ACTIVE FILTERS

Id

1 The m a i n a i m o f this chapter is to explore active filters. T h e passive filters are made up o f passive elements l i k e resistors, inductors and capacitors and have been discussed i n C h a p t e r 20. T h e active filters e m p l o y transistors o r op-amps and resistors, inductors and capacitors. T h e active filters are single-ended. O n e l i m b is earthed and so the active filters are unbalanced. T h e y provide excellent isolation between circuits o f high input impedance and l o w output impedance. S i n c e they have a unity gain, b a n d w i d t h o f 100 M H z , they can be used at h i g h frequencies capability o f 10 V and current-carrying capacity o f a f e w m i l l i a m p s . up to I M H z . Frequencies as l o w as 10"^ H z are also possible. B u t they have a l i m i t e d input and output

23.1

ALL-PASS FILTER

F i g u r e 23.1 s h o w s an all-pass filter.

Figure 23.1 A s the op-amp gain is very h i g h ,

V,

All-pass filter.

= 0 = V i - V2
= V2

<21

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If the positions o f R and C are interV2 =

W v -

' R +

j(0C jCOC:

1 1+ j(0RC

changed as s h o w n in F i g u r e 23.3, a phase lead c i r c u i t w i l l be obtained w i t h m a g n i tude r e m a i n i n g equal to 1. Hijco) = 1- j(oRC 1+ jcoRC

A t the s u m m i n g point i[ = if. _

R
V, V

R 2V,:
V,- + v

or and
= V2

\HU0})\=1 0(ft)) = 180 - 2 t a n " ' c o R C F i g u r e 23.4 shows the plot o f G ( ( o )

Figure 23.3 Phase lead circuit.

or

2 2v 1 ' 1+ j w R C
2

vs. log /.
V

V: +

e{co)

1+ j a R C

-1

' l - j w R C 1 ^1+ j a R C ) or mjo))= 1- jCORC 1+ j w R C 1- jcoRC 1+j(ORC I = 1 = - 2 tan"' w i J C

log/

(23.1)

2iiRC
Figure 23.4 Plot of 0((u) vs. log /.

\H{j(o)\ Phase shift,

(23.2)

23.2
(23.3) 1 so that H ( j c o ) continues to be

LOW-PASS FILTER

e = - t a n " ' c o R C - t a n ' ' CDRC

A low-pass filter passes a l l frequencies f r o m 0 to CO, (cut-off frequency) and attenuates sharply the frequencies b e y o n d CO,. B a s i c a l l y , the frequency sensitive components L or C have to be used for filters Since L i s b u l k y and difficult to fabricate i n I C s , therefore, C i s the preferred component. There are two types o f R C circuits used as filters as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 23.5.

U (0 = 0 , H { ( 0 ) = 1. A s the frequency increases, j o i R C

unity (-1). H e n c e , this is an all-pass filter. There w i l l be a phase shift p r o p o r t i o n a l to frequency. //(a))= - ^ M
V;{JC0)

= i ^ _ 2 t a n - ' (U/?C

o r - 1 Z 2 t a n " ' (u/?C

1 sC

sCR + \ s C

-A/\/VTherefore, any value o f /? and C can be chosen theoretically t o m a k e the c i r c u i t an a l l pass filter. H o w e v e r , a fixed value of C is chosen and R is varied to obtain the desired phase shift. T h i s type o f c i r c u i t is also c a l l e d phase shifter as any desired phase shift can be m a n i p u lated without c h a n g i n g the magnitude. F i g u r e 23.2 shows the plots o f H ( j Q ) ) lag. and 6 { c o ) vs. l o g / . T h i s type o f c i r c u i t gives a phase
-180' Figure 23.2 Plots of H(/(u) and e{o)) vs. log I. log/ -log/

Hl
(a)

\HUa))\

R -VvV Z{s) =

sCR + \

(b) Figure 23.5 fiCcircuits as fillers.

These t w o basic circuits are introduced into an inverting or n o n i n v e r t i n g o p - a m p for one of the impedances and/or as s h o w n F i g u r e 23.6.

