave no signs

of feeling, or even of knowing what was done.

day, however,

One

when Esquirol paid her

his usual visit,

she had

left

her bed of her

could

own

accord, and from that

to

time nothing

persuade her

remain

in

the

dormitory at the time when he was expected.

"When she
insensibility

left the hospital

she confessed that her

had been feigned.

She said that one of

the

students had
;

made
felt

the experiment of pinching

her

that

she

had

no objection

to

this

being

done by Esquirol himself, but that she did not choose

to

submit to

what she conceived

to

be a piece of

impertinence on the part of the student, and therefore

had determined

to be

always out of the way when the

visit

medical attendants were to

her.*

case recorded in the Philosophical Transactions,

very forcibly illustrates the extent to which such an

imposture

may

be carried.
a farmer in the neighto

young man, the son of

fell

bourhood of Bath,

into

what was supposed

be

a state of profound sleep, which lasted during seventeen

weeks.

During

this time

he was visited by a great

number of

persons, and various attempts were

* Esquirol, op. cit. vol.
ii.

made

to

NOTE
awaken him, but without
spirit of

E.

261

success.
to

He was

cuppcil

ammonia was held

his nostrils,

and even

poured into them so as to occasion inflammation and

blisters,

but

all

in

vain.

He

slept

on as before, and
case,

hence Dr. Oliver,

that as

who

relates the

was

satisfied

" he was

really asleep,

and no sullen counterfeit

some persons thought him."

The

correctness of

Dr. Oliver's opinion may, how:

ever, well be

questioned

as every night his

mother

placed on a stool by his bed some bread and cheese

and

beer,

which
and
as

always had
certain

disappeared
the

in

the

morning;

functions,

necessary

consequence of eating and drinking, were regularly and

decently performed.*

Impostures of

this

kind will

appear in no degree

extraordinary to those

who

are accustomed to witness

surgical operations, not performed under the influence

of anesthetic agents, and

for patients to

who know how common

it

is

undergo even those of the most painful

kind without uttering a complaint, or in any way expressing what they

feel.

* Pkilosophical Transactions, 1706, voL xxir.

262

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE
There
probably
is

F.

176 Paffe to"

whole range of science no
is

in the

problem the solution of which

more

diflScult

than

that of the relation of the mental faculties to particular

parts of the nervous system.

positions

Some very

general pro-

may

be considered as established on not very

insufficient data,

and

it

is

not impossible that by the

method pointed out

in page^ 17-^>

namely,

a careful

study of the habits and faculties of inferior animals,

pursued

simultaneously

with the examination of the

differences

of structure of the brain,

some

further

insight
subject.

may
It

ultimately be obtained into this mysterious

is

not easy to understand in what other

way

this object

can be obtained.

The

inquiry, how-,

ever, is
it is

one which

may

well excite our curiosity, and

it

no matter of wonder that

should have attracted

to

the attention of physiologists.

Those who wish

be

more

particularly acquainted with the views entertained

refer to

by the most eminent modern physiologists may

Dr. Carpenter's " Principles of
Allusion has been

Human

Physiology."

made in

a former part of this

volume

to

the crude speculations of Dr. Hooke.

The

subject has

been treated of in a more elaborate manner by a con temporary of Hooke, being the most distinguished anatomist

and physiologist of the 17th century; and the following

NOTE

F.

263

abridged account of the conclusions at which he liad

arrived
to
is

offered to the reader, as

it

may

be interesting
at

compare them with the opinions which are held

the present day.

It is plain that the majority of these

conclusions do not rest on any very sure foundation

but " valeant quantum valent."

According

to Willis*, the
is

nervous force (termed by

him

the animal spirits)

generated wholly in the grey

or vesicular substance of the brain, which, being a kind

of secreting organ,

is,

therefore, possessed of a higher

degree of vascularity than the medullary.

lutions of the

The convo-

cerebrum and the folds of the cerebellum

are intended to offer a

more extended surface

to

for the

grey substance, and thus

enable

it

to furnish a

more

abundant supply of the nervous force than could have

been furnished otherwise.

