UnificationAccomplished andForgotten! ThestoryofH.T.

Flint
JamesE.Beichler,Ph.D.
25May2009APSAprilMeeting Denver,Colorado

Sincethe1970s,anevergrowingnumberoftheoreticalphysicistshave becomeinterestedinunifyingthequantumandrelativityuponaquantum basis.Beforethe1970s,onlyEinsteinandaselectfewsoughtunification,but theirtheoreticalworkwasbaseduponthecontinuityofrelativityratherthan quantumsdiscretenatureofreality.Todateneitherparadigmhasdeveloped anythingthatwouldappeartounifyphysics,exceptforthework ofone physicistandafewofhiscolleagues.H.T.Flintpublishedmore thanthirty fivearticlesinwellknownpeerreviewedjournalsoveraperiodoffour decades,extendingrelativitytoincludeelectromagnetismandthequantum. Yethisworkandthatofhiscloseassociatesisalmostcompletelyunknown today.Flintpublishedhiscompleteunifiedfieldtheoryinthe1960s,well beforemostquantumtheoristsevenbeganthinkingalongthelinesof unification.Strangelyenough,Flintsunificationtheoryhasbeencompletely forgottenbyascientificcommunitythathasbecomeenamoredenoughwith theideaofunificationthatitwouldacceptthemostoutrageous andnon intuitiveideasaslongastheyarebasedonthequantum,butthenKaluzas fivedimensionalunificationofrelativityandelectromagnetismsupposedly wasnotknownuntilitwasrediscoveredbythesuperstringtheorists,orso theyclaim.Inreality,theseideaswerelostinplainsightfor decadessimply becausethephysicscommunitywasunwillingtorecognizeaccomplishments basedonrelativitytheory.

AlthoughSirArthurEddington is bestknownforhismeasurements oflightcurvesforasolareclipse confirmingEinsteinsGTR,his contributionstorelativitytheory wentmuchfurtherthanjustthat singleevent

TheIntroofGRtoEngland
Eddington becameintriguedwithgeneralrelativityafter readingdeSitter's1916accountsoftheastronomical consequencesofthetheory Inhisearlierpublicationsonthetheory,Eddington indicated thathedidnotfullybelieveintheliteraltruthofspace curvature HewasnotversedinnonEuclideangeometriesandadmitted thatfact Hisearlyinterpretationsofthetheoryweredecidedly Victorianwithtalkofstrainsintheaether,butEddington's abilitytohandlethedifferentnonEuclideanconceptsaswell ashisperspectiveonthetheorydevelopedveryrapidlyand continuously Soitcanbeconcludedthathemadeaquickstudyofthenon Euclideangeometriestofillinthegapsinhisownknowledge ofthesubjectandunderstandthenewGR theory

Eddington andClifford
Itisquitelikelythathisbasicconceptsonthenon EuclideangeometriescamefromCliffordswork Ifhedidn'talreadyknowofClifford,hemusthavebecome veryinterestedinClifford'sworkbecausehewasableto showagreatfamiliaritywithClifford'sworkwithinjusta fewyears Inhis1921popularexpositionofthetheory,Space,Time, andGravitation,Eddington introducedonechapterbya quotefromCommonSense whilehebeganthechapteron "KindsofSpace"withaquotationfromClifford's "Postulates" ThequotefromCommonSense wasthesameparagraph thatendedClifford'schapteron"Position"andthevery wordstowhichKarlPearsonaddedthenotethatCliffords twistswerethesourceofmagneticinduction

 However,Eddington alsoquotedapassagefromthe "UnseenUniverse"inwhichCliffordexpressedhis desirethatphysicalrealitywouldonedaybe expressedasthegeometryofposition:"Outofthese tworelations[nextness orcontiguityofspaceand successionintime]thefuturetheoristhastobuild uptheworldasbesthemay" Whatmighthelpthescientistinthisendeavor, suggestedClifford,wasthedescriptionofdistanceas anexpressionofpositionasinthemathematicsof 'analysissitus'andthefactthatspacecurvature couldbeusedtodescribematterinmotion. ItwasimplicitinClifford'soriginalcontextofthis statementthattheethercouldbereplacedbyareal spacecurvatureforatotaltheoryofthephysical worldofmatter.