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So an ideal low-pass filter has one pole at break frequency function G{s) = +

CO, and w i l l have a transfer

1 4-

s/CO^ filtering

(23.6) requirement. T h e

E q u a t i o n (23.4) is s i m i l a r to E q . (23.6) and so satisfies the low-pass corner frequency is g i v e n b y 1

co,=
(a) Inverting Figure 23.6 (b) N o n i n v e r t i n g

(23.7)

Inverting and noninverting modes of low-pass filter.

Asymptote In an i n v e r t i n g a m p l i f i e r , the transfer g a i n , T = ^

3 dB Actual. - Pass band 0.1 -20 dB/decade - 4 0 dB/decade - 6 0 dB/decade -

Let

Z2 =

SC2R2+I

and

^ 1 = 2,.
-l/Cj/J,

= (SC2R2 +1)/?,

1 C2R2

(23.4)

In B o d e f o r m . Act

0.01

" O.ltu^

(o,
Figure 23.7

\ 0 Q ) , \00(0,
Plot of gain vs. co,.

CO,

G{co) =

-R2/R, I + SC2R2

-/?2//?i i + y CO

(23.5) Figure 23.8 shows the low-pass shows the n o n i n v e r t i n g low-pass filter filter.

c i r c u i t i n i n v e r t i n g mode o f the op-amp. F i g u r e 23.9

where CO, =

^ C2R2

is c a l l e d the corner

or break

frequency. W h e n a) = CO,

T h i s c i r c u i t has o n e pole at -(l/C2/?2). A t = 0, the d c g a i n i s - ( R 2 / R 1 ) . = I/C2R2, ' h e gain is =

72

, i.e. 0.707 o f m a x . g a i n and at w = 0, the gain is 0. is 0 at w = 0, - 4 5 at O) = (0 and - 9 0 at

T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g phase, 6 = - t a n " ' (C0C2R2),

(U = ~ . T h e general characteristics o f a low-pass filter are g i v e n b e l o w (see also F i g u r e 23.7):

O.lco,
0.5CO,

\ACL\

e
-6 -27 -45 -63 -84 The gain o f the a m p l i f i e r i s unity (since A C L = 1 + ; absence o f R i means that R i = )
Figure 23.8 Low-pass filter (inverting). Figure 23.9 Noninverting low-pass filter.

1.0 0.89 0.707 0.447 O.l

At

CO = CO,, there i s a f a l l o f 3 d B , and the c u r v e r o l l s o f f at - 2 0 dB/decade.

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jl_

ButterwortI)

fitter a ' = 1.414 or V2

sC T h i s is same as E q . (23.5) without phase i n v e r s i o n . Therefore, the roll o f f o f - 2 0 dB/decade in magnitude and - 4 5 7 d e c a d e in phase is same for both circuits.

T h i s gives the flattest possible pass band and is mostly used. Ctiebysliev 1 2 3 fitters dB dB dB Chebyshev Chebyshev Chebyshev '= '= a ' = 1.045 0.895 0.767

23.3

BUHERWORTH FILTER

C h e b y s h e v filters have the least d a m p i n g . D u e to light d a m p i n g , there is p e a k i n g near the corner The single-pole low-pass filter has a loss o f 3 d B at the corner frequency. If we further want to reduce the loss, the slope o f the r o l l - o f f must be made steeper T h i s can be realized by adding a second pole. S u c h types o f filters are c a l l e d m a x i m a l l y flat filters. I f a second pole is added, the system becomes o f s e c o n d order, i.e. ,
/ / ( 5 ) = ^ = ^

frequency w h i c h gives rise to r i n g i n g to transients. F i g u r e 23.10 shows the response curves for different d a m p i n g coefficients.

+ 10 0.866-^^^ 0 -10 -20 1.05 Chebyshev''^:=xON 7~ 1.73Bessel' ^ 0 . 5 0.766

(s + (0,)(,s + 0 ) 2 )

+ ( 0 ) , + 0 ) 2 ) 5 + (0ia2
dB

T h e generalized form o f the second-order filter is g i v e n b e l o w : G(s) = where ci} = resonance frequency A

1.414 Butterworth

-30
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 \

f = the d a m p i n g coefficient D i v i d i n g by o ) l and putting j = j c o and 2 ^ = a ' , w e get G(jco) = (23.9)

CO

0.1

0.2 0.3

CO (0.