The medullary

substance (in

which Willis had detected the existence of a fibrous

structure, having

traced the

fibres

from the medulla

oblongata through the corpora

is

striata

and

thalami),

intended

for

the

transmission, exercise,
its

and

dis-

pensing of the nervous force, but not for

production.

By means
it

of the medullary substance, connected as

is

with the grey substance of the convolutions, the

is

nervous force

transmitted to the corpus callosum,

and

this last-mentioned

organ

is

that

which

is

princi-

* See his treatises

De Anatome
however,
is

Cerebri and
chiefly

De Animd

Bruterum; the

latter,

occupied with
limits of

metaphysical speculations,

many

of which relate to matters

which may well be regarded as beyond the

knowledge.
t)4

human

264
pally connected

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
with the intellectual faculties
;

at the

same time

that,

by combining the two hemispheres

it

of the cerebrum,

enables them

to co-operate

with

each other.

The forms
;" from which

of sensible

objects are pre-

served in the convolutions,

et apothecis

" tanquam

in diver sis cellulis

that Willis

we must conclude

regarded these as especially connected with the memory.

The
bral

corpora striata are the channel

of communication

between the medulla oblongata, the nerves, and the cerehemispheres.

They
But

are

themselves

the seat of

simple sensation.

the impressions of the senses

being transmitted from thence to the corpus callosum,

and from the

latter

to

the convolutions,

become there

subservient to the
in the

memory and

imagination, and excite

mind

the feeling of desire, and acts of volition.

instances, instead of

The same
being

impressions, in some

transmitted to the

cerebrum, are, by a reflex

operation, propagated in the other direction,

that
we

is to

the nerves, producing in them effects of which the

takes no

mind
are

cognizance, and motions of which

therefore unconscious.

The cerebellum

belongs more especially to what Bichat

life,"

has called "organic

and furnishes the nervous force

required for the action of the heart, respiration, digestion,

and the other mere corporeal functions.

It is also

the part principally connected with the animal instincts

(^instinctus

mere naturales), and the emotions

but not

exclusively so, as the other bodies, situated in the base

of the brain, belong to the instincts and emotions

also.

NOTE
AV'ith

F.

265

regard to the former, "Willis supposes the cereto

bellum

be associated with the cerebrum, inasmuch as

the desires belonging to the instincts can produce no

effect until

their influence is

communicated
its

to

it,

ex-

citing in

the mind, through

intervention, the act

of volition.

As

regards the emotions also, the cere-

bellum
case,

is

associated

with the cerebrum, but in this

is

the

movement

in the

opposite

direction, be-

ginning in the cerebrum, and from thence extending

to the cerebellum, so as to affect the heart,

and other

organs which are under

its

immediate

control.

26Q

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE
The
following case

G.

Page 178.

may

be adduced in confirmation

of the evidence which anatomy affords as to the grey

matter of the nervous system being the part in which

the nervous force
is

generated

young woman, of
some

hysterical constitution, died after having been for

days in a state of great mental excitement, attended

with convulsive movements

of the limbs, resembling

those of aggravated chorea, consequent on her having

been

terrified

by a man

who had

insulted her in a

most outrageous manner.

after death, the

On

examination of the parts

the grey

determination of blood to

matter on the surface of the convolutions was found

to

have been such as

to

make

it

everywhere of a scarlet

colour.

The

circumstance of the convolutions of the cerecomplicated, thus pre-

brum being more numerous and

senting a larger surface for the expansion of the grey

matter in
justify the

man

than in any other

animal, seems to

opinion

enunciated by Des Moulins, and

adopted by Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Todd, Mr.

other eminent
ture
is

Bowman, and

physiologists,

that this

peculiar struc-

connected with the greater extent of the intel-

lectual faculties in the

human

race.

