Q Q Q Q P P (T: Electric Circuit (T) (T)

170 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation
Calculation of the UMEC branch ux

k
requires the expansion of the linearised
equation 7.27
_
Q
ss
_
|
_
Q
sr
_

_
Q
rs
_
|
_
Q
rr
_
_
P
s
_
| [0]

[0] |
_
P
r
_
[N
s
] i
s
(7.35)
The winding-limb ux
s
(t t ) is calculated from the winding current by using
the upper partition of equation 7.35, i.e.
_
s
_
=
_
Q
ss
_ _
P
s
_
[N
s
](i
s
) (7.36)
The yoke and leakage path ux
r
(t t ) is calculated from the winding current by
using the lower partition of equation 7.35, i.e.
_
r
_
=
_
Q
rs
_ _
P
s
_
[N
s
] (i
s
) (7.37)
The branch actual permeance
_
P
k
_
is calculated directly froma hyperbola approxima-
tionof the saturatedmagnetisingcharacteristic usingthe solvedbranchux
k
(t t ).
Once
_
P
k
_
is known the per-unit admittance matrix
_
Y
ss
_
and current source i
ns
can
be obtained. For the UMEC of Figure 7.9, equation 7.32 becomes:
_
i
1
(t )
i
2
(t )
_
=
_
y
11
y
12
y
12
y
22
_ _
v
1
(t )
v
2
(t )
_
+
_
i
ns1
(t )
i
ns2
(t )
_
(7.38)
which can be represented by the Norton equivalent circuit shown in Figure 7.12.
The Norton equivalent circuit is in an ideal form for dynamic simulation of the
EMTDC type. The symmetric admittance matrix
_
Y
ss
_
is non-diagonal, and thus
includes mutual couplings. All the equations derived above are general and apply to
any magnetic-equivalent circuit consisting of a nite number of branches, such as
that shown in Figure 7.10.
If required, the winding copper loss can be represented by placing series
resistances at the terminals of the Norton equivalent.
Electric circuit
v
1
(t) i
ns1
i
ns2
i
1
(t) i
2
(t)
v
2
(t)
y
11
y
22
y
12
y
12
y
12
y
12
Figure 7.12 UMEC Norton equivalent
Transformers and rotating plant 171
7.3.2 UMEC implementation in PSCAD/EMTDC
Figure 7.13 illustrates the transformer implementation of the above formulation in
PSCAD/EMTDC. An exact solution of the magnetic/electrical circuit at each time
step requires a Newton-type iterative process since the system is non-linear. The
iterative process nds a solution for the branch uxes such that nodal ux and loop
m.m.f. sums are zero, and with the branch permeances consistent with the ux through
them. With small simulation steps of the order of 50 s, acceptable results can still be
obtained in a non-iterative solution if the branch permeances are calculated with the
ux solution from the previous time step. The resulting errors are small and conned
to the zero sequence of the magnetising currents.
Y
N
Figure 7.13 UMEC implementation in PSCAD/EMTDC
The leakage-ux branch permeances are constant and the core branch-saturation
characteristic is the steel ux density magnetising force (BH) curve. Individual
branchper unit i characteristics are not a conventional specicationbut, if required,
these can be provided by the manufacturer.
Core dimensions, branch length L
k
and cross-sectional area A
k
, are required to
calculate real value permeances from
P
k
=

0
rk
A
k
L
k
(7.39)
The branch ux
k
(t t ) is converted to branch ux density by
B
k
(t t ) =

