Agriculture played an imperative function within the constitution of society of the ancient Greek and Romans.

Whereby the importance of agriculture as an essential institution is seen amongst the myriad of literary sources that delineate its importance to the populaces of antiquity. Furthermore, through the analysis of these literary sources there is seen the lack of distinction of religion from other facets of society, as religion in itself highlighted and established the set social values and beliefs and communicated a set code for the functioning and preservation of these cultural convictions. This is principally seen through the analysis of agriculture within antiquity, with its overall origins and the managing of certain components being regulated through the use of myths and a set dogma, as seen in particularly through the myths transmitted throughout society concerning Demeter, Persephone, Hades and Dionysus. These four gods and the myths surrounding them highlight the importance of religion in defining agriculture as an institution as well as demonstrating that the variations within these myths highlight differences in contextual beliefs. Religion was fundamentally ingrained within Greco- Roman culture, in which it effectively influenced all elements of culture and dictated the overall perception and explanation of natural events and norms. This seen through the consideration of agriculture all perceptions of agriculture were intrinsically connected to the dogma of both Greek and Roman society. There was no distinction of religion and religious beliefs from other aspects of society. Religion was ingrained within all aspects of life

3269929- The consequence of her intervention is the transformation of agriculture from a natural process to a human activity surrounded by divine guarentees and conducted under the aegis f Demeter and Persephones power. Further, agricultural endevour is related by the myth to participation in the rites Demeter initiated as a guarantee of the regularity of the seasons. 7 The cosmos refractions are drawn into coherence by the focus on Demeters power over the food supply: the governing power on Olympus and the existence of humans on earth and in Hades are dependent on Demeter. Demeters centrality binds them to herself, and not only restores and restructures the governance and activity of the cosmos. 7

happy (olbios) is he among men upon earth who has sseen these mysteries.. (48081). 11 That is, human life, initially understood as punctuated by death and issuing into a destiny of bad things down in the darkness and gloom, is qualified for the initiates by the work of Demeter. Ref 16- 12 The mystery rites gave humans the possibility of happiness before and after death. 12

- 4434671: Isocrates, for example, in telling the story of Demeter in Attica, says: even if it is mythical it is fitting for it to be told now, Because it illustrates an important conviction cherished by the Athenians- that they were the founders of agriculture and the benefactors of mankind in religion and law. Isocrates, iv. 28- ref 61- pg 412 - 40024509- It has been posed that vines had the most significant impact on Greek agriculture and society. Hanson argues that the farm of Laertes in the Odyssey ( 24. 205- 212) inaugurates the particular kind of farming which defined the Gree polis. 178

Demeter and Persephone all perceptions of agriculture were intrinsically connected to the dogma of both Greek and Roman society. There was no distinction of religion and religious beliefs from other aspects of society. Religion was ingrained within all aspects of life

agriculture was dealt with in a way which demonstrates and reflects its cultural significance within the context, as well as highlighting the belief system. Myths and their relation to the institution of agriculture provided an insight and demonstration of ideals and morals as well as providing a set code for the functioning of society.

Homeric Hymn 2 to Demeter 398 ff : "[Demeter to Persephone upon her return from Haides:] If you have tasted food, you must go back again beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a third part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you shall be with me [Demeter] and the other deathless gods. But when the earth shall bloom with the fragrant flowers of spring in every kind, then from the realm of darkness and gloom thou shalt come up once more to be a wonder for gods and mortal men [with the seasonal growing of the grain and fruits]." Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 475 ff Proserpine [Persephone], of two empires alike great deity, spends with her mother [Demeter] half the year' twelve months [summer and spring] and with her husband [Haides] half [autumn and winter]."

