CHAPTER I

Purpose of the study The lack of competent professionals in specific fields has led to the creation of university training programs. The main characteristic of these programs is that they usually last four semesters (two years); this proposes a problem in education in terms of how to teach all the significant contents in a limited period of time. If we consider the financial costs education has nowadays, students and younger generations have to be sure that they will obtain proper and competent education; therefore, it is important for us, teachers, to go further and work towards quality education that fulfills the needs and expectations of those who need to become competitive professionals in the labor market. More specifically, the reason to carry out this project was to modify the current curriculum design and methodology of the English- Spanish technical translation program due to several deficiencies that affects students. The first deficiency is that the technical translation training program was adapted from the design established by the main campus for the translation undergraduate program which lasts five years. This adaptation apparently did not consider a set of priority objectives in terms of subjects and their content in relation to time; this is reflected on the fact that the program it is composed mainly of Information technology, Ethics and

Organizational management classes and which designated hours double the hours of translation classes, and which content is not related with translation. The translation classes itself, from the first to the last semester, focus mostly on cultural and grammatical differences, however there are no hours designated to develop the immediate need students have which is to translate. Especially, if we consider the nature of technical training programs it is important for universities to provide learning-by-doing education instead of theory: we have to remember that these students did not sign up to become doctors on a given subject, but for enter quickly in the labor market. The second deficiency is the lack of pre-requisite to enter the program, such as an English test. This had led to the formation of courses in which students have different levels of English proficiency and that put the majority of them in disadvantage, especially if we consider that the program employs a communicative approach focused on the preparation for the TOEIC test which has to be taken at the end of the program (fourth semester). This test is also taken by the rest of the university as a way to give students a formal certificate, hence added value to their studies. Third, the campus does not count with a computer laboratory designated for the program, translation related softwares, not even enough bilingual dictionaries for all the students. All the previously mentioned deficiencies reflect that there was not a previous analysis of the necessities before implementing the program and its established curriculum to the campus. 2

Given the fact the program does not have graduates working as translator yet it is impossible to know if the offered training is successful, however considering the grades students have had during the semesters, especially in the translation course, their comments and the rest of the teachers, it can be said that students are not ready to face the requirements of society and the current labor market, therefore, it is urgent to apply changes that fulfill and meet the real goals of the program.

This action research project will become a formal petition for the head authorities of the campus, which are already informed of the current state and development of this research and which they also support, as they are aware of the deficiencies the program presents and how it is affecting the students. In so doing the Translation courses and the whole program will benefit by improving its quality in

preparing successfully future translators for a career in the translation field, not only in Arica, but abroad. Also, the implementation of the improved design and methodology will probably increase the number of applicants, which will benefit the whole university.

Objectives of the study

Given

the

fact

that

technical

texts

have

certain

characteristics

that differentiate them from other type of texts, as they belong to different thematic field, translators are forced to acquire the necessary competences to face such complex diversity. A study made by Sevilla (2008) on the perception of the technical texts characteristics by students concluded that what students saw as most relevant and difficult were the understanding of the subject and the specific terminology that each technical text required, this is also supported by the opinion of the students and colleagues. Therefore, the proposal objective is to develop a design and methodology that can allow in students the development of translator subcompetences that will help them to overcome those difficulties producing quality technical translation and face problems related with this area, and basically prepare them for what will have to actually do in a future.

To sum up, the general goal can be defines as: improvement of specific translation sub-competences for the improvement of technical translations in one semester. The sub-competences to be developed are: (1) thematic subcompetence, which is related with the comprehension of the field, (2) professional-instrumental sub-competence, related with the use of documentary

sources, creation of glossaries and databases; and (3) strategic sub-competence, related with organization, identification and problem resolution and revision. The development of the sub-competences will lead to improve the accuracy in the meaning transference as students will gain a strong background in the subject field which will lead to differentiate between terms used only for a specific context. The objectives for this research were established by the necessities seen both in teaching and learning. The former can be set out by considering what translation students are going to do once they finish their studies:

Read informative technical texts in English of diverse and probably unknown genres and thematic fields.

Specialize in a technical translation field.

Increase their job opportunities by getting a specialization in translation or interpretation.

According to the previous we can obtain the objectives, which are:

General objective:

To design a curriculum design and methodology proper for technical translation training by enhancing specific translation sub-competences for the improvement of technical translations.

Specific objectives:

Students will be able to detect and define the need for information about the subject they are translating and its related terminology.

Students will be able to employ appropriately online databases and online dictionaries to look up information and equivalences.

Students will be able to evaluate and filter the information in order to guarantee its authenticity, validity and reliability.

Students will be able to use and add the information to a translation database (such as translation memory software).