k
(t t )
A
k
(7.40)
The branch permeability
0
rk
is then calculated from the core BH characteristic.
Figure 7.13 also shows that the winding-limb ux
s
(t t ) is calculated using
trapezoidal integration rather than the linearised equation 7.27. Trapezoidal integra-
tion requires storage of vectors
s
(t 2t ) and v
s
(t 2t ). In equation 7.27 matrices
_
Q
ss
_
and
_
P
ss
_
must be stored and, although
_
P
ss
_
is diagonal,
_
Q
ss
_
is full; therefore
in this method element storage increases with the square of the UMEC winding-limb
branch number.
The elements of
r
(t t ) can be calculated using magnetic circuit theory,
whereby the m.m.f. around the primary winding limb and leakage branch loop must
sum to zero, i.e. with reference to Figure 7.9(b),
4
(t t ) = P
4
_
N
1
i
1
(t t )
1
(t t )/P
1
_
(7.41)
Also, the m.m.f. around the secondary winding limb and leakage branch loop must
sum to zero
5
(t t ) = P
5
_
N
2
i
2
(t t )
2
(t t )/P
2
_
(7.42)
and, nally, the ux at node N
1
must sum to zero:
3
(t t ) =
1
(t t ))
4
(t t ) (7.43)
The yoke branch actual permeance P
k
is calculated directly from the solved branch
ux
k
(t t ) using equations 7.39 and 7.40. Once [P
] is known, the real-valued

admittance matrix
_
Y
ss
_
and current source vector i
ns
can be obtained.
7.3.3 Three-limb three-phase UMEC
An extension of the single-phase UMEC concept to the three-phase transformer,
shown in Figure 7.14(a), leads to the UMEC of Figure 7.14(b). There is no need
to specify in advance the distribution of magnetising current components, which
have been shown to be determined by the transformer internal and external circuit
parameters.
I
1
I
2
V
1
V
2
16

17
10
14
13
13

14
15
I
3
I
4
V
3
V
4
4
I
5
I
6
V
5
V
6
12
11
7
+
P
*
15
P
*
16
P
*
17
P
*
10
P
*
12
P
*
4
P
*
2
P
*
7
P
*
9
P
*
1
P
*
13
P
*
14
P
*
11
P
*
5
P
*
6
P
*
3
15
(t)
7
(t)
1
(t)
3
(t)
5
(t)
6
(t)
12
(t)
17
(t)
9
(t)

