Learner Autonomy has been a buzz word in foreign language education in the past decades, especially in relation to lifelong

learning skills. It has transformed old practices in the language classroom and has given origin to self access language learning centers around the world such as the SALC at Kanda University of International Studies in Japan, the ASLLC at The Hong Kong Institute of Education, the SAC at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and ELSAC at the University of Auckland [1]. As the result of such practices, language teaching is now seen as language learning and it has placed the learner as the centre of our attention in language learning education.[1] The term "learner autonomy" was first coined in 1981 by Henri Holec, the "father" of learner autonomy. Many definitions have since been given to the term, depending on the writer, the context, and the level of debate educators have come to. It has been considered as a personal human trait, as a political measure, or as an educational move. This is because autonomy is seen either (or both) as a means or as an end in education. Some of the most well known definitions in present literature are:

'Autonomy is the ability to take charge of one's own learning' (Henri Holec

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'Autonomy is essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the process and content of learning' (David Little) 'Autonomy is a situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all the decisions concerned with his [or her] learning and the implementation of those decisions'. (Leslie Dickinson) 'Autonomy is a recognition of the rights of learners within educational systems'. (Phil Benson)

Taken from Gardner and Miller, Establishing Self-Access from theory to practice. CUP (1999)See also Leni Dam, who has written a seminal work on autonomy. (Dam, L. (1995) Autonomy from Theory to Classroom Practice. Dublin: Authentik.) One of the key aspects to consider in defining Learner Autonomy is whether we view it as a means to an end (learning a foreign language) or as an end in itself (making people autonomous learners). These two options do not exclude each other, both of them can be part of our views towards language learning or learning in general. Principles of learner autonomy could be:(Frank Lacey)

Autonomy means moving the focus from teaching to learning. Autonomy affords maximum possible influence to the learners. Autonomy encourages and needs peer support and cooperation. Autonomy means making use of self/peer assessment. Autonomy requires and ensures 100% differentiation.

Autonomy can only be practised with student logbooks which are a documentation of learning and a tool of reflection. The role of the teacher as supporting scaffolding and creating room for the development of autonomy is very demanding and very important. Autonomy means empowering students, yet the classroom can be restrictive, so are the rules of chess or tennis, but the use of technology can take students outside of the structures of the classroom, and the students can take the outside world into the classroom.
[3]

For an introduction to learner autonomy, see Reinders (2010) There is a comprehensive bibliography for learner autonomy

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Educational assessment[edit] There have been numerous studies relating the conative factors associated with autonomous learning.[5][6] The salient characteristics associated with autonomous learning (resourcefulness, initiative, and persistence) are crucial for high school-level students. Currently, the school structure in place in the US is composed of a ladder system of advancement as directed solely by academic achievement. As students proceed up the ladder, they are exposed to ever greater needs for learner autonomy. This increase in learner autonomy does not have a linear incremental increase throughout the 13 grades (from K-12), but shows a dramatic increase in the transition from middle (or junior high) school to high school. Studies suggest that students taught methods for autonomous learning have a greater probability of succeeding in a high school setting. Further, students screened for their level of autonomous learning perform better than those advanced simply on scholarly achievement [7] An instrument for assessing learner autonomy may play a significant role in determining a students readiness for high school.[8] Such an instrument now exists that is appropriate for the adolescent learner. This instrument is suitable for assessing suitability for greater learner autonomy; a quality that should be present in high school students. See also[edit]

Anarchistic free school Education reform Unschooling Sudbury school Compulsory education

What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered? Dimitrios Thanasoulas akasa74 [at] hotmail.com 1. Introduction Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2). It is a truism that one of the most important spin-offs of more communicatively oriented language learning and teaching has been the premium placed on the role of the learner in the language learning process (see Wenden, 1998: xi). It goes without saying, of course, that this shift of responsibility from teachers to learners does not exist in a vacuum, but is the result of a concatenation of changes to the curriculum itself towards a more learner-centred kind of learning. What is more, this reshaping, so to speak, of teacher and learner roles has been conducive to a radical change in the age-old distribution of power and authority that used to plague the traditional classroom. Cast in a new perspective and regarded as having the 'capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4), learners, autonomous learners, that is, are expected to assume greater responsibility for, and take charge of, their own learning. However, learner autonomy does not mean that the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiring in the language learning process. In the present study, it will be shown that learner autonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to 'educational interventions' (Candy, 1991), rather than a static product, a state, which is reached once and for all. Besides, what permeates this study is the belief that 'in order to help learners to assume greater control over their own learning it is important to help them to become aware of and identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use' (Holmes & Ramos, 1991, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 198). At any rate, individual learners differ in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varying degrees of independence throughout their lives (Tumposky, 1982). 2. What is Autonomy? For a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec (1981: 3, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 1) who describes it as 'the ability to take charge of one's learning'. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 2):

for for for for for

situations in which learners study entirely on their own; a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning; an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education; the exercise of learners' responsibility for their own learning; the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.

It is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the construction of knowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature is riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms for it, such as 'independence' (Sheerin, 1991), 'language awareness' (Lier, 1996;James & Garrett, 1991), 'self-direction' (Candy, 1991), 'andragogy' (Knowles, 1980; 1983 etc., which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. Let us review some of these definitions and try to gain insights into what learner autonomy means and consists of. As has been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparked considerable controversy, inasmuch as linguists and educationalists have failed to reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. For example, in David Little's terms, learner autonomy is 'essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the process and content of learning--a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4). It is not something done to learners; therefore, it is far from being another teaching method (ibid.). In the same vein, Leni Dam (1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 16), drawing upon Holec (1983), defines autonomy in terms of the learner's willingness and capacity to control or oversee her own learning. More specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation. To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a (pro-) active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher (Boud, 1988; Kohonen, 1992; Knowles, 1975). As we shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruent with, the theory of constructivism. For Rathbone (1971: 100, 104, cited in Candy, 1991: 271), the autonomous learner is a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process. He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen. Learning is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction with the world. Within such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; 'it is a constructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from (or even imposing meaning on) events' (Candy, 1991: 271). Such "inventories" of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learner abound, and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic ideal which does not square with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristics imputed to the "autonomous learner" encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. For instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) likens the autonomous learner to one '[w]hose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefs, values, and principles--[and who engages in a] stillcontinuing process of criticism and re-evaluation', while Rousseau ([1762] 1911, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) regards the autonomous learner as someone who 'is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself'. Within the context of education, though, there seem

to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners (see Omaggio, 1978, cited in Wenden, 1998: 41-42): Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies; take an active approach to the learning task at hand; are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs; are good guessers; attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriacy; 6. develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and 7. have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language. Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points briefly touched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development of learner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learning strategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. For example, the first point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be regarded as autonomous, while points 4) and 7) pertain to learner motivation. In view of this, an attempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of the parameters affecting, and interfering with, learners' self-image as well as their capacity and will to learn. It is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product. One does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. One corollary of viewing autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved by the learner, as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy 'is learned at least partly through educational experiences [and interventions]' (Candy, 1991: 115). But prior to sifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes entertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learner autonomy in relation to dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumption is that what is dubbed as learner autonomy and the extent to which it is a permissible and viable educational goal are all too often 'based on [and thus constrained by] particular conceptions of the constitution of knowledge itself' (Benson, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 20). 3. Learner Autonomy and Dominant Philosophies of Learning In this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be briefly discussed, with a view to examining how each of them connects up with learner autonomy. Positivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premised upon the assumption that knowledge reflects objective reality. Therefore, if teachers can be said to hold this "objective reality," learning can only 'consist--in the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 20). Congruent with this view, of course, is the maintenance and enhancement of the "traditional classroom," where teachers are the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners are seen as 'container[s] to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers' (ibid.). On the other hand, positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