10

I9l
(0

Figure 23.10

Response curves for filters for different damping coefficients.

'jco^'

+ j a

CO

+ \

Putting a ' = 1.414 i n E q . (23.10), w e get A

M M = 20 log 1-

I A/ U = 20 log
I + j a ' ( c o '

A 1.414 (0
CO,,

(23.11)

+
(23.10)
a'CO CO.,

co^

= 20 log

This is o f the same form as given b e l o w for the

M = 2 0 log1-tA

first-order

1 1

1+

filter. (23.12)

Different nomenclature filters are obtained as below for different values o f a ' (damping coefficient). Besset fitter M(0)) = a ' = 1.732 or ^/3 T h i s is a very h e a v i l y damped filter and gives stable response. l-F

( 1 [fj

So in general for an n-pole filter, the magnitude, 1 (23.13)

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I.e.

Miu

= 20 l o g 1+

(23.14)

or

{I +

SC2R2)

{R2+sqR,R2 R.R I "2

+ R , )

1 R. "2 + SC2R1R2 1 R.

L . H . S . = V, 2n' = - 1 0 log 1 + (23.15)

2 , 2, -H JC|/?I/?2 + ^ 1 , ^C2^2 + r Q C 2 R i R 2 R,R2 C..-^^.C2 / ? , / ? 2

R2 + R , ~ Rj R,R2 1 C|C2/?,/?2

23.4

SECOND-ORDER LOW-PASS FILTER

filter. R.H.S. =

s ' + s

C,/?, -fC2i?2

+^2^1

F i g u r e 23.11 shows a second-order low-pass

C,C2/?,/?2

C,C2/?2

S i n c e the gain o f the op-amp is unity, v = V^, Rf is not a feedback resistor but a resistor for bias c o m p e n s a t i o n . Therefore, qR, + C2R2 + C2Ri ^ ] 'J 1 1^ 1 (23.17)

C,C2/?,/;2

C,C2/?,/J2j

or
Figure 23.11 B y K C L at node A , Second-order low-pass filter.

CiR^

+ C2R2

+ C2Ri

(-1

1 C1C2R1R2

C,C2/?i^2

The denominator can be recognized as the characteristic equation o f a second-order system i n which

C| C2 /?i ^2 (23.16) \lsC, R2+{l/sC2) and Substituting the value o f VA = (1 -t- S C 2 R 2 ) V B i n E q . (23.16), we obtain ^" V2;rC,/f a ' = 1.414, C,, C2 are taken as (23.20) (23.21) ^ Taking 1 2n^[c^C^R^2 = / ? 2 = /? and C, = 2C2 and Ay = 2 R , w e get f r o m E q . (23.18) (23.19) (23.18)

F o r a B u t t e r w o r t h filter w i t h d a m p i n g coefficient

a or (1 + SC2R2)VB 1) R, 2 y and C, = ^ F

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A c o m p a r i s o n o f tlie magnitude and pliase angle for a first-order low-pass filter and a secondorder low-pass filter is g i v e n b e l o w :

Third-order filter o-

(0 First-order 0.1 CO, 0.5w,. 1.0100 0.89 0.707 0.445 0.1

ff> First-order Second-order -6 -27 -45 -63 -84 -8 -43 -90 -137 -172
Fifth-order filter o filter r 3 ^

First-order filter (5-H)

Second-order filter

Second-order 1.0 0.97 0.707 0.24 0.01

Second-order filter {s^ + 0 . 1 6 5 s + 1)

Second-order filter (5^+ \ . m s + 1)

First-order filter ( i + 1) Figure 23.12

Second-order filter (.y^ + 0 . 6 1 8 i + 1) Higher-order low-pass filters.

