List of environmental issues

This is a list of environmental issues. As such they relate to the anthropogenic (caused by humans) effects on the natural environment.

Climate change

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years

Global warming

the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation

Global dimming

the reduction of the direct irradiance at the surface of the Earth

Fossil fuels

are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms

Sea level rise

Sea levels around the world are rising and can potentially affects human populations (e.g., those living in coastal regions and on islands) and the natural environment (e.g., marine ecosystems)

Greenhouse gas

(abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone

Ocean acidification

This is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.

Shutdown of thermohaline circulation

shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation.

Environmental impact of the coal industry

1

the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including, that contain heavy metals

Urban Heat Islands

refers to any area, populated or not, which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area

Conservation

Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the natural world, Its fisheries, habitats, and biological diversity

Species extinction

The end of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point.

Pollinator decline
The term pollinator decline refers to the reduction in abundance of pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide during the end of the twentieth century.Pollinators participate in sexual reproduction of many plants, by ensuring cross-pollination, essential for somespecies, or a major factor in ensuring genetic diversity for others. Since plants are the primary food source foranimals, the reduction of one of the primary pollination agents, or even their possible disappearance, has raised concern, and the conservation of pollinators has become part of biodiversity conservation efforts.

Coral bleaching

The loss of intracellular endosymbionts (Symbiodinium, also known as zooxanthellae) through either expulsion or loss of algal pigmentation. Under stress, corals may expel their zooxanthellae, which leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached.

Holocene extinction

This is a name proposed to describe the extinction eventof species that has occurred during the present Holocene epoch(since around 10,000 BCE.

Invasive species

"Invasive Alien Species" as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area, and secondly, threaten biological diversity.

Poaching

Poaching refers to the unlawful or illegal harvest, possession, sale, transport and use of wildlife or their parts, and is any act that intentionally contravenes the laws and regulations established to protect renewable wildlife resources. Poaching is considered one of the most 2

serious threats to the survival of plant and animal populations. Poaching has a detrimental effect on biodiversity both within and outside protected areas as wildlife populations decline, species are depleted locally, and the functionality of ecosystems is disturbed. The following violations and offenses are considered acts of poaching:

Fishing and hunting without a license. Freeze-killing of deer by shining the deer with a spotlight at night to impair its natural defenses and thus facilitate an easy kill. Hunting and collecting animal and plant species that are listed as endangered by IUCN and are protected by law such as the Endangered Species Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and international treaties such as CITES. Canned hunting that involves the shooting of trapped, caged or drugged animals, or cutting their feet with razor blades.[5] Prohibited use of machine guns, poison, explosives, snare traps, nets and pitfall traps.
[5]

Hunting a wild animal outside of legal hours Killing wild animals outside the hunting season; usually thebreeding season is declared as the closed season during which wildlife is protected by law. Killing wild animals on land that is restricted or owned by somebody else. The right to hunt this animal is claimed by somebody. Using inhumane or illegal bait, such as food unsuitable for an animal's health. Hunting from a moving vehicle, watercraft, or aircraft. The animal or plant has been tagged by a researcher.

Endangered species

An endangered species is a species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction. Many nations have laws offering protection to conservation reliant species: for example, forbidding hunting, restricting land development or creating preserves.

Energy

Consumption of fossil fuel resources lead to global warmingand climate change. In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes.

Energy conservation

It refers to reducing energy through using less of an energy service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques;

Renewable energy

This is energy that comes from resources which are continually replenished such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,waves and geothermal heat;

Efficient energy use

Sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature;

Renewable energy commercialization

It involves the deploymentof three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, includebiomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power and heat. Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include solar heating,photovoltaics, wind power, solar thermal power stations, and modern forms of bioenergy. Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy;

Environmental impact of the coal industry

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, [1] bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.

Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing

ground water contamination, risks to air quality, migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, mishandling of waste, and the health effects of all these, as well as its contribution to raised atmospheric CO2 levels by enabling the extraction of previouslysequestered hydrocarbons.

Environmental degradation

This is the deterioration of theenvironment through depletion of resources such as air, water andsoil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife).

Eutrophication

This is the ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system. One example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Negative environmental effects include hypoxia, the depletion of oxygen in the water, which induces reductions in specific fish and other animal populations.

Habitat destruction

This is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this process, the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity.[1] Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization.) 4

Invasive species

("Invasive Alien Species" as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area, and secondly, threaten biological diversity.)

Soda lake

They are characterized by high concentrations of carbonate salts.

Environmental health

Environmental health is that branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health

Air quality

Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals,particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment.

Asthma

(is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airwayscharacterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction)

Environmental impact of the coal industry

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, [1] bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium,arsenic, and other heavy metals. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.

Electromagnetic fields

(is a physical fieldproduced by electrically charged objects. It affects the behavior of charged objects in the vicinity of the field.)