The

observations

of Leuret, however, founded on a comparison of the

brain in a large

number

of animals, tends to create

some

NOTE
doubt as to the accuracy of
example, the
are

G.
this

267
conclusion.*

For

convolutions of

the brain in the sheep

in that of the
at
all.

numerous and well marked, while

beaver and of the rat there are almost none

But who can doubt

that the intelligence

is

of the two

last-mentioned animals

much

greater than that of the

that the

former

Frederic

Cuvier, indeed, finding

beaver, living without companions, in the Jardin des

Plantes,
in

when

supplied with wood, began to build a hut

the
to

same

%vay as

when

living in

association,

was

led

believe

that he

was of a very low degree of

intelligence,
instinct.|

and almost wholly under the dominion of

But, on the other hand,
it

is

affirmed

by

BufFon that a solitary beaver, in a well-inhabited country,

does not build a hut at
all,

but seeks for his residence

river ^
;

some natural excavation on the bank of a

and

Cartwright, describing the habits of beavers, as observed

by him

in Labrador, adduces various instances of their

adapting

their

proceedings

to

the

new and

peculiar

circumstances in which they are placed, in a

way which

can be attributed only to intelligence.

Monsieur Dareste suggests that the extent of the

convolutions bears a relation, not to the
intelligence,

but to the size of the animal , a view of the subject

Anatomic comparec dii Systeme Xerveux, chap. 6me. Annales d'Histoire Natiirello, tome ix. pp. 291 318. f Ibid, tome i. p. 266. X Comptes rendus, Janvier, 1852, Annales d'Histoire NatortUe, 3mc serie, tome xviii.

268

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

corresponding to that talien by Haller*, and supported

by many

facts.

But here

also

there are exceptions

sufficient to

prevent the adoption of the general rule.

the kangaroo
is

For

instance,

much

larger animal

than an average dog, but the convolutions of the brain

in

the

former of these

animals are very

much

less

extensive than they are in the latter.

* Elementa Physiologisc,

lib.

1.

n. 7.

"

; !

NOTE

II.

2G9

NOTE
It
the
is

H.

Page

195.

but just to the accomplished and learned author of

that the entire passage,
text,

" Philosophy of Language/'

from -which an extract has been given in the

be presented to the reader.

should

" Speech, the language of

articulate sounds, is the

arts,

most wonderful, the most delightful, of the

adorn and elevate our being.
fect.

which

It

is

also the

most per-

It enables us, as it were, to express things

;

beyond

the reach of expression

the infinite range of existence

;

the exquisite fineness of emotion

ties

the intricate subtle-

of thought.
;

Of

such

effect are these

shadows of
call

the soul

these

living

sounds which we
are all other
skill,
;

words

Compared with them how poor

of

monuments
or genius
!

human

power, or perseverance, or

They
tal
;

render the mere clown an artist

nations
!

immor-

writers, poets, philosophers divine

to,

In the Avork here referred

distinction is

a just and very important

made between mere

speech
;

language, and articu-

late language, or

the former being used as a

all

generic term, applicable to

the different methods by

which animals communicate

each other
;

their wants

and feelings

to

speech being used as a specific term, repre-

senting that kind of language which consists of the

voice

produced by the larynx, and then modified by

270

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
by the action of the muscles of the

articulation, that is

throat and mouth.

According

to this definition,

we

cannot suppose any

race of animals, with the exception of

some of those of

the very lowest orders (the oyster for example), to be absolutely

and

entirely without the use of language.

it

That

the gregarious birds possess

to

a very considerable

extent must be plain to any one

who

has watched rooks

in their rookery, or observed swallows collecting gra-

dually on a parapet wall, and chattering with each other before they take their flight
habitations.
all at

once for their winter

At
birds,

the

same time

it

would seem that the language of

is

and the gregarious mammalia,

limited to varieties

of voice in the larynx, and that on

man

alone has been

conferred the inestimable boon of articulate language or

speech.

