Calculus

Chapter 4
Mathematics
CHAPTER 4 Calculus
Indeterminate form
, , , 0. , , , , ,
Example: Plot y= [x] Here [x] greatest integer not greater than x -2 x < -1 , y = -2 -1 x < 0 , y = - 1 0 x < 1 , y =0 1 x < 2 , y = 2
Various Plots
Y =ax 0<a <1
Y =ax 0<a <1
y y Y =ex Y =In x x
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Chapter 4
Mathematics
Limit of a function Let y = f(x) Then i = i.e, f x |< , | |< 0<| Some standard expansions ......... ......... =1+x+ og og Sin x = x Cos x = 1 Sinh x = x Cosh x = 1 + + =x = x + ......... + ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... as x a i p ies for any (>0), (>0) such that whenever
Some important limits i i i i i i i ( =1 ) =e =e = og =1 =1 =n

Chapter 4
Mathematics
L Hospita s Ru e When functions are of limit. or form differentiate Numerator & Denominator and then apply
Existence of limits and Continuity f(x) is defined at a, i.e, f(a) exists. If i f(x) = i f(x) = L , Then, the i If i f x f(x) exists and equal to L. i f x = f(a) then the function f(x) is said to be continuous.
Properties of continuity If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0 |f| or |g| is continuous at a
Example i Solution Using the formula above, i = i = i = Example i Solution i = i = . =1 . i . = . i
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Example Evaluate i Solution i [ = = = Example Find the limit i | |=? if possible i i

.
] * * = + +
Solution x < 0, x>0, i Hence i Example f(x) = = 0 Solution i f(x) = i = i f(x) = i = 0 = i = i = when x when x =0 i = x f(x) = 0 = x = 0 =0
= = 1 Here limits does not exists also discontinuous at x =0
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Ro es theore If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]. ii f x exists for every va ue of x in open interva a,b . (ii) f(a) = f(b). then there exists at east one point c between a, b such that f c
Geometrically There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to x axis.
C2
C1
Lagrange mean value theorem If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b] and ii f x exists in the open interva a,b , then at east one va ue c of x exist in a,b such that f c . Geometrically, it means that at point c, tangent is parallel to the chord line.
Cauchy mean value theorem If, (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,a+h] and ii f x exists in the open interva a,a h), then there is at least one number (0< <1) such that f(a+h) = f(a) + h f(a+ h) Let f1 and f2 be two functions:
Chapter 4
Mathematics
f1,f2 both are continuous in [a,b] f1, f2 both are differentiable in (a,b) f then, for a = Example f(x) = cosx Solution f(x) = cos x f x f( -sin x ) = cos (- ) = 0 , a= , b= ; find c fro Ro es theore 0 in (a,b)
f( ) = cos Hence f c c =0 Example Find c using Lagranges Mean value theorem from f(x) = 3 Solution f(1) = 15 f(3) = 49 f x 6x 5 + 5x + 7 in interval [ , ] - sinx = 0
a = 1 , b =3 f (c) = 6c + 5 = 6c + 5 = c = = 2 = 17
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Example
f(x) = ln x f x f c = = c = e-1 in interval [1 ,e]
Derivative
f x i
Provided the i it exists f x is ca ed the rate of change of f at x. Algebra of derivative:i f g f g
(ii) (f-g iii iv f.g f/g
fg f . g
. .
f.g
Derivative of a function of function: chain rule = .
Homogenous function Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn ( ) is called homogenous function of order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree. f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn- y f(x,y) = xn ( ) on ho ogenous function an yn
Eu ers theore
If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then, x +y = nu +
+ 2xy
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Total derivative If u f x,y ,x t y t = = Example If z = log( ez= x x.ez x +xy+ +y =2.f =2ez +xy + ), show that x +y =2 . + x+ .
ho ogenous,
+ y.ez +y =2
Monotonicity of a function f(x) 1. f(x) is increasing function if for , f
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x) > 0 2. f(x) is decreasing function if for , f
Necessary and sufficient condition, f x
Maxima-Minima
Two Types a) Global b) Local
Rule for finding maxima & minima If maximum or minimum value of f(x) is to be found, let y = f(x) Find dy/dx and equate it to zero and fro this find the va ues of x, say x is , , ca ed the critical points). Find If If If at x ,
, y has a minimum value ,y has a maximum value , proceed further and find at x ,
Chapter 4
Mathematics
If But If If If If
, y has neither
axi u
nor
ini u at x
va ue at x ,
, proceed further and find , y has minimum value , y has maximum value , proceed further
Note Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval. Point of Inflexion If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
(i) (ii) (iii)
, 0, Neither minima nor maxima exists
Taylor series f a h f a h f a f a ......... Point of inflexion
Maclaurian Series f x f x f f
h
Partial differentiation Taylor series f(x,y) = f(a, b) + [(x-a)fx(a, b) + (y-b) fy(a, b)] + fyy a,b ] .. [ fxx(a, b) + 2(x-a)(y-b) fxy(a, b) +
Error & approximation f= x+ approxi ate y
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Maxima & minima (Two variables) r= 1) 2) ,s= = 0, (i) if rt(ii) if rt(iii) if rt(iv) if rt, t= so ve these equation. Let the so ution be a, b , c, d and r axi u at a, b and r ini u at a, b < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point. > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
Example Find max and min value of Solution 6 5 x = 2, 3 6 6 5 6
| |
= - 6 < 0 maximum = + 6 > 0 minimum @x=2 @ x =3 = 16 60 +72 +11 = 39 = 54 135 +108 +11 =173 135 = 38
Maximum value Minimum value
Example Show that maximum value of Solution y= = x=1 =0+ ,
is less than its minimum value.
Chapter 4
Mathematics
At x = 1, At x = -1,
, =2 = -2 1+
minimum maximum = -2 = 2
Maximum value @ x = -1 = -1 + Minimum value @ x= +1 = Example Find the maxima and minima of 5 Solution 5 5 x =0, 1, 3 6 | = - 10 5 5 5
Maximum value = 1 5 + 5 1 = 0 | = 90 > 0 + 5 . 34 + 5 . 33 1 = -28
Minimum value = | =0 6 | = 30
Hence neither maxima, nor minima at point x = 0
Example Find the maxima and minima of 6 Solution 6 , x= Hence
, in interval [-1, 1]
= 1 +i : Monotonous function
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Integration
Reverse process of differentiation or the process of summation any continuous function. Standard Integral results 1. x dx 2. dx og x , n defines the integral of
3. e dx = e 4. a dx = 5. cos x dx 6. sin x dx 7. sec x dx 8. cosec x dx 9. sec x tan x dx (prove it ) sin x cos x tan x cot x sec x cosec x
10. cosec x cot x dx 11. 12. 13.