Second-order filter ( i - ^ - H . 6 I 8 i + 1)

Here the magnitude has a 3 d B fall when co = co,. B u t the loss is 0.26 d B f o r the secondorder system c o m p a r e d to 1 d B for the first-order system at cu = 0.5cy, m a k i n g the second-order system m a x i m a l l y flat. A n o p - a m p w i t h unity g a i n is taken into account. O t h e r w i s e , w e c a n introduce the voltage d i v i d e r c i r c u i t o f Rj and R i n the feedback l o o p o f a n o n i n v e r t i n g a m p l i f i e r . I n that case the transfer function is g i v e n b y

Damping (a)

coefficient

a ' filter, a ' = 3- 1= 2

Third-order

Therefore, the gain o f the first stage is 1 w h i l e the gain o f the second stage is 2. (b) Fourth-order filter, o:'(first stage) = 3 - 0.765 = 2.235

^(^) where R^ = R2 = R ; C i ^" ~ ^ = C2 = C

= - 2 ^ ~ 2

'

(23 22) (c) Fifth-order filter,

a ' ( s e c o n d stage) = 3 - 1.848 = 1.152 T h e gain o f the t w o stages are 2.235 and 1.152. Rf w d R are chosen.

a ' = 3 - 0.618 = 2.382(second stage) a' = 3 - 1.618 = 1.382(third stage)

The gains are 1, 2.382 and 1.382 for o b t a i n i n g B u t t e r w o r t h response. ^""^ '^^ d a m p i n g coefficient filter, a ' = 3 - AQ. ^ The corner frequency for both o p - a m p filters remains the same, v i z .
CO,, = CO, =

A s a ' = 1.414 for a B u t t e r w o r t h 3-

1 RC

'

Ao = 1.414 Ao = 3 - 1.414 = 1.586 (23.23) /Jy and R, For Since the values o f C , ,

higher-order filters, the phase angle at w = o) w i l l be 45 x ; i , where n is the order o f filter and C 3 w i l l be different, therefore, the higher order filters are = R-

T h e g a i n o f the a m p l i f i e r s h o u l d be made e q u a l to 1.586 b y s u i t a b l y c h o o s i n g

not a cascade o f B u t t e r w o r t h filters. F o r instance, the n o r m a l i z e d values o f C,, C2 , C3 w i l l be 3.456 F, 0.2024 F, and 1.392 F at the n o r m a l i z e d frequency o f 1 rad/s and /?, = / ? 2 =

Rf Ao = 1 + - f = 1.586 K Rf=0.5&6R ^ (23.24)

23.6
filter

HIGH-PASS FILTER
^ with the transformation, where s/co, at coj.^ at h i g h pass. It passes all the

A high-pass filter is the inverse o f a low-pass low-pass

23.5

HIGHER-ORDER LOW-PASS FILTER

frequencies above the corner frequency w i t h out attenuation. F i g u r e 23.13 shows a h i g h pass filter (inverting).
Figure 23.13 High-pass filter.

H i g h e r - o r d e r filters as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 23.12 are obtained b y c a s c a d i n g the first-order and second-order filters.

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In our general c i r c u i t o f Figure 23.6(a), /?, and C , , are introduced in place o f Z , and introduced in place o f Z j . -sC,R. Z| (1 + JC |/?|)/ JC| l + sCfRt

is

Noninverting

tiigli-pass

filter

Interchanging the positions of R and C in F i g u r e 23.9 o f the noninverting low-pass, a noninverting high-pass filter can be obtained as s h o w n in Figure 23.14(a). T h e g a i n o f the a m p l i f i e r can be unity o r 1 + (Rf/R).

(23.25)

There is a zero at s = 0, and a pole at s = ~ l / R i C , . sC^Rj G(s) = -RJR, 1 + 1 1+ (0,. (23.26)

where

l/co, = C,/?,. W e note the s i m i l a r i t y o f E q , (23.26) w i t h E q . (23.5) M(co) = 1+ A (23.27)

(a) H i g h - p a s s first-order unity gain filter Figure 23.14 (b) H i g h - p a s s second-order, g a i n = 1 + (Rf/R), Noninverting high-pass filter. filter

Vf)

where A =

-(Rj/Ri).