Students will be able to transform PDF or scanned texts into doc. format with an optical character recognition software.

Students will be able to select and employ accurate technical equivalences from English to Spanish.

Students will be able to apply accurate technical equivalences according to the text function, type of reader, register and style.

Students will be able to improve textual fluency (cohesion) and coherence.

CHAPTER II

Following a brief definition of some common terms related to translation.

Accuracy: characteristic of translations that give high priority to preserving the informational content of the source text.

Adequacy: quality of a translation with respect to its Skopos; the degree to which it meets its intended function (Reiss & Vermeer, 1984).

Calque: or loan translation (itself a calque of German Lehnbersetzung) is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-word.

Coherence: generally, the quality of making sense; being logical. In skopos theory: (i) a translation has intratextual coherence if it makes sense in the situation where it is read; (ii) a translation has intertextual coherence if it makes sense with respect to its source text( Reiss and Vermeer, 1984).

Documentation: part of the translation process that consists in consulting different written sources in order to acquire terminological and thematic knowledge necessary to translate (Delisle, 1993).

Formal equivalence: linguistic unit that attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word. Specific linguistic unit in one language that carries the same intended meaning / message encoded in a specific linguistic medium in another (Kariminia, 2006). The similarity between a word (or expression) in one language and its translation in another (Bruce, Les 1995).

Functional approach to translation: approach which says that the translator should not be guided by the function of the source text (ST), as functional equivalence would have it, but by the function the target text (TT) is achieve in the TC (target culture) being mainly determined by its receiver (Nord, 1992).

L1: first or native language.

L2: second or foreign language.

Linguistic approach to translation: approach that focuses primarily on the function of the source text (ST) and the correspondence between a word or phrase and its closest equivalent in another language. According to Nida and Taber (1974) the aim is to reproduce, in the target language, the nearest equivalent to the message of the source language, in the semantic and stylistic aspect

Oblique translation techniques: techniques that are used when the structural or conceptual elements of the source language cannot be directly translated without altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the target language.

Optic

Character

Recognition:

usually of

abbreviated

OCR

is

the mechanical or electronic conversion

scanned images of

handwritten,

typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded text.

Parallel text: non-translated texts in the target language that are maximally similar in subject matter, text-type, function and genre to the target text; used as stylistic models by translators who wish to make their translations sound as natural as possible.

PDF( Portable Document Format): a file format used to represent documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems.

Skopos theory: technical term for the aim or purpose of a translation (Vermeer, 1989, p.227).

Text function: according to the functional approach, the function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation.

10

Source text (ST): original text that is to be translated into another language. Target text (TT): a translated version of a text. Terminology: specialized vocabulary, ideally with one-to-one equivalents in other languages, usually associated with a particular restricted domain. Translation: converting one language (SL; source language) to another (TL; target language) so that the TL could convey the intended message in SL. In other words, it is a process through which the translator decodes SL and encodes his understanding of the TL form. Translation brief (commission): Instruction that guide translation with regard to the information they choose from the initial offer or information (ST) and the way information needs to be transferred in the target text (TT).

Translation memory (TM): database that stores so-called "segments", which can be sentences or sentence-like units (headings, titles or elements in a list) that have been previously translated. A translation-memory system stores the words, phrases and paragraphs that have already been translated and aid human translators.

Translation process: Entire process of how a translator produces equivalences between a text or portions of a text into another language. Involves decoding the

11

meaning of the source text, documentating and re-encoding or translating this meaning in the target language. Also, it involves various activities like revising, editing and proof reading.

12

Theoretical framework

Translation is an ancient activity that paradoxically has developed in the last decades because of rising international trade, increased migration, the recognition of linguistic minorities, globalization, and the expansion in the use of the mass media and technology. In fact, according to Kiraly (2000) the translation market is among those that have changed most rapidly and dramatically due to the consolidation of the use of internet and globalization.

The relevance of translation in these last decades has led to development of translation studies (also known as traductology), the study of the theory and practice of translating and interpreting. However, despite this rapid development, the frameworks for the teaching of translation, such as curriculum design, objectives, evaluation criteria and methodological proposals are almost nonexistent (Hurtado, 1999).