11
(t)
13
(t)
14
(t)
2
(t)
16
(t)
10
(t)
4
(t)
8
(t)
P
*
8
N
1
i
1
(t)
N
5
i
5
(t)
N
6
i
6
(t)
N
2
i
2
(t)
N
4
i
4
(t)
N
3
i
3
(t)
N
2
N
1
N
3
N
5
N
6
N
4
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.14 UMEC PSCAD/EMTDC three-limb three-phase transformer model:
(a) core; (b) electrical equivalents of core ux paths
The m.m.f. sources N
1
i
1
(t )N
6
i
6
(t ) represent each transformer winding individ-
ually, and the winding voltages v
1
(t )v
6
(t ) are used to calculate the winding-limb
uxes
1
(t )
6
(t ), respectively.
P
1
P
6
represent the permeances of transformer winding limbs. If the total length
of each phase-winding limb L
w
has uniform cross-sectional area A
w
, the UMEC
branches 16 have length L
w
/2 and cross-sectional area A
w
. P
13
and P
14
represent
the permeances of the transformer left and right hand yokes, respectively. The upper
and lower yokes are assumed to have the same length L
y
and cross-sectional area A
y
.
Both left and right-hand yokes are represented by UMECbranches 13 and 14 of length
L
13
= L
14
= 2L
y
and area A
13
= A
14
= 2A
y
. Zero-sequence permeances P
15
P
17
are obtained from in-phase excitation of all three primary or secondary windings.
Leakage permeances are obtained fromopen and short-circuit tests and, therefore,
the effective length and cross-sectional areas of UMEC leakage branches 712 are
not required to calculate P
7
P
12
.
The UMEC circuit of Figure 7.14(b) places the actual permeance formulation in
the real-value form
i
1
(t )
i
2
(t )
i
3
(t )
i
4
(t )
i
5
(t )
i
6
(t )
y
11
y
12
y
13
y
14
y
15
y
16
y
21
y
22
y
23
y
24
y
25
y
26
y
31
y
32
y
33
y
34
y
35
y
36
y
41
y
42
y
43
y
44
y
45
y
46
y
51
y
52
y
53
y
54
y
55
y
56
y
61
y
62
y
63
y
64
y
65
y
66
v
1
(t )
v
2
(t )
v
3
(t )
v
4
(t )
v
5
(t )
v
6
(t )
i
ns1
i
ns2
i
ns3
i
ns4
i
ns5
i
ns6
(7.44)
The matrix [Y
ss
] is symmetric and this Norton equivalent is implemented in
PSCAD/EMTDC as shown in Figure 7.15, where only the blue-phase network of
a star-grounded/star-grounded transformer is shown.
The owdiagramof Figure 7.13 also describes the three-limb three-phase UMEC
implementation in PSCAD/EMTDC with only slight modications. The trapezoidal
integration equation is applied to the six transformer windings to calculate the
winding-limb ux vector
s
(t t ) . Equations 7.39 and 7.40 are used to calculate
the permeances of the winding branches. Once the previous time step winding-current
vector i
s
(t t ) is formed, the ux leakage elements of
r
(t t ) can be calculated
using
7
(t t ) = P
7
_
N
1
i
1
(t t )
1
(t t )/P
1
_
8
(t t ) = P
8
_
N
2
i
2
(t t )
2
(t t )/P
2
_
9
(t t ) = P
9
_
N
1
i
3
(t t )
3
(t t )/P
3
_
10
(t t ) = P
10
_
N
2
i
4
(t t )
4
(t t )/P
4
_
11
(t t ) = P
11
_
N
1
i
5
(t t )
5
(t t )/P
5
_
12
(t t ) = P
12
_
N
2
i
6
(t t )
6
(t t )/P
6
_
(7.45)
i
ns6
v
1
(t)
v
3
(t)
v
5
(t)
v
2
(t)
v
4
(t)
v
6
(t) i
ns5
i
5
(t) i
6
(t)
y
15
y
16
y
26
y
36
y
45
y
46
y
56
y
55
+y
15
+y
25
+y
35
+y
45
+y
56
y
66
+y
16
+y
26
+y
36
+y
46
+y
56
y
35
y
25
Figure 7.15 UMEC three-limb three-phase Norton equivalent for blue phase
(Y-g/Y-g)
The zero-sequence elements of
r
(t t ) are calculated using the m.m.f. loop
sum around the primary and secondary winding-limb and zero-sequence branch
15
(t t ) = P
15
_
N
1
i
1
(t t ) + N
2
i
2
(t t )
1
(t t )/P
1

2
(t t )/P
2
_
(7.46)
16
(t t ) = P
16
_
N
1
i
3
(t t ) + N
2
i
4
(t t )
3
(t t )/P
3

4
(t t )/P
4
_
(7.47)
17
(t t ) = P
17
_
N
1
i
5
(t t ) + N
2
i
6
(t t )
5
(t t )/P
5