Electromagnetic radiation and health

Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into two types: ionizing radiation and nonionizing radiation, based on its capability of ionizing atoms and breaking chemical bonds. Ultraviolet and higher frequencies, such as X-rays or gamma rays are ionizing, and these pose their own special hazards: see radiation and radiation poisoning. Non-ionizing radiation, discussed here, is associated with electrical and biological hazards.

Indoor air quality

5

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a term which refers to the air qualitywithin and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants.

Lead poisoning

increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body.

Sick Building Syndrome

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is used to describe situations in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that appear to be linked to time spent in a building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified.

Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing

Ground water contamination, risks to air quality, migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, mishandling of waste, and the health effects of all these, as well as its contribution to raised atmospheric CO2 levels by enabling the extraction of previouslysequestered hydrocarbons.

Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering alters the genetic makeup of an organism using techniques that remove heritablematerial or that introduce DNA prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then fused or hybridized with the host.

Genetic pollution

Genetic pollution is a controversial term for uncontrolled gene flow into wild populations.

Genetically modified food controversies

The genetically modified foods controversy is a dispute over the relative advantages and disadvantages offood derived from genetically modified organisms, genetically modified crops used to produce food and other goods, and other uses of genetically modified organisms in food production.

Intensive farming

Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an agriculturalproduction system characterized by a low fallow ratio and the high use of inputs such as capital, labour, or heavy use ofpesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area.

Overgrazing

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managedagricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or non-nativewild animals.

Irrigation

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.

Monoculture

Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop or plant species over a wide area and for a large number of consecutive years. It is widely used in modern industrial agriculture and its implementation has allowed for large harvests from minimal labour.

Environmental effects of meat production

The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. All agriculture practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment. Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution,fossil fuels, and water and land consumption.

Slash and burn

Slash-and-burn is an agricultural technique which involves cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields. It issubsistence agriculture that typically uses little technology or other tools. It is typically part of shifting cultivation agriculture, and oftranshumance livestock herding.

Pesticide drift

Pesticide drift refers to the unintentional diffusion of pesticides and the potential negative effects ofpesticide applicationincluding, but not limited to: off-target contamination due to spray drift as well as runoff from plants/soil. This can lead to damage in human health, environmental contamination, and property damage.

Plasticulture

The term plasticulture refers to the practice of using plastic materials in agricultural applications. The plastic materials themselves are often and broadly referred to as "ag plastics." Plasticulture ag plastics include soil fumigation film, irrigation drip tape/tubing, nursery pots and silage bags, but the term is most often used to describe all kinds of plastic plant/soil coverings. Such coverings range from plastic mulch film, row coverings, high and low tunnels (polytunnels), to plastic greenhouses.

Land degradation
7

environmental degradation is the gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities, animals activities, or natural means, for example water causes soil erosion, wind, or other combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land

Land pollution

Land pollution may refer to: Brownfield land - Brownfields are abandoned or underused industrial and commercial facilities available for re-use. Habitat destruction -is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present Land degradation - environmental degradation is the gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities, animals activities, or natural means, for example water causes soil erosion, wind, or other combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land Litter - Litter consists of waste products that have been disposed improperly, without consent, in an inappropriate location. Soil contamination - Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste.

Desertification

is a type of land degradation in which a relativelydry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife

Soil

Soil is a natural body consisting of layers that are primarily composed of minerals, mixed with at least some organic matter, which differ from their parent materials in their texture, structure, consistency, color, chemical, biological and other characteristics

Soil conservation

Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the Earths surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination

Soil erosion

Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by exogenetic processes such as wind or water flow, and thentransported and deposited in other locations.

Soil contamination

Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste.

Soil salination
8

Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salination

Alkali soils

Alkali, or alkaline, soils are clay soils with high pH (> 8.5), a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity.

Residual Sodium Carbonate Index

Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) index of irrigation / soil water is used to indicate the alkalinity hazard of soil. RSC index is used to find the suitability of water for irrigation in clay soils which has high cation exchange capacity. When dissolved sodium in comparison with dissolved calcium & magnesium is high in water, clay soil swells or undergoes dispersion which drastically reduces its infiltration capacity.

Land use

Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It also has been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it"

Urban sprawl

Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl is a multifaceted concept centered on the expansion of autooriented, low-density development. Topics range from the outward spreading of a cityand its suburbs, to low-density and auto-dependent developmenton rural land, examination of impact of high segregation between residential and commercial uses, and analysis of various design features to determine which may encourage car dependency.

Habitat fragmentation

The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:

Reduction in the total area of the habitat Decrease of the interior : edge ratio Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat

Deforestation and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction and further threats tobiodiversity.

Habitat destruction

This is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this process, the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity.[1] Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization.)

Nanotechnology
9

Nanotechnology "nanotech" is the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale

Nanotoxicology

Nanotoxicology is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials. Nanotoxicology is a branch of bionanoscience which deals with the study and application of toxicity of nanomaterials

Nanopollution

The impact of nanotechnology extends from its medical, ethical, mental, legal and environmental applications, to fields such as engineering, biology, chemistry, computing, materials science, military applications, and communications.