dx dx dx
sin sec sec sinh x cosh x tanh x coth x sech x cosech x x
14. cosh x dx 15. sinh x dx 16. sech x dx 17. cosech dx
18. sech x tanh x dx 19. cosech x cot h x dx 20. tan x dx 21. cot x dx 22. sec x dx 23. cosec x dx 24. 25. dx dx og sec x og sin x og sec x
tan x = og tan cot x = log tan a a = cosh = sinh
og cosec x og x og x x x
Chapter 4
Mathematics
26. a 27. a 28. x 29. 30. 31.
x dx x dx a dx dx = tan dx = dx = og og
sin x x a a
og x og x
x x
a a
where x <a where x > a
32. sin x dx 33. cos x dx 34. tan x dx 35. cot x dx 36. n x dx 37. e 38. e
sin x sin x tan x cot x x nx x a sin bx a cos bx e f x b cos bx b sin bx x x
sin bx dx cos bx dx f x ]dx
39. e [f x
Method of finding Integrals: (A) (B) (C) (D) Integration by INSPECTION Integration by TRANSFORMATION Integration by SUBSTITUTION Integration by PARTS
Integration by parts:
u v dx
u. v dx
v dx dx
Selection of U & V Inverse circular (e.g. tan
I L A T E E
x)
Logarithmic
Exponential Algebraic Trigonometric
Note: Take that function as u which comes first in ILATE

Chapter 4
Mathematics
Some Other Important Formulae Area = y dx = Vo u e sin x cos x sin x cos x r d r sin d
y dx= cos x cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x
Example sec x tan x dx = ? Solution = x = x sec tan = = sec
sec x tan x dx Example sin x dx
. sin
x dx
= sin x . dx = sin x, x = x sin = x sin = x sin x x x + .
. x dx
/
/
. x dx
/ /
(z = 1 x , dz = -2x dx )
Rules for definite integral 1) 2) = = + a<c<b
Chapter 4
Mathematics
3) =0 4) =0 =
=
/
+
/
if f(a-x)=f(x) if f(a-x)=-f(x)
=2
if f(-x) = f(x), even function if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
Example ( ) =?
Solution = ( ) ( = ) ( = ) ( ) ------ --------------------------------------(2)
Also, = Add (1) & (2) 2 = (
=0
Example =

-----------------------(1)
----------------------(2)
Add (1) & (2) 2 = =

= | =
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Improper integral Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a , then it is called as improper integral. Types of improper integral i) The interval increases without limit x b in case of
(a) let f(x) be bounded and integral is a

or to exist if i = i
B,
B >a. then
is said to converge
exists finitely and
(b) let f(x) be bounded and integral in A x

or to exist if i = i x
b for every A<b.Then f(x) is said to converge
exists finitely and
(c) Let f(x) be bounded and integral in A