For the th-order filter. For a second-order filter as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 23.14(b), the transfer f u n c t i o n is g i v e n b y
M{0}) = 2n

(23.28)

H{s) =

^0
(0

(23.30)

1+

or

M(co)

d B = 2 0 In 1+

For
2n

B u t t e r w o r t h response, 3 A o = a = 1.414 or A n = l Rf + A o = 3 - 1.414 = 1.586 Rr R (23.31) (23.32)

where = - 1 0 In + 20 In A

(23.29)

= 0.586/?

B y cascading the first and second-order filters, higher-order high-pass filters can be obtained. T h e slope is the same 20 dB/decade f o r two poles and { n x 20) d B for n poles. Phase 9 from E q . (23.26) c a n be written as and F o r n o r m a l i z e d frequency o f 1 rad/s, the values o f C i and C 2 are 1 F a n d the values o f R i R 2 are adjusted. R i is R 2 / 2 for a second-order filter.

e{j(o)

=
1 +

0)

23.7
' (0

BAND-PASS FILTER
G)i and CO2, the pass-band b e i n g between W i and C02> coi. Its transfer function is g i v e n b y
K2S

JO)

A band-pass filter has t w o break frequencies CO2, where

So at oi = CO,, there is a phase advance o f 45 for a s i m p l e pole, 90 for a second-order h i g h pass filter and n x 45 f o r the /ith-order filter.

(23.33)
1-F

1 + ^ to.

co 2 J

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It has one zero and two poles. T a k i n g Z , = Z^ and Z j = Zg, F i g u r e 23,15 can be obtained from Figure 23.6(a).

order filters w i l l make the band-pass filter a fourth-order filter but w i t h r o l l - o f f o f - 4 0 d B / decade. In general, a second-order band-pass filter w i l l have one pole, a fourth-order band-pass filter w i l l two poles, and so o n .

1+SC2R2

sC -sC, R^ (23.34)

23.9 MULTIPLE FEEDBACK NARROW-BAND FILTER

If Q is greater than 10, a single op-amp is used instead o f two but w i t h more than one feedback loop and the input is fed to the inverting t e r m i n a l . F i g u r e 23.16 s h o w s a m u l t i p l e narrow-band filter By m a k i n g C j = C2 = C , feedback

(I + 5C2 /?2 )(l + iC|/?,) F r o m E q . (23.34), w e have a zero at .s = 0, poles at R-, ^ . =

rAVv

1 \

R '2'-2 yC

and S2 =

-1

R,

andG,=

Figure 23.15

Band-pass filter.

Ro = Q

There are two types o f band-pass filters, narrow band and w i d e band. T h e narrow bandpass filter has Q > 10, whereas the wide band-pass filter has Q < 10. A g a i n , the narrow band has B W < O.I, and the w i d e b a n d has B W > O.I.

R, Now, O = -^0 = /o (23.35) 2R,

(23.42)
Figure 23.16 Ivlultiple feedback narrow-band filter.

F o r w i d e band, the centre f r e q u e n c y / Q is the geometric mean of / a n d / L , and for narrow band the centre frequency / Q i s the arithmetic mean o f and / L .-. F o r w i d e band,

and the gain must satisfy the c o n d i t i o n A Q < 2 Q ^ . A n advantage o f multiple-feedback narrow-band filter is that the corner f r e q u e n c y c a n be changed to a n e w frequency without changing the gain o r b a n d w i d t h b y c h a n g i n g R2 to R 2 where R 2 is g i v e n b y R'2 - R2 (23.43)

(23^.36)
/ H + / I .

and for narrow band,

(23.37)

[fc)

23.8 WIDE BAND-PASS FILTER NONINVERTING

T h i s filter can be obtained b y c a s c a d i n g two first-order filters w h i c h w i l l g i v e - 2 0 dB/decade slope at l o w and h i g h ends. If w e cascade two second-order filters, - 4 0 dB/decade slope w i l l be obtained and so on. Total band-pass g a i n = Agp = A ^ p x A L P
M{(D)
=
2' 2"

23.10

BAND-REJECT OR ELIMINATION FILTER

finally

T h i s type o f filter requires a pole at s = COQ t o p r o v i d e the first - 6 dB/octave asymptote. H e r e Wo < 0), where i = co, is the first zero that occurs. A second zero occurs at s = - W 2 and is
1 -F-

a pole at s = -(0 gives a flat asymptote at the h i g h frequency end. S o the transfer function

(23.38)

ft) 2 J

(23.44)

ft),, Therefore, the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f two first-order filters makes the band-pass filter a secondorder filter. B u t the r o l l - o f f is h a l f o f second order, i.e. - 2 0 dB/decade. C a s c a d i n g two secondTaking Z , = Z j = Z , F i g u r e 23.6(a) w i l l g i v e one zero and one pole. C a s c a d i n g two such circuits, a band-reject filter w i l l be obtained as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 23.17.