attained by dint of the 'hypothesis-testing' model, and that it is more effectively acquired when 'it is discovered rather than taught' (ibid.) (my italics). It takes little perspicacity to realise that positivism is incongruent with, and even runs counter to, the development of learner autonomy, as the latter refers to a gradual but radical divorce from conventions and restrictions and is inextricably related to self-direction and selfevaluation. Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is strongly associated with Halliday (1979, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 21). As Candy (1991: 254) observes, '[o]ne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try to give meaning to, or construe, the perplexing maelstrom of events and ideas in which they find themselves caught up'. In contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the view that, rather than internalising or discovering objective knowledge (whatever that might mean), individuals reorganise and restructure their experience. In Candy's terms (Candy, 1991: 270), constructivism 'leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned (that is, constructed)', because knowledge is something 'built up by the learner' (von Glasersfeld & Smock, 1974: xvi, cited in Candy, 1991: 270). By the same token, language learning does not involve internalising sets of rules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own experience and world knowledge to bear on the target language or task at hand. Apparently, constructivism supports, and extends to cover, psychological versions of autonomy that appertain to learners' behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self-concept (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 23). As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promote self-directed learning as a necessary condition for learner autonomy. Finally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shares with constructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered or learned. Moreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather comprises 'competing ideological versions of that reality expressing the interests of different social groups' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 22). Within this approach, learning concerns issues of power and ideology and is seen as a process of interaction with social context, which can bring about social change. What is more, linguistic forms are bound up with the social meanings they convey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa. Certainly, learner autonomy assumes a more social and political character within critical theory. As learners become aware of the social context in which their learning is embedded and the constraints the latter implies, they gradually become independent, dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived ideas, and can be thought of as 'authors of their own worlds' (ibid.: 53). 4. Conditions for Learner Autonomy The concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the general characteristics of autonomy. At this juncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. Rather, it should be clarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certain conditions obtain: cognitive and metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge about language learning, i.e., a kind of metalanguage. To acknowledge, however, that learners have to follow certain paths to

attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that there has to be a teacher on whom it will be incumbent to show the way. In other words, autonomous learning is by no means "teacherless learning." As Sheerin (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63) succinctly puts it, '[t]eachers--have a crucial role to play in launching learners into self-access and in lending them a regular helping hand to stay afloat' (my italics). Probably, giving students a "helping hand" may put paid to learner autonomy, and this is mainly because teachers are ill-prepared or reluctant to 'wean [students]--away from teacher dependence' (Sheerin, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63). After all, 'it is not easy for teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources--And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solve problems for themselves' (Little, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 11). Such a transition from teacher-control to learner-control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly in relation to the former (no matter how unpalatable this may sound) that the latter finds its expression. At any rate, learner-control--which is ancillary to autonomy--'is not a single, unitary concept, but rather a continuum along which various instructional situations may be placed' (Candy, 1991: 205). It is to these 'instructional situations' that we will turn in the next section. In this section, it is of utmost importance to gain insights into the strategies learners use in grappling with the object of enquiry, i.e., the target language, as well as their motivation and attitude towards language learning in general. A question germane to the discussion is, what does it mean to be an autonomous learner in a language learning environment? 4.1. Learning Strategies A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed in O'Malley and Chamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies are 'the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information' (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990: 1, cited in Cook, 1993: 113)--a definition in keeping with the one provided in Wenden (1998: 18): 'Learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so'. To a greater or lesser degree, the strategies and learning styles that someone adopts 'may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment' (Skehan, 1998: 237). We will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies, refraining from mentioning communication or compensatory strategies (see Cook, 1993 for more details). 4.1.1. Cognitive Strategies According to O'Malley and Chamot (1990: 44), cognitive strategies 'operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning'. Learners may use any or all of the following cognitive strategies (see Cook, 1993: 114-115):

repetition, when imitating others' speech; resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials; translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and/or producing the target language;

note-taking; deduction, i.e., conscious application of L2 rules; contextualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence; transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the L1 to remember and understand facts and sequences in the L2; inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information (a new word etc); question for clarification, when asking the teacher to explain, etc. There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) recognise 16.

4.1.2. Metacognitive Strategies According to Wenden (1998: 34), 'metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learners acquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gain knowledge and acquire skills in varied situations'. In a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills used for planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; 'they are strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves' (Cook, 1993: 114). Let us see some of these strategies: directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a task; selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task; self-monitoring, i.e., checking one's performance as one speaks; self-evaluation, i.e., appraising one's performance in relation to one's own standards; self-reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success. At the planning stage, also known as pre-planning (see Wenden, 1998: 27), learners identify their objectives and determine how they will achieve them. Planning, however, may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning-in-action. Here, learners may change their objectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go about achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as 'participant observers or overseers of their language learning' (ibid.), asking themselves, "How am I doing? Am I having difficulties with this task?", and so on. Finally, when learners evaluate, they do so in terms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to Wenden (1998: 28), evaluating involves three steps: 1) learners examine the outcome of their attempts to learn; 2) they access the criteria they will use to judge it; and 3) they apply it.

4.2. Learner Attitudes and Motivation Language learning is not merely a cognitive task. Learners do not only reflect on their learning in terms of the language input to which they are exposed, or the optimal strategies they need in order to achieve the goals they set. Rather, the success of a learning activity is, to some extent, contingent upon learners' stance towards the world and the learning activity in particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn (see

Benson & Voller, 1997: 134-136). As Candy (1991: 295-296) says, 'the how and the what of learning are intimately interwoven--[T]he overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shape of his or her learning outcomes' (my italics). In other words, language learning--as well as learning, in general--has also an affective component. 'Meeting and interiorising the grammar of a foreign language is not simply an intelligent, cognitive act. It is a highly affective one too--' (Rinvolucri, 1984: 5, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 13). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 1, cited in Graham, 1997: 92) define 'affective variables' as the 'emotionally relevant characteristics of the individual that influence how she/he will respond to any situation'. Other scholars, such as Shumann (1978) and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) attach less importance to learners' emotions, claiming that 'social and psychological factors' give a more suitable description for students' reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social and affective variables at work, self-esteem and desire to learn are deemed to be the most crucial factors 'in the learner's ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second [or foreign] language' (Tarone & Yule, 1989: 139). In this light, it is necessary to shed some light on learner attitudes and motivation. Wenden (1998: 52) defines attitudes as 'learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding'. For her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process, and their capability as learners (ibid.: 53). In a sense, attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, 'learner beliefs about their role and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained--by other beliefs they hold about themselves as learners' (ibid.: 54). For example, if learners believe that certain personality types cannot learn a foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, then they will think that they are fighting a "losing battle," as far as learning the foreign language is concerned. Furthermore, if learners labour under the misconception that learning is successful only within the context of the "traditional classroom," where the teacher directs, instructs, and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the teacher's footsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to learner-centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to be undermined. In a way, attitudes are 'part of one's perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living [or the culture of the target language]' (Brown, 1987: 126), and it seems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes have the opposite effect. But let us examine the role of motivation. Although the term 'motivation' is frequently used in educational contexts, there is little agreement among experts as to its exact meaning. What most scholars seem to agree on, though, is that motivation is 'one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second or foreign language (L2) learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process' (Dornyei, 1998: 117). According to Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 3), motivation is comprised of three components: 'desire to achieve a goal, effort extended in this direction, and satisfaction with the task'.