Current state of translation training

Despite the lack of an established framework for translation teaching, the number of university-level programs has largely increased since the beginning of the 1990s. According to a study by Pym (2001), there are now more than three hundred

translation programs worldwide, however all might be described as experimental to 13

one degree or another [sic] (Pym, 2001). His study revealed that considering that many teachers have a background in language teaching; there is demand for specific training of trainers in this field (Pym, 2001). In fact, many institutions have recruited professional translators to teach translation courses in order to teach contents requiring technical competencies that lay language teachers do not have. Teachers that have a linguistic background, commonly English teachers, teach translation thinking on language proficiency as the main factor necessary to translate and therefore, employ a linguistic approach. By using the linguistic approach to translation there is an assumption that there are degrees of symmetry in some language combinations and the emphasis of the source text (ST), however as we know there are no words that have exactly the same meaning in one language. As far as the whole text is concerned, it is simply impossible to transfer all the message of the original text into the target text. Therefore, the linguistic assumption in translation limits the validity of the target text (TT); the result is the tendency to translate word for word, producing hybrid language variations in the target text (because of calque). According to Krings (quoted in Menck, 1991) translation learners under a linguistics approach to translation are not able to reflect on the reader of the translation, its necessities (why the text needs to be read and in what context) and its implications, therefore, they are not sufficiently aware of translational problems, needs or factors to consider before translating; according to Hning and Kussmau (quoted in Menck, 1991) students under the linguistict approach translate a text they do not understand for and addressee they do not know. These authors add 14

saying that this problem is not only seen in translation students under foreignlanguage teaching approach to translation but also in inexperienced translators. In translator training, the objective is to acquire translation competences (and not the L2 itself) on the basis of L1 and L2 proficiency (Nord, 1991). In fact, Nord considers a certain level of L1/L2 proficiency as prerequisite for the acquisition of the translation competence, however, as we know, this is not always possible, as learners usually come to translation programs without knowledge of a L2, so this language is taught at the same time with translation. Therefore, it is important to help students achieve successful translations without relaying completely on the foreign language proficiency. Commonly what it is seen in translation classrooms is that the students role is passive and the teacher is little more than a dispenser of correct answers, or better, a repository of translation equivalents and strategies that are to be made available to the entire class when one student displays a gap in his or her knowledge by suggesting a faulty translation (Kiraly,2000).This means that the instruction is teacher-centered, and learners are supposed to learn by being exposed to the expert knowledge the teacher possesses.

15

Skopos theory and the functional approach to translation

It is important to establish a criterion for the production and evaluation of translation as well as to lay down guidelines for the training of prospective translators. As it was mentioned before, the base criteria, under a linguistic-based theory, have been formal equivalences (henceforth equivalences) in which the problem lies on the assumption that there are degrees of symmetry in some language combinations and the emphasis of the source text (ST), limiting the validity of the target text (TT), because as we know there are no words that have exactly the same meaning in one language.

Skopos theory, consolidated by Hans Vermeer (Reiss & Vermer, 1984) and further developed by Nord, lies within the Functional Linguistic approach to translation theory that was originated in Germany during the 1970s and 1980s. Skopos theory, proposed that a translation should not be guided by the linguistic function of the source text (ST), but by the function determined by the Skopos i.e. the aim or purpose of a translation (Vermeer, 2000). In so doing, it is opposite to the traditional linguistic approach to translation which aim is to reproduce, in the target language, the nearest equivalent to the message of the source language, in the semantic and stylistic aspect (Nida & Taber, 1974). Therefore, the translator working under the functionalist approach must interpret the source text information, by 16

selecting those features which most closely correspond to the requirements of the target situation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997), and not the equivalence of the word. The advantage of the functional approach is that a text can be translated in different ways. Since the translator cannot derive the purpose the translation has to fulfill, it is necessary to have a translation brief which is given by an initiator or commissioner (the person who needs the translation). According to Nord (1997) the translation brief should contain the following: -The intended text function (i.e. informative, appellative, etc). -The target-text addressee -The time and place of text reception -The medium over which the text will be transmitted -The reason for the production or the reception of the text.

According to this, translations cannot be judged in terms of its equivalences, but in terms of its adequacy and coherence with the given instructions.

To sum up, the functional approach in translation teaching encourages translation teachers to move-away from equivalence-based principles, therefore, facilitating practice-oriented translator training by the inclusion of tasks with authentic and actualized texts that prepare students for real-life translation situations (Nord, 1994). By using authentic texts that have to be translated for different 17

purposes, students are forced to transcend purely linguistic structures and work actively, as well as creatively, with different text types within a communicative and cultural framework. Improving linguistic awareness on an intercultural basis, it helps students to acquire translation skills. By being able to determine a skopos for the translation of aST, translation teachers can adjust the translation task to the level of the respective student. The translation brief helps students because it is useful to recognize the specific translation situation. Nord (1994) has found that as a result of specifying the situation the tendency to make linguistics errors diminish. Furthermore, the functional approach is consistent because it can be applied to literary as well nonliterary translation and used for any type of text and language and cultural combination. Also, the functional approach makes translation teaching more rational, economical and independent of linguistic and cultural peculiarities (Nord in Goussard-Kunz, 2009). Another advantage is that by comparing the target situation outlined in the translation brief with the ST situation and function, translations problems can often be anticipated. Thus, this helps students to develop translation strategies. The functional approach provides a theoretical framework to rationally justify certain choices over others.