Such

slight modifications of the voice in the

passages of the

mouth and

nostrils, as

occur in the bark-

ing of a dog, or the bleating of a sheep, or the unmean-

ing imitation of certain words by parrots and starlings, cannot properly be regarded as exceptions to this general
rule.

The

different sounds,

and combinations of sounds,

which may be produced

in the larynx,

numerous

as they

may

be,

would be quite

insufficient for the complicated

relations of

human

society,

and quite inadequate

to ex-

press the sentiments, and desires, and thoughts, of the

individuals of

whom

it

is

composed.

Speech, with

all

its endless varieties

of sound and intonation, and accent,

If a higher order

could alone meet these requirements.

NOTE

ir.

271
is

of intellect be necessary for speech, the latter

not less

necessary for the full development of the intellect, ^\'ith-

out

it

human

society

might have been

it, it is

little

better than

that of rooks or beavers; -with

impossible to say

how much

further progress
civilization
;

may

not yet be

made
what

in

knowledge and
higher destiny
earth.

or, in after ages,

still

may

be reserved for man, even here on

As

there

is

no instance of any, even the smallest and

most degraded, community of human beings, who are

without
it,

so

we cannot do

otherwise than regard the

its

faculty of speech as having

origin in instinct.
to

This,

however, like the other instincts which appertain

social condition, differs materially

man's

from those which ap-

pertain merely to the individual.

instincts are simple,

The

latter

class

of

and

in themselves complete.

The

former are as nothing until they have been called forth

by intercourse with
avail

others,

and even then are of

little

without the help of education and experience.

savage of Aveyron,

The

who had

been living wild in

the woods until he was approaching the age of puberty,

expressed what he

felt

only by inarticulate
articulate

cries,

and

had no more notion of

moral relations.

sounds than he had of

other,

There are many

and apparently

well-authenticated, histories of deserted children, living

wild in solitude, or associating with animals; and

it is

worthy of

notice, that they

were not only incapable of

first

uttering articulate sounds

when

they were discoit

vered, but that, with one or

two exceptions,

does not

272

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

appear that any of them ever learned to speak afterwards.

It

would seem that

it

is

only at a very early

age that the ear can be taught to make that nice distinction of sounds,

and the muscles of the mouth and

nice varieties of action^
;

lips be trained to those

which
is

are alike necessary to speech

an observation which

confirmed by our every-day experience of the difficulty

of acquiring the right pronunciation of any
foreign

language by any one

it

who

has not been accustomed to

life.*

from a very early period of

le Sauvage de rAvcyron, par P. J. Bonnaten-c, Professeur de rhistoire iiaturclle, &c." contains much curious information respecting, not only the Savage of Avcyron, but also respecting many

A work

entitled

" Notice historique sur

other cases of children similarly deserted.

NOTE

1.

273

NOTE
If any one of the

I.

Paffe230. o"
has

phrenological doctrines

been
it

supposed to be better established than another,

that

is

of the cerebellum being the seat of

the

sexual

passion.

The

following extract from Leuret's

work
really

on the Nervous System will

show what

it

is

worth

I'encephale des
la

" Le developpement comparatif de

chevaux soumis a
laisses entiers

castration, at
s'il

de ceux que Ton a

determine, servir
ra'etais posees,

devait,

etait bien

a la solution

des questions

que je

et

me

fournir

un document propre a confirmer, ou a

que

detruire, la theorie de Gall concernant I'influence

la castration

exerce sur

le

cervelet.

M.

Ge'rard

Mar-

chant a bien voulu faire pour moi cette epreuve, en

pesant

comparativement
allongee,

le

cerveau, le cervelet, et la

moeile

d'un

certain

nombre

de

chevaux

entiers, de

juments, et de chevaux hongres, qui servent

aux
par

ope'rations

de

I'ecole d'Alfort.

Les pesees

faites

M. Marchant,
toute
la

avec le concours de
d'exactitude

M.