6
(t t )/P
6
_
(7.48)
Finally, the yoke ux is obtained using the ux summation at nodes N
1
and N
2
13
(t t ) =
1
(t t )
7
(t t )
15
(t t )
14
(t t ) =
5
(t t )
11
(t t )
17
(t t )
(7.49)
The yoke-branch permeances P
13
and P
14
are again calculated directly from
solved branch uxes
13
and
14
using equations 7.39 and 7.40. Once [P
] is known
the real-valued admittance matrix [Y] can be obtained.
7.3.4 Fast transient models
The inter-turn capacitance is normally ignored at low frequencies, but for high-
frequency events this capacitance becomes signicant. When subjected to impulse
test the capacitance determines the voltage distribution across the internal windings
of the transformer. Moreover the inter-turn capacitance and winding inductance have
a resonant frequency that may be excited. Hence transformer failures can be caused
by high-frequency overvoltages due to internal resonances [10], [11]. These internal
winding resonances (typically in the 5200 kHz range), are initiated by fast tran-
sients and may not cause an immediate breakdown, but partial discharges may occur,
thereby accelerating ageing of the transformer winding [12]. To determine the voltage
levels across the internal transformer insulation during a specic external transient
requires the use of a detailed high-frequency transformer model. Though the general
high-frequency models are very accurate and detailed, they are usually too large to
be incorporated in a general model of the power system [13]. Hence reduced order
models, representing the transformers terminal behaviour, are normally developed
and used in the system study [14]. These reduced order models need to be custom
models developed by the user for the EMTP-type program available. There is a mul-
titude of modelling techniques. The resulting transient can be used as the external
transient into a more detailed high-frequency transformer model, some of which can
calculate down to turn-to-turn voltages.
The difculty in modelling transformers in detail stems from the fact that
some transformer parameters are both non-linear and frequency dependent. The iron
core losses and inductances are non-linear due to saturation and hysteresis. They
are also frequency dependent due to eddy currents in the laminations. During reso-
nance phenomena the resistances greatly inuence the maximum winding voltages.
These resistances represent both the copper and iron losses and are strongly frequency
dependent [15][17]. Parameters for these models are extracted from laboratory test-
ing and are only valid for the transformer type and frequency range of the tests
performed.
7.4 The synchronous machine
The synchronous machine model to be used in each case depends on the time span
of interest. For example the internal e.m.f. behind subtransient reactance is perfectly
adequate for electromagnetic transients studies of onlya fewcycles, suchas the assess-
ment of switching oscillations. At the other extreme, transient studies involving speed
variations and/or torsional vibrations need to model adequately the generator rotor
and turbine rotor masses. Thus a general-purpose model should include the generator
electrical parameters as well as the generator and turbine mechanical parameters.
7.4.1 Electromagnetic model
All the models used in the various versions of the EMTP method are based on Parks
transformation from phase to dq0 components [18], a frame of reference in which
the self and mutual machine inductances are constant. Although a state variable
formulation of the equations is used, their solution is carried out using the numerical
integrator substitution method.
In the EMTDC program the machine d and d axis currents are used as state
variables, whereas uxes are used instead in the EMTP program [19].
Figure 7.16 depicts a synchronous machine with three xed windings and
one rotating winding (at this point the damping windings are not included). Let
(t ) be the angle between the eld winding and winding a at time t . From
Faradays law:
V
a
i
a
R
a
V
b
i
b
R
b
V
c
i
c
R
c
=
d
dt
(7.50)
qa
b
Figure 7.16 Cross-section of a salient pole machine
where
L
aa
L
ab
L
ac
L
af
L
ba
L
bb
L
bc
L
bf
L
ca
L
cb
L
cc
L
cf
i
a
i
b
i
c
i
f
The inductances are of a time varying nature, e.g.

L
aa
= L
a
+ L
m
cos()
L
bb
= L
a
+ L
m
cos(2( 2/3))
L
cc
= L
a
+ L
m
cos(2( 4/3))
(7.51)
Assuming a sinusoidal winding distribution then the mutual inductances are:
L
ab
= L
ba
= M
s
L
m
cos(2( /6))
L
bc
= L
cb
= M
s
L
m
cos(2( /2))
L
ca
= L
ac
= M
s
L
m
cos(2( + /2))
(7.52)
and the inductances of the eld winding:
L
af
= L
f a
= M
f
cos()
L
bf
= L
f b
= M
f
cos( 2/3)
L
cf
= L
f c
= M
f
cos( 4/3)
(7.53)
In compact notation
L
abc
L
abcf
L
f abc
L
ff
i
a
i
b
i
c
i
f
(7.54)
or
_
abc
f
_
=
_
L
abc
L
abcf
L
f abc
L
ff
_ _
i
abc
i
f
_
(7.55)
Taking the top partition
abc
= [L
abc
]i
abc
+ [L
abcf
]i
f
(7.56)
Choosing a matrix [T ()] that diagonalises [L
abc
] gives:
i
dq0
= [T ()]i
abc
(7.57)
v
dq0
= [T ()]v
abc
(7.58)
dq0
= [T ()]
abc
(7.59)
and substituting in equation 7.56 gives
[T ()]
1
dq0
= [L
abc
][T ()]
1
i
dq0
+ [L
abcf
]i
f
(7.60)
Thus
dq0
= [T ()][L
abc
][T ()]
1
i
dq0
+ [T ()][L
abcf
]i
f
A common choice of [T ()] is:
[T ()] =
2
3
cos() cos( 2/3) cos( + 2/3)