B>a. Then i ii) =
a for every A<a and in a x B for every and
is said to be convergent if i exists finitely and we write + = i
+ i
(a) f(x) has infinite discontinuity only at the left end point, then
i 0< <b-a
(b) f(x) has infinite discontinuity at the right end point then

0< <b-a
(c) f(x) has infinite discontinuity at x=c, a<c<b then

If either of a or b does not exist then integral does not exist. Note on convergence is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite. for all x (ii) converges , then converges for all x (ii) diverges, then also diverges
also
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Assume both proper integrals and g(x) > 0 x a. If i both diverge.
and
exist for each b a where f(x)
=c where c 0, then both integrals
and
converge or
is converges when p and
and diverges when p is converges for any constant p and diverges for p
is convergent iff p is convergent iff p
Example Solution i = i =i =i [tan [tan tan = ] ] =?
Example Solution = i = i = i = + [ [ = ] + i ]+ i + i [ ] * . + = +
Thus integral diverges Example

Chapter 4
Mathematics
Evaluate Solution
if it converges
The integral becomes infinite at x=3 (second type improper integral) = sin ( )| =sin ( )
As t 0 =sin
( ) = sin
Vector calculus
Scalar point function If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar (P) is said to be a scalar point function for the region R. (P)= (x,y,z)
Vector point function If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is called a vector point function for region R. F(P) = F(x,y,z) = f1(x,y,z) +f2 x,y,z f3(x,y,z)
Vector differential operator or Del operator:
=(
Directional derivative The directional derivative of f in a direction is the resolved part of . =| |cos in direction .
Where is a unit vector in a particular direction. Direction cosine: Where, l=cos , m=cos , , n=cos ,
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Gradient The vector function as grad f. Grad f = = is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
is vector function If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then is a vector normal to the surface f and has a magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal. Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along | |.
Divergence The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and is defined by the equation. div. F = . F=f + div.F= . = Curl The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is defined by the equation. Curl F = =| | =( + + ) .(f + )
. is scalar . is Laplacian operator
is vector function
Solenoidal vector function If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function. Irrotational vector function If =0, then A is said to be irrotational otherwise rotational.
Chapter 4
Mathematics
DEL applied twice to point functions 1) div .grad f = 2) 3) 4) 5) curl grad f = div.curl F = . curl curl F = grad div F = f= + =0 =0 F = = + ---------- this is Laplace equation
F F
Vector Identities f, g are scalar functions & F, G are Vector functions 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) f g = f+ g . F G = .F .G F G = F G fg = f g + g f . fG = f. G f . G fG = f G f G F. G F G G F . F G = G.( F F. G F G = F( . G G .F
Also note 1) (f/g)= (g f f g)/ 2) F.G F .G F . G 3) (F G F G + F G 4) (fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f Vector product 1) Dot product of A B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
Rule: for evaluating the scalar triplet product (i) Independent of position of dot and cross (ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector [ABC] = A =B =C A 2) ( . = A. B . = B.C . = C.A . ) adjacent) Outer
. = -(B
= (extreme
= (Outer. extreme) adjacent - (Outer. adjacent) extreme

Chapter 4
Mathematics
( ( (
= ( . ) - ( . ) ) = ( . ) - ( . ) ( )
Example Find unit vector normal to the surface x = 4 at point ( -1 , -1 ,2 )
Solution Normal vector = = grad(x = At point (-1,-1,2) = -4 Vector = = (
Example Find directional derivatives of f(x , y , z) =x vector Solution f = at ( 2 , -1 , 1 ) in the direction of + at the point ( 2 , -1 , 1 )in the direction of
Directional derivation of = ( = =
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Line integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral Line integral = F R dR If F R dR dx f x,y,z dy = (x,y,z) + x,y,z dz ) Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
or F . ds .N ds, Surface integral : F Volume integral : x,y,z x,y,z and
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) + =
, then
Example If F=3xy -y , evaluate F .dR Where c is the curve in the xy plane y = 2x from (0,0) to (1,2). Solution Since the partic e F. dr = xydx oves in the xy p ane z y dy , we ta e R x y .Then,
c is y=2x , x goes from 0 to 1 6x 6x dx = - 7/6
Greens theore If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in R, then according to Greens theorem. P dx dy = ( ) dxdy
Sto es theorem If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then F. dr = Gauss divergence theorem The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over the boundary of a closed region is equal to the .N.ds =
F .N ds
Chapter 4
Mathematics
Problem on surface integral Example . where =
S is surface of a cube bounded by x = 0, x = 2 y = 0, y = 2 z = 0, z = 2 Solution By divergence theorem .. = = = .
=
= = 8 = 6 | . .
= 12 x 2 = 24
Even Function f (-x) = f (x) ex. Cos x , x2 etc
x2 cos x
Odd function f (-x) = -f(x) Example :

