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Design of an Electret based Measurement Microphone

Brian Dwyer
Directed by Dr. Gareth Bennett

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Parsons Building Trinity College Dublin 2 Ireland

March 2010

Declaration
I declare that I am the author of this thesis and that all work described herein is my own, unless otherwise referenced. Furthermore, this work has not been submitted in whole or part, to any other university or college for any degree or qualification. I authorise the library of Trinity College Dublin to lend this thesis.

________________________ Brian Dwyer, Date

Abstract

Measurement microphones are a high quality microphone used by engineers for tests which require high accuracy. Typically measurement microphones are extremely expensive. With the likes of Bruel and Kjaer, with a typical single channel Bruel and Kjaer Measurement microphone, consisting of microphone, cables and amplification signal conditioning equal to 750. Recent interest in multimedia applications have resulted in a prolificacy of microphones in consumer electrical appliances such as smart phones, computers, mobile phones, PDAs, etc. This has resulted in the availability of an electret based microphone at an extremely affordable price which is due to the huge volumes of these devices being generated. This project develops from a previous project where the evaluation or proof of concept of an electret capsule showed feasibility of developing an affordable high quality microphone. This project will further develop the electronic instrumentation of the previous microphone and in particular will focus on repackaging the components in a more production friendly, compact, user friendly, aesthetic product. The project presents an improved product at the total manufacturing and materials cost of 28.58 per unit. The new design is benchmarked against a high quality G.R.A.S. (BF40) microphone and is tested for its sensitivity, dynamic range and linearity as a function of frequency as well as a function of amplitude and is shown to perform extremely well with a noise floor of approximately 7dB and an upper threshold in excess of 119dB and linear response when compared. In addition the project completed its objectives of packaging all electronic instrumentation including power supply, amplifier, LED and Electret capsule within a single small compact stainless steel 8mm diameter casing.

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deeply gratitude to everyone who helped me with this project. I express my gratitude to Dr. Gareth Bennett for his motivation and guidance through out this project. I am truly grateful for being given such an opportunity to work on this project. I express my gratitude to Mr. Shane Hunt for his time and assistance over the course of the project. My thanks are also due to Mr. Sean OCallaghan, Mr. Mick Reilly and Mr Gabriel Nicholson for their guidance in this project.

Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review ............................................................................. 2 2.1 Microphones ......................................................................................................................... 2 2.2 Microphone arrays ................................................................................................................ 2 2.3 Previous Electret based Measurement Microphone Design ...................................................... 4 2.4 Current Research Rig .......................................................................................................... 5 2.5 Existing Microphone Competitors ....................................................................................... 7 Brel & Kjr ............................................................................................................................ 7 GRAS ....................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 3 Theory .......................................................................................................................... 11 3.1 Sound .................................................................................................................................. 11 3.2 Duct Acoustics .................................................................................................................... 12 Mechanics of component materials ......................................................................................... 22 Electronics ................................................................................................................................. 27 Automated Manufacture and its Benefits ................................................................................ 31 Chapter 4 Concept development................................................................................................. 32 Design Specifications ............................................................................................................... 32 Engineering considerations .................................................................................................. 32 Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................................ 33 Manufacturing and product maintenance............................................................................ 34 Concept structure...................................................................................................................... 34 Concept models ........................................................................................................................ 36 Chapter 5 Embodiment ................................................................................................................ 38 Power Supply ........................................................................................................................ 38 Outer Casing ......................................................................................................................... 43 Battery Compartment............................................................................................................ 44 Output Connection ................................................................................................................ 52 Positive Contact .................................................................................................................... 54 Negative Contact ..................................................................................................................... 55 Switch ........................................................................................................................................ 56 Slide switches ........................................................................................................................ 56 Push Button switch ............................................................................................................... 57

Toggle switch......................................................................................................................... 57 Amplifier and Electret capsule ................................................................................................. 57 Other components .................................................................................................................... 58 Flag System........................................................................................................................... 58 Battery Insulation .................................................................................................................. 58 Chapter 6 Final Design ................................................................................................................ 59 Bill of Materials .......................................................................................................................... 62 Manufacturing and Assembly process .................................................................................... 64 Chapter 7 Testing ......................................................................................................................... 67 Sensitivity at 1kHz..................................................................................................................... 67 Frequency response ................................................................................................................. 67 Noise floor Test ..................................................................................................................... 69 White Noise Test ................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 8 Results and Discussion .............................................................................................. 70 Chapter 9 Future Work ................................................................................................................. 76 Further Testing .......................................................................................................................... 76 Initial Batch ................................................................................................................................ 76 Application into other research projects .................................................................................. 76 Testing within other applications ............................................................................................. 77 Large scale batch production ................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 10 Project Management ................................................................................................ 79 Project Costs ............................................................................................................................. 80 Chapter 11 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 82 Chapter 12 Bibliography................................................................................................................. 83 Chapter 13 Appendices................................................................................................................ 86

Table of Figures
Figure 1 : Photograph of the two previously designed electret based measurement microphones. .............................................................................................................. 4 Figure 2 : Microphone array rig in the fluids lab in Trinity College Dublin. .................. 5 Figure 3 : Amplification units with external AC power supply .................................... 6 Figure 4 : Bruel & Kjaer Precision Array Microphone, Type 4958 .............................. 7 Figure 5 : GRAS model type 40PH............................................................................. 9 Figure 6 : Duct closed at one end and open at the other of length L and diameter a 12 Figure 7 : Microphone array with an incoming wave ................................................ 17 Figure 8:The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 700Hz .......................................................................................... 18 Figure 9 : The theoretical directivity patern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 1000Hz ........................................................................................ 19 Figure 10 : The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 3000Hz ........................................................................................ 19 Figure 11: The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 of the previous electret based microphones closely packed next to one another at a frequency of 8000Hz ..................................................................................................................... 20 Figure 12 : The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 of the new electret based microphones closely packed next to one another at a frequency of 8000Hz . 21 Figure 13 : curved surface split into a number of equal width elements for analysis 25 Figure 14 : Schematic of beams side profile when a force P is applied to its end .... 26 Figure 15 : A simple circuit consisting of 3 resistors in parallel ................................ 29 Figure 16 : Concept model A with push fit cap ......................................................... 36 Figure 17 : Concept model B with polymer battery shield ........................................ 36 Figure 18 : Concept model C with twist fit cap ......................................................... 36 Figure 19 : Concept model C with sliding battery cover ........................................... 36 Figure 20 : The batteries capacity in MAh and corresponding calculated battery life when used in the microphone assembly .................................................................. 40 Figure 21 : Cost per microphone for the required number of battery cells................ 40 Figure 22 : The measured diameter of each battery cell. ......................................... 41

Figure 23 : Oscilloscope Screen shot. Channel 1 (yellow): Oscilloscope electrical noise, Channel 2(blue): ZA10 electrical noise, Channel 3(pink): AC with voltage regulator. .................................................................................................................. 42 Figure 24 : slider system with labelled components ................................................. 45 Figure 25 : slider system in action ............................................................................ 45 Figure 26 : Twist top design with section removed to allow for wires to pass. .......... 46 Figure 27 : 2D outline of tube A after being tapped. ................................................. 46 Figure 28 : Push fit design (tube A left, tube B right) ................................................ 48 Figure 29 : Tube A and B connected ........................................................................ 48 Figure 30 : Newton meter with a human hand exerting forces on the hook .............. 49 Figure 31 : Annotated model with an overview of the mechanism in action ............. 51 Figure 32 : Polymer cover with flexible clip mechanism highlighted ......................... 51 Figure 33 : SMB bulkhead male Jack, SMB straight male jack, SMB straight female and Female Straight Plug shown from left to right .................................................... 53 Figure 34 : Tube drawing with a rounded end .......................................................... 53 Figure 35 : Grounding mechanism for the power supply .......................................... 56 Figure 36 : The final prototype (8mm outer diameter, 90mm length)........................ 59 Figure 37 : 3D model of internal layout of components within the final prototype ..... 60 Figure 38 : Power supply, amplifier, flag system and electret wiring diagram .......... 61 Figure 39 : Printed Circuit board Design (Shane Hunt,2010) ................................... 62 Figure 40 : Schematic of test rig used for the frequency response function test, noise floor test and auto-spectra plot. ................................................................................ 68 Figure 41 : Noise floor for electret based measurement microphone and G.R.A.S microphone within an impedance tube ..................................................................... 70 Figure 42 : Auto-spectra for electret based measurement microphone and G.R.A.S white noise in impedance tube ................................................................................. 71 Figure 43 : Frequency response function electret / reference assembly Magnitude ................................................................................................................................. 72 Figure 44 : Frequency response function electret / reference assembly - Phase ..... 73 Figure 45 : Input/ Output relationship for both assemblies ....................................... 74 Figure 46 : Electret based Measurement microphone with incorporated polymer battery cover ............................................................................................................ 77

Chapter 1 Introduction
Microphones are sensors which provide high level information and have been used successfully to date in power management projects (C. Harris and V. Cahill, 2007). Microphones convert acoustical energy into electrical energy and can be divided into two categories, active and passive. Active microphones require a supply voltage, passive on the other hand do not. Each category contains numerous microphone types and designs. The more common designs are Carbon Microphones, Externally Polarized Condenser Microphones, Prepolarized Electret Condenser Microphones, Magnetic Microphones, and Piezoelectric Microphones (Valentino, 2008). Electret Microphones are an example of an active microphone which is commonly found in multi-media devices and because of the high level mass production they are very affordable. This project employs this fact and develops an Electret based measurement microphone. The size and obtrusiveness of the microphone design are very important and reasons for this are explained in the following chapter.

Arrays of microphones can provide more complex information which can be used to optimise energy saving procedures or in other areas of engineering, such as aeroacoustics, to perform noise source identification techniques to reduce environmental noise (Bennett, 2008). Microphone array techniques require large numbers of microphones to optimise spatial and frequency resolution. Most transducers require some form of amplification and in the case of microphones it is usually an external AC powered unit. This project sets out to develop an all in one analogue microphone assembly which includes all the necessary analog components of a measurement microphone channel. In doing so reducing the size and parts required in microphone array rigs.

Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review


2.1 Microphones
A condenser microphone operates on a capacitive design. The cartridge from the condenser microphone utilizes basic transduction principles and will transform the sound pressure to capacitance variations, which are then converted to an electrical voltage. Because the diaphragm of a condenser microphone can be very light, compared with the much larger dynamic microphone, it is able to respond faster and at higher frequencies (Britannica, 2009). Consequently, condenser microphones generally have better linearity and a greater frequency range than dynamic microphones. Condenser microphones can be externally polarized where an external power supply is used or a more recent design internally polarized where the backplate of the microphone is prepolarized to form a capacitor. This modern design utilizes an electret layer placed on the backplane which contains charged particles that supply the polarization (Valentino, 2008). Typical electret condenser microphone capsule is a 2 terminal device which approximates to a current source when biased with around 1-9 volt and routinely consumes less than half a milliamp. This power is consumed by a very small preamplifier (FET) built into the microphone capsule (Engdahl, 2000).

2.2 Microphone arrays


A microphone array may be considered to be a set of microphone elements arrayed in space whose outputs are individually processed and summed to produce a given output. Microphone arrays have directional capabilities which allow them to extract coherent components from sound fields while dispersing (smearing) incoherent components depending on the direction of sound incidence. (Woszczyk, 1992). A microphone array can be used to discriminate between sounds based on direction, acting as a discrete receiving aperture (McCowan, 2004).