WhittakeronEddington
Twoandahalfdecadeslater,E.T.Whittakerwrotea historyofscientificconceptionsoftheexternalworld,From EuclidtoEddington ThebookendedwithastatementthatEddington was attemptingtoreduceallofphysicsto"onekindofultimate particle,ofwhich[theknownelementaryparticles]are,so tospeak,disguisedmanifestations. AcomparisonofthiswithClifford'sgoal,asexpressedin theclosingremarksoftheElements,indicatesthat Clifford'sandEddington's goalswereessentiallythesame: thephysicalexpressionoftheuniversebaseduponthe variousmanifestationsofasingleparticle. Buttheirmethodsofachievingthatgoalwerequite different:Eddington didnotuseClifford'stwists,butdid adoptClifford'sbasicphilosophyaswellasborrowsomeof Clifford'smathematics.

TheFundamentalTheory
ThetheorytowhichWhittakerreferredwas Eddington's FundamentalTheory TheFundamentalTheorywasmeanttobethepinnacle ofEddington's considerableworkandlongassociation withthetheoriesofrelativity,thequantumand physicalcosmology ThetheorywasbaseduponthemathematicsofE numbers,whichrepresentedtheelementsofanE framethatEddington associatedwiththephysical spacetimeofrelativitytheory ThisEframe,inconjunctionwithanFframetowhich itwasrelated,thenallowedanewinterpretationof theChristoffel tensorsfromwhichEinsteinhad constructedhisownmathematicalmodelofspace timecurvature

 TheEnumberswerequaternions andsharedmany characteristicswithbothClifford'sbiquaternions and SirRobertStawell Ball'sscrews ButEddington's applicationofquaternions was differentbecausetheessentialproblemoffindinga mathematicalmodelwasdifferentforEddington than ithadbeenforClifford IthadbecomenecessaryforEddington toaccountfor allofthephysicalconceptsandphenomenathathad beendiscoveredsinceClifford'sdeath:quantum theory,theBohratom,radioactivity,theatomic nucleus,electrons,protons,neutrons,thetheoriesof relativityandothers SoEddington's theorywasdifferentfromClifford's eventhoughtheywerephilosophicallysimilar SoEddingtons theorycouldnotbeconsidereda simplecontinuationofClifford'swork

OtherCliffordConnections
PerhapstheearliestpublicmentionofClifford'sworkin conjunctionwithGRcameatthehandsofLudwik Silbersteinin1918. Silbersteindidnotfullyacceptgeneralrelativityaswritten, butinvestigateditstenetsandconsequences Inthecourseofthisstudy,henotedthatCliffordhad alreadyequatedcurvaturewithmatter Thefactthathementionedthisisnotsoimportantasthe context:Hisattitudewasthatequatingcurvaturetomatter shouldnotberegardedasanewaccomplishment Clearly,hewouldnothavegivenEinsteincreditforthis particularadvanceinscience,butwouldhaveawarded Cliffordthehonor ThisinfluenceofCliffordonthedevelopmentofNon EuclideanhyperspaceswasabasicBritishattribute

OtherCliffordReferences
SilbersteincomparedGRtothe"SpaceTheory"andCommonSense,but otherwritersmadeearlycomparisonswithClifford'sotherpublications HenryL.BroserecommendedthatreadersofhistranslationofErwin Freundlich's FoundationsofEinstein'sTheoryofGravitation referto Clifford'sarticleon"Loci"andH.J.S.Smith'sintroductiontoClifford's MathematicalPapers SirOliverLodge,bynomeansasupporterofGR,attemptedtoexplain awaythepositiveresultsofthelightbendingmeasurementsbyarguing thateithertheethernearthesunchangedtherefractiveindexofspaceor theethercomposingthelightbeamreactedtothegravitationof thesun Onlyifthesehypothesescouldbedecisivelyrefuted,couldEinstein's theorybeconsidered.HethenreferredtoClifford'sPhilosophyofthe PureSciences Eventhen,GRwasonlyamathematicalgimmicktogivethecorrect experimentalresults,andwasonlypalatablesinceCliffordhadalready shownthecomparisonofetherandcurvature,orsoLodgeimplied byhis referencetoClifford'swork. ButonlythosescientistswhowerefamiliarwithClifford'swork,aswere theBritishscientistsofthatera,wouldhaverecognizedtheimplication. SotheimplicationislosttoanyonereadingLodge'spapertoday.

