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1. The Earth: Surface, Structure and Age ....................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Surface of the Earth .................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Dimensions and Surface Relief ......................................................... 2
1.2.2 Ocean Floors .................................................................................... 2
1.3 The Interior of the Earth ................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Temperature Gradient and Density ................................................... 3
1.3.2 Earthquakes ...................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Isostasy ............................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 Continental Drift ................................................................................ 7
1.3.5 Oceanic Ridges ................................................................................ 8
1.3.6 Rock Magnetism ............................................................................... 9
1.3.7 Mechanism of Drift ............................................................................ 10
1.4 Plate Tectonics ................................................................................................ 10
1.5 Earth Age and Origin ....................................................................................... 12
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4. Minerals ......................................................................................................... 61
4.1 Physical Characters ......................................................................................... 61
4.2 Crystalline Form ............................................................................................... 63
4.3 Optical Properties of Minerals .......................................................................... 65
4.4 Atomic Structures ............................................................................................ 70
4.5 The Rock-forming Minerals .............................................................................. 72
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4. Minerals ......................................................................................................... 61
4.1 Physical Characters ......................................................................................... 61
4.2 Crystalline Form ............................................................................................... 63
4.3 Optical Properties of Minerals .......................................................................... 65
4.4 Atomic Structures ............................................................................................ 70
4.5 The Rock-forming Minerals .............................................................................. 72
4.6 Silicate Minerals ............................................................................................... 72
4.6.1 The Olivine Group ............................................................................. 72
4.6.2 The Pyroxene Group ......................................................................... 73
4.6.3 The Amphibole Group ....................................................................... 73
4.6.4 The Mica Group ................................................................................ 74
4.6.5 The Feldspar Group .......................................................................... 75
4.6.6 The Feldspathoid Group ................................................................... 77
4.6.7 Forms of Silica .................................................................................. 77
4.6.8 Accessory Minerals ........................................................................... 79
4.6.9 Secondary Minerals .......................................................................... 79
4.7 Clay Minerals ................................................................................................... 80
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