Nuclear issues

The nuclear power debate is about the controversy which has surrounded the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes

Nuclear fallout

Nuclear fallout, or simply fallout, also known as Black Rain, is the residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a nuclear blast or a nuclear reaction conducted in an unshielded facility, so called because it "falls out" of the sky after the explosion andshock wave have passed.

Nuclear meltdown

Nuclear meltdown is an informal term for a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating.

Nuclear power

Nuclear power, or Nuclear energy, is the use of exothermic nuclear processes, to generate useful heat and electricity. The term includes the following heat producing processes, nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear weapons

A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter

Nuclear and radiation accidents

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility." 10

Nuclear safety

Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent nuclear and radiation accidents or to limit their consequences. This coversnuclear power plants as well as all other nuclear facilities, the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power, industry, and military uses.

High-level radioactive waste management

High-level radioactive waste managementconcerns management and disposal of highlyradioactive materials created during production ofnuclear power and nuclear weapons. The technical issues in accomplishing this are daunting, due to the extremely long periods radioactive wastesremain dangerous to living organisms

Overpopulation

Human overpopulation occurs if the number of people in a group exceeds the carrying capacity of the region occupied by the group. The term often refers to the relationship between theentire human population and itsenvironment, the Earth,[1] or to smaller geographical areas such as countries.

Burial

Natural burial is the interment of the body of a dead person in the soil in a manner that does not inhibitdecomposition but allows the body to recycle naturally. It is an alternative to other contemporary Western burial methods.

Water crisis

Water scarcity involves water stress, water shortage ordeficits, and water crisis. The concept of water stress is relatively new. Water stress is the difficulty of obtaining sources of fresh water for use, because of depleting resources.

Overpopulation in companion animals

The phenomenon of overpopulation in companion animals refers to the large number of abandoneddomestic cats and dogs. Iguanas and other exotic animals are also frequently abandoned by owners due to their size, and to the difficulty in caring for them.

Tragedy of the commons

In economics, the tragedy of the commons is the depletion of a shared resource by individuals, acting independently and rationally according to each one's self-interest, despite their understanding that depleting the common resource is contrary to the group's long-term best interests. The concept is often cited in connection with sustainable development, meshing 11

economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in the debate over global warming. "Commons" can include the atmosphere, oceans, rivers,fish stocks, national parks, advertising, and even parking meters. The tragedy of the commons has particular relevance in analyzing behavior in the fields of economics, evolutionary psychology,game theory, politics, taxation, and sociology.

Gender Imbalance in Developing Countries

Gender imbalance is a disparity between male and females in a population. As stated above, males usually exceed females at birth but subsequently experience different mortality rates due to many possible causes such as differential natural death rates, war casualties, and deliberate gender control.

Sub-replacement fertility levels in developed countries

Sub-replacement fertility is a total fertility rate (TFR) that (if sustained) leads to each new generation being less populous than the previous one in a given area. In developed countries sub-replacement fertility is any rate below approximately 2.1 children born per woman, but the threshold can be as high as 3.4 in some developing countries because of higher mortality rates. Taken globally, the total fertility rate at replacement was 2.33 children per woman in 2003. This can be "translated" as 2 children per woman to replace the parents, plus a "third of a child" to make up for the higher probability of boys being born, and early mortality prior to the end of their fertile life

Ozone depletion

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (theozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

CFC

A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains only carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane and ethane. They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon

Biological effects of UV exposure

The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes.

Pollution
12

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.[1] Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

Environmental impact of the coal industry

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.

Nonpoint source pollution

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to both water and air pollution from diffuse sources. Nonpoint source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff fromagricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes.

Point source pollution

A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source of air, water,thermal, noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are calledpoint sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other physics, engineering, optics and chemistry point sources and include:

Water pollution from an oil refinery wastewater discharge outlet[1] Noise pollution from a jet engine Disruptive seismic vibration from a localized seismic study Light pollution from an intrusive street light Thermal pollution from an industrial process outfall Radio emissions from an interference-producing electrical device

Light pollution

Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial light.Pollution is the adding-of/added light itself, in analogy to added sound, carbon dioxide, etc. Adverse consequences are multiple; some of them may not be known yet.

Noise pollution

Noise pollution is displeasing or excessive noise that may disrupt the activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircrafts, and trains.

Visual pollution
13

Visual pollution is defined as the whole of irregular formations, which are mostly found in natural and built environments.

Interplanetary contamination

Interplanetary contamination is the hypothetical biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberate or unintentional. There are two types of interplanetary contamination for invasive species of microbial life:

Forward contamination is the transfer of microbial life from Earth to another celestial body. Currently, international agreements cover the sterility of spacecraft that leave Earth under the Outer Space Treaty and the COSPAR guidelines for planetary protection. Back contamination would be the introduction of hypothetical microbial extraterrestrial organisms intoEarth's biosphere. The fear of back contamination from the Moon was the main reason for quarantineprocedures adopted for the early Apollo program.

Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of waterbodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers andgroundwater). Water pollution occurs whenpollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds

Environmental impact of the coal industry

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.

Acid rain
Acid rain is a rain or any other form ofprecipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure.

Eutrophication
This is the ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system. One example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Negative environmental effects include hypoxia, the depletion of oxygen in the water, which induces reductions in specific fish and other animal populations. 14

 Marine pollution
Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of marine pollution are land based. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agriculturalrunoff and wind blown debris and dust.

Ocean dumping or Marine debris

Marine debris, also known asmarine litter, is human-createdwaste that has deliberately or accidentally been released in alake, sea, ocean or waterway. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyresand on coastlines

Oil spills
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases ofcrude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline,diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much lessbuoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. [1] Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

Thermal pollution
A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as acoolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature decreases oxygen supply, and affects ecosystem composition. Urban runoffstormwaterdischarged to surface waters from roads and parking lotscan also be a source of elevated water temperatures.

Urban runoff
Urban runoff is surface runoff of rainwater created byurbanization. This runoff is a major source of water pollution in urban communities worldwide.

Water crisis
Water scarcity involves water stress, water shortage ordeficits, and water crisis. The concept of water stress is relatively new. Water stress is the difficulty of obtaining sources of fresh water for use, because of depleting resources.

Marine debris
Marine debris, also known asmarine litter, is human-createdwaste that has deliberately or accidentally been released in alake, sea, ocean or waterway. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyresand on coastlines 15

 Microplastics
Microplastics are small plastic particles in the environment and have become a paramount issue especially in the marine environment.

Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.

Ship pollution
The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gasemissions and oil pollution. Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping is estimated to be 4 to 5 percent of the global total, and estimated by theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO) to rise by as much as 72 percent by 2020 if no action is taken.

Wastewater
Wastewater, also written as waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. Municipal wastewater is usually conveyed in a combined seweror sanitary sewer, and treated at a wastewater treatment plant orseptic tank. Treated wastewater is discharged into a receiving water via an effluent sewer. Fish kill The term fish kill, known also as fish die-off and (in Britain) as fish mortality, is a localized die-off of fish populations which may also be associated with more generalized mortality of aquatic life.The most common cause is reduced oxygen in the water, which in turn may be due to factors such as drought, algae bloom, overpopulation, or a sustained increase in water temperature

Algal bloom
An algal bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae (typically microscopic) in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments.

Mercury in fish
Fish and shellfish concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy metals, particularly mercury and fat-soluble pollutants from water pollution. Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing ground water contamination, risks to air quality, migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, mishandling of waste, and the health effects of all these, as well as its contribution to raised atmospheric CO2 levels by enabling the extraction of previouslysequestered hydrocarbons.

Air pollution
16

Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals,particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment.

Environmental impact of the coal industry

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals. There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.

Smog
Smog is a type of air pollution; the word "smog" was made in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fogto refer to smoky fog. The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century. This kind of smog is caused by the burning of large amounts of coal within a city; this smog contains soot particulatesfrom smoke, sulfur dioxide and other components. Modern smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

Tropospheric ozone
Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent readily reacting with other chemical compounds to make many possibly toxic oxides. Ozone (O3) is a constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of some regions of the stratospherecommonly known as the Ozone layer)

Indoor air quality

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a term which refers to the air qualitywithin and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. IAQ can be affected by gases (including carbon monoxide, radon, volatile organic compounds), particulates, microbial contaminants (mold,bacteria) or any mass or energy stressor that can induce adverse health conditions.

Volatile organic compound

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a high vapour pressure at ordinary,room-temperature conditions. Their high vapour pressure results from a low boiling point, which causes large numbers of molecules to evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid form of the compound and enter the surrounding air. An example is formaldehyde, with a boiling point of 19 C (2 F), slowly exiting paint and getting into the air.

Atmospheric particulate matter

Atmospheric particulate matter - also known asparticulates or particulate matter (PM) - are tiny pieces of solid or liquid matter associated with the Earth's atmosphere. They are 17

suspended in the atmosphere as atmosphericaerosol, a term which refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone. However, it is common to use the term aerosol to refer to the particulate component alone. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. They can adversely affect human health and also have impacts on climate and precipitation.

Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing

ground water contamination, risks to air quality, migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, mishandling of waste, and the health effects of all these, as well as its contribution to raised atmospheric CO2 levels by enabling the extraction of previouslysequestered hydrocarbons.

Reservoirs

A reservoir is a natural or artificial lake, storage pond or impoundmentfrom a dam which is used to store water. Reservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction of a dam or may be built by excavation in the ground or by conventional construction techniques such as brickwork or cast concrete.