18

Translation as a set of competences For the aims of this paper, we will consider the definition of translation proposed by Kelly (2002) which is a teachable craft defined as macro competence constituted by a set of abilities, skills, knowledge and attitudes, that can be broken down into sub-competencies. According to Wilss (1996) translation activities in a classroom should contribute in a more or less integrated way to build-up translation competence, translation competence understood as a generic term for translation knowledge and skills. Since there are several definitions of what competency is, for the aims of this paper with special reference to technical education it will be defined as the integrated demonstration of a cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes that are observable and measurable, necessary to perform a job independently at a prescribed proficiency level (Earnest, 2001). Skills also involve higher order cognitive skills within Blooms Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) which are required to analyze, interpret, design, evaluate, create, plan, troubleshoot, diagnose, etc. Kelly, Delisle, Pym, Gile, Hurtado, Campbell, Hatim & Mason, Neubert ,quoted in Kelly (2002), have proposed and analyzed different types of subcompetences; however ,this research only considers the model proposed by Kelly as it is a better reflection of the professional reality and its practice. The model describes elements that intervene in greater or smaller degree in translation, and that each translator develops differently at different stages of the professional activity. The following is a description of each competence: 19

i. Communicative and textual sub-competence: the capacity to understand, analyze and produce texts of different types and thematic fields produced in the L1 and L2. It also refers to the recognition of characteristic and conventions of textual genres and sub genres present in the professional market of translation and interpretation. ii. Cultural sub-competence: knowledge about the main cultural institutions of the cultures of L1 and L2, in their historical and social context, as values, myths, perceptions, believes and behaviors of the cultures of L1 and L2.

iii. Professional instrumental sub-competence: The use of documentary sources, terminological search and glossary management, databases, etc. the use of internet and softwares necessary for translation (text processor, auto-editing, databases, PDF editors, etc.) among others.

iv. Thematic sub-competence: the basic knowledge on the thematic fields the translator works, which allow the access to the comprehension of the source text or additional documentation, also main authors and theoretical approaches to translation.

v. Psycophysiological sub-competence: the consciousness of being translator, self-confidence, concentration, memory, etc.

20

vi. Interpersonal sub-competence: The capacity to interrelate and work professionally in team, not only with colleagues, but also author, clients, etc.

vii. Strategic sub-competence (or transference sub-competence): the procedures that apply to organization and performance of the work, identification and problem resolution and self-evaluation and revision. This is very important as proposes translation as a problem-solving activity which involves problem recognition as well as decision-making, since recognition of the problem necessarily precedes decisions as to the various strategies which can be taken to solve it. (Kaiser-Cooke, 1994: 137).

The relevance of considering competencies in translation is to improve the development of educational approaches, as it is possible to establish general and specific objectives in training. Therefore, the role of a teacher is to design activities that help to develop the sub-competencies in order to achieve a final objective that will constitute the translation competence as a whole.

21

Technical translation teaching

Technical translation refers to the translation of technical texts, which have certain characteristics that differentiate them from other type of texts, as they belong to different specific thematic field such science, technology, mechanics, etc. According to Bowker (2002), Recorder & Cid (2004), Corpas (2004) and Hurtado (2001) among others, the main characteristics of technical translation are: (1)

thematic field, (2) specialized technical terminology and (3) norms of text function of the genre. A study by Sevilla (2008) on the student` perception of technical texts characteristics concluded that what students saw as most relevant and difficult were the comprehension of the subject and the specific terminology that each technical text required. Thus, it is important to develop a syllabus that can allow students to acquire the translator sub-competences that will help them to overcome those difficulties producing quality technical translation and face problems related with this area, and basically prepare them for what will have to actually do in a future. Considering the duration of the technical translation training program (two years) it is important to establish priorities regarding which sub-competences will be emphasized in teaching. The primary sub-competences to develop is the professional-instrumental subcompetence (also known as documentary sub-competence), as it is strictly related with one of the stages of the translation process, documentation. Recorder & Cid 22