ThomasGreenwood
ThomasGreenwooddidnotdirectlymentionCliffordinhis1922 essay"GeometryandReality,"eventhoughhedidrelateother interestingfactsregardingthegeneralattitudetowardspace curvature Afterexplainingthatastronomershadbeensearchingforspace curvatureforalongtime(beforeGR),sometimebycareful observationofstellarparallax,Greenwoodcontinuedtodescribe anotheraspectofnonEuclideansciencethatwascommon knowledgebeforerelativity:
Butallthese[parallax]observationsprovednegative:spacepresented itselfasEuclidean Neverthelesstherewasanideaamongstmenofscience,thatmore accurateobservationsandthedevelopmentofmechanical consequencesofnonEuclideangeometrywithregardtoastronomical problems,wouldcertainlyfavorthelegitimacyofnonEuclidean postulatesasphysicalhypotheses

Thesesimplehistoricalfacts,asexplainedbyGreenwood,seemall butforgottenbymodernhistoriansandscholarswhostudythe genesisofgeneralrelativity.

Stillothers
Somescientistswhofirstadoptedrelativityconsideredthe "generalprincipleofrelativity"asthemoreimportant aspectofEinstein'stheoryratherthantheexpressionof spacecurvatureasmatter Thisaspectofthedevelopmentofgeneralrelativitywould explainwhySilbersteingaveCliffordratherthanEinstein creditforequatingspacecurvaturetomatter WillemdeSitterhadnotedthisveryfactinhis1916article on"Space,Time,andGravitation"inTheObservatory Ifthe"generalprincipleofrelativity"wereconsideredthe moresignificantpartofEinstein'stheoryatthisearlydate, thenClifford'spriorityforequatingmattertocurvature wouldbepreservedandtheearlyreferencestoClifford's otherworksexplained However,CliffordneverworkedonGravitytheory His curvaturetheorywasanattempttoexplainEMinduction

Thebottomlineisthattheseearly BritishinterpretersofGeneral Relativitytookafivedimensional pointofviewandassumedthat curvaturewasanextrinsic characteristicofthespacetime continuum

Wilsonsearlyinterest
WilliamWilsonwasateacherfirstandlateracolleagueofFlint Healsoattemptedtomergequantumtheoryandrelativitywithin thefivedimensionalfield In1922, hepublishedanarticlediscussingtherelationofquantum theoryandelectromagnetism In1926 heextendedhisdiscussionbytheadditionofafive dimensionalframework. Althoughhegavenocreditforthebasisofthisframeworkto Kaluza (1921),hedidstateinafootnotethatFlinthadpointedout tohimthathisideas"wereexactly"similartothosefoundinO. Klein's1928paperextendingKaluzas theoryintothequantum realm Inhislaterpaper,Wilsonderivedanequationwhichbecame identicaltoSchrdinger'sequationinquantummechanicsupona simplesubstitution ThedifferencebetweenthesetwoequationsbeingthatWilson usedtheconceptofa'Volume'infivedimensions,whereas Schrdinger's functionlaterbecameassociatedwithand/or equatedtoaprobabilitydensity.

Wilsonsdevelopmentof
Wilsoncontinuedhisdevelopmentofthisequation derivingasecondequation,whichheshowedtobe equivalenttoSchrdinger'sequationfortheHydrogen atomunderaproperchoiceoflimits. FromthesederivationsWilsonwasabletodefinehisfive dimensional'Volume'asfollows: Ifaparticleatsomeinstantisactuallywithina'volume' VoitwillbewithinavolumeV,whichistheparallel displacementofVo,atsometimelater(orearlier)instant. Ifitspositionatanytimeisunknown,theprobabilitythat itisinaspecifiedvolumewilldependinsomewayonV. Thisis,infact,theusualmeaningofVor. Thus,thecorrelationbetweenSchrdinger'sequationand thosederivedbyWilsonseemedcompleteforallintents andpurposes

Wilsonsotherstudent
In1938,incollaborationwithMissJ.Cattermole, WilsonderivedthequadraticoperatorofSpecial Relativity,px2+py2+pz2 mx2c2+m02c2=0,by usingafivedimensionalrepresentationofSpecial Relativity Usinglinearoperatorswithinthecontextoffive dimensions,theyshowedthatthisoperatorwas equivalenttoSchrdinger'sequation, 2 1/c2(2/t 2) (42mo2c2/h2) =0. Duringthisperiod,Wilson wasstillcollaborating withFlintinhisworkwiththefivedimensional spacetimeconcept