It is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in different ways and to different degrees. Some learners like doing grammar and memorising; others want to speak and role-play; others prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking. Furthermore, since '[the learning of a foreign language] involves an alteration in selfimage, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner' (Williams, 1994: 77, cited in Dornyei, 1998:122), an important distinction should be made between instrumental and integrative motivation. Learners with an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of finding a good job or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the target language acts as a 'monetary incentive' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3). On the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are interested in the culture of the target language; they want to acquaint themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it. Of course, this approach to motivation has certain limitations (see Cookes and Schmidt, 1991, cited in Lier, 1996: 104-105), but an in-depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is that motivation is 'a central mediator in the prediction of language achievement' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3), as various studies have shown (see Kraemer, 1990; Machnick and Wolfe, 1982; et al.). 4.3. Self-esteem Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self-esteem, that is, the evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning in general. '[S]elf-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself' (Coopersmith, 1967: 4-5, cited in Brown, 1987: 101-102). If the learner has a 'robust sense of self', to quote Breen and Mann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 134), his relationship to himself as a learner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher. Conversely, a lack of self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to 'a deterioration in cognitive performance', thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of learning (Diener and Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited in Wenden, 1998: 57). Now that we have examined some of the factors that may enhance, or even militate against, the learner's willingness to take charge of her own learning and her confidence in her ability as a learner, it is of consequence to consider possible ways of promoting learner autonomy. To say, though, that learner autonomy can be fostered is not to reduce it to a set of skills that need to be acquired. Rather, it is taken to mean that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by 'low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement as a goal, collaboration rather than competition' (Candy, 1991: 337). In the next section, some general guidelines for promoting learner autonomy will be given, on the assumption that the latter does not mean leaving learners to their own devices or learning in isolation. 5. How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?

To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit ways of fostering teacher autonomy, as '[t]eachers' autonomy permeates into [learners'] autonomy' (Johnson, Pardesi and Paine, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 51). Nevertheless, our main focus will be on what the learner can do in order to attain a considerable degree of autonomy, even though the success of the learner is, to a great extent, determined-alas! vitiated--by the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher. 5.1. Self-reports According to Wenden (1998: 79-95), a good way of collecting information on how students go about a learning task and helping them become aware of their own strategies is to assign a task and have them report what they are thinking while they are performing it. This self-report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspect on their learning. In this case, 'the [introspective] self-report is a verbalization of one's stream of consciousness' (Wenden, 1998: 81). Introspective reports are assumed to provide information on the strategies learners are using at the time of the report. However, this method suffers from one limitation: '[t]he concentration put on thinking aloud might detract from [learners'] ability to do the task efficiently' (ibid.: 83), thus rendering the outcome of the report spurious and tentative. Another type of self-report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self-report, since learners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. Retrospective selfreports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in response to a question or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There are two kinds of retrospective self-reports: semi-structured interviews and structured questionnaires. A semi-structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view to extracting information about learners' feelings towards particular skills (reading, listening, etc.), problems encountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle these problems, and learners' views on optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills or dealing with learning tasks. A structured questionnaire seeks the same information but in a different way: by dint of explicit questions and statements, and then asking learners to agree or disagree, write true or false, and so forth. It could be argued that self-reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners' strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. As Wenden (1998: 90) observes, 'without awareness [learners] will remain trapped in their old patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous'. 5.2. Diaries and Evaluation Sheets Perhaps one of the principal goals of education is to alter learners' beliefs about themselves by showing them that their putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribed to a lack of effective strategies rather than to a lack of potential. After all, according to Vygotsky (1978), learning is an internalised form of a formerly social activity, and 'a learner can realize [his] potential interactively--through the guidance of supportive other persons such as parents, teachers, and peers' (Wenden, 1998: 107). Herein lies the role of diaries and evaluation sheets, which offer students the possibility to plan, monitor,

and evaluate their learning, identifying any problems they run into and suggesting solutions. Let us have a look at the following diaries based on authentic student accounts of their language learning: A. Dear Diary, These first few days have been terrible. I studied English for eight yearsjust think, eight years, but I only learned a lot of grammar. I can't speak a word. I don't dare. I can't express myself in the right way, so I am afraid to speak. The other day I started watching TV, so I could get accustomed to the sound. I don't understand TV news very wellonly a few words. I can't get the main point. In school it's easy to understand, but I can't understand the people in the stores. What can I do? Yours Truly, Impatient (from Wenden, 1998: 102) B. Dear Diary, I read the New York Times every day. Every day I learn many new expressions-a lot of vocabulary. But I can't use this vocabulary in conversation. The same thing happens with what I learn at school. I can't use it when I want to talk to Americans or even with my own Spanish friends. I need some help. Yours Truly, Confused (from Wenden, 1998: 102) Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing on their expectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluation sheets, or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. These activities are bound to help learners put things into perspective and manage their learning more effectively. Let us consider two such reports: 1. What do I want to do this year? "I want to speak more English and I'd like to spell better that I do now. I would like to work with another boy or girl who is willing to speak English with me and make some activities in English. Materials: Challenge to think and crosswords. I would like to get a more varied language and I would like to be better at spelling, especially the words used in everyday situations. How: I will prepare two minutes' talk' for every lesson, I will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them. I will get someone or myself to correct it. I will read at least two booksdifficult onesand make book-reviews. (Beginning of term4th year of English

[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 30]) 2. What do you feel you know now that you didn't know before? "I think that we have grown better at planning our own time. We know more about what we need to do and how to go about it. We try all the time to extend our vocabulary and to get an active language. Evaluation also helped us. It is like going through things again. (End of term4th year of English [from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 32]) So far, one of the assumptions underlying this discussion on learner autonomy has been that the teacher has not relinquished his "authority"; rather, that he has committed himself to providing the learners with the opportunity to experiment, make hypotheses, and improvise, in their attempt to master the target language and, along with it, to learn how to learn in their own, individual, holistic way (see Papaconstantinou, 1997). It may be the case that learner autonomy is best achieved when, among other things, the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning, a counsellor, and as a resource (see Voller, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99-106). In other words, when she lies somewhere along a continuum between what Barnes (1976, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99) calls transmission and interpretation teachers. As Wright (1987: 62, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100) notes, transmission teachers believe in subject disciplines and boundaries between them, in content, in standards of performance laid down by these disciplines that can be objectively evaluated--that learners will find it hard to meet the standards; interpretation teachers believe that knowledge is the ability to organize thought, interpret and act on facts; that learners are intrinsically interested and naturally inclined to explore their worlds--that learners already know a great deal and have the ability to refashion that knowledge. The interpretation teacher respects learners' needs and is 'more likely to follow a fraternal-permissive model' (emphasis added) (Stevick, 1976: 91-93, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100). It is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasive communication is most congruent. 5.3. Persuasive Communication as a Means of Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes Inasmuch as the success of learning and the extent to which learners tap into their potential resources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy are determined by such factors as learners' motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold about themselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. 'Attitude change [is assumed to] be brought about through exposure to a persuasive communication [between the teacher and the learners]' (Wenden, 1998: 126). According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of attitude change developed by Petty and Cacciopo