Noise and reverberation can seriously degrade both microphone reception and loudspeaker transmission of audio signals in telecommunication systems. Microphone arrays can be effective in combating these problems. The application of microphone arrays may be useful for teleconferencing and speech pickup in noisy and reverberant environments (Elko, 2004). Microphone arrays are also effectively used in noise sourcing techniques. Beamforming is an array-based measurement technique for sound-source location from medium to long measurement distances. Beamforming is used extensively in underwater acoustic imaging (Papazoglou, 1996), airborne targeting (Benson, 2006) as well as underground imaging (C Frazier, 2000). A specific example of this is the acoustic camera used to monitor source position images of airborne sounds and is used in military and law enforcement applications. Planar Near-field Acoustical Holography (NAH) is another established technique for efficient and accurate noise source location. The measurement grid must capture the major part of the sound radiation into a half space and therefore completely cover the noise source plus approximately a 45 solid angle and the grid spacing must be less than half a wavelength at the highest frequency of interest (JD Maynard, 1985). For both techniques the resolution is dependent on the number of microphones in the array and the spacing between them. This dependency is explained further in chapter 3. Both the size and the cost of each individual microphone can determine the effectiveness and success of noise sourcing techniques.

2.3 Previous Electret based Measurement Microphone Design

The previous electret based measurement microphone design shown in figure 1 incorporates low cost, off the shelf electret capsules. The assembly includes an amplifier mounted on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) which is positioned at the end of the tube. The power supply is in the form of a 9 volt battery which contributes hugely to the size of the assembly. This 9 volt battery requires a voltage regulator in order to reduce the input voltage to 5.5 volts, required to power the assembly. Comparative tests with a high specification production microphone show that the magnitude and phase response of the assemblies are frequency dependent, and that this variation changes from one assembly to another (Gareth J. Bennett, 2009). The comparative test results and circuitry diagram are attached in the appendix 1.

Figure 1 : Photograph of the two previously designed electret based measurement microphones.

2.4 Current Research Rig


The current setup for beam forming (shown figure 2 below) in the Fluids lab in the Mechanical Department of Trinity College Dublin consists of Electret based microphones, Audiolab system amplification units, a National Instruments data acquisition unit and a PC with Labview and Matlab software. The rig is used in the research of noise sourcing techniques. As seen in the image there is an excessive amount of cables in the current rig. This can create problems in terms of organizing calibration data in the Matlab program to each microphone channel, especially if the rig is being assembled or the array is being realigned in a different array formation.

Figure 2 : Microphone array rig in the fluids lab in Trinity College Dublin.

The current amplifier units can amplify five input signals. This means that to set up an array of twenty microphones four amplification units are required and therefore four available AC power supplies. A close up photograph of the Amplification units

from above is shown in figure 3. As one can conclude from these photos alone the rig is not very versatile or portable in its construction.

Figure 3 : Amplification units with external AC power supply

2.5 Existing Microphone Competitors


There are numerous brands on the market that produce measurement microphones, ranging from high quality, expensive measurement microphones to low spec cheap alternatives. Although a number of measurement microphones were researched for this section of the project three models will be focused on for comparative purposes as these three microphones displayed features considered beneficial to the discussed applications. Two of the leading brands of measurement microphones are G.R.A.S. and Brel & Kjr. Due to the cost of each microphone manufactured by these brands it is inherently expensive to use them in microphone arrays as well as other microphone applications.

Brel & Kjr The Brel & Kjr Precision Array Microphone, Type 4958 (shown to the right) is marketed as an array microphone and therefore to be purchased in multiples. The instrument uses a high quality condenser microphone as the transducer and provides good amplitude and phase response which is important for accuracy in array techniques. It contains an SMB (Sub
Figure 4 : Bruel & Kjaer Precision Array Microphone, Type 4958

Miniature version B) coaxial connection; it is very small in diameter (1/4 inch); contains a small preamplifier and has an integrated TEDS (transducer electronic data sheet1). The power supply, signal and TED are transferred via one cable attached to the back of the instrument. This is advantageous in terms of significantly reducing number of cables in an experimental rig. A disadvantage with the powering methods of this microphone is that the instruments are not compatible with all data acquisition systems as not all systems can supply power via the signal cable. Another issue that

A Transducer Electronic Data Sheet is a device that is used to store the calibration data of a transducer so that when used with compatible software the transducers data can be automatically calibrated. The transducers are calibrated pre shipping of the product and must be recalibrated by the user after periods of use.

arises from this is the electrical noise present when the microphones are powered by an AC power supply and therefore increasing the lower dynamic limit of the microphone. The cost of an individual Precision Array Microphone, Type 4958 is priced at 576.00 per unit and is one of the cheapest measurement microphones within the Brel & Kjr range. To set up a rig (array) consisting of fifty or more microphones would cost more than 28,800(Bruel&Kjaer, 2010). On top of this external amplification may be required to boost the signal before it reaches the data acquisition unit depending on the application. An example of a high quality amplification unit is the PCB Model 482C15 4-channel amplifier. The amplifier contains an adjustable gain feature for each channel. The cost per unit is 731 (Turgoose, 2010). Assuming that the four channels will be in use during application the accumulated cost per channel using the above microphone and amplification unit is 758.75 (= Features: Transducer type: Condenser microphone Contains Preamplifier Extremely linear response Compact Design Powered via signal cable (data acquisition/amplifier must be compatible) Requires signal amplification Channel cost is very expensive + ).

GRAS
The G.R.A.S model type 40PH (figure 5) and type 40PL are recently developed versions of the G.R.A.S predecessor model, BF40. They are inch in diameter and have an integrated TEDS for the purpose of calibration. The phase and amplitude response of the microphones are specified to be extremely linear (G.R.A.S, 2009). Similarly to the Brel & Kjr model type 4958 the microphones are powered by an external AC source that is supplied via the signal cable.

Figure 5 : GRAS model type 40PH The cost per G.R.A.S microphone is 400. Adding this to the cost per amplifier channel described in the previous section, the cost per channel is estimated to be 582.75. Features: Transducer type: Condenser microphone Contains Preamplifier Extremely linear response Compact Design Powered via signal cable (data acquisition/amplifier must be compatible) Requires signal amplification Channel cost is expensive

There is quite a selection of cheaper alternatives available on the market. An example of a cheaper measurement microphone is the MM01 manufactured by Samson. The cost per microphone is 60. It comprises of an Electret microphone, a plastic casing, an XLR2 connection and a voltage regulator. The Electret capsule contains a preamplifier which requires an external power supply. This power supply is supplied via the signal cable. The overall design is simple. The total estimated channel cost per microphone for a Samson, MM01 and required external amplifier (PCB Model 482C15) is 242.75. Features: Transducer type: Electret microphone Contains Preamplifier Powered via signal cable (data acquisition/amplifier must be compatible) Requires signal amplification Relatively low cost

Similar microphones to the Samson MM01 that were researched included brands such as Apex(70, (directproaudio, 2010)), Behringer (55, (zzsounds, 2010)) and Beyerdynamic (220, (Pro-audio, 2010)), all of which use electret condenser microphone transducers and require external amplification. All of the above models are externally powered by an AC power supply via the signal cable and require a plug-in-power or phantom power compatible external amplifier or data acquisition unit.

An XLR connector is an electrical connector design commonly found in audio and video electronic hardware. XLR connectors are twice the size of the standard RCA plugs and sockets found on consumer equipment and are more prone to electrical noise than SMB coaxial connectors.

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Chapter 3 Theory
In this chapter important definitions and basic acoustic theories will be demonstrated which contribute in defining design parameters. Basic microphone and microphone array theory as well as duct acoustics are investigated to further understand the background and results of this project. Finally Mechanical and Electronic principals used in the design process are discussed.

3.1 Sound
Sound pressure (P) is the pressure induced by the disturbance of sound waves. The SI unit for sound pressure is the Pascal (Pa). The sound pressure deviation formula is:

3-1 Where F is force and A is the area in which it is acting. Sound pressure is most commonly converted into Decibel units in acoustics as the unit scale is more adaptable to the user and it becomes more apparent of how loud a signal is using the decibel scale. To convert sound pressure into decibels:

3-2 Where 0.0002. Impedance, Z is the complex ratio of the sound pressure on a given surface to the sound flux through that surface. It is expressed in acoustic ohms and can be found using the basic equation: is the sound pressure and is the reference pressure, usually taken as

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3-3 Where F is force and u is the particle velocity. Particle velocity is the speed of a particle in a medium as it transmits a wave. From the momentum equation3 it is found that:

3-4 Where is the medium density and is the sound pressure.

3.2 Duct Acoustics


For the purpose of being able to analyze a microphones functionality the microphone must be tested using plane waves. For this reason tests are carried out within a tube or duct. The characteristic property of a plane wave is that each acoustic variable has constant amplitude and phase on any plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This is very advantageous when comparing microphones. Solving for the general acoustics of a 2D duct, shown in figure 6 is as follows:

Figure 6 : Duct closed at one end and open at the other of length L and diameter a
3

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Using Helmholtz equation:

3-5 Where the boundary conditions at y = a and y = 0 is By using the separation of variables approach, let p(x,y) = p(x)f(y):

3-6 From further manipulation we can separate the above equation into its x and y components to get: and The general solution is

3-7 Incorporating the boundary conditions we know that to the above equation taking the point y = 0 we get: . Substituting this in

Now again apply

, the above equation, assuming A and C are both not

equal to zero we find that to satisfy this condition,

Where n = 0, 1, 2 where The solution for P is: 3-8 Therefore

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Where Letting n = 0 we get the equation 3-9 This equation satisfies plane waves within the and there is no variation across the duct. Now letting n = 1 we get the equation:

3-10 The condition for the waves to propagate down the duct is that remain real where off frequency. The equation for calculating the cut-off frequency of a circular duct is: must

. From this we can derive what is known as the ducts cut

3-11

Where a is the radius of the duct and c is the speed of sound. Under this frequency only plane waves propagate and above this frequency evanescent waves are present.

During analysis of results when testing the electret based measurement microphone acoustic characteristics of the testing environment play a huge role in the results achieved. A key example of this is the presence of standing waves when radiating white noise down a duct. Standing waves are a result of the phase interference between the transmitted and reflected waves in a terminated pipe (Fundamentals of Acoustics, 4th edition, Lawrence E. Kinsler, Austin R.Frey, Alan B. Coppens, James V. Sanders). The frequencies at which the standing waves are present appear at greater amplitudes when plotting in the frequency domain and these frequencies can be predicted for verification purposes. The amplitude at a pressure antinode is the combined amplitude of the transmitted and reflected wave at that frequency and the amplitude at a node is the transmitted waves amplitude minus the reflected waves

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amplitude. The ratio of these amplitudes is known as the standing wave ratio and can be used to find the load impedance of the tube termination/tube mouth.

The harmonic acoustic solution below the cut off frequency within a duct as shown in equation 3-9 is given by:

3-12 Where A is the (complex) amplitude of the forward travelling wave, B is the amplitude of the backward travelling wave, x is the distance along the pipe length (L) and is the wave number.

The continuities of force and particle speed require that the mechanical impedance of a wave at x=L equals the mechanical impedance of the termination.

For the example of the test rig used on the electret assembly let the pipe be driven at x = 0 and closed at x = L by a rigid cap. Using equation 3-3 and applying equations 3-1, 3-4 and 3-9 the impedance of the duct at the closed end is:

3-13 Where S is the cross sectional area which the pressure exists. The mechanical impedance for the open end of the duct, x = 0 is:

3-14 Combining equation 3-13 and equation 3-14 to eliminate A and B, we obtain

3-15
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As the closed end of the duct is closed by a rigid cap we can let Applying this to equation 3-15 yields:

The reactance is zero and resonance occurs when

This equation rearranged gives:

3-16 Where is the ducts natural frequency for modes n=1,2,3, c is the speed of

sound and L is the duct length.