Wilsonspublicsupportfor5Ds
Wilsonhasthedistinctionofbeing(probably)theonly scientisttopublish astatementclearlysupportingfive dimensionaltheories.AccordingtoWilson, Einsteinhimselfdescribedaunitarytheoryofgreat interest;butthistoodoesnotseemtofurnishan acceptablesolutionoftheproblemofmaking electromagneticphenomenaanorganicoutcomeofthe geometricalpropertiesofthecontinuum.Themost attractiveandprobablythecorrectsolutionisonewhich hasbeendevelopedbyKaluza andothers. Thisstatementofstrongsupport,madeduringatimewhen nooneelseseemstohavebeenwillingtomakesucha statement,appearedinnoarticleorpaperonthose theoriesbutinathreevolumebookbyWilsonon theoreticalphysics.

J.W.Fisher
J.W.Fisheralsoworkedwiththefivedimensional frameworkduringthissameperiod,incollaboration withFlintandalone Hewasabletoderiveananalogybetweenthewave equationsoflightinthespacetimecontinuumandthe waveequationforaparticleinthefifthdimension InthefivespaceadvocatedbyFisher,everything becamearadiationproblem.Inthismanner,all particleswereshowntotravelnullgeodesicsinthe continuum FlintandWilsonlaterusedthisideainseparate advances Fisher'searlycollaborationwithFlintwasalsohelpful inestablishingthefivedimensionalformalismsthat Flintwastousethroughouthiscareer

HenryThomasFlint
Bornin1890,HenryFlintgainedaM.Sc.FromtheUniversity ofBirminghambeforebeingenlistedintheRoyalGarrison Artilleryfrom19151918.FollowingWorldWarOne,hewas successivelyAssistantLecturerinPhysicsatCardiffUniversity, 19191920,LecturerinPhysicsatReadingUniversityCollege, 1920,andLecturerinPhysicsatKing'sCollegeLondon,1920 1926.WhilstatKing'sCollege,FlintgainedhisD.Sc.fromthe UniversityofLondon,andwentontobecomeReaderin PhysicsatKing'sfrom19261944.In1930hegaineda DiplomainMedicalRadiologyandElectrology from CambridgeUniversity,andbeganworkasaClinicalAssistant intheRadiologyDepartmentofWestminsterHospital,later becomingConsultantPhysicisttoWestminsterHospitaland King'sCollegeHospital.FlintwasappointedProfessorof PhysicsatBedfordCollege,UniversityofLondon,in1944,a posthehelduntil1956.Hediedin1971.

H.T.Flint
TheworkofH.T.Flintofferedwhatisundoubtedlythe longest(fourdecades)andmostsustainedattemptto developamodificationofKaluza's theory Hepublishedmorethan35articlesinpeerreviewed journals Hiseffortscenteredaboutagrandunificationbetween fieldtheoryandthequantumtheory ThemanypublicationsofFlint'scaneasilybeidentified asacontinuousdevelopmentandamplificationofhis earlierideas,ratherthanaseriesofchangingideas concerningthefifthdimension Flintincorporatednewideasinrelativitytheoryaswell asquantummechanicsintohistheoreticalmodelas soonastheyappearedinthescientificliterature

TheFlintcollectionatthe UniversityofLondonLibrary

AboutFlintspersonalpapers
Itsdifficulttofindwherehebeginstounify becausehewrotevoluminousnotesand commentariesonotherarticles Itcanbeassumedhebegannolaterthan1922 InLecturenotesonthetheoryofrelativity datedJanuary1922 Hesteachingageneralized4Dspaceofmetric (ds)2 =dx12+dx22+dx32+dx42 Butneartheendheaddsthequantumtheory andnotesonKaluzas paper

NotesonKaluzas 1921paper
Inthegeneraltheoryofrelativitytheelectromagneticfourvector potentialmuststillstandapartfromthemetricalfourvectordimensional tensorg characteristicofworldphenomena.Thisdualismtakesnothing formthetheoriesofgravitationandelectromagnetismbutdemandsafresh anattempttoovercomeitbyacompleteunifiedpicture.Afewyearsago H.Weyl undertookasurprisinglycleverattempttowardsthesolutionof thisproblemwhichbelongstothechiefofthefavoriteideasofthespirit ofman.INanotherradicalrevisionofthegeometricalfoundationhe obtainedanotherradicalrevisionofthegeometricalformulation he obtainedanotherformoffundamentalvector()inadditiontothetensor (g).Thisvectorheinterpretsastheelectromagneticpotential.The completeworldmetricissetupasthecommonsourceofallnatural phenomena.Thesamepurposewillherebeattemptedinanotherway. ApartfromthedifficultieswhichaccompanytheprofoundtheoryofH. Weyl,itispossibletoimagineideallyastate(?)morecomplete presentationoftheconceptofunity:Gravitationandelectromagnetism proceedfromasingleuniversaltensor.Iwishnowtoshowthatsucha closeunionbetweenthetwoworldpowersappearsinprincipletobe possible.