(1986, cited in Wenden, 1998: 126), there are several ways of bringing about this change, however, our concern will only be with persuasive communication. A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments to change a learner's evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either explicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. If, for instance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in the learning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to light and identify the causes that underlie them. It should be noted, though, that no arguments to influence students' views are given. Rather, the communication comprises facts that show what learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful (see Wenden, 1998: 126). This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are faced with convincing information about a situation, 'they can be led to re-examine existing evaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely' (ibid.: 127). 6. Conclusion This study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of the subject and the puzzle called learner autonomy. Many more pieces are missing. For instance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learner autonomy, despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice and ideological encoding (Littlejohn, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 181-182). At any rate, the main point of departure for this study has been the notion that there are degrees of learner autonomy and that it is not an absolute concept. It would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or objectives. Nevertheless, learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, that can, and should, be realised, if we want self-sufficient learners and citizens capable of evaluating every single situation they find themselves in and drawing the line at any inconsistencies or shortcomings in institutions and society at large. Certainly, though, autonomous learning is not akin to "unbridled learning." There has to be a teacher who will adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs and even abandon all this if need be. Learner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying, one's strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, and having the opportunity to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimal learning. But even if learner autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it 'takes a long time to develop, and--simply removing the barriers to a person's ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away from old habits or old ways of thinking' (Candy, 1991: 124). As Holyoake (1892, vol. 1, p. 4) succinctly put it, '[k]nowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think'. Pedagogical Projects ADD COMMENT

The goals of your pedagogical project are several: to start you thinking about how to teach and how students learn; to add a concrete, ready-to-go teaching project to your portfolio; to give you an opportunity to think, in an authentic way, about the possibilities of new media in teaching and learning; to encourage familiarity with new media practices and concepts. These are the kinds of things your portfolio should do. Here is a rough set of expectations about what your project should look like: - a discussion of the big idea(s) or understanding(s) that drive your project. Here, you should think about the McWiggins discussion of learning and understanding e.g. enduring understanding, important to know and do, worth being familiar with. What are the essential questions that will frame your inquiry? - a discussion of evidence of student learning. Once youve elaborated the larger goals and frames for you project - what kinds of evidence of learning will you ask your students to produce? Remember, this can encompass a range of assessments (from quizzes to projects, etc.), depending on the range of understanding that youre interested in fostering. - a discussion of instructional activities. Now that you know where youre going conceptually, how will you get the students there? What kinds of classroom or instructional activities will provide the scaffolding for (what kind of) student learning? These connections should be clear and persuasive. - a rationale for the use of new media in your pedagogy. Here, you should draw on the more theoretical or conceptual essays about new media that weve read this semester. Some questions to consider: What is the relation between your pedagogical project and the kinds of relations, practices, epistemologies proposed by critics and scholars of new media? In what ways has/does new media de-familiarize or make more visible your assumptions, intuitions, understanding of pedagogy? What kinds of challenges does new media pose to your understanding and/or experience of pedagogy? Quote chapter and verse to support/illustrate your thinking here. I expect that youd need several good, rich paragraphs (at least) to adequately engage with these four areas. You can either use a blog post to present your project or create a page for the project on your blog. In either case, take advantage of the rich media possibilities of your platform - use images, links, video, etc. Obviously, I am an important audience for your project. But, consider other audiences you might be writing to: your comrades in the class, fellow teachers, hiring committees, future colleagues. Well have one final crowd-sourced review of the your pedagogical project next week (May 3). To get better feedback, youll want a neat, clean, orderly draft published and ready for commenting. Enjoy!

Project-based learning From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Project-based learning is considered an alternative to paper-based, rote memorization, teacher-led classrooms. Proponents of project-based learning cite numerous benefits to the implementation of these strategies in the classroom including a greater depth of understanding of concepts, broader knowledge base, improved communication and interpersonal/social skills, enhanced leadership skills, increased creativity, and improved writing skills. John Dewey initially promoted the idea of "learning by doing." In My Pedagogical Creed (1897) Dewey enumerated his beliefs regarding education: "The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding to these.......I believe, therefore, in the so-called expressive or constructive activities as the centre of correlation." [1](Dewey, 1897) Educational research has advanced this idea of teaching and learning into a methodology known as "project-based learning." Blumenfeld & Krajcik (2006)[2] cite studies by Marx et al., 2004, Rivet & Krajcki, 2004 and William & Linn, 2003 state that "research has demonstrated that student in project-based learning classrooms get higher scores than students in traditional classroom."

John Dewey, 1902 Markham (2011) describes project-based learning (PBL) as: " PBL integrates knowing and doing. Students learn knowledge and elements of the core curriculum, but also apply what they know to solve authentic problems and produce results that matter. PBL students take advantage of digital tools to produce high quality, collaborative products. PBL refocuses education on the student, not the curriculum--a shift mandated by the global world, which rewards intangible assets such as drive, passion, creativity, empathy, and resiliency. These cannot be taught out of a textbook, but must be activated through experience."
[3]

Project-based learning has been associated with the "situated learning" perspective of James G. Greeno (2006) and on the constructivist theories of Jean Piaget. A more precise description of the processes of PBL given by Blumenfeld et al. says that, "Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging students in investigation. Within this framework, students pursue solutions to nontrivial problems by asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions, designing plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, communicating their ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating

artifacts." [4](Blumenfeld, et al., 1991) The basis of PBL lies in the authenticity or reallife application of the research. Students working as a team are given a "driving question" to respond to or answer, then directed to create an artifact (or artifacts) to present their gained knowledge. Artifacts may include a variety of media such as writings, art, drawings, three-dimensional representations, videos, photography, or technology-based presentations. Project-based learning is not without its opponents, however; in Peer Evaluation in Blended Team Project-Based Learning: What Do Students Find Important? Hye-Jung & Cheolil (2012) describe social loafing as a negative aspect of collaborative learning. Social loafing may include insufficient performances by some team members as well as a lowering of expected standards of performance by the group as a whole to maintain congeniality amongst members. These authors said that because teachers tend to grade the finished product only, the social dynamics of the assignment may escape the teacher's notice.[5] Structure[edit] Project-based learning emphasizes learning activities that are long-term, interdisciplinary and student-centered. Unlike traditional, teacher-led classroom activities, students often must organize their own work and manage their own time in a project-based class. Project-based instruction differs from traditional inquiry by its emphasis on students' collaborative or individual artifact construction to represent what is being learned. Elements[edit] The core idea of project-based learning is that real-world problems capture students' interest and provoke serious thinking as the students acquire and apply new knowledge in a problem-solving context. The teacher plays the role of facilitator, working with students to frame worthwhile questions, structuring meaningful tasks, coaching both knowledge development and social skills, and carefully assessing what students have learned from the experience. Typical projects present a problem to solve (What is the best way to reduce the pollution in the schoolyard pond?) or a phenomenon to investigate (What causes rain?). Comprehensive Project-based Learning:

is organized around an open-ended driving question or challenge. creates a need to know essential content and skills. requires inquiry to learn and/or create something new. requires critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, and various forms of communication, often known as "21st Century Skills."[6]

allows some degree of student voice and choice. incorporates feedback and revision. results in a publicly presented product or performance.[7]