^^l-i:!!5!r2I!lfiyiA^^

Synthesis

Active

Filters

637

23.11

NONINVERTING WIDE-BAND REJECT FILTER

F e e d i n g the input to a low-pass and a high-pass filter o p - a m p s i m u l t a n e o u s l y and s u m m i n g the outputs o f the t w o op-amps, a noninverting w i d e - b a n d reject filter can be obtained as s h o w n in F i g u r e 23.18.
To voltage divider -I-

Low-pass filter op-amp Summer

Figure23.17

Band-reject or elimination filler.

For op-amp A ,

0
(23.45)
To voltage divider

+ High-pass filter - op-amp

l + C,R,s S i m i l a r l y for op-amp B ,

Figure 23.18

Noninverting wide-band reject filter. fre-

T h e cut-off frequency o f the high-pass filter (fi) s h o u l d be greater than the cut-off quency o f the low-pass filter (/ H ). See F i g u r e 23.19. R1O Overall, + SC2R2) +s q R ^ sC2R2) (23.47) (23.46)
dB Pass band .
1

G ( s ) = -^l(lliW

Band reject

Pass band

^f(i + sC2R2)(l +

t
3dB down Low-pass filter

1 1

I \ i / / High-pass filter

F o r op-amp A , Gain,

\ 1 \

77-

= /f,C. '2'-2
(23.48)
Figure 23.19

/H

fc

/L

F o r op-amp B , . Gain, ' .

Response curve for noninverting wide-band reject filter.

C-f
0)-

=. < T h ,e

gain is made 1)

23.12

NOTCH FILTER

A notch filter is one w h i c h attenuates at one particular frequency, creating a notch in the b a n d pass. T h i s i s a special case o f the band-reject filter where the two zeros at coj and CO2 merge. W h e n w e make tUj = (O2 i n E q . (23.48), i.e.
= 0)2 = 1

RiC,

o f op-amp A =

I RiCi

of op-amp B

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23.13

LAG-LEAD AND LEAD-LAG NETWORK

F i g u r e 23.21 shows a n o n i n v e r t i n g narrow, band-stop f i l t e r F o r analysis, each T ( Y ) is transformed into n ( A ) and reduced to a single For null c o n d i t i o n (/?, + R 2 ) R i = X,X2 = RiR2 (23.51) (23.52)
Figure 23.21 3 Noninverting narrow band-stop filter.

F i g u r e 23.20 sliows a l a g - l e a d and l e a d - l a g network. T h i s network is used as c o m p e n s a tion network in control systems. The transfer function o f such a network is

7t -network.

(A-, + X2)X-i T(s) = (23.49)

U R i = R i and X i = X i , it can be written as IR^Ry = X l = 1 (23.53)

F r o m E q . (23.46), TF = A y =
Figure 23.20 Lag-lead and lead-lag network.

V2wF
where fflb is c a l l e d the reject frequency or notch frequency. to
/o = 1 .

(23.54)

The t w i n T - n e t w o r k is connected to a unity gain a m p l i f i e r I f R^ = R \ I 2 , E q . (23.54) reduces ( V t i C i ^ i ^ Ri+sCjR^Rj s R , R 2 + ^

sR,R2+f
Similarly, C 3 is made equal to I C ^ .