sin() sin( 2/3) sin( + 2/3)
1/2 1/2 1/2
(7.61)
thus
[T ()]
1
=
cos() sin() 1
cos( 2/3) sin( 2/3) 1
cos( + 2/3) sin( + 2/3) 1
(7.62)
This matrix is known as Parks transformation. Therefore the following expression
results in dq0 coordinates:
L
a
+ M
s
+
3
2
L
m
0 0
0 L
a
+ M
s

3
2
L
m
0
0 0 L
a
2M
s
i
d
i
q
i
0
_
3
2
M
f
0
0
_
i
f
_
(7.63)
or
L
a
+ L
md
0 0
0 L
a
+ L
md
0
0 0 L
0
i
d
i
q
i
0
L
md
0
0
_
i
f
_
(7.64)
where
L
md
= M
s
+
3
2
L
m
i
f
=
3/2M
f
L
md
i
f
The equation for the eld ux now becomes time dependent, i.e.
(
f
) = (M
f
cos() M
f
cos( 2/3) M
f
cos( 4/3))
cos() sin() 1
cos( 2/3) sin( 2/3) 1
cos( + 2/3) sin( + 2/3) 1
i
d
i
q
i
0
+ [L
ff
] i
f
=
_
3
2
M
f
0 0
_
i
d
i
q
i
0
+ [L
ff
] i
f
=
3
2
M
f
i
d
+ [L
ff
] i
f
(7.65)
i
d
i
f
L
a
L
f
L
a
q
i
L
md
L
mq
dt
v
d
=
d
d
dt
v
f
=
d
f
dt
v
q
=
d
q
Figure 7.17 Equivalent circuit for synchronous machine equations
Similarly the eld circuit equation can be expressed as:
f
= [L
md
]i
d
+ [L
md
+ L
f
]i
f
(7.66)
This can be thought of as transforming the eld current to the same base as the stator
currents. Figure 7.17 depicts the equivalent circuit based on these equations. From
Kirchhoffs current law:
v
a
i
a
R
a
v
b
i
b
R
b
v
c
i
c
R
c
=
d
dt
(7.67)
and
v
f
i
f
R
f
=
d
f
dt
(7.68)
Applying Parks transformation gives:
[T ()]
v
a
i
a
R
a
v
b
i
b
R
b
v
c
i
c
R
c
= [T ()]
d
dt
[T ()]
1
(7.69)
or
[T ()]
v
d
i
d
R
d
v
q
i
q
R
q
v
0
i
0
R
0
= [T ()]
d
dt
[T ()]
1
+ [T ()]
1
d
dt
= [T ()]
d
d
[T ()]
1
d
dt
+ [T ()]
1
d
dt
= [T ()]
d
d
[T ()]
1
. ,, .
speed emf
+
d
dt
. ,, .
transformer emf
(7.70)
where is the angular speed.
Evaluating the speed term:
d
d
[T ()]
1
=
d
d
cos() sin() 1
cos( 2/3) sin( 2/3) 1
cos( 4/3) sin( 4/3) 1
(7.71)
=
sin() cos() 0
sin( 2/3) cos( 2/3) 0
sin( 4/3) cos( 4/3) 0
(7.72)
and
[T ()]
d
d
[T ()]
1
=
2
3
cos() cos( 2/3) cos( 4/3)