Examples[edit] Although projects are the primary vehicle for instruction in project-based learning, there are no commonly shared criteria for what constitutes an acceptable project. Projects vary greatly in the depth of the questions explored, the clarity of the learning goals, the content and structure of the activity, and guidance from the teacher. The role of projects in the overall curriculum is also open to interpretation. Projects can guide the entire curriculum (more common in charter or other alternative schools) or simply comprise of a few hands-on activities. They might be multidisciplinary (more likely in elementary schools) or single-subject (commonly science and math). Some projects involve the whole class, while others are done in small groups or individually. When PBL is used with 21st-century tools/skills [1], students are expected to use technology in meaningful ways to help them investigate, collaborate, analyze, synthesize and present their learning. Where technology is infused throughout the project, a more appropriate term for the pedagogy can be referred to as iPBL (copyright 2006, ITJAB), to reflect the emphasis on technological skills as well as academic content. An example of applied PBL is Muscatine High School, located in Muscatine, Iowa. The school started the G2 (Global Generation Exponential Learning) which consists of middle and high school Schools within Schools that deliver the four core subject areas. At the high school level, activities may include making water purification systems, investigating service learning, or creating new bus routes. At the middle school level, activities may include researching trash statistics, documenting local history through interviews, or writing essays about a community scavenger hunt. Classes are designed to help diverse students become college and career ready after high school. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has provided funding to start holistic PBL schools across the United States. These organizations include:

EdVisions Schools [2] Envision Schools [3] North Bay Academy of Communication and Design [4] Big Picture Schools [5] New Tech Network [6]

Another example is Manor New Technology High School, a public high school that is part of the New Tech Network of school. Manor New Technology High School is a 100 percent project-based instruction school. Students average 60 projects a year across subjects.

Since opening in fall 2007, the school has outperformed the state of Texas and Manor Independent School District in the percentage of students passing state standards in three of the four subjects tested: science, social studies, and reading/English language arts.[8] Roles[edit] PBL relies on learning groups. Student groups determine their projects, in so doing, they engage student voice by encouraging students to take full responsibility for their learning. This is what makes PBL constructivist. Students work together to accomplish specific goals. When students use technology as a tool to communicate with others, they take on an active role vs. a passive role of transmitting the information by a teacher, a book, or broadcast. The student is constantly making choices on how to obtain, display, or manipulate information. Technology makes it possible for students to think actively about the choices they make and execute. Every student has the opportunity to get involved either individually or as a group. Instructor role in Project Based Learning is that of a facilitator. They do not relinquish control of the classroom or student learning but rather develop an atmosphere of shared responsibility. The Instructor must structure the proposed question/issue so as to direct the student's learning toward content-based materials. The instructor must regulate student success with intermittent, transitional goals to ensure student projects remain focused and students have a deep understanding of the concepts being investigated. It is important for teachers not to provide the students any answers because it defeats the learning and investigating process. Once the project is finished, the instructor provides the students with feedback that will help them strengthen their skills for their next project Student role is to ask questions, build knowledge, and determine a real-world solution to the issue/question presented. Students must collaborate expanding their active listening skills and requiring them to engage in intelligent focused communication. Therefore, allowing them to think rationally on how to solve problems. PBL forces students to take ownership of their success. Outcomes[edit] More important than learning science, students need to learn to work in a community, thereby taking on social responsibilities. The most significant contributions of PBL have been in schools languishing in poverty stricken areas; when students take responsibility, or ownership, for their learning, their self-esteem soars. It also helps to create better work habits and attitudes toward learning. In standardized tests, languishing schools have been able to raise their testing grades a full level by implementing PBL.[citation

needed]

Although students do work in groups, they also become more independent because they are receiving little instruction from the teacher. With Project-Based Learning students also learn skills that are essential in higher education. The students learn more than just finding answers, PBL allows them to expand their minds and think beyond what they normally would. Students have to find answers to questions and combine them using critically thinking skills to come up with answers. PBL is significant to the study of (mis-)conceptions; local concepts and childhood intuitions that are hard to replace with conventional classroom lessons. In PBL, project science isthe community culture; the student groups themselves resolve their understandings of phenomena with their own knowledge building. Technology allows them to search in more useful ways, along with getting more rapid results. Opponents of Project Based Learning warn against negative outcomes primarily in projects that become unfocused and tangential arguing that underdeveloped lessons can result in the wasting of precious class time. No one teaching method has been proven more effective than another. Opponents suggest that narratives and presentation of anecdotal evidence included in lecture-style instruction can convey the same knowledge in less class time. Given that disadvantaged students generally have fewer opportunities to learn academic content outside of school, wasted class time due to an unfocused lesson presents a particular problem. Instructors can be deluded into thinking that as long as a student is engaged and doing, they are learning. Ultimately it is cognitive activity that determines the success of a lesson. If the project does not remain on task and content driven the student will not be successful in learning the material. The lesson will be ineffective. A source of difficulty for teachers includes, "Keeping these complex projects on track while attending to students' individual learning needs requires artful teaching, as well as industrial-strength project management."[9] Like any approach, Project Based Learning is only beneficial when applied successfully. Problem-based learning is a similar pedagogic approach, however, problem-based approaches structure students' activities more by asking them to solve specific (openended) problems rather than relying on students to come up with their own problems in the course of completing a project. A meta-analysis conducted by Purdue University found that when implemented well, PBL can increase long-term retention of material and replicable skill, as well as improve teachers' and students' attitudes towards learning.[10] Criticism[edit] One concern is that PBL may be inappropriate in mathematics, the reason being that mathematics is primarily skill-based at the elementary level. Transforming the curriculum into an over-reaching project or series of projects does not allow for the

necessary practice at particular mathematical skills. For instance, factoring quadratic equations in elementary algebra is something that requires extensive practice. On the other hand, a teacher could integrate a PBL approach into the standard curriculum, helping the students see some broader contexts where abstract quadratic equations may apply. For example, Newton's law implies that tossed objects follow a parabolic path, and the roots of the corresponding equation correspond to the starting and ending locations of the object. Another criticism of PBL is that measures that are stated as reasons for its success are not measurable using standard measurement tools, and rely on subjective rubrics for assessing results. In PBL there is also a certain tendency for the creation of the final product of the project to become the driving force in classroom activities. When this happens, the project can lose its content focus and be ineffective in helping students learn certain concepts and skills. For example, academic projects that culminate in an artistic display or exhibit may place more emphasis on the artistic processes involved in creating the display than on the academic content that the project is meant to help students learn. See also[edit]

Da Vinci Schools Dos Pueblos Engineering Academy Energetic Learning Campus (North Peace Secondary School) Experiential education Fremdsprachen und Hochschule (German academic journal) Inquiry-based learning Metoda projektw (pol.) Minnesota State University, Mankato Masters Degree in Experiential Education New Technology High School North Bay Academy of Communication and Design Northwoods Community Secondary School Problem-based learning Projekt socjalny (pol.) Reggio Emilia approach student voice Summers-Knoll School TAGOS Leadership Academy Teaching for social justice Valley New School

External links[edit]

Project Based Learning Online From Super Star Learning Company Project Based Learning for the 21st Century From The Buck Institute for Education Ten Tips for Assessing Project-Based Learning From Edutopia by The George Lucas Educational Foundation. Project-Based Learning and High Standards at Shutesbury Elementary School From Edutopia by The George Lucas Educational Foundation. Project Foundry- Project-based Learning Management Tool grew out of an educational non-profit in Milwaukee, WI. Learning for a Cause is a project-based high school creative writing initiative in Canada founded in 2003 by noted educator and writer Michael Ernest Sweet. [7] Changing the Face of Traditional Education: Project-based Learning Intel Teach Elements: Project-Based Approaches is a free, online professional development course that explores project-based learning. LearningReviews Directory of Project Based Learning Lesson Websites has websites with ideas, planning templates and grading rubrics. Project Work in (English) Language Teaching provides a practical guide to running a successful 30-hour (15-lesson) short film project in English with (pre-)intermediate students: planning, lessons, evaluation, deliverables, samples and experiences, plus ideas for other projects.