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Basic Microphone Array Acoustics As defined in chapter 2 a microphone array may be considered to be a set of microphone elements arrayed in space whose outputs are individually processed and summed to produce a given output. A simple line array as shown in the figure below (similar to rig shown in chapter 2, figure 2) consists of a group of equally spaced omnidirectional microphones whose outputs are summed directly.

Figure 7 : Microphone array with an incoming wave The microphones represented in the above figure are all subject to the same incoming wave where is the wavelength, ( ); is the angle at which the wave

is to the normal plane and d is the spacing distance between the microphones. The farfield directivity function R() (Eagle, 2004) is given by the following equation:

3-17
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Where N = number of microphones in the array; d = spacing distance between microphones; = measurement angle (radians); and k = 2f / c (f = frequency, c = speed of sound in m/s) By applying equation 3-17 using Matlab (see appendix 2 for code) and plotting the function for various frequencies to show the effects and dependency of the microphone array on the source frequency and microphone spacing. The first sample frequency plotted is 700Hz (figure 8), using four microphones evenly spaced at 0.1m from one another. The polar plot of amplitude (as a fraction of the source amplitude) versus the polar coordinates is shown. As one can see the summed amplitude is greatest at the centre of the microphone positions and falls off to either side of the array as one would expect.

Figure 8:The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 700Hz

As the frequency rises the far-field directional response of the array of omnidirectional microphones changes. The directivity does not hold to act in the
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same direction as shown above. Instead unwanted off-axis lobes present themselves as the frequency increases for microphone arrays as shown in figure 9 and figure 10Figure 10 : The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 3000Hz.

Figure 9 : The theoretical directivity patern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 1000Hz

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Figure 10 : The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 microphones at a frequency level of 3000Hz From the three plots shown above it is observed that the increasing amplitude levels to the sides of the microphone array rig and a reduction in the desired plane of measurement are highly dependent on the frequency of the source. This directivity pattern is also dependent on the spacing between the microphones in the array. By reducing the distance between the points of measure we can use microphone arrays at higher frequency levels without the presence of off-axis lobes seen in figure 10. For demonstration we will take the example of the previous electret based measurement microphone design, using a sample frequency of 8000Hz and packing four microphones next to one another (distance of 35mm) the following theoretical results are shown:

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Figure 11: The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 of the previous electret based microphones closely packed next to one another at a frequency of 8000Hz In the new design the microphones are capable of being packed as close as 8mm from one another. Taking the same sample frequency of 8000Hz the theoretical results achieved are shown in figure 12 below.

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Figure 12 : The theoretical directivity pattern of a linear array of 4 of the new electret based microphones closely packed next to one another at a frequency of 8000Hz By comparing the two above figures it is apparent that the new design is hugely advantageous in terms of being used in a microphone array due to the reduction in size, especially for high resolution and accuracy at higher frequencies. When the ratio between the separation of the receivers and the wavelength of the incoming wave is greater than half the incoming wavelength, the array can give max response in directions other than the desired steered angle, hence giving unreliable results so as to identify the direction of the noise source in question (Dudgeon, 1977). This critical frequency is an important factor when considering the working frequency range of the array, as it should be operated always below this threshold. The frequency limit is calculated by:

3-18

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Where d is the microphone spacing. Applying equation 3-18 to the minimum spacing between the new electret based design (8mm) it is calculated that the maximum working frequency is 21250Hz.

Mechanics of component materials


Calculations were carried out in the selection and design process of mechanical components. An example of a crucial component which required investigation before purchasing was the helical compression spring. Compression springs, like extension springs are stressed in torsion. In effect, these springs can be considered similar to a torsion bar wound helically to reduce space. Compression springs are generally designed so that the minimum working position is, at most 85% of the total deflection available (Lyons, 2008). The choice of spring type can be dictated by a number of factors: the choice of springs anticipated working requirements; its fittings; the wire diameter; the spring diameter and the cost of the end product. The working environment must be taken into account when selecting/designing a spring, any environmental factors that may affect the springs performance and more importantly in this case the performance of the product or assembly in which the spring is being designed for. An example is the ability for the spring to conduct electricity. When integrating a component into a design amongst other components the dimensions are always an important issue. As springs change in there length when forces are acting on them it is important as an engineer to understand how they are changing and the factors that affect these changes. The deflection in helical compression can be found by the equation:

3-19 Where F is the force acting on the spring, x is the displacement and k is the spring constant. This k value can be determined from a number of parameters which will now be investigated using analysis of an equivalent simple bar.
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The strain energy stored due to torsion in a simple bar is:

3-20 Where J is the second moment of area ( for a round bar), G is the torsional

modulus of rigidity, T is the stress and l is the length of the equivalent simple bar The strain energy stored in a bar due to shear is:

3-21 Where P is the load and A is the cross sectional area of the bar (or the wire in the case of a spring). By simply adding equation 3-20 and equation 3-21 the total strain energy for a helical spring is found.

3-22 By letting , where D is the Spring diameter,

is the number of coils and d is the wire diameter.

3-23 Using Castiglianos Therom:

3-24 (Units in equation 3-24 are in mm) As we can write

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3-25 By substituting equation 3-25 into equation 3-19Error! Reference source not found. where the deflection is equivalent to the displacement we get the following solution:

3-26 This k value is the spring constant and is usually displayed along with a springs model number. Using this equation can help to determine the springs dimensions and characteristics in the design process.

Finite Element Analysis

For the deflection of parts in the assembly a finite element bending analysis is carried out on the components deflection when a force is acting against it. The purpose of carrying out finite element analysis was to get a better insight into the design parameters with accurate figures. The analysis works on the concept that the curved surface is split up into a number of cantilever beams and analysed individually and summed up. Due to the complexity of the shape certain parameters are constantly changing across the element. As seen in figure 13 the cross section of each beam is changing across the tube in the plane which the force is acting.

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Figure 13 : curved surface split into a number of equal width elements for analysis

The Bending equation for a beam (Fenner, 1988):

3-27 Where: P = normal force, l = beam length, w= beam width, t= beam thickness and y=deflection at point of load. The finite element analysis was compared to a simple analysis to ensure accuracy. The simple analysis for verification method is as follows:

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Va

Figure 14 : Schematic of beams side profile when a force P is applied to its end

Where M is the moments, P is the force acting at the distance x. Applying equations for Slope and Elastic Curve:

3-28 Where E = youngs modulus of the material, I = moment of inertia, v = displacement. After integrating twice yields:

3-29

3-30 Applying boundary conditions of dv/dx = 0 at x = L and v=0 at x=L (making the assumption that the piece is fixed at this point), Equation 3-29 becomes

Therefore, equation 3-30, we get

and

. Substituting these results back into

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3-31 The maximum displacement occurs at A (x=0), for which

This equation rearranged to calculate the force P required to deflect the stainless steel tube so that a tension fit can be achieved between two parts. (Note: the negative sign can be ignored as it is merely as function of direction)

3-32 This equation is applied to the stainless steel tube with a curved surface. The max allowable stress in a beam is found using the following equation (Hibbeler, 2007):

3-33 Where d is the deflection, E is the flexural modulus, t is the thickness and l is the length of the beam.

Electronics
In order to design an electric circuit compiled of premanufactured componentry an understanding of the fundamentals of electric circuits must be attained. In this section some basic principles are explained which were used in the process of design. The first of these principles is Kirchhoffs current law. This law must be addressed when changing circuit layout and also adding or removing components from the previous design.

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3-34 The law states that the sum of the currents ( ) at a junction of two or more conductors must equal zero. When analysing a circuit this law enables us to express currents in a circuit in terms of each other. Combining Kirchhoffs law with Ohms law (equation 3-35) one can analyse and grasp an understanding of basic electronic circuitry.

3-35 Where V is the voltage (volts), I is the current (amperes) and R is the resistance (ohms). As the three parameters are all dependent on one another it is possible to manipulate a circuit by adding basic electrical components such as resistors of determined values knowing the required voltage of all components and the current draw of the components. With these parameters defined the next step in designing a circuit is choosing ideal source4. Applying Kirchhoffs current law to the example circuit shown below, about the circled node.

An ideal voltage source provides a prescribed voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current flowing through it. The amount of current supplied by the source is determined by the circuit connected to it (Rizzoni, 2000)

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Figure 15 : A simple circuit consisting of 3 resistors in parallel By applying Ohms law, equation 3-35 the current can be expressed as follows:

Letting

where

3-36 Using the ratio, as the voltage is same throughout the example circuit we

can express the following:

From this we can derive the general expression for the current divider for a circuit with N parallel resistors:

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3-37 Where n is the element in question. This method of derivation can be applied to resistors in series to get the general solution for the voltage divider for a fixed current flowing through each element shown below.

3-38 These equations are used extensively when designing a circuit to ensure that each component is supplied with the correct voltage and current. Some electrical concepts and phenomenon arise in the design of the electret based measurement microphone. One of these phenomenon is the Faraday cage which contributes to the results achieved. A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure that blocks out external static electric fields formed by conducting material. The phenomenon occurs due to the electrons within the conducting material gathering on the outer surface of the enclosure (John Daniel Kraus, 1991). An example of a faraday shield occurs in a coaxial cable, such that protects the internal conductors from electrical noise. In the case of the electret based measurement microphone the same effects and benefits occur when enclosed in a Faraday cage.

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Automated Manufacture and its Benefits


When using automated methods of manufacturing you reduce the risk of inaccuracies, increase productivity greatly and reduce the cost of manufacture. Along with production costs constantly on the rise is the necessity for manufacturing to remain as competitive as possible by utilizing these benefits of automation in the manufacturing industry. Using automated methods of manufacture can in some processes reduce the production cycle to as low as 5% of the equivalent manual operation time (A Tiwari, 2008). In the design process concepts that could facilitate automated manufacturing processes were developed more so than those requiring manually assisted manufacturing processes for the purpose of low cost, efficient future production.

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Chapter 4 Concept development


Design Specifications
In this section the aims in the design process are outlined under categorized headings.

Engineering considerations
Environment Temperature: The microphones are for the purpose of laboratory application so the temperature in which they are subjected to can be assumed to be room temperature averaging around 23C (IEC61094-2, 1992). Pressure: The static pressure in which a measurement microphone can be assumed to be subjected to is 101,325 kPa (BSEN61094-2, 1994). The humidity in which a measurement microphone is expected to function at is relative humidity of 50% (BSEN61094-2, 1994). The microphone assembly must be able to withstand the corrosion at this level of humidity. Dimensions, Geometry and Weight Due to the applications and advantages discussed in chapters 1 and 2 the dimensions of the microphone assembly must remain as small as possible. This is especially true for the plane of measurement when being applied to an array of microphones. In reducing the size of the microphone assembly it is extremely important that its functionality is not sacrificed. Reducing the number of components including the required number of cables required during operation is very important as this increases ease of set up and portability. Linked into portability is the weight of the microphone assembly. As the microphones are portable and potentially used in high numbers it is highly advantageous to keep the weight of the instrument as low as possible. Life The product as a whole should have an indefinite lifetime

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The replacing of components such as power supply should be carried out as necessary and are taken into account as a design parameter to reduce the number of power cell changes over the lifetime of the product. Quantity The product is intended for multiple microphone applications as well as independent operation. For the purpose of this project the microphone is designed with an initial batch size of 75 units in mind. Product Cost As the market for measurement microphones is very competitive the cost of the microphone can determine the products success or failure. For research purposes when using microphones in applications as discussed in chapters 1 and 2 it is notably important to keep the cost of individual instruments low.