 Theform F = oftheelectromagneticfield x x components,butstillmoretheunrecognizableformalcorrespondence inthestructureofthegravitationandelectromagneticequations demandformallythesuggestionthattherelationcouldbeadistorted 3indexquantity: 1 g g g = + 2

[ ]

Bygivingwaytothisideaoneseesoneselfpressedalonganot particularlyinvitingpath:forina4dimensionedworldbesidesthe3 indexsymbolsalreadyusedupbythefieldcomponentsofgravitation, noothersexist.ThusthisinterpretationoftheF isscarcely permissibleexceptbymeansofthestrangedecisiontointroduce a newfifthworlddimension.

Butourwealthofphysicalexperienceshasincludedhitherto scarcelyanyindicationofsuchasupernumeraryworld parameter,althoughcertainlyweareforcedtoregardour spacetimeworldasafourdimensionalpartofanR5,only onemusttakeintoconsiderationthefactthatwenever noticeanychangesexceptthoseinspacetimebyplacing derivativeswithrespecttothenewparametersequaltozero. (Cylindercondition)Thefearisthattherebytheintroduction ofthefifthdimensionmightbecancelledbecauseofthe linkingoftheparametersinthe3indexsymbols. WethereforepassoverintoanR5andtakeoverEinsteins theorems (hismathematicaldevelopment)

Ifapprox. correspondstoactualitytheunitary theorysoughtwouldbeinitschieftraitsbe satisfactorilyattained.Asinglepotentialtensor generatesauniversalfieldwhichunderordinary conditionsdividesitselfintoagrav.andelec.part.But matterinitsultimatestructureisatleastonthewhole notfullycharged,itsrestonthelargescale contrasts toitsrestlessnessonthesmallscale toquoteH.Weyl andthatistrueaccordingtotheaboveconception particularlyforthenewparameterx0. Butifonetries todescribethemotionoftheelectronbymeansofa geodesicofR5,oneencountersatonceaserious difficultywhichthreatenstooverthrowthestructure.

(IamgratefultothevaluableinterestofProf.Einsteinforpointingoutthefollowing disagreementfortheoriginaloftheabovetheorems)Briefly,thedifficultyexistsin thefactthatfortheelectronsincee/m =1.77x107 (reducedtolightseconds)0,when theearlierassumptionsarerigidlyapplied,isofsuchahighorderofmagnitudethat thelasttermin(IIa)insteadofvanishingassumesavaluebeyondeverythingandthe absurdinrespectofexperienceevenifotherwiseformallyeverythingisthesameas before.Nowthetransitiontolarge0requiresmodifications(thusthesubstitutionds =d fades)itthusappearsscarcelypossibletocarrythroughthetheorywithoutnew hypotheses,simpleintheoldframework.Ontheotherhand,Ibelieve withdue reservation toseeawayopeninthefollowingdirectionwhichwhenitleadstothe goalenclosesaslite moresatisfactorystandpoint.Sincewithnottogreatvelocities themattergeneratingthefieldalsoforarbitrary0R00 ~Rx4 remainsthetwo gravitationtermsin(IIa)withproperfixingoftheirrelevantrealitycharacterof0 assumeoppositesignsanditappearsthenbygivinguptheotherwisesomewhat questionablegravitationalconstantxtobringaboutareconciliationofthecontrary ordersofmagnitudeinwhichgravitationremainsadifferenceeffect.Thisway impressesitselfthroughtheviewofbeingabletogivetotheconstanttheroleofa statisticalquantity.Certainlyatpresenttheconsequencesofthehypothesisare hardlytheforeseen,alsothereareotherpossibilitiestobekeptinmind.Particularly theSphinxofmodernPhysics,theQuantumTheory,threatenseveryuniversalvalidity ofpostulatedtheories.