Checklists to support Project Based Learning and evaluation

Building Motivation Project Based Learning allows teachers to create tasks whose complexity and openness mimic problems in the real world. Students can see the interdisciplinary nature of these tasks, and see that each task may have more than one solution. Students who have the freedom to choose different strategies and approaches may become more engaged in the learning process, and these students will be more likely to approach other problems with an open mind. In addition, students who are involved in creating the project assignment or the project checklist gain valuable experience in setting their own goals and standards of excellence. This gives students a sense of ownership and control over their own learning.Learners have the added opportunity to identify related sub-topics and explore them in a project based scenario. Teaching with the project based method enables students to work cooperatively with peers and mentors in a studentcentered environment where learners are encouraged to explore various topics of interest. Projects that have depth, duration, and complexity will challenge students and motivate them towards construction of knowledge. They will acquire problem-solving, communication, collaboration, planning, and self- evaluation skills. After completing a project, ask students to create a self-evaluation of the project. This enables the students to focus on their learning process and allows them to see their progress. Self-evaluation gives students a sense of accomplishment and further instills responsibility for learning. Learners who can see the connection between a project based task and the real world will be more motivated to understand and solve the problem at hand. Students enjoy learning when learning makes sense. Project Based Learning lends itself to many disciplines. It provides learners the opportunity to have a voice in how and what they learn, while building intrinsic motivation towards problem-solving.

PBL Project Checklists Involving Students in Checklist Creation Using Multiple Intelligences Read More About Student Motivation to Learn

Student Motivation To Learn

Credits

Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment. As one author puts it, "Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler is 'unmotivated' " (James Raffini 1993).

Source

Unfortunately, as children grow, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery instead of delight. A large number of students--more than one in four-ERIC Clearinghouse leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves on fully in the experience of learning. Educational Management Awareness of how students' attitudes and beliefs about learning develop and what facilitates learning for its own sake can assist educators in reducing student apathy. Contents What Is Student Motivation? What Factors Influence The Development Of Students' Motivation? Are There Advantages To Intrinsic Motivation? How Can Motivation To Learn Be Fostered In The School Setting? What Can Be Done To Help Unmotivated Students? What Is Student Motivation? Student motivation naturally has to do with students' desire to participate in the learning process. But it also concerns the reasons or goals that underlie their involvement or noninvolvement in academic activities. Although students may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their motivation may differ. A student who is INTRINSICALLY motivated undertakes an activity "for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes" (Mark Lepper 1988). An EXTRINSICALLY motivated student performs "IN ORDER TO obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself," such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval (Lepper). The term MOTIVATION TO LEARN has a slightly different meaning. It is defined by one author as "the meaningfulness, value, and benefits of academic tasks to the learner--regardless of whether or not they are intrinsically interesting" (Hermine Marshall 1987). Another notes that motivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement in learning and commitment to the process of learning (Carole Ames 1990). What Factors Influence The Development Of Students' Motivation? According to Jere Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competence acquired "through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)." Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning. When parents nurture their children's natural curiosity about the world by welcoming their questions,

Resources

encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with resources that can enlarge their world, they are giving their children the message that learning is worthwhile and frequently fun and satisfying. When children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning. Conversely, when children do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished. Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their schoolrelated successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations. The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence (Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1988) notes, "To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn." Schoolwide goals, policies, and procedures also interact with classroom climate and practices to affirm or alter students' increasingly complex learning-related attitudes and beliefs. And developmental changes comprise one more strand of the motivational web. For example, although young children tend to maintain high expectations for success even in the face of repeated failure, older students do not. And although younger children tend to see effort as uniformly positive, older children view it as a "double-edged sword" (Ames). To them, failure following high effort appears to carry more negative implications--especially for their self-concept of ability--than failure that results from minimal or no effort. Back to the Table of Contents

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Using Multiple Intelligences

John Dewey theorized that learning should not only prepare one for life, but should also be an integral part of life itself. Simulating real problems and real problem-solving is one function of project based learning. Students help choose their own projects and create learning opportunities based upon their individual interests and strengths. Projects assist students in succeeding within the classroom and beyond, because they allow learners to apply multiple intelligences in completing a project they can be proud of. Our society values individuals who can solve problems creatively, using multiple strengths, so why shouldn't we encourage students to do the same?

However, traditional teaching strategies tend to focus on verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences alone. This can create frustration for people who are comfortable with less traditional learning modalities, such as kinesthetic, visual, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, or naturalist. Project based learning allows the teacher to incorporate numerous teaching and learning strategies into project planning and implementation. Assisting learners in developing all of their intelligences will make learning a part of living, not just a preparation for it.

What makes a lesson constructivist? Engage first, explain later Posted on October 28, 2011 by Sylvia Martinez

Hello there! If you are new here, you might want to subscribe to the RSS feed for updates on this topic. Powered by WP Greet Box WordPress Plugin This is a guest post from Don Mesibov of the The Institute for Learning Centered Education This post will articulate a major distinction between a lesson based on constructivist theory and a lesson as it has been traditionally planned and taught. The secret lies in the initial activity of the lesson or unit immediately following the bell ringer, launcher, anticipatory set or whatever brief activity a teacher uses at the very beginning of the lesson.

In a traditional lesson, the teacher begins to speak about what he wants the students to learn. It seems logical. I know what I want you to learn so I will tell you what I want you to know, understand or be able to apply. THIS IS WRONG!!!!! Dont begin your lesson (following your opening activity) with a lecture. Dont begin with a Power Point that is the equivalent to a lecture. You can make a few opening comments to introduce the lesson or give directions (two minutes at most). You can post a Power Point if it is to keep directions in front of the students as they work or if it is to highlight something students may need to reference, but DO NOT use a Power Point to replace a lecture. I have sat in the back of a room listening to a teacher try to transmit her information to a student and it doesnt work. Students dont pay attention because they cant grasp the significance of what the teacher is saying. If the nature of the information is complex enough to justify teaching it then it is also difficult for anyone to understand before they have experiences engaging with the information. If students are able to grasp what the teacher is saying it is only to memorize information they can regurgitate on a test for a good grade, but we dont understand information until and unless we engage with it.

ENGAGEMENT MUST PRECEDE EXPLANATION What should an effective teacher do??

Begin your lesson with an activity that engages students with the information you want them to learn. Here are some examples:

Prioritize: If you are studying the Bill of Rights ask students (individually, in pairs or small groups) to put the ten amendments in the order of importance to them. They cannot possibly do this without thinking about and studying each of the amendments. If you lecture them on the Bill of Rights, how can you possibly know if they are thinking about what you are saying?

Jigsaw: Divide the lesson into four or five parts, create groups and give each group one of the parts of the lesson to study and then teach to the others.

Project: Give the students something to do that can only be accomplished by effective use of the information you want them to learn.