Pausanias, Description of Greece 8. 42. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "They say [Demeter], angry with Poseidon and grieved at the rape of Persephone, put on black apparel and shut herself up in this cavern [in Arkadia] for a long time . . . [and] all the fruits of the earth were perishing, and the human race dying yet more through famine." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 191 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Dionysos came to Attika . . . and Ikarios received Dionysos, who gave him a vine-cutting and taught him the art of making wine." Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 3. 62. 5 (trans. Oldfather) (Greek historian C1st B.C.) : "Dionysos was named twice-born (dimetor) by the ancients, counting it as a single and first birth when the plant is set in the ground and begins to grow, and as a second birth when it becomes laden with fruit and ripens its grape-clusters - the god thus being considered as having been born once from the earth and again from the vine."

Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 2 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Bear Watcher [Constellation Bootes]. Some have said that he is Icarus, father of Erigone, to whom, on account of his justice and piety, Father Liber [Dionysos] gave wine, the vine, and the grape, so that he could show men how to plant the vine, what would grow from it, and how to use what was produced. When he had planted the vine, and by careful tending with a pruningknife had made it flourish, a goat is said to have broken into the vineyard, and nibbled the

tenderest leaves he saw there. Icarus, angered by this, took him and killed him and from his skin made a sack, and blowing it up, bound it tight, and cast it among his friends, directing them to dance around it.

relationship between the variations of myths and the significance of the differentiation and similarities.

Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5. 68. 2 : "Triptolemos the corn to sow, instructing him both to share the gift with men everywhere and to teach tem everything concerned with the labour of sowing." Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5. 77. 1 : "Ploutos, we are told, was born in Kretan Tripolos to Demeter and Iasion, and there is a double account of his origin. For some men say that the earth, when it was sowed once by Iasion and given proper cultivation, brought forth such and abundance of fruits that those who saw this bestowed a special name upon the abundance of fruits when they appear and called it ploutos (wealth)." Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 4 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Philomelus [son of Demeter] . . . bought two oxen with what he had, and became the inventor of the wagon [or the plow]. So, by plowing and cultivating the fields, he supported himself." Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 341 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Ceres [Demeter] first turned the earth with the curved plough; she first gave corn and crops to bless the land; she first gave laws; all things are Ceres gift." Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 475 ff : "angry hands she broke the ploughs that turned the soil and sent to death alike the farmer and his labouring ox, and bade the fields betray their trust, and spoilt the seeds. So there with angry hands she broke the ploughs that turned the soil and sent to death alike the farmer and his labouring ox, and bade the fields betray their trust, and spoilt the seeds.

Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5. 68. 1 : "Now she [Demeter] discovered the corn before she gave birth to her daughter Persephone, but after the birth of her daughter and the rape of her by Plouton, she burned all the fruit of the corn, both because of her anger at Zeus and because of her grief over her daughter. After she had found Persephone, however, she became reconciled with Zeus and gave Triptolemos the corn to sow, instructing him both to share the gift with men everywhere and to teach tem everything concerned with the labour of sowing." Dionysus

agriculture was dealt with in a way which demonstrates and reflects its cultural significance within the context, as well as highlighting the belief system Myths and their relation to the institution of agriculture provided an insight and demonstration of ideals and morals as well as providing a set code for the functioning of society.

Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 191 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Dionysos came to Attika . . . and Ikarios received Dionysos, who gave him a vine-cutting and taught him the art of making wine." Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 3. 62. 5 (trans. Oldfather) (Greek historian C1st B.C.) : "Dionysos was named twice-born (dimetor) by the ancients, counting it as a single and first birth when the plant is set in the ground and begins to grow, and as a second birth when it becomes laden with fruit and ripens its grape-clusters - the god thus being considered as having been born once from the earth and again from the vine."

Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 2 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Bear Watcher [Constellation Bootes]. Some have said that he is Icarus, father of Erigone, to whom, on account of his justice and piety, Father Liber [Dionysos] gave wine, the vine, and the grape, so that he could show men how to plant the vine, what would grow from it, and how to use what was produced. When he had planted the vine, and by careful tending with a pruningknife had made it flourish, a goat is said to have broken into the vineyard, and nibbled the tenderest leaves he saw there. Icarus, angered by this, took him and killed him and from his skin made a sack, and blowing it up, bound it tight, and cast it among his friends, directing them to dance around it.

relationship between the variations of myths and the significance of the differentiation and similarities.

Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 274 : "Inventors and their inventions . . . A certain man named Cerasus [a disciple of Dionysos] mixed wine with the river Achelous in Aetolia, and from this to mix is called kerasai. Then, too, the ancient men of our race had on the posts of their dining-couches heads of ases [Dionysos' sacred beast] bound with vines to signify that the ass had discovered the sweetness of the vine. The vine, too, which a goat [Dionysos' sacred animal] had nibbled, brought fort more fruit, and from this they invented pruning." Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 2 : "Icarus, to whom, on account of his justice and piety, Father Liber [Dionysos] gave wine, the vine, and the grape , so that he could show men how to plant the vine, what would grow from it, and how to use what was produced. When he had planted the vine, and by careful tending with a pruning-knife had made it flourish."

Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 29 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Hermes took him [the infant Dionysos] to the Nymphai of Asian Nysa . . . [in his youth] Dionysos was the discoverer of the grapevine. After Hera inflicted madness upon him, he wandered over Aigyptos (Egypt) and Syria [introducing the vine]."

Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 2. 3 (trans. Oldfather) (Greek historian C1st B.C.) : "After he [Dionysos] had received his rearing by the Nymphai in Nysa, they say, he made the discovery of wine and taught mankind how to cultivate the vine."

Hades all perceptions of agriculture were intrinsically connected to the dogma of both Greek and Roman society. There was no distinction of religion and religious beliefs from other aspects of society. Religion was ingrained within all aspects of life

agriculture was dealt with in a way which demonstrates and reflects its cultural significance within the context, as well as highlighting the belief system. Myths and their relation to the institution of agriculture provided an insight and demonstration of ideals and morals as well as providing a set code for the functioning of society.

Orphic Hymn 18 to Pluton (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "Zeus Khthonios (of the Underworld) [Haides], thy sacred ear incline, and pleased accept these sacred rites divine. Earths keys to thee, illustrious king, belong, its secret gates unlocking, deep and strong. Tis thine abundant annual fruits to bear, for needy mortals are thy constant care. To thee, great king, all sovereign earth assigned, the seat of gods and basis of mankind." Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2. 26 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician C1st B.C.) : "The entire bulk and substance of the earth, was dedicated to father Dis [Haides] (that is, Dives, the rich, and so in Greek Plouton), because all things fall back into the earth and also arise from the earth. He is said to have married Proserpina (really a Greek name, for she is the same as the goddess called Persephone in Greek)--they think that she represents the seed of corn, and fable that she was hidden away, and sought for by her mother. The mother is Ceres [Demeter]." relationship between the variations of myths and the significance of the differentiation and similarities.

Plato, Cratylus 400d & 402d - 404b (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) : "[Plato constructs philosophical etymologies for the names of the gods :] Sokrates : Let us inquire what thought men had in giving them [the gods] their names . . . The first men who gave names [to the gods] were no ordinary persons, but high thinkers and great talkers . . . Plouton, he was so named as the giver of wealth (ploutos), because wealth comes up from below out of

the earth . . . [and] he also bestows such great blessings upon us who are on earth; such abundance surrounds him there below, and for this reason he is called Plouton."

all perceptions of agriculture were intrinsically connected to the dogma of both Greek and Roman society there was no distinction of religion and religious beliefs from other aspects of society. Religion was ingrained within all aspects of life agriculture was dealt with in a way which demonstrates and reflects its cultural significance within the context, as well as highlighting the belief system relationship between the variations of myths and the significance of the differentiation and similarities. Myths and their relation to the institution of agriculture provided an insight and demonstration of ideals and morals as well as providing a set code for the functioning of society. Overlap between the roles of gods and their powers. Convolution of the myths and the lack of need to separate and distinguish this signifies the Greek and Roman belief system and the contexts.