(2004:73) agree claiming that traditionally, documentation and translation have had numerous links; in fact each one acts as auxiliary science of the other.Moreover, Mayoral (1994: 118) states that "The work of translation is above all a problem of documentation." The use of documentary sources (such as internet and parallel texts), creation of glossaries and databases will allow students to practice and obtain unconsciously another related sub- competences, such as the communicative and textual subcompetence, thematic sub-competence and strategic sub-competence; Hurtado (2001: 62) agrees stating that: the documentary capacity has a central place over the set of competences, as allows the translator to acquire knowledge on the thematic field, terminology and on the norms of text function of the genre. Precisely, the professional- instrumental sub-competence (see Translation as a set of sub-competences) allows translators to satisfy their concrete information needs in an efficient way and in less time. On the other hand, the lack of information and documentation in a translation can lead inevitably to errors. According to Nord an error is defined as a failure to carry out the instructions implied in the translation brief and as an inadequate solution to a translation problem(1991), then the following errors in translations can be mentioned: (1) pragmatic translation errors, which are the result of lack of receiver orientation, (2)cultural translation errors, which are due to an inadequate decision with regard to reproduction or adaptation of culture-specific conventions, (3) textspecific translation errors, which are related to a text-specific translation problem and 23

(4)linguistic translation errors, caused by an inadequate language structures. Nord adds that errors in most cases exist "due to deficiencies in the translator's source- or target-language competence; however, such errors may also be made by translators who are linguistically competent, but have low ethical standards(1997) , for example, translators that, given the lack of documentation, do not know anything about the topic they are translating.

The accomplishment of emphasizing the professional- instrumental subcompetence and subsequently other related sub-competences will lead to improve the accuracy (according to the functionalist approach to translation) in the meaning transference i.e. improvement on the selection and use of specialized and technical terms according to the text function, type of reader, register and style, as also cohesion and coherence of the text.

The consideration of the previous constructs provide the base for this action research as it is necessary to change the way translation teaching is carried out in some universities. Jakobsen (1994) proposes that a translation class should be one in which students and teachers can be active at the same time and in which the target text is in the process of being created, therefore, teacher do not have to limit to lecture and correct mistakes, but they can collaborate by suggesting strategies or tools in the ongoing process of learning.

24

Chapter III Research design Classroom background information The class in which this research was performed corresponds to a second year translation course of the English- Spanish translator - training program at a local state university in Arica. The class itself is constituted by eleven students (five females and six men) of diverse socio-cultural backgrounds (some students are from other cities, some of them have previous training degrees such in agriculture or commerce), their ages vary from twenty to twenty eight years old, being twenty two the average age. Most of them hold jobs during the day. The class meets three times a week. The syllabus of the course is based on technical translations. According to conversations with the program coordinator and the students during the first and second semester of 2011, it was possible to obtain the following information: the previous translation teacher did not have formal translation studies and had only one year of experience as translator. The lack of training, experience and translation methodology in the classes was noticed by the students; according to them he usually limited to write some equivalences on the board without previous analysis or discussion, and after delivering a translation they only received the grade, but no further comments. It is important to mention that eventually the mentioned teacher was dismissed by time incompatibility and the student repetitive complains. From the 25

previous it can draw that the former teacher did not have the necessary competences to teach and to provide useful resources and mediums for the students, who had an important role, as they were able to identify and request their necessities.

Another important factor to consider is that none of these students had a strong base of English, according to them they did not learn in school, but they claim to have learned at the university. Currently, according to the parameters of TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), an English language test designed specifically to measure the everyday English skills of people working in an international environment, students English proficiency can be classified as intermediate2 in listening and reading comprehension. The two English classes (Lengua Inglesa IV and Lengua Inglesa V) they have in the program prepare them to take that exam. According to the TOEIC simulations exams students had so far, they could be classified as having an intermediate level, being 6.0 class average grade. According to the English teacher the average grade students had was equivalent to 500 points in the TOEIC examination (the intermediate level is between 405-600 points); these was also observable as students in class could fulfill the tasks TOEIC considers at that level, like using a dictionary to understand technical documents, writing with short paragraphs or letters of complaint, describing of processes and filling out simple application forms.

26

Action-research methodology

This thesis was carried out under action research, which according to Nunan (1992) and Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) is a type of research that has three defining characteristics: it is carried out by practitioners, it is collaborative and it is aimed to change things; specifically in this case these changes aim to improve classroom practice (Berthoff, 1987). In order to have a more precise methodology, the processes of action research followed were the one proposed by Burns (1999) and Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) which are: (1)exploring, (2) identifying,(3) consulting with interested parties,(4) reviewing research literature,(5) planning,(6) collecting data,

(7)analyzing/reflecting,(8)hypothesizing /speculating,(9) intervening,(10) observing, (11)reporting, (12) writing and (13) presenting the research. The techniques to gather data in this research were qualitative in nature; however this does not exclude quantitative techniques to express results. This approach was adopted in order to allow an in-depth exploration of the class.

Following a description of some of the processes carried out in this research:

1. Exploration

27

This action research began by exploring the translation class itself by means of observation of the behavior of the students in the class in order to identify the element or elements that prevent a successful classroom practice. Along with the observation, notes were taken in order to record the observable behavior patterns and relevant information product of conversations with the students, other teachers and the program coordinator. At that same time a reflexive log was kept during the whole research in which personal perceptions of the phenomenon were written.