Lassaigne,

oflPrent

garantie

que Ton peut

d^sirer, et je les regarde

comme

infiniment preferables

la

simple inspection du crane dont Gall se contentait

toujours,

ou

meme

la

mensuration

de

la

cavite

274

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
la

cranniene du cervelet, quelque exacte qu'on puisse

faire.

" Le tableau suivant contient

poids relatif,

le

poids absolu, et

le

du cerveau, du

cervelet, et de la moelle

allongeedequarante-trois chevaux entiers, douze juments,

et vingt-un

chevaux hongres."
tables,

Here follow the

in detail,
''

which

it is

unnecessary to give
is

but of which the following

the result

et ces

La comparaison du
donne

poids relatif du cerveau et du

cervelet

ce rapport d'une

maniere exacte

rapports sont les suivants

" Chez

les

chevaux hongres

le cervelet est

au cerveau comme
-

1 est
1 est
1

a 5 97 a 6"59 a 7'07

Chez
Chez

les

juments

comme

les etalons

comme

est

" Ainsi

ce sont les etalons qui ont comparativement

le cervelet le

moins developpe

les

juments sont mieux

favorisees qu'eux sous ce rapport; et les chevaux hongres

le sont

plus que les uns et les autres.

Si

Tun des deux

parties principales de I'ence'phale s'est atrophiee c'est le

cerveau, car

il

est

seulement de 419 grammes, tandis

:

que
s'est

le

cerveau des etalons est de 433

et

si

Tune

d'elles

de'veloppee de maniere a predominer sur les autres,

le

c'est

cervelet des

chevaux hongres, qui pese

celui des etalons et des

70

grammes, tandis que

n'ont pese que

juments

6l."*
desirous of inquiring further into the

Whoever

is

* Anatomie comparee du Systems Nerveux, tome

i.

NOTE

I.

275

system of Gall and Spurzlieim, will do well to consult

the

"

Examen de
" Treatise

la

Phrenologie," by

M.

Flourens,

and

the

on

Phrenology," in

the seventh

edition of the Encyclopsedia Britannica,

by Dr. Roget.
general

In

the
;

former
in

the

subject

is

discussed on

grounds
in
its

the latter
;

it is still
it

more

fully considered

details

and

in both

is

treated in a

manner

worthy of the high reputation of the respective authors.

V'

Of TMf

'

TNIVERSITY
?4HFbRt^^^

THE END.

London

A. and G. A. Spottisvvoodb, New-street-Sqiiare.

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11 11 12
211

Hymns

. .

. .

. .

21

Lady Una and her Queendom

Laneton Parsonage
.

12

Souvestre's Attic Philosopher Confessions uf a VVorking Man 2^{ ,, Stephen's Essys 21 . .21 Stow's Trninin^ System Thomson'sOutTineofthc Lans of Thought 22 ^ - 22 Townscnd's State Trials Willich's Popular Tales * - 24 Yonge's English Greek Lexicon Latin Grndus > 24 ,, - 24 Zumpt's Latin (iramraar

.....
...

23 2a

Letters to My Unknown Friends on Happiness . . . , Litlon's Church ot Christ . . Maitland's Church in the Catacombs

.
-

12 20 12 12
14
l-i

Margaret Percival

Martineau's Cliurch History Milncr's Church of Christ

20
in 16
ir.

. .

.
.

Montgomery's Original Hymns Moore On tlie Use ofthe Body Soul and Body t * Man and his Motives ft
'-s

Natural History in General.

. . Callow's Popular Conchology j Kphemera and Younif on the Salmon 9 GoKse's Xatural History of Jamaica 9 Kemp's Natural History of Creation 2^-i Kirby and Spclice's Kntomology .12 . 1,' Lee's Klemeiits of Natural History Maunder's Treasury of Natural History . ]f> Turton's Shells of t^ie British Islands 24 Waterton'sKssays on Natural History - 24

Mormonism

Neale's Closing Scene . . Resting Places of the Just . Riches that bring no Sorrow Risen from tlic Hanks . ,, Newman's (J. H.) Discourses . Ranke's Ferdinand and Ma.tiulilian

--.-*,
.
.
.