Ethical Issues
Safety The device must not expose the user to excessive temperatures, injury by mechanical components or cause hazardous currents to pass through the human body (IEC60065, 2001). The apparatus shall be so constructed that there is no risk of an electric shock from accessible parts or from those parts rendered accessible following the removal by hand of a cover (IEC60065, 2001).

Aesthetic Considerations As with all products on the market aesthetics of a product can be the determining factor on whether a customer will choose this product as opposed to another brands product. Good aesthetics in a product can display the products standard and performance to a customer who has not yet used the product.

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Manufacturing and product maintenance


Manufacturing considerations Due to the low cost of mass manufactured components the approach of sourcing pre-manufactured components when possible will be applied. The machining and alteration of components will be limited as much as possible so that costs and production time remain low. Also the use of automated manufacture will be an available option when manufacturing multiple amounts post project and shall be taken into account during the design process. Material selection is heavily influenced by their required manufacturing processes and therefore impacting on the instrument design. Maintenance The microphone assembly should entail easy maintenance if parts fail. In doing so all internal components should be accessible to a certain degree without interfering with other design specifications discussed in this section. Another consideration that affects ease of maintenance is the use of stock components which makes parts easily replaceable at low lead times.

Concept structure

To formalise the design process for efficiency and effectiveness the design of the product was split into subsections, as listed below in table 1. The table displays the corresponding concept solutions (in no specific order) that were developed during the design process.

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Table 1 : Design subsections and Corresponding concept solutions 1 Power supply ZA10 Outer casing BR435 2 3 4 Plug-inpower CR927

Stainless steel tube with Push fit cap Power supply contacts Polymer cap to allow direct contact Transducer

Stainless steel tube with Sliding battery cover

Stainless steel tube with polymer battery shield

Stainless steel tube with Twist top fit

Compression spring

Rigid Steel cap

Conical Spring

WM-61 electret WM-64 electret Signal Output SMB male solder connection

SMB bulkhead jack Switch Amplifier Other Components Slide Switch Low voltage amplifier Flag system

SMB bulkhead female Push Button Switch High voltage amplifier Power supply insulation

SMB straight female plug Toggle switch

Wires

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Concept models
From the above concept tables contents concept models were developed, four of which are displayed in the table below.

Table 2 : 4 Concept models that were developed

Figure 16 : Concept model A with push fit cap Concept

Figure 17 : Concept model B with polymer battery shield

Figure 18 : Concept model C with twist fit cap

Figure 19 : Concept model C with sliding battery cover

In order for the concepts to develop into a prototype an adapt to specification method was used. A visual outline of this development process can be found in appendix 3. The idea behind this approach is that all previous subsection concepts
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were verified and reworked when required if the current subsection and one of the previous subsections were not compatible with one another.

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Chapter 5 Embodiment
For the purpose of embodiment, concepts from the concept table were developed and investigated further. In this chapter each sub section concept is elaborated further and the variants in the subsection are compared with one another. Each section is concluded with the concept that was pursued in prototyping.

Power Supply
The options for the power supply were narrowed down to four options for the design. These included Lithium button cells, Lithium Pin-type cells, Zinc Air button cells and plug-in-power (phantom power).

Instrument requirements Voltage Current Draw

Units 5.5 (volts) 0.5 (milliAmpere)

Table 3 : The overall voltage and current requirements calculated for the microphone assembly

Lithium Button Cell The lithium button cell model CR927 Button Cell Type Lithium Battery. These batteries are composed of lithium ion technology which is renowned to have a very high capacity and are a very clean source of power (low noise). CR927 cells are commonly found in watches. Each 3 volt cell has a capacity of 100 MilliAmpere hours (MAh). The dimensions of each cell are: height: 2.7 mm, diameter: 9.5 mm and depth: 2.85 mm. As each cell produces 3 volts for the purpose of the electret based measurement microphone only two cells would be required per assembly. The main disadvantage to the CR927 button cell is that the diameter of each cell spans largely outside of the diameter of the electret microphone by comparison to that of the other power source options. This therefore as previously explained before reduces the capabilities of the measurement microphone. The CR927 are the smallest lithium button cells currently available on the market.

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Lithium Pin-type cell Lithium Pin-type cells (BR435) are power supplies commonly found in fishing rod assemblies. Pin-type cells are very narrow in their construction. Each 3 volt cell has a capacity of 25 MAh and the dimensions are: diameter: 4.2mm and length: 25.9mm. The cost of each cell ranges between 2 and 4 euro depending on the supplier. As mentioned above the lithium ion cells are a very clean source of power. The main disadvantage to this power source is the cost per unit and also that the small capacity of each cell compared to that of alternative power supplies.

Zinc Air Button cell Zinc-Air button cells, ZA10 are power supplies commonly found in hearing aid appliances. They are small in nature, are a low noise power supply and have a very high capacity for their size. The dimensions for each cell are: 5.8mm diameter and 3.6mm height. The diameter, similar to that of the Lithium Pin-type cells (BR435) is within the dimensions of the electret microphone and therefore does not affect the measurement plane or impact on microphone spacing when used in an array. The cost per pack of 6 units is 3 euro and due to the mass manufacturing of this cell type it is easily available. The capacity of each 1.4 volt battery is 105MAh. As the voltage of each cell is 1.4 volts and the requirement for the microphone is 5.5volts using four cells as a power supply is ideal as it eliminated the previous necessity of a voltage regulator.

Comparison of Cell Types Comparative charts are shown below of the three selected power supply options in the design, comparing the capacity of each power supply and the related battery life, the cost and diameters of each unit. These parameters are considered the most important in terms of designing a successful instrument. From the charts (figures 20, 21 and 22) it is apparent that the ZA10 button cell is the strongest contender is in terms of design.

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250 200 150

100
50 0 Lithium pintype (BR435) Lithium Button cell (CR927) Zinc-Air Button cell (ZA10)

Capacity (MAh) Battery life (hours)

Figure 20 : The batteries capacity in MAh and corresponding calculated battery life when used in the microphone assembly

Cost (per microphone, )


6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Lithium pinLithium type Button cell (BR435) (CR927) Zinc-Air Button cell (ZA10)

Cost (per microphone, )

Figure 21 : Cost per microphone for the required number of battery cells

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Diameter (mm)
10 8

6
4 2 0 Lithium pin- Lithium Button Zinc-Air Button type (BR435) cell (CR927) cell (ZA10) Diameter (mm)

Figure 22 : The measured diameter of each battery cell.

Plug In Power

Plug in power (commonly referred to as phantom power) is a phenomenon by where the power supply to an active microphone is supplied via the same cable as that of the signal. Advantages to this method of powering a microphone is that there is no need to change batteries and although it is an external AC power supply powering the instruments there are no extra cables attached to the instrument. Disadvantages to phantom power supply are that the data acquisition unit must be capable of supplying power via the input terminal as well as the inevitable risk of electrical noise in the signal generated by AC power and causing inaccuracies in results. To demonstrate the presence of electrical noise in AC power supplies a test was carried out comparing the electrical noise produced by the ZA10 button cells to the electrical noise produced by an AC power supply with a voltage regulator. By doing so it helped to conclude which power supply to include in the prototype. The results from the test are shown below:

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Figure 23 : Oscilloscope Screen shot. Channel 1 (yellow): Oscilloscope electrical noise, Channel 2(blue): ZA10 electrical noise, Channel 3(pink): AC with voltage regulator.

As seen above channel 1 (oscilloscope) and channel 2 (ZA10 cells) produce a similar signal and concluding from this that the DC power supply is insignificant and generates no visible increase of electrical noise. Channel 3 (AC with voltage regulator) presents a large increase in electrical noise as can be seen above when compared to the Oscilloscopes signal. The implications of this is that a microphone powered via a DC power supply would have a lower noise floor than that of a microphone powered by that of an AC power supply, therefore improving functionality. Outcome The power supply used in the final prototype was the zinc air ZA10 battery cells. They were chosen for their small size, low cost and availability, high capacity and also the ideal combined voltage when using four cells in series. To elaborate on this, when using four ZA10 cells in series we eliminate the necessity of a voltage
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regulator as required in the previous design to reduce the voltage to required level. As stated in table 3 the required voltage is 5.5volts and of the power supply selection presented on this section the combined voltage of the ZA10 cells was the closest to the required voltage. This allows a reduction in parts within the circuitry and further lowering cost and size of the overall product.

Outer Casing
Stainless steel tubing was chosen as the outer casing for the microphone instrument. The previous design used stainless steel tubing to hold the electret microphone and also acted as a structural element for applications and the mounting of the 9volt battery. This part of the previous design was developed further for the new design. As the material selected for the casing is a conductive one the casing can be utilized as a grounding mechanism for the instrument. This allowed for the reduction of internal components, therefore reducing the cost and increasing compactibility. By enclosing all the electrical components within the stainless steel tube and using the tube as a ground for the circuit a Faraday cage is formed around the instrument. The selection of tubes with suitable dimensions was very important in the design as the tube needed to encapsulate all the electronic components, the power supply and the electret capsule as well as remaining as small as possible making the electret based microphone as effective in its design as possible. Note: as the casing is a conductive material it is required that the power supplys positive element is insulated from contacting the casing wall. Suitable tubes were sourced that were considered suitable candidates to enclose both the power supply and electret capsule. The selection of tubes considered are shown in the table below:

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Table 4 : Tube specifications for the corresponding power supplies Power supply Outer Diameter (mm) ZA10 (Za button cell) BR435 (Li pin-type) 8 Plug-in-power (AC) CR927 (Li button cell) 8 12 6 6 10 Stainless Steel 316 Stainless Steel 316 Stainless Steel 316 8 Inner diameter (mm) 6.8 Stainless Steel 316 Material

Outcome The outer casing used in the final prototype was the first tube listed on table 4. This tube is a conductive material so can be used as a ground for the circuitry; it has a very small outer diameter and an inner diameter allowing 1mm for battery insulation and a signal wire to pass by.

Battery Compartment

A number of concepts were developed to accommodate the different power supplies and enable the changing of batteries if required.

Slider system A slider system was designed to act as a cover for the batteries when placed within the outer casing. The system is compiled of a number of components. These include a 10mm diameter compression spring, 2 pins, an o-ring and an outer tube.

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Figure 24 : slider system with labelled components

Figure 25 : slider system in action

The concept works on the basis that when the user requires changing the battery cells they can slide back this mechanism and when finished the cover will automatically return to its original position as shown in figure 25. Although this concept is considered to be very user friendly the integration of the mechanism into the microphone assembly increases in number of components and also increases its size.

Threaded top The twist top mechanism works on the basis that the instrument as a whole is divided into two sections, one containing the power supply, circuitry and output connection (tube A) and the other containing the electret capsule (tube B). The concept is designed on the basis that tube A is of a thinner wall thickness than tube B. Assuming that both tube A and tube B start out with the same outer diameter material can be removed from the outside of tube B as shown in Figure 26 so that the inner diameter of tube A is slightly smaller than the outer diameter of tube B at the point of contact. This way a threading can be applied to tube B and a tube A can be tapped for a twist fit between the two tubes.

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Figure 26 : Twist top design with section removed to allow for wires to pass. The tapping tool available to machine the inside of tube A is of specification M07,0.5. This tool will remove material to a diameter of 7mm in intervals of 0.5mm as shown in figure 27.

Figure 27 : 2D outline of tube A after being tapped. For tube B to fit effectively with tube A the piece must have material removed so that the new outer diameter is 7mm and a 0.1mm threading applied to the same section of the tube.

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As the amount of material being removed is very small tolerances must be extremely low for this design to work. There is the high risk of cross threading5 when removing and attaching tube A and tube B to one another.