2. Identification The identification of the elements that prevented a successful classroom practice were made through the identification of type of errors in the three first translations produced on the last part of the seconder semester (October, November, December, 2011). These translations were evaluated with a rubric based on the basic principles of the functionalist approach proposed by Vermeer and supported by Nord (1994) (see Assessment). Also, through the preliminary observation and data gathering of the class during the two firsts weeks of October, the following factors related to the translation classroom were identified: The class did not have a proper methodology to translate: students just limited to read paragraphs and translate directly.

28

After the analysis of three translations it was possible to notice that students did not produce acceptable translations due to pragmatic errors, problems in the election (or total absence) of accurate equivalences, i.e. students tended to select equivalences that were not appropriate for the register, field or style of the text.

The average grade of the translation class, after three translations, was 4.4. Student did not have proper tools to look for more information about the topic they were translating, as the library is too small and limited and there is no access to internet in the classroom.

The most requested tool was bilingual dictionaries. Considering the program duration and curriculum, students must produce acceptable translation without depending completely on their English proficiency.

The previous factors led to identify several problems in the translation classroom: There was not a proper infrastructure and tools for the class (such a computer laboratory or enough dictionaries) and despite the intermediate level of English of the students the translation they produce do not reach an acceptable level, this was reflected on the average grade of the course in the second semester (4.4). Grades worried student as meant that they could fail the course, increasing the possibility of abandoning the program, hence losing the money invested in their education.

3. Consultation with interested parties

29

By the third week of October several informal meetings were held with the program coordinator, the English teacher and the ethics teacher in order to talk about their perception about the students, their performance and the development of the program. The most important data gathered in these conversations was provided by the program coordinator and the English teacher: according to the grades obtained in the English class in preparation for the TOEIC examination (See Appendix) students level of English could be classified as intermediate. Also, informal conversations with the students were held and registered in the reflexive log.

4. Review of research literature By reviewing the existing literature on translation education, it was possible to notice that there are few authors that refer to translation training (Hurtado, Kiraly and Kelly among others) and still there are no fixed or proved methodologies to teach translation, even less for technical translation training. However, by considering that translation is a a teachable craft defined as macro competence constituted by a set of abilities, skills, knowledge and attitudes, that can be broken down into subcompetencies (Kelly, 2002) it was possible to think on a curriculum and methodology to build-up the translation sub-competences proper for technical translation training.

30

The following question was formulated in order provide guidelines to frame the initial direction of the research: what can be done to provide students technical translation training methodology and improve their translations in one semester?

5. Planning By the third week of observation the plan of action for data gathering was developed in which it was decided to use qualitative data gathering techniques in order to have a more rich understanding of the phenomenon.

6. Data collection Besides the preliminary data collection performed as part of the exploration and consultation with the interested parties, the following methods for gathering data were performed: Observation and field notes of the class since October 20th, 2011 to May 25th, 2012 Analysis of 3 translations tasks of the same length (7 pages) and difficulty (formal descriptive texts with technical language and clear grammar structures) with a rubric (see Appendix) before and after the implementation of the action (42 translations in total). Two anonymous semi-structured questionnaires (see Appendix for the translated questionnaires).

31

Semi structured interviews (see Appendix). Three case study (see Appendix).

In November, 2011 the first anonymous semi- structured questionnaire in Spanish was applied; anonymous in order not to influence the learners response and semistructured in order to avoid the bias of introducing or imposing the researchers opinion. Along with the questionnaire, three students selected randomly were interviewed on the first week of December, in order to get more information and triangulate the answers from the questionnaires. These two data gathering techniques were applied considering three variables: students needs regarding infrastructure, tools, students needs regarding methodology and students` perceptions on their performance, development, skills and proficiency. Also, the three case studies were performed considering the students with the highest, mean and lowest grade in order to study the particularity and complexity of a single case (Stakecited by Drney, 2007). Subsequently, during November, a point of saturation was reached i.e. a point in which further data does not seem to add new information (Nunan, 1992). The next step was the analysis of the gathered data.