Environmental impacts of reservoirs

The environmental impact of reservoirs comes under ever increasing scrutiny as the global demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases. Dams and reservoirs can be used to supply drinking water, generate hydroelectric power, increase the water supply forirrigation, provide recreational opportunities, and improve certain aspects of the environment. However, adverse environmental and sociological impacts have been identified during and after many reservoir constructions.

Resource depletion

Resource depletion is the exhaustion of raw materials within a region. Resources are commonly divided between renewable resources and non-renewable resources. Use of either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.

Exploitation of natural resources

The exploitation of natural resources started to emerge in the 19th century as natural resource extraction developed. During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased.Today, about 80% of the worlds energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels, which consists of oil, coal and gas. Another non-renewable resource that is exploited by humans are Subsoil minerals such as precious metals that are mainly used in the production of industrial commodities.

18

Intensive agriculture is an example of a mode of production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment, for example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water pollution in an aquatic ecosystem. As the world population rises and economic growth occurs, the depletion of natural resources influenced by the unsustainable extraction of raw materialsbecomes an increasing concern.

Overdrafting

Overdrafting is the process of extracting groundwater beyond the safe yield or equilibrium yield of the aquifer.

Consumerism
Consumerism is a social and economic order that encourages the purchase of goods and services in ever-greater amounts. In economics, consumerism refers to economic policies placing emphasis on consumption.

Consumer capitalism
Consumer capitalism is a theoretical economic and social political condition in which consumer demand is manipulated, in a deliberate and coordinated way, on a very large scale, throughmass-marketing techniques, to the advantage of sellers. The theory is controversial. It suggests manipulation of consumer demand so potent that it has a coercive effect, amounts to a departure from free-market capitalism, and has an adverse effect on society in general. Some use the phrase as shorthand for the broader idea that the interests of other non-business entities (governments, religions, the military, educational institutions) are intertwined with corporate business interests, and that those entities also participate in the management of social expectations through mass media.

Planned obsolescence
Planned obsolescence or built-in obsolescence in industrial design is a policy of planning or designing aproduct with a limited useful life, so it will become obsolete, that is, unfashionable or no longer functional after a certain period of time. Planned obsolescence has potential benefits for a producer because to obtain continuing use of the product the consumer is under pressure to purchase again, whether from the same manufacturer (a replacement part or a newer model), or from a competitor which might also rely on planned obsolescence. For an industry, planned obsolescence stimulates demand by encouraging purchasers to buy sooner if they still want a functioning product. Planned obsolescence is common in many different products, including but not limited to wheeled can openers, screws, ear protectors, headphones, shoes, book bindings, automobile batteries, and bicycle tires. There is however the potential backlash of consumers who learn that the manufacturer invested money to make the product obsolete faster; such consumers might turn to a producer (if any exists) that offers a more durable alternative. Estimates of planned obsolescence can influence a company's decisions about product engineering. Therefore, the company can use the least expensive components that satisfy product lifetime projections. Such decisions are part of a broader discipline known as value engineering.

19

 Over-consumption
Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of theecosystem. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to inevitable environmental degradation and the eventual loss of resource bases. Generally the discussion of overconsumption parallels that of overpopulation; that is the more people, the more consumption of raw materials to sustain their lives. Currently, the inhabitants of the developed nations of the world consume resources at a rate almost 32 times greater than those of the developing world, who make up the majority of the human population (5.5 billion people. The theory was coined to augment the discussion ofoverpopulation, which reflects issues of carrying capacity without taking into account per capita consumption, by which developing nations are evaluated to consume more than their land can support. Green parties and the ecology movementoften argue that consumption per person, orecological footprint, is typically lower in poor than in rich nations.

Fishing
The environmental impact of fishingcan be divided into issues that involve the availability of fish to be caught, such asoverfishing, sustainable fisheries, andfisheries management; and issues that involve the impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as bycatch. These conservation issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanitys desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows. Similar to otherenvironmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realise that if future fish populations are to be sustainable then some fisheries must reduce or even close. Blast fishing Blast fishing or dynamite fishing is the practice of using explosives to stun or kill schools of fish for easy collection. This often illegal practice can be extremely destructive to the surrounding ecosystem, as the explosion often destroys the underlying habitat (such as coral reefs) that supports the fish.[1] The frequently improvised nature of the explosives used also means danger for the fishermen as well, with accidents and injuries.

Bottom trawling
Bottom trawling istrawling (towing a trawl, which is a fishing net) along the sea floor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthictrawling and demersaltrawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the benthic zone. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with midwater trawling (also known as pelagic trawling), where a net is towed higher in the water column. Midwater trawling catches pelagic fish such as anchovies, tuna, and mackerel, whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom living fish (groundfish) and semi-pelagic species such as cod, squid, shrimp, and rockfish.

Cyanide fishing
Cyanide fishing is a method of collecting live fish mainly for use in aquariums, which involves spraying asodium cyanide mixture into the desired fish's habitat in order to stun the fish. The practice hurts not only the target population, but also many other marine organisms, including coral and thus coral reefs. 20

 Ghost nets
Ghost nets are fishing nets that have been left or lost in the oceanby fishermen. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles,seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver.