Push fit

Similar to the above concept the instrument is divided into two sections. For the purpose of this description each tube will be referred to in the same manner as previous (Tube A and tube B, containing the power supply, circuitry and output connection and the electret capsule respectively). As in the twist fit design material is removed from the outer diameter of tube B as shown in figure 28. When the piece is being machined a slight gradient is left on the section closest to that of tube A. This way its diameter is slightly outside of the dimensions of tube As inner diameter causing the section of tube B to deflect. This deflection causes normal forces between the two surfaces when the tubes are connected (figure 29) as tube B is trying to return to its original position. The theoretical values for these forces were calculated to ensure that this design was a viable option before being prototyped. The deflection forces needed to be within two limits. The first so that the forces when multiplied by the friction coefficient of the steel tube were greater than that exerted on the top cap by the battery contact or spring and the second is that the deflection forces are lower than that exerted by the user when being inserted into tube A.

A condition that occurs when a rotating fastener is misaligned with a tapped hole (cross threading, 2010).

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Figure 28 : Push fit design (tube A left, tube B right)

Figure 29 : Tube A and B connected

The procedure involved in determining the limits in place and the calculations for deflection is as follows:

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1. The upper limit The upper limit force was determined simply by using a Newton meter as shown in figure 30. This apparatus calculates the forces in Newtons acting on the hook and is a good representation of ergonomic forces exerted by a users hand.

Figure 30 : Newton meter with a human hand exerting forces on the hook The forces determined from this test averaged at around 3 newtons for a pulling force using the thumb and the index finger and as great as 20 newtons when exerting a force using the users arm as well as their fingers. 2. The lower limit The lower limit force was determined by the compression spring in contact with the positive end of the batteries and its primary parameters. These parameters include the amount the spring deflected when the tubes were connected and the spring constant value. This limit was slightly variable as the positioning and k value of the spring could be determined to suit this parameter when being designed/selected. The lower limit value, after the spring had been selected was calculated to be 1.05 Newtons.

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3. The deflection forces The method for calculating the deflection forces was a finite element analysis which is discussed in chapter 3 and verified by a simple model to ensure accuracy. Matlab was used to compute the calculations for the finite element analysis so that a higher number of elements could be calculated for and therefore achieve greater accuracy in results. The code can be found in the attached appendix 4. Recalling equation 327 to calculate the bending forces:

The parameters that are fixed due to design constraints for the Finite element analysis are inputted into the program by the user. These include the Youngs modulus of the material ( ), the length of the section of analysis ( deflection (y) and width of each element (w). The variable in the equation is the thickness of each element across the structure. The force required to deflect wall of the tube by 0.5mm is calculated to be 19.9 Newtons for the finite element analysis. The simple model calculated a similar force of 22.3 Newtons. Taking the average of the two methods of calculation and multiplying it by the friction coefficient of stainless steel 316 to calculate the forces restricting motion between the two surfaces was identified. The calculated normal force between the surfaces of tube B and tube A was calculated to be 21.16 Newtons. By multiplying this by the friction coefficient of 0.15 for stainless steel 316 (Finishing, 2010) by the calculated forces a value of 3.16 Newtons was found. The calculated value for the friction forces falls within the upper and lower limits from section 1 and 2 above. and the required

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Polymer cover

A polymer battery cover or shield is shown below in figure 31. The battery cover can be removed by flexing the clip mechanism highlighted component in figure 32 and simply lifting the cover upwards. In order to design this component the simple model deflection equation (3-32) was applied to the clip mechanism and also maximum stress equation (3-33). With these calculated parameters the dimensions and the material choice of the clip mechanism were defined.

Figure 31 : Annotated model with an overview of the mechanism in action

Figure 32 : Polymer cover with flexible clip mechanism highlighted

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A 3D printed component was manufactured for the purpose of visual representation for the above component. The material used in the prototype was Fullcures patented photopolymer. The flexural modulus of the photopolymer used in producing the 3D model was equal to 1718MPa and the flexural strength is equal to 75.8MPa (Fullcure, 2010). The recommended material choice for future production of this component is High Impact Polystyrene with a similar flexural modulus of 2.1GPa. A screen shot of the STL6 file used to print this prototype model is attached in appendix 5. The main advantages of this design are the reduction in parts and improved ergonomics. Restrictions that prohibit this model from being developed for a small scale post project production is that the cost of an injection mold is a large investment that would only be deemed justifiable if a large scale production was to be carried out. Outcome The battery compartment design used in the final prototype was the push fit design. It has less manufacturing processes to achieve its required state, it is considered user friendly and does not affect the compact nature of the overall product. Note: for future work the polymer battery case can be investigated further depending on production scale.

Output Connection
In the previous design an SMB coaxial connection cable was used in the microphone assembly. For this design an SMB coaxial connector will be used in the microphone assembly. SMB coaxial connection was chosen as they are a low noise connector, they are compatible with the majority of data acquisition units available on the market and they are very small in size.

STL (ST ereoLithography): A 3D printing file format created by 3D Systems for its stereolithography system.

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Many SMB connections were researched and a number were purchased during prototyping stages to investigate the selection further and the SMB chosen was based on ease of assembly and price. Some of the SMB connections investigated further include SMB Female Straight Plug, clamped SMB straight male jack, SMB straight female and SMB bulkhead Jack shown below. Methods for assembly for each connection were investigated and the SMB with the least number of required assembly operations, required parts and for the best price was integrated into the design.

Figure 33 : SMB bulkhead male Jack, SMB straight male jack, SMB straight female and Female Straight Plug shown from left to right The two SMB connectors that were investigated the most of the four connectors were the male jack type connectors (the first and second from left shown above). The prime reason for pursuing these models further was that the design enabled the circuit boards to be fixed to the back of the SMB connector by a push/twisting action. For both SMB connectors a different assembly method would be required. The first SMB connector required to be turned and therefore reducing the outer diameter slightly to achieve a push fit with the outer casing. The second SMB connector required that the end of the tube was rounded like shown in figure 34 and the SMB connector is inserted into the tube via the opposite end. This rounding operation involves customized manufacturing tools and is not cost beneficial for the purpose of a prototype. Outcome The SMB connection chosen for the final prototype was an SMB bulkhead jack. This component as mentioned above acts as a fixture for the circuit board increasing the
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Figure 34 : Tube drawing with a rounded end

products durability and reducing the number of components. The SMB coaxial connector was altered slightly so that a push fit connection could be made between the SMB and the outer casing and consequently creating a direct path for the ground of the circuit.

Positive Contact
Compression spring When choosing a compression spring there are a number of parameters that need to be defined. Some of these parameters are fixed or constrained by other components within the assembly while others are variable and interdependent with one another. The fixed or constrained parameters include the width of the spring, the material and the stiffness of the spring. The variable parameters are the length of the spring and the wire diameter. The stiffness of the suitable spring is determined using equation 3-36. The suitable spring stiffness was calculated to be between 0.3 and 0.5 depending on the positioning of the spring within the assembly (see appendix 6). The positioning of the spring so that it would exert a given force on the ZA10 cells and battery push fit cap was determined using equation 3-19. This way the spring is expected to deflect between 3 and 4 mm and exert a force of 1.05 Newtons on the push fit battery cap. Conical spring Similarly the concept for a conical spring was researched but was found that the smallest conical springs on the market were too large (Raymonddistribution, 2010) and would inhibit the compactibility of the product. This concept was discarded after contacting numerous suppliers.

Direct contact A concept of a direct contact was developed in which the power supply was in direct contact with a section of the circuit board thus creating a positive connection to the
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circuit. The main purpose of doing this is to reduce the number of parts and hence reducing costs and size. The restriction of this concept is that tolerances would no longer be allowed for in this section of the assembly. By confining tolerances to such a small scale the cost of production then inherently increases and the initial purpose of reducing the number of parts is lost. Outcome The small compression spring was used in the final prototype. Reasons for this choice included the available sizes and the accommodation of inaccurate tolerances.

Negative Contact
Spring contact Similar to above a spring contact was considered for the negative battery contact. Direct Contact As the positive end of the power supply was facilitated by a compression a direct contact could be designed for the negative contact of the power supply without effecting tolerances. Using a direct contact reduces the number of parts, therefore reducing cost and size of the overall design. The direct contact is made between tube B and the batteries as shown in figure 35. The ground from tube B is transferred through tube A to the earth of the SMB connection.

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Figure 35 : Grounding mechanism for the power supply

Switch
Three switch concepts were addressed for the assembly. These were slide switches, push-button switches and toggle switches.

Slide switches Two types of slider switch were researched in greater detail, a miniature surface mount slide switch and a subminiature slide switch. The restrictions that arose with the miniature surface mount switch is that if it were to mounted onto the circuit board the assembly process involved in inserting the circuit board into the outer casing would be restricted. This restriction is due to the switch being positioned on the edge of the board so that it protrudes out of a machined section of the tube and therefore the board dimensions also being altered. The subminiature slide switch on the other

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hand with a much higher life cycle is to be located between the power supply and the circuit board. The size of the subminiature spring chosen was 8mm x 4mm x 4 mm. Push Button switch A miniature push button switch was researched as a concept development. The problems that arose in the research of this component is that the switch sizes available were not suitable to be encased within the outer casing and secondly from a users point of view the push button switch gives no indication if the device is switched on or not. Toggle switch Miniature Toggle switches similar to the push button switches tended to be larger in size than the slide switches available. Toggle switches were also more expensive per unit due to their complexity in design and smaller production scale compared to the slide and pushbutton switches. Outcome The subminiature slide switch was chosen for the final prototype. Reasons for this include suitable dimensions, low cost, on-off indication and high life cycle.

Amplifier and Electret capsule

Taking the key attributes from the previous assembly the MAX9812 HEXT amplifier and the WM64 electret capsule were included in the final prototype of the new assembly. This combination of amplifier and electret capsule produced the best results of the two assemblies in the previous design (Gareth J. Bennett, 2009). The amplifier unit is labeled a tiny, low-cost, single/dual-input, fixed-gain Microphone Amplifier and as an amplifier is the ideal component for the assembly with the design specifications in mind. Similarly the electret capsule is a small, low cost condenser microphone with a built in FET. The FET amplifies the signal and in doing so at such a miniscule distance from the source increases the signal to noise ratio. The manufacturers predicted frequency response chart can be found in Appendix 7.
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Other components
Flag System The integration of a flag system so that the user could be warned when the power supply has dropped below a certain voltage was considered. Initially the concept of an LED to be included in the circuit so that when the circuit is complete that the LED would light up. This concept was quickly replaced with an alternative solution of using a comparator within the circuit. By using a comparator the LED will light up once the voltage has fallen below a determined voltage using resistors within the circuit. The voltage chosen was 4.5 volts and was determined in the design by positions resistors within the circuitry, values of which were calculated using equation 3-34 and 3 -35 (Kirchhoffs and ohms law). Due to the small size of the circuit board and the small scope for expanding its dimensions a nanopower comparator was decided upon. The nanopower comparator chosen was one which displayed an extremely low current draw of 600nA current. For this reason the comparator would have negligible effect on the battery life.

Battery Insulation Selections of battery insulation were trialled in order to find the best fit and material to insulate the batteries from the outer casing which is a conductive material. A number of thin walled heat shrink insulations were tested and also a number of plastic drinking straws. The plastic drinking straws were less flexible than the majority of the heat shrink insulation selection and therefore more advantageous in terms of supporting the batteries inside the outer casing. The main determining factor in this situation as it is such a small component is the dimensions as they need to be within the limits specified. These were less than 6.6mm for the outer diameter and greater 5.8mm for the inner diameter. Being within these limits allows for the insulation to fit within the outer casing and enclose the batteries chosen.