(23.55)

InRC

C,

1+ l 2 \ sR^R.q) R, , SR,R2C2)

1 + -

(23.50) I +ST

23.15

STATE VARIABLE FILTER

It is a versatile filter from w h i c h w e can realize at the same time all the four types, i.e. low-pass, 2) high-pass, band-pass and reject filters. The state variable formulations are obtained b y secondorder filters (two poles) because they are less liable to parameter variations. T h e c i r c u i t consists of t w o op-amp integrators and one s u m m e r op-amp as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2 3 . 2 2 .

where

T , = /?,C,, T J = R 2 C 2 . < , it i s a l e a d - l a g network.

If

^ 1
If >

^ ^ 2
it is a l a g - l e a d network.

F i n a l l y , C ) is made equal to C2. T o achieve a positive transfer function, a n inverter is introduced either before o r after the network. W h e n C , = C2, R\ R2 gives a l e a d - l a g network R i < R2 g i v e s a l a g - l e a d network

23.14 NONINVERTING NARROW BAND-STOP (OR REJECT OR ELIMINATION) CIRCUIT

A narrow, band-stop filter is k n o w n as a notch filter w h i c h attenuates at a single frequency which may be the undesirable h u m frequency o f 50 H z or 100 H z . It has a t w i n T - n e t w o r k introduced between the input voltage and the plus t e r m i n a l . A t w i n - T consists o f t w o T - n e t w o r k s in parallel.
Figure 23.22 State variable filter.

640

N e t w o r k T h e o r y : Analysis a n d Synthesis Active Filters 641

O p - a m p A gives H P and B P outputs and o p - a m p C g i v e s L P output. Output o f op-amp B = vg = ~^

R C

Band-pass

filter

Putting vA = - - s V o B , E q . (23.59) becomes -1

R C v -5VB

B y L a p l a c e transformation,

, a ^

(22.56) (22.57)

If we choose the value o f /?C = I, then V B = ^ s Similarly, O p - a m p A is a s u m m e r o f v,, V B and vc.

The standard f o r m o f transfer function o f a band-pass filter is 2 2 + (o , . (23.62)

s
VoA
= V ,

+a(os

R KRJ

+ voB

R. [R1+R2
( R ,

+ 1 RllR'^')

[ R J

C o m p a r i n g w i t h the standard f o r m , AoaJa = 1 and <a = I, a = fiib the centre frequency o f band pass

[ R i + R 2 ) Putting d a m p i n g coefficient E q . (23.58) becomes a = 3 R. { R 1 + R 2 )

(23.58) where

and eliminating V B and v c i n terms o f v , ^ .

vA the output o f s u m m e r is a high-pass a band-pass.

filter

vB the output o f the first integrator is band-pass filter. S o integrating a high-pass filter gives the output o f the second integrator is a low-pass filter. S o integrating a band-pass gives a low-pass filter. filter

^oA =

- V , .

- a

I.e.
VoA,

sj

(23.59)

23.16

NOTCH FILTER OR BAND-REJECT FILTER

filter filter. A l l capacitances are also made equal

or
J H-to-f-I

B y i n t r o d u c i n g a fourth o p - a m p as a s u m m e r w i t h the outputs o f high-pass and low-pass (23.60) op-amps as inputs, w e can obtain a notch In the c i r c u i t , a l l resistances are made equal, except

T h i s is i n the form o f a second-order high-pass filter transfer funcfion. C o m p a r i n g the t w o forms, w e o b t a i n :

ZQ

and chosen in such a manner so as to make /?C = 1. A s w e k n o w a for different types o f filters ( a = 1.414 for Butterworth), w e can determine the value o f

= -I,

CO,.

= I =

U L

H e n c e , the output o f V A is a high-pass Low-pass Putting

'>A

filter.

EXERCISES
23.1 versus l o g /. 23.2 D i s c u s s the general characteristics o f a low-pass O b t a i n the third-, fourth- and second-order 23 .4 filters. fifth-order filter.

filter
=

D r a w the schematic d i a g r a m o f an all-pass filter and plot its magnitude and phase angle

s\^,

E q . (23.59) becomes -I (23.61) 23.3

low-pass filters b y c a s c a d i n g the first- a n d

T h . s is the standard f o r m o f a second-order low-pass Here, .

-^0

filter

D r a w the schematic d i a g r a m o f a n o n i n v e r t i n g high-pass filter and derive its necessary relations.

- -I,

(o= a , = a n = I