Inspiteofallrespectofthephysicaland theoreticaldifficultiessketchedherewhich towerabovetheideadevelopeditisdifficultfor onetobelievethatinalltheformalunityin theserelationsonlyahumorouschanceis playingitstemptinggame.Ifthereismore behindthisthananemptyformalism,itwould allgotosupportEinstein'stheoryofrelativityas appliedtoafivedimensionalworld.

The1921Notes
Flintmadethesenotesquitesoonafterthe publicationofKaluzas papershowinghisearly interestinthe5DinterpretationofGR Heparticularlynotedthatthereseemedtobe toomuchpromiseinKaluzas 5Dtheoryforitto benothingmorethanahumorouschanceis playingitstemptinggame Thereissofarnodirectevidencethatanything otherthanKaluzas paperinfluencedFlintto adoptthe5Dpointofview,butthecoincidence ofhisdoingsowhensomanyotherEnglish scientistswereinfluencedbyCliffordcannotbe soeasilyexplainedaway

October1926
InLecturestopostgraduatestudentonthe developmentofgeneraldynamics,Flint comparespapersbyA.Carrell,E. Schroedinger andBateman Batemandevelopedtheideaofgeneral covarianceseveralyearsbeforeEinsteinsGR ButthenFlintgoesintoa5Dcosmologylater andtalksaboutapaperbyP.Jordan

Dated19271928
Notesontheassociationofasurfacewiththe trackofaparticleinspacetime Itispossibletofilltheregionofspacetimewith trajectoriesorworldlinesandorthogonal surfacesbearingtoeachotherarelationship analogoustothatwhichexistsbetweenlinesof forceandequipotential surfacesinan electrostaticfield. Heassociatesaphasewavewithparticle movementsimilartoDeBroglie.HisWsurfaces of4spacearethephaseswavesofDeBroglie froma4Dpointofviewitisbetternotto considerthemaswavesbutasstaticsurfaces

FlintdevelopstheYukawa Potential
FromhisUniversityNotebooksof19351938 Onthevalueoftheexpression
1 e k ( ') A= dv ' curl ' M 4 '

innuclearfieldtheory.dv issmallvolumeat =0,MisofformFs where isconstantand Fisfunctionofx,y,z

g e k A= curl ( s ) 4

Thenheexplainsthemesonfield
ThemesonfieldWm isthesourceand representsthenuclearfield Themesonfieldcanberepresentedin5D continuumbyasingletensor(T) Heexplainshowmasscomestobeassociated withgeometrybylookingathowl0represents alimittodynamicalrepresentationleadsto aninterpretationofm0 inthestructureof .

Henextincorporatesthequantum
Limitof

0 < h l c 55
0

HerelatesthistothedeBroglie wavebyl0 = h/5 where5isthefifthcomponentof momentum Sothereisaminimumpossiblelengththat canbemeasuredwhichisrelatedtotherest massofelectronandthefifthdimensions

c1950
Thetheoryofrelativityandthequantumtheory Thisseemstobeacompletearticleintheauthors handwriting Thepurposeistoportrayit bymeansof geometryandatheoryofmeasurement Flintstatesthatit isbasedonWeyl (toaddQT) andKaluza (tounifyEM&Gravity) Thepaperisabout50pagesandFlintsummarizes hisworkinthisarea Hehasa5Dworldviewandseemstoconvert everyadvancemadebyanyoneintohis5Dreality

n.d.
TitledAtomicmovements,4dim.unitarytheory ,notesonmatrixnotation Schrodinger equationmayberegardedA definitionofthechangeofamplitudeofavector = mAm inordertosatisfytheprincipleof superposition 5dimensionalityisforceduponusbythe requirementsofthequantumtheory Thisisasurprisingstatementbecauseitimplies theaphysicalnecessityforadoptinga5Dtheory

n.d.
Flintrelatesthebasicfundamentalelectric chargetoa5Dmomentum Thequantity5 =g/c( =constantinKK theoryoftheEMfield)isacomponentof momentumwiththeconjugatecoordinateu5 Flintregardstheelectron,photonand positronasaspectsofthesamething 5 andetc Hereflintdefines du = nh 5 thequantumwithregardto5Dspacetime