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Chapter 6 Final Design


In this chapter the outcomes from each subsection of the assembly discussed in the previous chapter are elaborated on in terms of the overall product, interconnections with other subsections and the relevant manufacturing or assembly stages involved. A bill of materials is presented with costing for an initial batch of 75 units included and finally an overview of the final prototype is included with all the relevant documentation included in the chapter or in the referenced appendices. The final prototype is shown in figure 36 (for further images see Appendix 8)

Figure 36 : The final prototype (8mm outer diameter, 90mm length) Tube A is connected to tube B via the push fit design discussed in chapter 6. The LED and slide switch are positioned near the centre of the design as shown and the electret capsule and SMB fixed with a push fit at opposite ends of the design. The final prototype is compact and lightweight. Dimensions: 8mm outer diameter and 90mm in length Weight: 15g

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The internal layout of components within the assembly is as shown in figure 37.

Figure 37 : 3D model of internal layout of components within the final prototype From figure 37 it can be seen that the amount of space within tube A is utilized as much as possible. A schematic of the internal layout can be found in appendix 9. The amplifier and comparator are mounted on the circuit board along with the LED and the required resistors and capacitors. A full wiring diagram and circuit board design are shown in figure 38 and figure 39 respectively.

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C3
R4

5.6V
R2

5 3 +
Op Amp
1.25

R3

max9118 2 4 5
R1 mic C2

2
ref C1

6
20dB

max9812h

1
SMB

Figure 38 : Power supply, amplifier, flag system and electret wiring diagram

Part Detail R1 2.2K,Chip resistor R2 390K,Chip resistor R3 1M,Chip resistor R4 1K,Chip resistor C1 0.1uF, capacitor C2 0.1uF, capacitor C3 0.1uF, capacitor Table 5 : Resistor and capacitor values for the above wiring diagram

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Figure 39 : Printed Circuit board Design (Shane Hunt,2010)

Bill of Materials All of the assemblys components are enclosed within the stainless steel casing. The list of components, corresponding details, part number and cost is shown in the proceeding table labelled bill of materials ( Error! Reference source not found.).

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Table 6 Bill of Materials Part Tube 1 Detail Stainless steel 6.8mm ID (75mm per unit) Stainless steel 5mm ID (15mm per unit) Part No. Radionics 190-872 STS ltd 22053698337 0 Tyco Electronics,51 2-0137 MAX9812HEX T+T MAX9118 Hearing care ZA10 Digi-Key 4012002-1-ND Digi-key P524CT-ND Farnell 9239278 Farnell 6679034 Farnell 6679065 Farnell 3714998 Farnell 1288282 (Transparent straw) C0120010038 0-M WM-64 PCB Cost 4 meters for 44 0.9 meters for 11.30 (50)+ units at 5.56 per unit (50+) units at 0.40 per unit (50+) units at 1.63 per unit 3 per set of 6 units (25+) units at 0.27 per unit pack of 10 = 3.03 2 for pack of 50 1.30 for pack of 50 1.30 for pack of 50 2 for pack of 50 1.50 for pack of 50 75 for 78.75 1 unit for 1.38 75 for 79.75 ex p&p units per assembly 0.075m Cost per unit () 0.83

Tube 2 Coaxial Connector Amp Flag Button cells Switch LED R1 R2 R3 R4 C1,2,3 Battery insulation Compressi on spring Electret Circuit boards Total Material Costs

0.015m

0.19

SMB bulkhead jack low cost, fixed gain amplifier nanopower comparator ZA10 Sub miniature slide switch LED, 0805, LO-CUR. RED 2.2K,Chip resistor 390K,Chip resistor 1M,Chip resistor 1K,Chip resistor 0.1uF Zumo drinking straw music wire, (3.05 OD x 9.65 L) Panasonic electret capsule PCB circuit boards

1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1

5.56 0.40 1.63 2.00 0.27 0.30 0.04 0.026 0.026 0.04 0.09 0.00 1.05 1.38 1.05

14.89

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Manufacturing and Assembly process

1. For the purpose of a prototype the surface mounted components were soldered by hand using a fine tip soldering iron and a macroscope. In future the circuit boards are to be populated using a reflow oven, one of which is available for use in Trinity Colleges electronics department. 2. The two tubes used for the outer casing were machined to specification (see drawings appendix 10 and 11) using a lathe and a milling machine. In future automated processes available in Trinitys mechanical department can be used for batch quantities. This will keep manufacturing costs low. The quoted price for each tube to be machined to specification using the Okuma LT15M CNC machine is estimated to be 2.50 per tube for each unit and this figure includes set-up time (estimated 2 hours total) costs (Reilly, 2010). The CNC machine is capable of machining up to 240 components per hour at extremely high precision when coupled with the available bar feeder, the LNS Quickload. 3. The SMB requires to be turned on a lathe to reduce the outer diameter so that a push fit can be achieved with the outer casing. 4. The circuit board is fixed to the SMB connection with a push/twist fit. To do this the edges of the board are filed slightly so that the board can simply twisted into the tapped section of SMB. A direct solder connection is then made between the SMB earth and the circuit boards earth. 5. The slide switch is firstly connected via wire to the compression spring and placed within the outer casing. So that the slide switch is firmly held in place within the assembly glue is injected using a glue-gun through a hole in the outer casing at the back of the switchs position. The hole is purely for this purpose and is set at the same diameter as the hole for the LED light and the section removed for the switch to protrude out of. This way the same machining tool can be used for all three operations. Only a small amount of glue is required to fix the switch in place. NOTE: ensure that the signal wire connecting the electret capsule and the circuit board is placed inside the tube so that it is bypassing the switch before adding glue.

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6. A 20mm length of the battery insulation (Zumo straw) is placed in the tube so that the spring and batteries are insulated from the outer casing but leaving the signal cable travel along the outside of the insulation. 7. The signal wire is soldered to the electret capsule at one end and the circuit board at the other. This can be done after the electret capsule has been placed in the push fit cap or before once the signal is passed through the push fit cap. 8. Finally the wire attaching the slide switch to the circuit board terminal is soldered and the SMB is pushed into the tube end. 9. When this is complete four ZA10 batteries can be inserted and the microphone is ready for testing.

Costing

Manufacturing Costs Machinery/ equipment Okuma CNC machine Okuma CNC machine Reflow oven Lathe Soldering iron Glue gun cost per unit 2.50 2.50 3.00 0.50 3.00 0.50 1.50 Cost per batch of 75 187.50 187.50 225.00 37.50 225.00 37.50 112.50

Part Tube A Tube B Circuit Board

Detail switch section and two holes machined External and internal diameter machined with 4 slits machined Board mounted components soldered in specified position Outer diameter machined to SMB 6mm Required soldering of wiring components Adding adhesive to fix the switch Switch in place Assem Fitting components into bly specified position within casing

personnel Automated * Automated * Automated * Mechanical technician Electric Technician Electric Technician Technician

Total 13.50 1,012.50 * = Automated process that requires a manual set up operation which has been incorporated in the cost per unit.
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Batch Material Costs Part Cost per unit () Cost for batch of 75 units Tube 1 0.83 62.25 Tube 2 0.19 14.25 Coaxial Connector 5.56 417.00 Amp 0.59 44.25 Flag 1.63 122.25 Button cells 2.00 150.00 Switch 0.27 20.25 LED 0.30 22.50 R1 0.04 3.00 R2 0.026 1.95 R3 0.026 1.95 R4 0.04 3.00 C1,2,3 0.09 6.75 Compression spring 1.05 78.75 Electret 1.38 103.50 Circuit boards 1.05 79.00 Total Material Costs 15.08 1,130.65 Note: the above costs do not take into account the service costs to date. These can be found in chapter 10, Project Management.

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Chapter 7 Testing
The final prototype of the electrets based measurement microphone was tested against a reference microphone. The reference microphone was a high quality measurement microphone, manufactured by G.R.A.S, model BF40. The tests carried out were to analyse for the electret microphones sensitivity, noise floor, frequency response and upper dynamic limits. These results were compared to that of the G.R.A.S assembly for analysis purposes. Tests were carried out at room temperature in a laboratory environment. Sensitivity at 1kHz An initial test was carried out on the two microphone assemblies using a Bruel & Kjaer Sound Level Calibrator Type 4231. This apparatus exposes the microphone to 94dB or 1 Pa at 1kHz by positioning the microphone against the calibrators signal source. The results were 0.0623 V/Pa and 0.00358496 V/Pa for the electret assembly and the G.R.A.S assembly respectively. As a 20dB gain of the MAX9812H op amp is equivalent to an order of magnitude increase, these results and the result from the reference assembly are consistent with the suppliers documentation. As these results are calculated at 1kHz only, multiplication by this number assumes a flat frequency response. As this is usually not the case, when analysing the results this assumption must be taken onboard and addressed if any large deviations arise at much higher or lower frequencies than 1kHz.

Frequency response In this stage of testing the two microphone assemblies are flush mounted at the sealed end of a cylindrical duct. This is so that both microphone assemblies are exposed to the same acoustic field. As discussed in the theory section of this report, below the cut-off frequency of the duct, only plane waves will propagate down the duct and only these wave forms can used for analysis. Therefore, the microphones that are flush mounted parallel to one another are exposed to the same sound field radiated by the loudspeaker located at the open end of the duct.
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Rig and Apparatus: A schematic of the test rig is shown below in

Figure 40 : Schematic of test rig used for the frequency response function test, noise floor test and auto-spectra plot. An impedance tube of internal diameter 50mm was used during testing of the microphone against the reference microphone. By using an impedance tube of this diameter the cut off frequency is calculated to be 3701Hz using equation 3-11. The data was acquired from the microphone assemblies using a National Instruments analog to digital (A/D) convertor. The A/D convertor can sample each channel simultaneously with 24-bit resolution. Labview software was used to control the acquisition system during testing and to save the data to the hard disc of the laptop (to view program set-up see appendix 12). Matlab was used post testing to process the data into a visual format for analysis purposes. The Matlab code is attached in appendix 13. To calculate the frequency response function equation 7-1 was used and the spectral estimate parameters are shown in table 7. The frequency response function (Piersol, 1986) is calculated by:

7-1

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Where the single sided average cross-spectrum is defined by

7-2 And similarly the auto spectrum is calculated using equation 7-3 shown below.

7-3

Parameter Segment Length (data points per segment, N) Sample rate (fsamp, Hz) Segment length (Td = N/fsamp, s)

Value 1024 8192 0.125 1.22E04 8 4096 512 80 0 10

Sampling interval (t = 1/fsamp, s) Frequency step (f = 1/Td, Hz) Upper frequency limit (fc = fsamp/2, Hz) No. of frequencies, Ly = N/2 No. of independent averages (nd) Overlap Sample length (s) Table 7 : Spectral estimate parameters

Noise floor Test The test to see the lower dynamic range of the microphone was carried out and is referred to as the noise floor test. It is carried out in a relatively quiet environment. The results and proceeding discussion of results can be seen in chapter 8, figure 41. White Noise Test The white noise test consisted of the apparatus in the schematic diagram shown in figure 40. The speaker radiated white noise down the impedance tube. Both microphones were calibrated according to the measured sensitivities. The plot for the auto-spectrum for both assemblies is shown in chapter 8, figure 42

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Chapter 8 Results and Discussion


The results from the noise floor test are shown below in figure 41. From this plot we can see that the electret based measurement microphone has a much lower noise floor than the GRAS microphone. Reasons for this include the thermal movement of the diaphragm in the GRAS assemblys transducer and also electrical noise from the circuitry. As discussed in chapter 5 an AC power supply contributes greater levels of electric noise and as the electret assembly uses a DC power supply it is not subjected to this electrical noise. Another point to note is that the electret assemblys signal is amplified at a much closer proximity to the source of the signal (within the assembly casing) so that the signal is amplified before any electrical noise is generated and therefore the signal to noise ratio is much greater than that of microphones externally amplified.