Chapter 4
Mathematics
Sin x, x3 etc x3 Sin x
Important Points If the function is even, then for any -a x t x d Example

/ /
a the function is even then
f x dx
/
osxdx
cosx dx
-/2 -
/2 x -a if the function is odd then f x dx
For a given a
Example
/ /
sinx dx y
-/2 /2
Important point for continuity and Differentiability If the function is discontinuous at any point it will be non differentiable at that point. If the function is non differentiable at any point it does not mean that it is discontinuous at that point.
|x| = max (x. x) x -x x x { x x x |x| is non differentiable at x = 0 but it is continuous at x = 0 |x|

Chapter 4
Mathematics
Maxima and Minima For finding maxima and minima of any function We first find If Example at x , , critical points than we check at x
Basically 2. If at x
for minimum value , y for minimum value
For the above Diagram
, that is rate of change of slope is ve so it is giving maximum

Calculus

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Chapter 4

Y =ax 0<a <1

Y =ax 0<a <1

Some important limits i i i i i i i ( =1 ) =e =e = og =1 =1 =n

Example i Solution Using the formula above, i = i = i = Example i Solution i = i = . =1 . i . = . i

Example Evaluate i Solution i [ = = = Example Find the limit i | |=? if possible i i

= = 1 Here limits does not exists also discontinuous at x =0

Provided the i it exists f x is ca ed the rate of change of f at x. Algebra of derivative:i f g f g

(ii) (f-g iii iv f.g f/g

Derivative of a function of function: chain rule = .

If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then, x +y = nu +

Monotonicity of a function f(x) 1. f(x) is increasing function if for , f

Necessary and sufficient condition, f x

(i) (ii) (iii)

, 0, Neither minima nor maxima exists

Taylor series f a h f a h f a f a ......... Point of inflexion

Error & approximation f= x+ approxi ate y

Example Find max and min value of Solution 6 5 x = 2, 3 6 6 5 6

Maximum value Minimum value

Example Show that maximum value of Solution y= = x=1 =0+ ,

is less than its minimum value.

Maximum value = 1 5 + 5 1 = 0 | = 90 > 0 + 5 . 34 + 5 . 33 1 = -28

Hence neither maxima, nor minima at point x = 0

Example Find the maxima and minima of 6 Solution 6 , x= Hence

10. cosec x cot x dx 11. 12. 13.

sin sec sec sinh x cosh x tanh x coth x sech x cosech x x

14. cosh x dx 15. sinh x dx 16. sech x dx 17. cosech dx

tan x = og tan cot x = log tan a a = cosh = sinh

26. a 27. a 28. x 29. 30. 31.

where x <a where x > a

sin x sin x tan x cot x x nx x a sin bx a cos bx e f x b cos bx b sin bx x x

sin bx dx cos bx dx f x ]dx

Selection of U & V Inverse circular (e.g. tan

Exponential Algebraic Trigonometric

Note: Take that function as u which comes first in ILATE

y dx= cos x cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x

Example sec x tan x dx = ? Solution = x = x sec tan = = sec

sec x tan x dx Example sin x dx

= sin x . dx = sin x, x = x sin = x sin = x sin x x x + .

Rules for definite integral 1) 2) = = + a<c<b

if f(-x) = f(x), even function if f(x) = -f(x), odd function

Solution = ( ) ( = ) ( = ) ( ) ------ --------------------------------------(2)

Also, = Add (1) & (2) 2 = (

Add (1) & (2) 2 = =

(a) let f(x) be bounded and integral is a

exists finitely and

(b) let f(x) be bounded and integral in A x

b for every A<b.Then f(x) is said to converge

exists finitely and

(c) Let f(x) be bounded and integral in A

a for every A<a and in a x B for every and

is said to be convergent if i exists finitely and we write + = i

(c) f(x) has infinite discontinuity at x=c, a<c<b then

Assume both proper integrals and g(x) > 0 x a. If i both diverge.

exist for each b a where f(x)

=c where c 0, then both integrals

is converges when p and

is convergent iff p is convergent iff p

Example Solution i = i =i =i [tan [tan tan = ] ] =?

Thus integral diverges Example

Vector differential operator or Del operator:

. is scalar . is Laplacian operator

= (Outer. extreme) adjacent - (Outer. adjacent) extreme

Example Find unit vector normal to the surface x = 4 at point ( -1 , -1 ,2 )

Solution Normal vector = = grad(x = At point (-1,-1,2) = -4 Vector = = (

or F . ds .N ds, Surface integral : F Volume integral : x,y,z x,y,z and

c is y=2x , x goes from 0 to 1 6x 6x dx = - 7/6