Sometimes the lecture (or Power Point) you are tempted to give at the start of the lesson will be much more effective toward the end because, at that time, students have enough knowledge about the information to understand what you are saying. In other words, your lecture can be a good form of review or can generate meaningful reflection. Since we often hear that teachers should become coaches (Guides on the Side) this is the way it can happen. A sports coach gives her lecture during or after a practice or a game when there are shared experiences to talk about and reflect upon. Teachers need to create shared experiences BEFORE they lecture so the lecture (like a coachs chalk talk) can be in reference to something the students have done.

There is one more reason to begin a lesson (immediately after your launcher, bell ringer, ice breaker or anticipatory set) with active engagement with information instead of a lecture: if you launch your lesson effectively then students are beginning to think Maybe this class will be different; maybe I will actually enjoy this. When you follow a successful start to a lesson with a lecture it takes all the air out of the balloon. It causes you to lose the positive momentum that you created. It is like a play that grabs the audience at the start with an exciting opening scene and then loses the audience almost immediately when the next scene is a dud.

We call the opening five minutes of a lesson an exploratory activity. But whether you call it a bell ringer, launcher, anticipatory set, ice breaker or something else, dont follow it with a lecture. ENGAGEMENT MUST PRECEDE EXPLANATION. Its logical, its valuable and, most of all, its good pedagogy. Doesnt a coach begin by throwing the players into a practice and then discussing with them what went well, what needs to be improved, and why???? Please know that your work in the field of education is as meaningful to our society as anything anyone can possibly do. Thank you for caring about the future of our children!!!!

Collaboration During Student Project Work By Melinda Kolk and Gene Bias

9 1 Edmodo4 112 In todays age of information, success hinges on effective application of knowledge to solve problems and create new ideas and information. Working collaboratively during project work prepares students for modern citizenship and work, as most complex communal, social, and workplace problems are solved by groups, not individuals. Having students work together to achieve a goal helps them recognize the value of the contributions and perspectives of all team members and prepares them for life in the 21st century. Working in teams on complex problems requires a variety of skills and expertise. As team members identify and explore their own strengths, weaknesses, and skills, they gain an understanding of how combining the various skills of several individuals contributes to greater success than can be achieved by one person alone. To achieve the team goal, students must capitalize on each members strengths and varying perspectives. Traditionally it has been held that the primary benefits of collaborative work are social: interpersonal communication, trust, and skill in working with others. However, a collaborative and cooperative learning experience can also lead to significant advances in individual understanding. Collaborative learning entails more than just students working next to each other or even helping one another. As students work to formulate an answer to an open-ended task, they talk and work together. When students exchange ideas and insights, they work through misunderstandings, absorb content more effectively, and help each other achieve true understanding (Cohen & Lotan, 1997). Collaboration or Cooperation? The words collaborative and cooperative are often used interchangeably. During both collaborative and cooperative learning, students work together as they tackle new concepts and form new understandings. The two approaches are subtly different, but are both highly effective ways to organize classroom learning and project work.

In cooperative learning, students work together to achieve a goal or develop an end product which is usually content specific. Cooperative projects tend to be teachercentered and teacher-directed.

In collaborative learning, students may still work toward a goal or develop an end product, but the process is characterized by self-responsibility and awareness, respect for others, and contributions from different perspectives. Collaborative projects tend to be student-centered and student-directed. To be successful in a collaborative environment, students must learn to communicate freely and directly, support their team members, and value each members contribution. Making collaborative groups heterogeneous helps students learn these important skills. A heterogeneous group includes team members who: are different genders are different ethnicities prefer different subjects in school do not know each other very well have different intelligences have varying levels of academic proficiency have varying levels of technology proficiency Grouping students by varying levels of expertise, ability, and skills helps foster positive interdependence and accountability. Various perspectives and experiences result in a richer pool of knowledge and provide benefits for both low and high achievers. Learn about how one educator engaged their students through artistic collaboration. You will need to assess skills, competencies, and work styles before grouping students into successful teams. Try partnering opposites. For example, group a talkative student with a shy student, a techie with a non-techie, a risk-taker with a more cautious student. Make sure that each student sees the value of the contribution from the opposite and that each student moves outside of his or her comfort zone to experience the style of the other. Rest assured, there is no perfect team and certainly no one way to group students. The

key is to define your goals for the project and teach students to identify how they are interacting and then self-correct. Using Roles During collaborative work, you can foster positive interdependence by choosing roles for various team members. Roles help solidify the value of each members contribution and, in the case of large projects, help a team meet project requirements.

You can assign specific roles to each student or let the students assign roles within the group. Having team members rotate through the various roles requires them to tackle several different sets of skills and helps them see the value of each role.

Leader When in this role, students facilitate group success by assessing progress toward the team goal and keeping the team on task and on track. Leaders are responsible for getting all team members to participate and for making sure that all team members understand the concepts and information necessary for the project.

Recorder When in this role, students collect and share the information discussed during team work, create a written record of work being done, write out solutions, keep copies of each members work, and prepare the materials for final project submission.

Encourager When in this role, students encourage other team members by listening carefully, sharing ideas, making connections, and expressing feelings.

Checker When in this role, students make sure that each team member understands what is being said, what work needs to be completed, and what the group has determined to be the project goals.

Timekeeper When in this role, students make sure that the team is on track to meet deadlines and complete the project on time.

Runner When in this role, students locate the person or thing which will help answer a question or find the resources team members need to complete project work.

Questioner When in this role, students should challenge the prevailing ideas, encouraging new ideas and helping the team work in new directions.

You will want to further clarify these roles as they pertain to the specific project work your students are completing. You may also find that you want to divide or combine roles depending on the number of members in each team. Work Styles A teams success is not solely dependent upon the academic capability of its members. It is also dramatically affected by how well the team can work together to achieve goals. Project success depends on team members successfully allocating tasks and assignments and communicating with each other as they progress through the process. How team members interact is influenced by varying working styles. Understanding a students work style will help you facilitate communication between team members,

encourage conflict resolution, and support successful project completion. A work style is how a person chooses to approach a task. A students work style will vary over time, be largely dependent on the task or project at hand, and often reflects the work styles of other members on their team. There are four overarching work styles: driver, expressive, amiable, and analytical. The driver prefers to take charge and lead the group. Expressive students share ideas and information freely. Amiable team members perform the work set out for the team. Analytical team members assess and evaluate work that has been done.

When you ask students to assume roles in their group, you want them to hone a particular set of work-style skills. For example, to be effective in the Leader role, students need to tailor their style to that of a Driver. To be effective in the role of Checker, students need to apply the Analytical work style. Each work style contributes in a different way to team success. Drivers help teams achieve their goals. Expressives motivate team members. Amiables help everyone get along as they work. Analyticals ensure that the team gets the job done correctly. Optimally, during project work, team members will perform under all of the work styles. Each style can also have a negative impact on a teams performance. Drivers may dictate what the team is doing. Expressives may want to continue discussions without making decisions. Amiables may not speak up to have their good opinions heard. Analyticals may get bogged down in details and miss deadlines and team goals. To achieve maximum results, a team needs to have someone working from each style at some point during the project-building process. Many times, these roles can be achieved by the same person. The true importance of knowing these work styles is to help all team members value one anothers contributions, as well as help the team overcome obstacles when work styles are conflicting. Conclusion Collaboration enhances student learning by modeling authentic work in the 21st century and helping students achieve the large-scale goals of a project in the time allotted.