Figure 41 : Noise floor for electret based measurement microphone and G.R.A.S microphone within an impedance tube

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The peaks occurring in the electret assemblys response are due the standing waves present at these frequencies within the impedance tube. As can be seen these frequencies are picked by the GRAS assembly at the very low end of the frequency spectrum but due to its higher lower limit for its dynamic range it can no longer pick up these resonant frequencies. The electret assembly on the other hand can pick up these frequencies due to the reasons explained above. These frequencies are present due to air flow within the room and external sources of vibration causing the air inside the impedance tube to resonate. The noise floor for the GRAS assembly is showing to be around 30dB while the noise floor of the electret based assembly is levelling off at around 7dB. To put into perspective how low an amplitude level this is, a person breathing produces a 10dB noise level (Industry, 2005).

Figure 42 : Auto-spectra for electret based measurement microphone and G.R.A.S white noise in impedance tube

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The auto-spectra plot shows the results of the white noise test for the two microphone assemblies. The peaks in both of the assemblies results are due to the modes of the duct as explained in the discussion of the noise floor test results. The Matlab program used to calculate the resonant frequencies of the duct is attached in appendix 14 and 15 along with the results. The first four modes are 103Hz, 309Hz, 516Hz and 722Hz respectively which correspond to that of the plot shown above. The results are shown for a bandwidth of 0 to 4000Hz. The reason for this is that the frequency cut off for the duct is calculated to be 3701Hz from equation 3-31 and above this frequency plane waves no longer propagate down the duct and evanescent waves are present which cannot be used in analysis. From the plot we can see that there is a very small increase in magnitude between the range of 1500Hz and 3500Hz in the electret assemblys auto -spectrum plot compared to that of the GRAS assembly. This can be understood and compensated for by calculating the frequency response function between the two assemblies.

Figure 43 : Frequency response function electret / reference assembly Magnitude

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Using equation 7-1 the magnitude and phase were plotted as shown in figure 43 and figure 44. As can be seen, the magnitude plot of the frequency response function supports the fact that the electret assemblys response when compared to that of the GRAS assembly (assuming flat response for the GRAS microphone) increases slightly between the range of 1500Hz and 3500Hz but decreases from then on. As explained previously that only plane waves can be analysed, the same applies for this test and as observed as the frequency nears 4000Hz a linear response no longer exists due to the evanescent nature of the waves. The phase plot shown in figure 44 also shows a frequency dependent variation and the importance of calibration is underlined if accurate measurements are to be made.

Figure 44 : Frequency response function electret / reference assembly - Phase

The upper end of the dynamic range was determined by increasing the magnitude of the speaker signal output and by looking for distortion and non-linear behaviour. The

74

plot shown figure 45 displays the RMS7 voltage to the loud speaker against the RMS voltage measured by the acquisition system. The output voltage from the microphones has been converted to Pascals to allow SPL (Sound pressure level) in dB to be determined. From the plot it can be seen that both responses are very similar. The assemblies have slope values of 259 and 279 for the Electret and GRAS assembly respectively. These slope values are very similar illustrating that the response of both microphones upper dynamic range are very similar. In this test the GRAS assembly was capable of displaying amplitude levels of 120dB while the electret assembly was capable of displaying amplitude levels of 119dB.

Figure 45 : Input/ Output relationship for both assemblies The previous electret based measurement microphone design, discussed in chapter 1, showed a non linear response when the input/output relationship was plotted. This can be seen in appendix 1. Potential reasons for differences in results include a
7

Root mean square

75

different testing environment; testing was previously carried out in a narrow impedance tube and therefore exposed to a wider bandwidth of plane waves and the differences in the electret capsules sensitivity. To elaborate further, the previous WM-64 electret capsule assembly displayed 0.0793V/Pa for its tested sensitivity, while the new assembly was less sensitive displaying a value of 0.0623V/Pa.

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Chapter 9 Future Work


This work produces a low cost, high functionality measurement microphone in the form of a compact assembly. The next stage in developing this product would entail further performance testing, an initial batch production and the application of the microphone into a number of scenarios.

Further Testing Further investigation using a small diameter impedance tube would be recommended to test the characteristics and responses of the microphone in greater depth. Incorporating statistics such as t-distributions to ensure that the results from each test are accurate would be highly beneficial.

Initial Batch Costing has been carried out for an initial batch with the methods of manufacture briefly described in chapter 6. Automated methods of manufacture that are available at Trinity College Dublin should be availed of where possible to reduce costs and to increase manufacturing precision and efficiency. Statistical quality control methods such as 6sigma can be applied in manufacturing this initial batch to ensure high quality products and that all specifications fall within the quality control limits. Before commencing the initial batch production some of the more expensive microphone components should be investigated further in order to find lower cost alternatives. Although procurement was a key factor in selecting components and a vast amount of time was dedicated to this, time restriction of the thesis completion meant that for one or two components, a cheaper supplier may possibly be sourced once time constraints are removed.

Application into other research projects As measurement microphones are currently being used in the fluids labs as well as other departments within Trinity (Media Technology Department), the new electret assembly could be applied in multiples to those already undergoing research

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projects to help improve accuracy levels. The microphone could also be used for acoustic consultancy services within the college.

Testing within other applications Tests can be performed using the microphones outside of laboratory settings such as free field recordings in external environments, studio recording and venue acoustics. These examples stem from large markets where measurement microphones are already being used and can be considered a potential commercial exploitation of the product.

Large scale batch production There is market potential for a large scale production of the measurement microphone presented in this project. A polymer casing, as discussed in chapter 6, has been designed for the purpose of a large scale batch production model. This model can be considered slightly more user friendly as no wires are exposed when changing batteries and is ideal for out of laboratory settings. A 3D model of this design is shown below.

Figure 46 : Electret based Measurement microphone with incorporated polymer battery cover
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The large scale production of the measurement microphone will allow for the use of manufacturing processes which are not considered investible options for a low scale production of the microphones. An example is injection molding where the initial cost of a mould can be great, however the piece part cost is low when mass produced, so with greater quantities the overall price decreases. Along with this is the generic reduction in component parts prices when larger batches are ordered.

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Chapter 10 Project Management


Project management plays an essential role in the running, control and organization of any project, no matter how big or small the tasks involved. The primary challenge of project management is said to involve achieving all of the project goals and objectives while honouring the project constraints (Lewis, 2006). The secondary challenge of project management involves optimising the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet all the pre-defined objectives (Stevens, 2002).

The project management plan was drawn up at the beginning with the help of the project supervisor. The plan included identification and specification of individual tasks that needed to be carried out. These tasks combined to form work packages that contained important milestones which needed to be met as this would enable the project objectives to be achieved. Microsoft Project was used to keep an electronic record of project progress (see appendix 16 for Gantt chart), to ensure efficiency and for task organisation. Regular meetings were held with the project supervisor Dr Gareth Bennett to identify action points and to review previous and undergoing work. Meetings with other college personnel were regularly organized. The decimation of information was an ongoing task over the course of the project as the project was an interdepartmental project that involved electronic staff as well as mechanical and manufacturing staff.

The project work is originally broken down into smaller work packages to facilitate organization of tasks and efficient project management. The main work packages are as follows:

Topic research Background Information: Literature/Publication Review: Preliminary Project Report & Presentation: Conceptual Design Mid Term Report work: Prototyping Final Results and Conclusions: Write-Up and Presentation: Final Report: Project Management:

Weeks 1-4 Weeks 2-6 Weeks 5-7 Weeks 8-13 Weeks 14-16 Weeks 17-20 Weeks 22-24 Weeks 22-26 Weeks 27-28 Weeks 1-28
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Within these work packages are specific milestones or deliverables for the project that had to be met on time and could not be held up. These milestones are:

Project Plan & Layout Preliminary Report Preliminary Presentation Mid Term Report Mid Term Presentation Review Meeting Main Report write-Up Final Report Final Presentation

(Sep 08) (Oct 08) (Oct 08) (Jan 09) (Jan 09) (Feb 09) (Mar 09) (Mar 09) (Mar 09)

Project Costs

Payroll Costs Candidate & Position Student Technical consultant Mechanical Technician Electric Technician Project Supervisor Total payroll costs Time on project Cost per hour (hours) Total 20 450 9,000 40 20 800 30 20 600 30 30 900 50 30 1,500 170 550 12,800

Total Equipment and Tools hours Cost per hour Cost Lathe 5 10.00 50.00 Milling machine 5 10.00 50.00 Macroscope 4 5.00 20.00 Soldering unit 15 2.00 30.00 Glue injection gun 3 2.00 6.00 Impedance tube 8 2.00 16.00 GRAS microphone 10 5.00 50.00 PCB amplifier 8 2.00 16.00 Analogue to digital convertor 10 5.00 50.00 General Computing resources 200 0.50 100.00 Total 388.00 Note: cost per hour figures were calculated based on energy consumption and equipment depreciation
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Purchased Materials Electret Stainless Steel tube (4 meters) Circuit boards (70) SMB connections (5 samples) Wires (2 meters) Sample Amplifiers (2 MAX9812H) Sample comparators (2 MAX9118) Resistors Button cells (3 packs of 6) Small springs (4 samples) Total Materials cost

Cost 1.33 44.00 75.00 18.96 0.50 0.00 0.00 3.30 9.00 6.30 158.39

Other Postage & delivery

35.00 13,381.39

Total Project Cost

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Chapter 11 Conclusion
The result of this project is a low cost, high functionality electret based measurement microphone with improved aesthetics, ergonomics, size and versatility compared to the previous electret based measurement microphone design. Due to the high level of time and attention given to the design and component selection process the final design encapsulates the entire required analog components to perform acoustic testing within an 8mm diameter, 90mm length userfriendly product. Test results show that the microphone displays very good functionality compared to that of a high quality reference microphone. The electret based microphone has a very low noise floor (7dB), relatively linear response and an overall wide dynamic range. The product cost remains low as intended at a material cost of 14.89 per unit. Machining and assembly costs for a batch of 75 units are estimated to be 15.08 per unit, bringing the total unit cost to 29.97 (NOTE: this cost does not entail fixed overhead such as premises costing and bank rates). The total cost for an initial batch of 75 units is calculated to be 2,247.41.