Readings for Lent

17 17 17 2a 18 17 17 17 18 23

Youatt'sThe Dog The Horse ,,

..... ...
.

Confirmation 1, Robinson's Lexicon to the Greek Testn.

mcnt

.24

24

Saints our

Example

......
. .
.

20 20
19

.
.

Self- lienial

Sermon on the Mount

1-Volume Encyclopaedias and

Dictionaries.
. Blaine's Rural Sports Brande'a Science, Literature, and Art Copland's Dictionary of Medicine . . Cresy's Civil Kngiiieering Gwilt's Architecture f,

. .

..

illuminated

---.()
-

.8
TJ
14

Journey of Life . . Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy ((i.) Sacred Annals . . ,, Southey's Life of Wesley . .
Sinclair's

20 20 20 20

^il
.
.

Stephen's (Sir J.) Ecclesiastical Bioirraoh 7 Taylor's Loyola . . . . .

,,

21 21 21

Wesley

Johnston's Geographical Dictionary . . . London's Agriculture Rural Architecture . ,,

,, ,,

.
-

Tlieologia Germanica Thumb Bible (The)

.
.

, .
.

22 22 on
22 22

Gardening
Plants

Trees and Shrubs . M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary

Dictionary of Commerce ,, Murray'8Rncvclop.x?diaof Geography . British Gazetteer Sharp's . Ure's Dictionary of Arts, etc. *

.....
.
.

.14
.

Turner's Sacred History

}4 14

.
.

14 IS
15

Poetry and the Drama.

.\rnold's

1"

Poems

5
S

.20
. -

24
24

Aikin's (Dr.) Uritish Poets Haillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works .

Barter's Iliad of

Webster'sDomestic Economy

Homer
Manual

Bode's Ballailh from Herodotus

Calvert's Wife's

5 6
6

Religious and Moral Works.

AmyHcrOcrt
-

Atkinson on the Church Bloom&eld'sGreek Testaments Annotations on ditto ,1

...
-

Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts

20
5

.
.

6 6

(loldsmith's Poems, illustrated . . . Knit's Alctlieia Kippis's Hvmns . . . L. E. L.'s Poetical Works

7 18 9 12 12 12

CLASSIFIED INDEX.
Pagt;

Pages
Cecil's Stud

Linwood's Antliologia Oxoniensis Macaulay's I^ftys of Aiifieiit Uoiiie

14
I

Farm

ft

The

Cricket Field

7 8
9 9 *"
1*4

Montgomery's Poetinil Works

Oriuiual Hymns Moore's Poetical Works . Rciokh Lalla f,
,,

16
ir>

,,

Irish Melodies

Son^s and Ballads jf Shakspeare, Gy Bowdler 'sSentinu'iitsand Similea Southey'sPoetical Works British Poets ,, T'honison's Seasons, illustrated
I'hornton's Zohral) VValts's Lyrics of the

17 17 17 17

Kphemera on Angling 's Book of the Salmon ,, The Hunting Field Loudon's Lady's Country Companion
**
.

"
-

20
11

i'ocket and the Stud Practical Horsemanship _ i^ulrnan's Fly-Fishing

" -

10 10 19

Richardson's Horsemanship

21 21

St .loliii's Sporting Rambles Stable Talk and Tahlc Talk Stonehenge on the (irevliound The Stud,foi Practical Purposes

-19 -19
-

10

22
10

Heart

Political

Economy

& Statistics.
G 7

Veterinary Medicine, etc.