n.d.
OntheElectrodynamic Scalar&Vector Potential Flintdevelopsavectormathtodescribethese ina4Dinsteadofaclassical3Dspace Hetalksabouta4Dvolume,butdoesnot strictlyspecifywhathemeansbyit FollowsMinkowski,butdoesnotsaythatthe 4Dspaceisageneralizationof4Dspace time

n.d.
[Presented]BeforetheSociety Isitpossibletospeak ofthelocationofparticleseitherinspaceortime downtothesmallestintervalswecanthinkof? inourpresentmethodssuchalimitexistsandthat,if wegobeyondit,thestructureuponwhichourtheories arebasedbreaksdown.Thepositionisnotunlikethat whichexistedattheendoftheaether theorywhenit becameevidentthatinconsistencieswereincludedin it. GoesontopredictelementsmaybelimitedtoZ=96 A ise/moc2 byJ.W.Fisherabout15yearsago X5 isperiodicinthevaluelo orh/moc andnolessvalue thanthisisofphysicalsignificance

Particles n.d.
Aboutcontinuityandintroofparticles(chemical asperProut)intophysics Itseemsimpliedthatthesimpleassumptionofa fundamentalparticleisnotpossible thelimit mustresultfromarelativisticassumption.The onlywayseemstobearelativisticlimitto measurement. Soheisusingthequantumasalimitingfactor withinthe5Dcontinuousfield Insteadofafundamentalparticlewouldmeana limitexists,buttheparticlewouldbeavailable forLorentz ruleofchangeoflengthinmotion. Theintroductionwouldmeanthatalimitexists.

DifficultiesconcerningtheTheoryof theElectron 29November1954

Discussesproblemofselfenergyofelectron SummarizesMie,Born,Infeld,Wheeler, Feynman,Dirac,H.Tetrode andG.N.Lewis Thenhemakesa5Dattempttoexplain Arelativistictheoryofelectron,i.e.,Kaluza Suggestionthatintheregionnearelectron 4 r / r0 wherer =e2/m c2 thecurvatureis 0 o 2e

Untitledlecture,perhapsfortheBA n.d.
2nd lectureondiscontinuityinphysics Atpresentweareinastateoffrustrationwiththefieldofnuclear physics Thetheoryofthenuclearfieldisincompletelyknown.Our structuresmayevenbeonthewronglines. Weareinthe positionofthepracticalengineer Itseemsdifficulttoacceptalawwhichgivesstructuretospaceand abovealltoemptyspace.Howcouldpropertiesofemptyspacebe tested?Weseemtobebackagaindangerouslyneartheaether onlythegeometerscangivepropertiestospaceandthenany propertiestheywish.Physicistsarestuckwiththerelativepositions ofmaterialbodies Iwillconcludeonthenotethatweseemtohavecometoapoint inphysicswhereanewideaisrequired.Ifitcomessoonweare on theeveofanewadvance. Thisessaycomeslateashetalksmatteroffactaboutnuclear energy

Flintspublishedpapersinpeer reviewedjournals

 Inhisearliestwork,Flintattemptedto incorporatequantumideasdirectlyintoaspace timeframeworkusingWeyl's andEddington's conceptofparalleldisplacementofavector

(1927incollaborationwithJ.W.Fisher).

However,Flintsoonadoptedthefive dimensionalapproachofKaluza's theoryinhope ofovercomingthedifficultiesofhisearlierwork. Hecontinuedthislineoftheoreticalworkuntil thelate1950s.

 Flinteventuallyadoptedaconceptusingthenotionof thematrixlengthofavector,whichhetreatedasa distanceunderparalleldisplacementwithinthefive dimensionalfield,muchasWeyl andEddington treated theparalleldisplacementofavectorinafour dimensionalcontinuum. Withthismethod,Flintwasabletoderivefirstorder quantumequationsin1935. However,hewasunsatisfiedwiththewayinwhichthe equationsenteredintothemathematicsinsteadof beingderiveddirectlyfromthemathematicsofthe field. Subsequently,thisdevelopmentwascontinuedand refinedinlaterworkbyFlintandthemethodofafive dimensionaldisplacementbecameacharacteristicof hislaterderivations.

BasiccharacteristicsofFlintswork
Theuseofanoperatorintheformofapartial differentiationwithrespecttothefifthcoordinate,such thattheoperationonanyfunctionisthesameas multiplyingthatfunctionby2i(mc/h).Thisisequivalentto theassociationofthefifthcomponentofmomentumofa testparticlewiththescalarquantitymc. Fundamentallengthsofh/moc (theComptonwavelength) ande2/moc2wereused. A'principleofminimumpropertime'wasderived,givinga smallestdetectablelengthofl=(h/moc)B(1B2)aswellasa smallestdetectabletimeoft=(h/moc2)[l/(1B2)]whereB= v/c.Forsmalldistances,thisprinciplecorrespondedtothe HeisenbergUncertaintyPrinciple.