32

7. Data Analysis In order to make an analysis of the data obtained from the reflexive log, interviews, case studies and the first questionnaire, repeated patters of the answers were classified into four categories:

Types of errors in translation

Students needs on infrastructure tools and

Students needs on methodology

Students perception on performance development, skills and proficiency

Errors in word selection due ignorance of the topic to translate that led to problems with comprehension and coherence

Computer laboratory for all the translation classes

Structured methodology

Perception of having a good English level

Perception of not translating well, despite the English proficiency

Internet connection Translation softwares -

Perception of the program as being too short for its complexity

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8. Formulation of the hypothesis

Considering the duration of the program and students needs and perceptions the following hypothesis was formulated: Through the development of the strategic sub-competence, professional instrumental sub-competence and the thematic subcompetence of translation (reflected on (1) the use of computer technology, such as software, (2) the creation of glossaries and (3) reading of parallels texts in Spanish) the translations produce by students will improve. This improvement refers to accuracy in meaning transference, text fluency, comprehension, coherence, selection and use of specialized and technical terms according to text function, type of reader, register and style

9. Intervention The next phase was to design a curriculum, a methodology based on competences and ad-hoc teaching strategies (see Curriculum design) to develop the previously mentioned sub-competences. In order to accomplish the latter, it was necessary to request the computer laboratory in order to use its resources, as this last is, of course, a better source of information than just a bilingual dictionary, which do not always represent a supportive resource for translating technical documents as do not provide satisfactory and updated information about the specific language use of terms due to the dynamic development of technology and the parallel expansion of new terminology (Park,1993). 34

On March 23rd, 2012, after summer break (January and February, 2012), the curriculum and the methodology were implemented in the class (see Teaching Strategies). The computer laboratory was granted for two hours a week. Under the implementation, three translation projects were performed, analyzed and evaluated by means of the rubric (see Assessment). This rubric was modified with the implementation, by adding a section to evaluate documentation (the glossary). Finally, in order to validate the hypothesis a second questionnaire was applied. The translations were analyzed with the rubric, along with the class activities, the reflexive log was still written, in order to record the outcomes of the methodological implementation.

CHAPTER IV Curriculum design

35

The curriculum design implemented in this research is defined as holistic; it consideres as basis a learner-centered, problem-centered and a competency-based curriculum design. The competency-based curriculum prevailed, mainly because the rise of the technical translator training program itself comes from the necessity to cover an area of the labor market, therefore, it was necessary to consider occupationspecific competencies in the curriculum design. However, it is also learner-centered as situates learning hand in hand with the students and problem-centered as it focuses in how to solve the problem of teaching to translate technical texts in a short period of time. Tiechler (2000) indicated that curriculum, teaching and learning for higher education should be more applied in nature or more practice oriented in various ways. Practice oriented to higher education has to understand and tackle the complexity of real phenomena intellectually rather than take theory as an excuse for addressing the real phenomena only as far as the theoretical approaches seem to allow. Norton (quoted by Sullivan,1995) describes that some essential elements of competency based education are that the competencies to be achieved have to be carefully identified, verified and made public in advance, assessment of the competency has to take the participants knowledge and attitudes into account, however it requires actual performance of the competency as the primary source of evidence; and also that participants have to progress through the instructional

36

program at their own rate by demonstrating the attainment of the specified competencies. According to Foyster (1990), Delker (1990) and Norton (1987) some characteristics also include supporting theory integrated with skill practice (essential knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills), and the satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified competencies. Some of the beneficial characteristics of this approach identified by Norton (1987) include the following:

Participants will achieve competencies required in the performance of their jobs.

Participants build confidence as they succeed in mastering specific competencies.

Training time is used more efficiently and effectively as the trainer is a facilitator of learning as opposed to a provider of information.

More training time is devoted to working with participants individually or in small groups as opposed to presenting lectures.

More training time is devoted to evaluating each participants ability to perform essential job skills. The contents and topics aim to engage the students in the development of

specific competences in order to be able to translate accurately technical translations. The breadth and depth (the scope) of content and topics, learning

37

experiences and organizing threads found in the curriculum plan are oriented to the production of quality technical translations, specifically the translation of a 15 page technical text per week. In regard to the sequence, the content of this unit was organized in a vertical and horizontal organization as sub-competences will be taught from basic to advances and relying on the students previous experience. It also has a horizontal organization so the content and the sub-competences build on one another, but at the same employing different technical subjects (according to the text to be translated, for example, medicine, mining, etc.).

The activities were designed starting from the use of online dictionaries, forums to more complex activities such as the creation of glossaries in shared databases. This kind of sequencing the contents of the curricular unit provides the learners with easy and concrete content at first and then it evolves into a more complex and abstract content at the end. The principle of continuity is achieved because the knowledge and competences students will get are correlative, interrelated and integrated. All of them have to be employed in order to achieve the goal. The concept of integration is also covered in the design of this unit since the activities aim at connecting several sub-competences that will lead to a final product. The unit connects with other subjects in the way that they should prepare

38

students to acquire English as foreign language, use technology appropriately and known how to manage their own business. Balance was achieved as the activities were designed following the translation process, therefore, there is theoretical base supporting it and a consideration of priorities.