CectPs Stable Practice Stud P'arin ,, The Hunting Field Morton's Veterinary Pharmacy" Pocket and the Stud

nanfiohl's statistical fonipaiiion Caird's Lctt'TS on Agriculture Krancis on Life Assuran<-e Political and Social (Jrei;*8 Kssays on

-----

8 7 10
lO 10 19 10 10 24

"1/
-

9
9

Sficnce
I/aiML''s

- Geogrnpliiral Dirtionary M*Culloch*R

Notes of

Traveller

12

&
-

Practical Horsemanship Richaritsoii's Horsemanship

23
15

Stable Taik and Tabic Talk

,,

Dictionary ot

Commerce
-

The Stud

for Practical

Purposes
-

15
2:i

,,

London

Statistics of the British Mflrcet's Political K<oin>iny W'illich's Popular Tables -

Kmptre
-

15
Ifi

Yonatt'sTbe Dog The Horse ,,

24

24

Voyages and Travels.

Raker*s Rifle and Hound in Ceylon Barrow's Continental Tour Carlisle's Turkey and Greece De ('ustine's Russia
Ettthen

The Sciences in General and

Mathematics.
. Arago's Works Bourne's (Jatcchism of the Steam Engine on tlie Screw Propeller ,, Brande*s Dictionary of Science, etc. Lectures on Organic Cheraistr}' ,, , Cresy's Civil Kngineering DelaBet'be's Geoloijv o( Cornwall, etc.

23

fcrguson*s Swiss Men and Mountains t''orester and Biddulph'a Norway

Gironi^re's Philippines Hill's Travel s in Siberia Hope's Britraiiy and the Bible (^hase in Brittany ,, Howitt's Art Student in Munich
.
.

23 23 23
9

23
10 23 23

De

(ieolotfical ia Rive's I'Jectriiity

,,

*s

Observer
-

Faraday's N'on-Metallic Elements Kulloin's Marvels of Science Hersihel's Outlines of Astronomy Holhuid's Mental I'hysiology Humboldt's Aspects of Nature
,,

Cosmos
Liffht
-

Hue's Tartar)', Thibet, and China Huyhes's Australian Colonies Hnmbley's Indian Journal Humboldt's Aspects ol Nature . Jameson's C'aiuida . .lerrmann's Pictures frOm St, Petersburg . . Laiug's Norw!jy .

'

23 23
11
11

23 23 23
15

Hunt's Researches on

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclnpipdia Marcet's (Mrs.) Convet-sations 15 & Moseley's Knijineenng and Architecture Owen 'sLectmes oil ConipHrative '\iiatoiny Our Coal Fields and our Coal Fits Peschcl's Elements of Physics Phillips'^- Fossils of Cornwall, etc.

Notes of a Traveller ,, Macintosh's Turkey and Black Sea

12

&23

Miles' Rambles in Iceland Ol imixon's Piccadilly to Peru Osborn's Arctic J ouriial Peel's Nubian Desert . . PfeifTer's Voyage round the World -

23
Ifi

..
.

Mineralogy Guide to Cieology

Power's New Zealand Sketches Richardson's Arctic Boat Voyage

Seaward's Narrative
,]
>

ot his

Shipwreck

18 18 23 18 19 2U
19

Portlocli's (ieulogy of

Londonderry
-

St. John's (H.) Indian Archipelago

(J.

Smee's Klectro-Metallurgy Steam Eni:ine, by the Artisan Club Tate on Strength of Materials Todd's Tables of Circles
'vVilson's

A.) Isis

There and Back again (Hon.F.) Rambles Sutherland's .-^rrtic Voyage

19 20
19

Electricity
-

and
-

the Electric
.

Traveller's Library

..
.

Telegraph

23

Werne's African Wanderings

22 23 23

E-ural Sports.
Baker*s Rifle and Hound in Ceylon Berkeley's Reminiscences Blaine's Oictiouary f>t Sports Cecil's Stable Practice

Works
Sir

of Fiction.
. .
,

Arnold's Oakfield . . Lady Willouirhby's Diary Macdon-tld'b Villa Vcrocchio

Soutiicy'ij

Records of the Chase

Kouer De C'overley The Doctor etc.

5 24 15
21 21

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XXVIII

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