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

Illegal fishing takes place where vessels operate in violation of the laws of a fishery. This can apply to fisheries that are under the jurisdiction of a coastal state or to high seas fisheries regulated by regional organisations. Unreported fishing is fishing that has been unreported or misreported to the relevant national authority or regional organisation, in contravention of applicable laws and regulations. Unregulated fishing generally refers to fishing by vessels without nationality, or vessels flying the flag of a country not party to the regional organisation governing that fishing area or species. The drivers behind illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing are clear enough, and similar to those behind many other types of international environmental crime. Most obviously, pirate fishers have a strong economic incentive: many species of fish, particularly those that have been over-exploited and are thus in short supply, are of high value.

Overfishing
Overfishing is the act whereby fish stocks are depleted to unacceptable levels, regardless of water body size. Resource depletion, low biological growth rates, and critically low biomass levels (e.g. by critical depensation growth properties) result from overfishing. For example, overfishing of sharks has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems.

Shark finning
Shark finning refers to the removal and retention of sharkfins. The rest of the living body is discarded in the ocean; however, some countries have banned this practice and require the whole body to be brought back to port before removing the fins. Sharks without their fins are often still alive; unable to move they sink to the bottom of the sea and die ofsuffocation or are eaten by other predators. Shark finning at sea enables fishing vessels to increase profitability and increase the number of sharks harvested, as they only have to store and transport the fins, by far the most profitable part of the shark.

Whaling
Whaling is the hunting of whales primarily formeat and oil.

Logging
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. However, in common usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities.

21

 Clear cutting
Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a controversial forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Clearcutting, along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ecosystems and to promote select species that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age stands.[1] Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety, and economic reasons. Detractors see clear cutting as synonymous with deforestation, destroying natural habitats[2]and contributing to climate change.[3] Clearcutting is the most popular and economically profitable method of logging. However, clearcutting also imposes other externalities in the form of detrimental side effects such as loss of topsoil; the value of these costs is intensely debated by economic, environmental, and other interests. Aside from the purpose of harvesting wood, clearcutting is also used to create land for farming. NEGATIVE IMPACT Clearcutting can have major negative impacts, both for humans and local flora and fauna. [7] A study from theUniversity of Oregon found that in certain zones, areas that were clear cut had nearly three times the amount of erosion due to slides. When the roads required by the clearcutting were factored in, the increase in slide activity appeared to be about 5 times greater compared to nearby forested areas. The roads built for clearcutting interrupt normal surface drainage because the roads are not as permeable as the normal ground cover. The roads also change subsurface water movement due to the redistribution of soil and rock. [8]Clearcutting can also lead to an increased possibility of rapid runoff, loss of economic sustainability in that no timber products are available for a long time after clearcutting, loss of habitat for some wildlife species, unattractive visual effect, greater possibility of unwanted shrub and grasses becoming established,[9] as well as a decrease in property values; diminished recreation, hunting, and fishing opportunities.[10] Clearcutting decreases the occurrence of natural disturbances like forest fires and natural uprooting. Over time, this can deplete the local seed bank.[11] An example of what clearcutting did in Ontario before 1900 can be found in Edmund Zavitz. The worlds rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of deforestation. Between June 2000 and June 2008 more than 150 000 square kilometers of rain forest were cleared in the Brazilian amazon. While deforestation rates have slowed since 2004, forest loss is expects to continue for the foreseeable future.[12] Farmers slash and burn large parcels of forest every year to create grazing and crop lands, but the forests nutrientpoor soil often renders the land ill-suited for agriculture, and within a year or two, the farmers move on EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE Clearcutting's main destruction is towards habitats, where it makes the habitats more vulnerable in the future to damage by insects, diseases, acid rain, and wind. Removal of all trees from an area destroys the physical habitats of many species in wildlife. Also clearcutting can contribute to problems for ecosystems that depend on forests, like the streams and rivers which run through them. When it comes to terms of forest biome, community of trees, plants, animals, insects, fungi and lichen all work together to increase each other's survival.[18] In Canada, the black-tailed deer population is at further risk after clearcutting. The deer are food source for wolves and cougars, as well as First Nations Groups and other hunters. While deer may not be at risk in cities and rural countryside, where they can be seen running through neighbourhoods and feeding on farms, in higher altitude areas they require forest shelter. 22

EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Environmental groups criticize clear-cutting as destructive to the water, soil, wildlife, and atmosphere, and recommend the use of sustainable alternatives.[20] Clear-cutting has a very big impact on the water cycle. Trees hold water and topsoil. Clear-cutting in forests removes the trees which would otherwise have been transpiring large volumes of water and also physically damages the understorey of grasses, mosses, lichens ferns etc. All this biomass is able to retain water during rainfall. Removal or damage of the biota reduces the local capacity to retain water which can exacerbate flooding and can lead to increased leaching of nutrients from the soil. The maximum nutrient loss occurs around year two, and returns to pre-clearcutting levels by year four.[21] Clear-cutting also prevents trees from shading riverbanks, which raises the temperature of riverbanks andrivers, contributing to the extinction of some fish and amphibian species. Because the trees no longer hold down the soil, riverbanks increasingly erode as sediment into the water, creating excess nutrients which exacerbate the changes in the river and create problems miles away, in the sea.[20] All of the extra sediment and nutrients that leach into the streams cause the acidity of the stream to increase, which can kill marine life if the increase is great enough.[21] The nutrient content of the soil was found to return to five percent of preclearcutting levels after 64 years, which demonstrates how clearcutting effects the environment for many years.[22] Over 95% of forests harvested in Nova Scotia are harvested using the technique of clear cutting. clear cutting a forest involves cutting down virtually every standing tree in a given area, leaving an exposed wasteland of tree limbs and tire ruts where a rich shady forest once stood.[23] Clearcutting can destroy an area's ecological integrity in a number of ways, including: the destruction of buffer zones which reduce the severity of flooding by absorbing and holding water; the immediate removal of forest canopy, which destroys the habitat for many rainforest-dependent insects and bacteria;the removal of forest carbon sinks, leading to global warming through the increased human-induced and natural carbon dioxide build-up in the atmosphere; the elimination of fish and wildlife species due to soil erosion and habitat loss; the removal of underground worms, fungi and bacteria that condition soil and protect plants growing in it from disease; the loss of small-scale economic opportunities, such as fruit-picking, sap extraction, and rubber tapping; and the destruction of aesthetic values and recreational opportunities

Deforestation
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. More than half of the animal and plant species in the world live in tropical forests. The term deforestation is often misused to describe any activity where all trees in an area are removed.[not in citation given][neutrality is disputed] However in temperate climates, the removal of all trees in an area[not in citation given]in conformance with sustainable forestry practicesis correctly described as regeneration harvest.[3] In temperate mesic climates, natural regeneration of forest stands often will not occur in the absence of disturbance, whether natural or anthropogenic.[4] Furthermore, biodiversity after regeneration harvest often mimics that found after natural disturbance, including biodiversity loss after naturally occurring rainforest destruction.[5][6] 23

Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are cut down to be used or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form ofcharcoal) or timber, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversityloss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive an enemy of cover for its forces and also vital resources. A modern example of this was the use of Agent Orange by the United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland. Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human induced, is an ongoing issue. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record.[5] Among countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase.

CAUSES
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.[9] Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.[10][11]Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.[10] One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.[12] Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new ows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery. In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions." The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities: that the poor shouldn't have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem. Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years. [25] Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government24

sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.

Illegal logging
Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber in violation of laws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission or from a protected area; the cutting of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits (see Box 1). Illegalities may also occur during transport, such as illegal processing and export; fraudulent declaration to customs; and the avoidance of taxes and other charges. Box 1. Logging in national parks: the case of Korindo (Indonesia) In March 2004, Greenpeace carried out of actions against a cargo ship transporting timber from the Indonesian company Korindo, which was being imported into France, UK, Belgium and the Netherlands. Korindo is known to be using illegal timber from the last rainforests of Indonesia. In May 2003, an Indonesian Government investigation confirmed that Korindo was receiving illegal timber from notorious timber barons known to obtain timber from an orang-utan refuge theTanjung Puting National Park.[1] Tanjung Puting National Park is a 4,000 square kilometre conservation area of global importance. It is recognised as a world biosphere reserve by the United Nations and forms the largest protected area of swamp forest in SouthEast Asia. Illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, local communities and to the economies of producer countries. Despite the economic importance of trade in timber and forest products, major international timber consumer countries, such as the EU, have no legal means to halt the import of illegally sourced forest products,[2] because the identification of illegally logged or traded timber is technically difficult. Therefore, a legal basis for normative acts against timber imports or other products manufactured out of illegal wood is missing. Scientific methods to pinpoint the geographic origin of timber are currently under development.[3] Possible actions to restrict imports cannot meet with WTO regulations of non-discrimination. They must instead be arranged in bilateral agreements. SCALE It is estimated that illegal logging in public lands alone causes losses in assets and revenue in excess of 10 billion USD annually.[4] Although exact figures are difficult to state, given the illegal nature of the activity, decant estimates show that most of the logging, more than half, that is done in the world is illegal most especially in open and vulnerable areas theAmazon Basin, Central Africa, Southeast Asia, the Russian Federation is illegal.[5] Available figures and estimations must be dealt with cautiously. Governments may tend to underestimate the situation. High estimates of illegal logging may constitute an embarrassment as these hint at ineffective enforcement of legislation or, even worse, bribery and corruption. On the other hand, environmental NGOs publish alarming figures to raise awareness and to emphasise the need for stricter conservation measures. For companies of the forest sector, publications providing high estimations can be regarded as potentially threatening for their reputation and their market perspective, including the competitiveness of wood in comparison to other materials. However, for many countries, NGOs are the only source of information apart from state institutions that probably clearly underestimate the 25