sin() sin( 2/3) sin( 4/3)
1/2 1/2 1/2
sin() cos() 0
sin( 2/3) cos( 2/3) 0
sin( 4/3) cos( 4/3) 0
=
2
3
0 2/3 0
2/3 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
(7.73)
Hence equation 7.67 becomes:
v
d
i
d
R
a
=
q
+
d
d
dt
v
q
i
q
R
a
=
d
+
d
q
dt
v
0
i
0
R
0
=
d
0
dt
(7.74)
while the eld circuit remains unchanged, i.e.
v
f
i
f
R
f
=
d
f
dt
(7.75)
If, as is normally the case, the winding connection is ungrounded star then i
0
= 0
and the third equation in 7.74 disappears.
Adkins [20] equivalent circuit, shown in Figure 7.18, consists of a machine with
three coils on the d-axis and two on the q-axis, although the model can easily be
L
a
L
md
L
kd
L
mq
R
kd
R
kd
L
kq
R
f
L
kf
L
a
L
f
V
f
+
dt
d
d
dt
(a) d-axis (b) q-axis
d
q
Figure 7.18 The a.c. machine equivalent circuit
extended to include further coils. The following equations can be written:
V
d

q
R
a
i
d
V
f
R
f
i
f
R
kd
i
kd
L
md
+ L
a
L
md
L
md
L
md
L
md
+ L
f
+ L
kf
L
md
+ L
kf
L
md
L
md
+ L
kf
L
md
+ L
kf
+ L
kd
d
dt
i
d
i
f
i
kd
= [L
d
]
d
dt
i
d
i
f
i
kd
(7.76)
and
_
V
q
+
d
R
a
i
q
R
kq
i
kq
_
=
_
L
mq
+ L
a
L
mq
L
mq
L
mq
+ L
kq
_
d
dt
_
i
q
i
kq
_
= [L
q
]
d
dt
_
i
q
i
kq
_
(7.77)
The ux paths associated with the various d-axis inductances is shown in Figure 7.19.
The additional inductance L
kd
represents the mutual ux linking only the damper
and eld windings (not the stator windings); this addition has been shown to be
necessary for the accurate representation of the transient currents in the rotor circuits.
Saturation is taken into account by making inductances L
md
and L
f
functions of the
magnetising current and this information is derived from the machine open-circuit
characteristics.
Solving equations 7.76 and 7.77 for the currents yields:
d
dt
i
d
i
f
i
kd
= [L
d
]
1
d
R
a
i
q
R
f
i
f
R
kd
i
kd
+ [L
d
]
1
V
d
V
f
0
(7.78)
L
a L
kf
L
f
L
kd
L
md
Field
Air
gap
Amortisseur Stator
Figure 7.19 d-axis ux paths
d
dt
_
i
q
i
kq
_
= [L
q
]
1
_
d
R
a
i
q
R
kq
i
kq
_
+ [L
q
]
1
_
V
q
0
_
(7.79)
which are in the standard form of the state variable formulation, i.e.
x = [A]x + [B]u (7.80)
where the state vector x represents the currents and the input vector u the applied
voltages.
7.4.2 Electromechanical model
The accelerating torque is the difference between the mechanical and electrical torque,
hence:
J
d
dt
= T
mech
T
elec
D (7.81)
where
J is the angular moment of inertia
D is the damping constant
is the angular speed (d/dt )
In matrix form this is:
d
dt
_
_
=
_
0 1
0 D/J
_ _
_
+
_
0
(T
mech
T
elec
)/J
_
(7.82)
This equation is numerically integrated to calculate the rotor position . Multimass
systems can be modelled by building up mass-inertia models. Often only is passed
as input to the machine model. A model for the governor can be interfaced, which
accepts and calculates T
mech
.
The electromagnetic torque can be expressed as:
T
elec
=

d
i
q

q
i
d
2
(7.83)

Q Q Q Q P P (T: Electric Circuit (T) (T)

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170 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

Calculation of the UMEC branch ux

] is known, the real-valued

The inductances are of a time varying nature, e.g.

cos() cos( 2/3) cos( + 2/3)

cos() cos( 2/3) cos( 4/3)

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