Read more: http://creativeeducator.tech4learning.com/v03/articles/Collaboration#ixzz2YZaeu bWV

Its the Process, Not the Product Steps you can follow to implement successful student technology projects By Gene Bias and Melinda Kolk In the last issue, we talked about the importance of good project design. Helping students through the project building process so they can successfully complete a product is also important. As educators, we know that its the process, not the product, but showing and sharing their final product with the audience is often what engages students the most. Completing successful projects with students follows several basic steps, many of which you probably already use. Implementing each of these steps with students helps to ensure successful student technology projects. You can use these guidelines to help you and your students through the process. Step 1: Create Foundations Technology project work does not replace classroom content; rather, it extends your curriculum by helping you assess student understanding as they apply knowledge in new situations. Students need to develop a strong foundation of knowledge about a topic so they are ready to explore themes and ideas through in-depth project work. Your districts curriculum, or the scope and sequence from your course, will provide you with direction on the content and subject matter information you need to cover. While technology may be a useful tool for helping students learn some of the concepts, do not feel like you need to use technology during the entire project. More traditional teaching methods, such as lectures, worksheets, and graphic organizers, are great ways to introduce information and help build student comprehension. Step 2: Set Expectations Before students begin working, you need to articulate your expectations for student behavior, quality of information, and work during the entire process. Begin by sharing the project goals and the task the students will complete. Give the students a project timeline as you explain the steps in the process, and clarify how long students will be working on each step. Let students know what type of products they can create to meet the project goals. Showcase the tools you can provide to help them complete the project and define your standards for behavior during the project building process. Give students checklists and rubrics for the project to help them understand your

expectations for their work during the project. Show your students examples of high-quality completed work to clarify product expectations and prompt new ideas. You may already have examples of previous projects your students have created, or you may be able to find examples online or on CDs showcasing the winners of various student contests. Step 3: Form Teams Remember trying collaborative group work in your classroom? It worked great one time and was a disaster the next. There is no perfect team and certainly no one way to group students. A teams success in completing a project is not solely dependent upon the academic capability of its members. The key is to define your goals for the project and teach the students how to identify how they are interacting, enabling them to selfcorrect. Make it clear to the students that cooperation and teamwork are an essential part of their project assessment. Successful collaboration on a project involves free and direct communication, support for all team members, and recognition of the value of each members contribution to project success. Based on your knowledge of student strengths, weaknesses, and diversity, form teams of students that include varying levels of expertise, ability, and skills. This fosters positive interdependence and accountability, creates a richer pool of knowledge, and provides benefits for both low and high achievers. You might also want to choose specific roles for various team members. You can assign a role to each student or let the students assign roles within the group. Roles help solidify the value of each members contribution, and, in the case of large projects, help a team meet project requirements. Understanding each students work style will help also you facilitate a teams formation, conflict resolution, and project completion. Planning Steps 4, 5, and 6 Once foundational information has been provided, expectations have been established, and teams formed, the students are usually ready to jump in and start working. Before heading directly to the product, be sure to move them through a strong planning process. You should be open to changes and new ideas during the process, but planning helps students more effectively utilize classroom time. The planning process progresses from large to small, wide to narrow. Beginning with as many ideas as possible, students need to explore where their project can go (brainstorm), where they think it should go (vision), and how they are going to get there (storyboard). Step 4: Brainstorm Ideas

The project-building process moves from bigger to smaller, wider to narrower. Brainstorming helps students make the beginning of their project as big as possible. During a brainstorming session, students should verbalize or write down everything that comes to mind to open up the project to ALL the possibilities. Only when there are sufficient ideas should students begin assessing the ideas presented for feasibility and relevance to the essential question. Step 5: Develop the Vision The visioning process helps students refine the ideas created during brainstorming and focus on their approach to answering the projects essential question. Developing a project vision will help students move in the right direction. A project vision should reiterate project goals, articulate product goals, and explain what the audience will know, believe, understand, and do as a result of viewing the product. Have an evaluator outside of the team help the team determine if the project is feasible and can be accomplished in the time allotted. After they have received feedback, students should revise the vision accordingly.

Step 6: Create a Storyboard Brainstorming helps you choose an idea for your project. Developing a vision helps you choose the direction you want to take that idea. Storyboarding provides the road map for how you will get there. A storyboard is a constant reminder of your goal, keeping you motivated. It can also save you hours of editing and can prevent you from creating information you arent going to use. A storyboard is a combination of outlines and visual sketches that map out the contents and direction of a project. A storyboard is your blueprint for project design. The storyboard should include content and a strong direction for each portion of the project. The storyboard should be arranged to clearly answer the essential question and show the projects structure. A storyboard helps to ensure that everyone in the group is in agreement on content and direction.

Step 7: Build the Project Once the storyboard is complete, students should create a management plan for completing the project. After reviewing their strengths and weaknesses, they should assign specific tasks to each team member and begin gathering the research and media necessary to complete their project. Once the materials have been gathered and the research completed, teams are ready to begin assembling the pieces of the project. As they are building their projects, you, as a facilitator and coach, support just in time learning as needed by each team. Be sure that you facilitate work and provide support from the back of the classroom, not the front. When student teams think they are finished, have them review the project rubric to make sure their work meets the expectations for the project. They should complete the rubric as an assessor or even have another student or project facilitator evaluate the project. After receiving feedback on their draft, each team should work on fixing problems with research, content, design, and navigation. Once again, when they think they are finished, they should review the rubric to ensure their work meets the expectations for the project.

Step 8: Present the Project Each team now formally presents their project. This can be done in many ways, including an oral presentation, small group discussion, peer-to-peer review, submission to an expert, or even in a mini-trade show or conference. In addition to demonstrating the product they created, students should share their learning during the project. As part of the coaching model, promote growth by asking clarifying and open-ended questions that will further group discussion and response. Each student presenting should share what they learned about the subject matter

content; technical skills needed; planning, organizing, and implementing a project; how they learned; and how their group functioned. Give feedback on the project. This can be in the form of individual responses and audience thoughts based upon what the group has already mentioned. Highlight key concepts and issues that are part of the learning process for this project. Write down the issues identified during the sharing process in a place that everyone can refer to when forming their own reflections and feedback. The audience should give feedback on the project content and delivery. The instructor should share insights into the learning that occurred as the team completed the project-building process. Assess the Project and Process Assessing technology projects involves both a summative assessment of the final product and a formative assessment of the learning and skills demonstrated during the project-building process. If you are looking for artifacts to assess during the process, you can evaluate:

foundational activities project vision project storyboard rough draft of the project You may also want to have students keep notebooks or journals to help you identify the process learning. The project rubric will guide your summative assessment of the final product and remove the feeling of subjectivity from the grading process. You may also want to ask students to use the rubric to grade their own project and process work or the work of their peers, or complete a more open-ended self-evaluation on their contributions and learning. Once the student presentations are finished and you are moving on to the next topic in your curriculum, remember to assess the success of the project as a learning opportunity. Even if every product isnt a complete success, many positive learning moments occur during the process. Learning is a journey, not a destination. Facilitating a project, acting as a guide, and showing students how to learn rather than merely dispensing knowledge all demonstrate a model of how students can approach new ideas, information, and problems. Providing students with skills for metacognition and self-direction will help improve their learning in all areas of the curriculum as well as in all facets of life beyond the classroom. You might also like: Read more: http://creativeeducator.tech4learning.com/v02/articles/Process#ixzz2YZapfooB