situation. For example, the Republic of Estonia calculated an amount of 1% illegally harvested timber in 2003, whereas it is estimated to reach a maximum of 50% by the ENGO "Estonian Green Movement".[6] In Latvia, the situation is comparable; anecdotal evidence points towards 25%[7] of logging being illegal. CONSEQUENCES Illegal logging contributes to deforestation and by extension global warming, causes loss of biodiversity and undermines the rule of law. These illegal activities undermine responsible forest management, encourage corruption and tax evasion and reduce the income of the producer countries, further limiting the resources producer countries can invest in sustainable development. Illegal logging has serious economic and social implications for the poor and disadvantaged. Furthermore, the illegal trade of forest resources undermines international security, and is frequently associated with corruption, money laundering, organized crime, human rights abuses and, in some cases, violent conflict. In the forestry sector, cheap imports of illegal timber and forest products, together with the non-compliance of some economic players with basic social and environmental standards, destabilise international markets. This unfair competition affects those European companies, especially the small and medium sized companies that are behaving responsibly and ready to play by fair rules. EAST ASIA The East Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (East Asia FLEG) Ministerial Conference took place in Bali in September 2001. The Conference brought together nearly 150 participants from 20 countries, representing government, international organizations, NGOs, and the private sector. The event was co-hosted by the World Bank and the Government of Indonesia. The meeting included detailed technical discussions of forest lawenforcement in relation to governance, forest policy and forest management as well as ministerial engagement. The Conference's primary aims were to share analysis on forest law enforcement; explore priority issues of forest law enforcement, including illegal logging in the East Asia region, among senior officials from forest and related ministries, NGOs and industry representatives; and commit to action at the national and regional level. EUROPEAN UNION In May 2003 the European Commission presented an action plan on forest law enforcement, governance and trade (EU FLEGT Action Plan). This marked the beginning of a long process by which the EU aims to develop and implement measures to address illegal logging and related trade. The primary means of implementing the Plan is through Voluntary Partnership Agreements with timber producing countries. AFRICA The Africa Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (AFLEG) Ministerial Conference was held in Yaound,Cameroon in October 2003. The meeting drew together ministers and stakeholders from Africa, Europe and North America to consider how partnerships between producers, consumers, donors, civil society and the private sector could address illegal forest exploitation and associated trade in Africa. The AFLEG conference, the second regional forest law enforcement and governance meeting after East Asia, resulted in endorsement of a ministerial declaration and action plan as well as a variety of informal implementation initiatives. 26

Saint Petersburg Declaration The Europe and North Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (ENA FLEG) Ministerial Conference was held in Saint Petersburg, Russia on 2225 November 2005. In May 2004, the Russian Federationannounced its intention to host the ENA FLEG process, supported by the World Bank. A preparatory conference was held in Moscow in June 2005. The Saint Petersburg conference brought together nearly 300 participants representing 43 governments, the private sector, civil society and international organisations. It agreed to the Saint Petersburg Declaration on Forest Law Enforcement and Governance in Europe and North Asia. The Declaration includes an indicative list of actions, intended to serve as a general framework for possible actions to be undertaken by governments as well as civil society. The conference took place as the United Kingdom prepared to pass the G8 Presidency to Russia. As Valery Roshchupkin, Head of the Federal Forestry Agency of the Russian Federation, confirmed, illegal logging would be of special importance for Russia as the G8 President and for the following G8 Summit, also held in Saint Petersburg. United States In response to growing concerns over illegal logging, on May 22, 2008 the U.S. amended the Lacey Act, when the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 expanded its protection to a broader range of plants and plant products (Section 8204. Prevention of Illegal Logging Practices). The requirements under the new Amendments are two-fold. First, the Lacey Act now makes it illegal to import into the United States plants that have been harvested contrary to any applicable Federal Law, State Law, Indian Tribal Law, or Foreign Law. If a plant is found to have been harvested in violation of the laws of the country where it was harvested, that plant would be subject to seizure and forfeiture if imported into the U.S. The Lacey Act also makes it unlawful, beginning December 15, 2008, to import certain plants and plant products without a Plant and Plant Product import declaration.[24] This Plant and Plant Product Declaration must contain (among other things) the Genus, Species, and Country of Harvest of every plant found in commercial shipments of certain products, a list of applicable products (along with other requirements and guidance) can be found on the USDA APHIS website

Mining

Acid mine drainage Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing Mountaintop removal mining Slurry impoundments

27

Toxins Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Environmental impact of the coal industry Herbicides Pesticides Toxic waste PCB Bioaccumulation Biomagnification Enviro nmental impact of hydraulic fracturing Waste Electronic waste Litter Waste disposal incidents Marine debris Medical waste Landfill Leachate Environmental impact of the coal industry Incineration Great Pacific Garbage Patch Exporting of hazardous waste Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing

28