 Flinteventuallyderivedfirstandsecondorderquantum equationsaswellasanequationanalogousto Schrdinger'sequationdirectlyfromthefieldstructure. Hewasalsoabletoexplainthequantizationofchargeand mass. In1944,heappliedhisconcepttothemesontheoryanda yearlater attemptedtoexplainnuclearfieldsinasimilar manner. Intheseapplicationsofhisbasicfivedimensional hypothesis,Flintpresentedthenotionthat"theequations ofthequantumtheoryaregaugingequationsina geometricalandmetricalsystemsuitedtotheworldof physics. HehadfoundinKaluza's frameworkanappropriatespace timestructureonwhichtobasehisownsystemaswellasa convenientwayofexplainingthe'mc'termwithout introducingitfromoutsideofthesystem.The'mc'term correspondedtoafivedimensionalmomentum.

 FlinthadfounditnecessarytomakechangesinKaluza's originalformulationinordertoaccomplishhisowngoals. Asidefromtheabovementionedmodifications,Flint changedKaluza's spacetimestructureinordertoavoidthe earliercriticismsofKaluza's work. Henotedthatthemoreseriousobjectionspresentedwere thatthe"generalcovarianceisdestroyedbythe 'cylindrical'condition,thattheg donotcontainx5andthat g55istakenasconstant. Heovercamethesedifficultiesby"regardingthespecial useofthecylindricalconditionandtheassumptionabout thewayx5occursinthefunctionsasanapproximation requiredbyourneedtoeliminatex5,ininterpretingour resultsinthelightofourpresentknowledgeofphysical phenomena. ItalmostsoundsasifFlintwasmakingaqualifying statementregardingtherealityofthefifthdimension

 Duringhisdevelopmentofthefivedimensional conceptofthequantumtheory,Flintproceededasif thereweresomerealitytotheconcept,buthemade nostatementswhichdemonstratedhisbeliefinthe realityofafifthdimension. ItishardtocomprehendthefactthatFlintdidnot believeintherealityofthefifthdimensionwhenso manyqualitieswereattributedtoit. Hisonepublishedstatementregardingthissubject onlyreferredindirectlytotherealityissue. Hisambivalenceinpubliclysupportingtherealityofa fifthdimensionisfurtherevidentinstatementsthat wouldseemtoindicatecaution(atleast)ingranting someessenceofrealitytothefifthdimension,even whilehepubliclyputforwardafacedisplayingasafe disregardforitsreality.

Flintsfinalunification 1966
TheQuantumEquationandtheTheoryofFields MethuensMonographsofPhysicalSubjects
1.TheTheoryofRelativity 2.TheoryofKaluza andKlein 3.FieldTheories 4.TheSymmetricEnergytensorandtheTensorof MomentofMomentum 5.TheDerivationoftheFirstOrderQuantumEquation 6.ContinuationoftheFieldTheories 7.TheBasisoftheTheoryinAccordancewiththe PrinciplesandNotationoftheGeneralTheoryof Relativity

HowFlintrelatedKaluzas theory toDiracs equationinhisbook

 Thematrices()areintroducedintheadoptionofaline elementmatrix ds =dx wherethematrices aredefinedbytherelations = . Theideaassociatedwiththeintroductionofthisexpressionisthatit mybepossibletodiscoveringeometryafurtherunifyingconcept whichwillshowtherelationofthephenomenaofthemicroscopic to thoseofthemacroscopicworld. Thenotationwillbedevelopedatalaterstage.Onlyalimited introductionisnownecessarytoshowhowasymmetricenergytensor canbeobtainedwhentheLagrangefunctiondependsuponaspinor quantityanditsdifferentialcoefficient. (4.14)

Thefivematrices()areassumedtosatisfythe relations: + =2 .(4.15) ThisisageneralizationofDiracs relations: l k +k l =2lk ,l + l =0. Thegeneralizationappearstohavebeenintroducedby Tetrode forafourdimensionalcontinuuminwhichcase thecoefficients(gmn)replace(). 90

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