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Chapter 12 Bibliography
A Tiwari, K. V. (2008). Automated inspection using database technology within the aerospace industry. Bennett, J. F. (2008). Noise Source Identification for Ducted Fan Systems. American Institue of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal , 1663-1674. Benson, S. T. (2006). Sound source imaging of low flying airborne targets with an acoustic array. Britannica. (2009). Electromechanical-transducer. Retrieved from Britannica: www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/183345/electromechanicaltransducer/64020/Microhpnes Bruel&Kjaer. (2010). www.bksv.com/products/transducersconditioning/acoustictransducers/microphones/ 4957.aspx. Retrieved from www.bksv.com. BSEN61094-2. (1994). Specification for Measurement Microphones. C Frazier, D. O. (2000). Acoustic imaging of objects buried in soil. Acoustic Soc Am. C. Harris and V. Cahill. (2007). An empirical Study of the Potential for Context-Aware Power. InnsBruck, Austria: UbiComp. cross threading. (2010). Retrieved from toolingu: http://www.toolingu.com/definition700215-22852-cross-threading.html directproaudio. (2010). Apex220. Retrieved from directproaudio: http://www.directproaudio.com/product.cfm?directid=55871 Dudgeon, D. E. (1977). Fundamentals of digital array processing. IEEE. Eagle, J. (2004). The Microphone Handbook. Focal Press. Elko, G. W. (2004). Audio Signal Processing for Next Generation Multimedia Communication Systems. Avaya: Avaya Labs. Engdahl, T. (2000). Microphone Powering. Retrieved from Epanorama: http://www.epanorama.net/circuits/microphone_powering.html

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Fenner, R. T. (1988). Mechanics of solids. Finishing. (2010). Friction coefficient. Retrieved from Finishing: www.finishing.com/98/80.shtml Fullcure. (2010). FullCure Materials Data Sheets. Retrieved from Objet: http://www.objet.com/Pages/FullCure_Materials_Data_Sheets/FullCure720_/ G.R.A.S. (2009). http://www.acoutronic.se/pdf/sensors/GRAS40PR.pdf . Retrieved from www.acoutronic.se. Gareth J. Bennett, J. M. (2009). Design of an electret based measurement microphone. Dublin: TCD. Hibbeler, R. C. (2007). Mechanics of Materials. IEC60065. (2001). Audio,video and similar electronic apparatus safety requirements. IEC61094-2. (1992). Specification for measurement microphones. Primary method for pressure calibration of laboratory standard microphones by the reciprocity technique. Industry, O. M. (2005). Decibel Scale of Common Sounds. JD Maynard, E. W. (1985). Theory of generalized holography and the development of NAH. Nearfield Acoustical holography , 1395 - 1413. John Daniel Kraus, J. D. (1991). Electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill. Lewis, R. (2006). Project Management. McGraw-Hill. Lyons, D. G. (2008). Mechanical Springs. Dublin: TCD. McCowan, I. (2004). Microphone Arrays. Sound Sources. Papazoglou, K. M. (1996). High resolution adaptive beamforming for three dimensional acoustics imaging of zooplankton. Acoustic Soc Am. Piersol, J. B. (1986). Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures. John Wiley and Sons.
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Pro-audio. (2010). MM1 Measurement Microphone. Retrieved from proaudio.musiciansfriend: http://pro-audio.musiciansfriend.com/product/-MM-1Measurement-Microphone?sku=272045 Raymonddistribution. (2010). Retrieved from www.raymonddistribution.ie Reilly, M. (2010). Price Quotation. Rizzoni, G. (2000). Principles and Applications of electrical engineering. Thomas Casson. Stevens, M. (2002). Project Management Pathways - Association for Project Management . APM PUblishing Limited. Turgoose, G. (2010). PCB Piezotronics Limited. United Kingdom. Valentino, M. (2008). Microphone Handbook. Woszczyk, W. R. (1992). Microphone Arrays Optimized for Music Recording. Montreal: Audio Engineering Society. zzsounds. (2010). Behringer ECM8000. Retrieved from www.zzounds.com/: http://www.zzounds.com/item--BEHECM8000

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Chapter 13 Appendices

Appendix 1 (a)

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Appendix 1(b)

88

Appendix 2 % Directionality function close all; clear all; N % c d % f 8; = 9000; 334; 0.035; = 2*pi*f / c; 1000; f k = 2*pi*f / c; for angle = (-pi):0.01:(pi) R = (sin(0.5*N*k*d*sin(angle)))/(N*(sin(0.5*k*d*sin(angle)))); % angle1 = angle; % angle1 = angle- (pi/2); %polar plot polar(angle,R,'r-') % waterfall(angle,f,R) %R = peaks(x,y) %meshc(angle,f,R) hold on xlabel('positioning') ylabel('frequency') zlabel('amplitude') % waterfall(angle,f,R) % % surf(angle1,f,R) % hold on % xlabel('positioning') % ylabel('frequency') % zlabel('amplitude') end = f = = k =

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Appendix 3

90

Appendix 4 % top cap deflection calculation % grade 316 young's modulus 193 GPa E = 193000000000; % circle equation (x-a)^2 + (y-b)^2 = r^2 %Pressure equation; P = E*4*w*(t^3)*y/(L^3) %outer_d; %outer diameter = 7mm as material is removed from 8mm. r1 = 0.007/2; a1 = 0.0035; b1 = 0; %inner diameter = 5mm....a point is same for both circles r2 = 0.005/2; a2 = a1; b1 = 0; %wall thickness of tube B t = 0.001 n = input('please input the number of nodes for calculation'); w = r1 / n; %w2 = 2*r2 / n; condition = 0; y3=0; x2 = 0.006; i = 0; P=0; while condition == 0 i = i+1 x1 = ((2*r1) - ((i-1)*w)) y1 = b1 + (sqrt((r1^2) - ((x1 - a1)^2))) %x2 = x1 %x2 = 0.01((2*r1) - (i*w2))

if x1>x2 %let this section be represented as a single part, calculated in terms of an equivalent square (as it is similar to a triangle) y2 = 0; else y2 = b1 + (sqrt((r2^2) - ((x1 - a2)^2))) end %after circle peaks

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if y2=y1; end % if y1 < y3 if x1 < r1 condition = 1 % else % y3 = y1 end

x1>0.005

% plot(y1,n) % hold on % plot(y2,n) t = y1 - y2 def = 0.00005; P1 = E*4*w*(t^3)*(def)/0.015^3; P = (P + P1); end %P3 = 2*P P3=10; deflection = def FEA_force_required = P %I for semi circle tube %It = pi*(r1^4)/8 - pi*(r2^4)/8; %circle with part milled out circ_o = 2*pi*r1; circ_i = 2*pi*r2; %material removed removed = 0.002; circ_o_wall = (circ_o/4) - (removed); circ_i_wall = (circ_i/4) - (removed); angle1 = circ_o_wall/r1; angle2 = circ_i_wall/r2; %moment of inertia for circle wall of an angle i = %(angle-sin(angle))(r^4)/8 Io = (angle1 - sin(angle1))*(r1^4)/8; Ii = (angle2 - sin(angle2))*(r2^4)/8; It = Io -Ii; deflection_from_ten_newtons_force = (P3)*0.015^3/3*E*It P2 = (def*3*E*It)/(0.015^3); % Simple_analysis_force_ = P2 v2 = (P2)*(0.015^3)/(3*E*It); %deflection = P L^3 / 3EI

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Average = (FEA_force_required+Simple_analysis_force_)/2 friction_coef1 = 0.35; friction_coef2 = 0.15; larger = Average*friction_coef1 smaller = Average*friction_coef2

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Appendix 5

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Appendix 6 close all; clear all; % spring selection program % F was calculated to be 2 newtons when using an index finger and a newton % meter F = input('please enter the pushing force against the spring'); % displacement of 4mm x1 = 4; % force acting against cap top x2 = 3; k = F/x1; k F_cap = k*x2; F_cap %3.180 12.700 0.500 0.360 6.350 12.000

%k2 = spring constant, d = wire diameter, G = torsional modulus of %rigidity, Do = outer diameter, Na = number of coils k2 = 0.58 d=0.53; Do=3.76; Na=10; F2 = k2*x1 %k2 = ((d^4)*(G))/(8*(Do^3)*Na) G = (k2*(8*(Do^3)*Na)) / (d^4)

Appendix 7

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Appendix 8

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Appendix 9
SMB Circuit Board Slide Switch Compression Spring Button Cells

4mm

8mm

10mm

x 9mm

15mm

LED

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Appendix 10

98

99

Appendix 11

100

101

Appendix 12

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Appendix 13 (Dr. Gareth Bennett,2010) clear all close all %Read Data % load noise_floor.lvm load whitenoise1.lvm %load whitenoise1.lvm %load elec_cal_sens.lvm %load gras_cal_sens.lvm mic1=whitenoise1(:,1); mic2=-1*whitenoise1(:,2); %Sample rate fsamp=8192 delt=1/fsamp %Block Length block_len=1024*1 %Overlap noverlap=0 %noverlap=block_len/2; %Window %win_shape=hanning(block_len); win_shape=boxcar(block_len); %Number of Samples N_samples=length(mic1) %Time for Total Acquisition Aq_time=N_samples/fsamp %Nyquist Freq Nyq_Freq=fsamp/2 %Number of averages nav_approx=N_samples/block_len %Frequency Resolution Freq_Res=fsamp/block_len
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%Taxis taxis=[0:N_samples-1]*delt; %Subtract Mean and Determine Calibration Constant (std) mic1=mic1-mean(mic1); mic2=mic2-mean(mic2); %calib_const=std(detrend(mic)) %gras_const=std(mic2) elec_const=0.0623; gras_const=0.00358496; %Divide by Calibration Constant (Signal therefore has std = 1) mic1_calib=mic1./elec_const; mic2_calib=mic2./gras_const; %mic2_calib=mic2; dB_mic1=10.*log10( ( (std(mic1_calib))./2E-5 ).^2) dB_mic2=10.*log10( ( (std(mic2_calib))./2E-5 ).^2) % %Mic 1 figure, subplot(2,1,1), plot(taxis,mic1_calib,'-x') subplot(2,1,2), plot(taxis,mic2_calib,'-x') %Calculate calibrated data [P_mic1_calib,F_calib] = cpsd(mic1_calib,mic1_calib,win_shape,noverlap,block_len,fsamp) ; mag=sqrt(P_mic1_calib*Freq_Res); db_P_mic1_calib=20*log10(mag/2E-5); [P_mic2_calib,F_calib] = cpsd(mic2_calib,mic2_calib,win_shape,noverlap,block_len,fsamp) ; mag=sqrt(P_mic2_calib*Freq_Res); db_P_mic2_calib=20*log10(mag/2E-5); figure, subplot(1,2,1), plot(F_calib,db_P_mic1_calib) subplot(1,2,2), plot(F_calib,db_P_mic2_calib) figure, subplot(1,2,1), plot(F_calib,db_P_mic1_calib) axis([0 60 0 90])
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subplot(1,2,2), plot(F_calib,db_P_mic2_calib) axis([0 6000 40 90]) figure, plot(F_calib,db_P_mic2_calib,'r',F_calib,db_P_mic1_calib,'b') axis([0 Nyq_Freq 0 150]) title('hhh') legend('Gras','Electret') xlabel('Frequency (Hz)') ylabel('SPL (db)')

[Txy,F] = tfestimate(mic1_calib,mic2_calib,win_shape,noverlap,block_len, fsamp); %amplitude ploted to scale of e and phase plotted to pi figure, subplot(2,1,1), semilogy(F,abs(Txy)) axis([0 6000 1e-2 1e2]) xlabel('Frequency') Ylabel('magnitude') subplot(2,1,2), plot(F,angle(Txy)) axis([0 6000 -pi pi]) xlabel('Frequency') ylabel('Phase angle') %unitless plots figure, % subplot(2,1,1), plot(F,abs(Txy)) plot(F,abs(Txy)) axis([0 Nyq_Freq 0 2]) xlabel('Frequency(Hz)') ylabel('Phase') % subplot(2,1,2), plot(F,angle(Txy)) figure,% plot(F,angle(Txy))% axis([0 Nyq_Freq -1 1]) xlabel('Frequency(Hz)') Ylabel('magnitude')

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Appendix 14 close all; clear all; %natural resonance frequencies of duct %speed of sound c_s=344; %tube length in meters L=1.2; for n = 0:15 f_n= ((c_s)*((2*n)+1))/4*L end

Appendix 15

Longitudinal duct modes 103.2000 309.6000 516 722.4000 928.8000 1.1352e+003 1.3416e+003 1548 1.7544e+003 1.9608e+003 2.1672e+003 2.3736e+003 2580 2.7864e+003 2.9928e+003 3.1992e+003

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Appendix 16

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