Curriculum design rationale The curriculum proposal developed was based on a functionalist and positivist approach. Functionalism focuses on the ways that universal education serves the

39

needs of society and because sees education in its manifest role: conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation. The second approach, positivism, asserts that the only authentic knowledge is that which is based on sense, experience and positive verification, therefore, if we translate those approaches into a form of teaching it will be competency based education. Competence as a term is not easy to describe, however, most of its definitions agree that is the demonstration of performance, as knowledge by itself is not much of utility which according to Savage (1993) can be defined as a functional approach to education which focuses on the outcomes of learning, i.e. what learners are expected to do instead of focusing on what they are expected to learn about. Besides all the stated previously, we have to consider the sources for the construction of the curriculum; it can be said that this design proposal in order to be effective was conceived as holistic given the fact that takes into account society, knowledge and learner as a source as factors to design the curriculum. Society (for example, future employers and the translation consumers) play a fundamental role in the design of the programs, as the indicate the necessities translators to-be need to fulfill; in fact Dewey (quoted by Ornstein& Hunkins, 1998) realized that educators needed to be in touch with the needs of society, as it defines what is meaningful to teach, moreover according to Ornstein& Hunkins (1998) schools are designed to serve the broad social interests of society. Knowledge, like the knowledge on traductology can also be considered as source; however it is important to consider that knowledge is socially constructed and 40

reconstructed (Hunkins in Ornstein& Hunkins, 1998). Also, it is impossible to forget that learners are indeed a source as teachers, which for pedagogical purposes must consider their attitudes, interests, etc. A relevant point that supports the employment of a competency based design is that according to Ornstein& Hunkins (1998) a key feature of curriculum designs that draw on the learner as source emphasized learning by doing, more over Dewey asserted that learning requires students to apply knowledge and solve problems. Another consideration is that a design that consider learners as a source emphasize learning by doing, moreover competency based education is learner centered, as the individuals are responsible for their own learning.

Dewey asserted that learning requires students to apply knowledge and solve problems which goes very well with the definition of translator by some modern academics (Mayoral,1995; Kelly, 2002), who proposes that translators are strategicproblem solvers as they have to solve problems like unknown terminology, which, according to they, can be solves with problem documentation, as Elena (1996) proposes the translator must learn to reflect by previously performing the documentation stage, only in this way it is possible to obtain the necessary data to relate the possibilities of exchange between the two languages and cultures. The translator is forced by its profession to search and find solutions, to gather and select data. 41

Needs Analysis In order to carry out this proposal successfully it is important to specify what learners are able to do (the starting level) and what they should be able to do (what it is expected at the end of the course). Considering those variables, it is possible to measure the standards they should have at their corresponding level. In order to perform the needs analysis conversations were held with the program coordinator and translators who are currently working. In regards to the students and in order to get a more objective perspective from them the best option was to apply an open questionnaire asking them about their interests, beliefs, level of acceptance, expectations regarding their future as technical translator , what changes they though the program should have in order to be consider successful.

Then, in order to know what learners are able to do and what they should be able to they had to translate a 3 page text of a technical subject; they had to translate at least 50 terms accurately, i.e. they could not get confused with terms that do not belong to the field or false cognates. Their level of English was already known by the TOEIC examination. Learners (Second year translation students)

42

Teacher Specifications of Needs

Society (University, Translation agencies, etc)

a. Learner: knowledge of specialized and technical vocabulary for accuracy and specialization. b. Society: competent and specialized translators. c. Teacher: technical translation teaching program.

Mission Analysis The mission objective is that by the end of the course, at least a 80% of students of the Translation course in technical translation program will improve, by the

43

development of translation sub-competences their accuracy in meaning transference in technical translation. By the end of the course, the students must be able to translate a 7 page technical text in 7 hours (the total amount of hours of the Translation class per week) and handing a subject related glossary composed of 30 terms with their Spanish/English equivalences as well their definition according to the translated subject. This text should have at least 70% of accurate terms according to the register, style, function, etc. in order to be considered successful.

Performance requirements Performance Disadvantages requirements Advantages Alternatives

44

Allows workshops Promotes Computer laboratory authonomy Allows thematic and terminological knowledge Allow awareness of market interests and Authentic technical texts needs Allows documentation Internet connection Abby Fine Reader (Optical Character Recognition software) Trados (Translation memory software) Allows PDF editing Better quality Expensive licence Expensive licence Cracked version Wordfast (Translation memory software) workshops Bad signal Bilingual dictionaries Not updated Greater difficulty Updated texts download from internet Not always available Technical failures Personal notebooks

45

To improve technical translation 0.0

To identify field, text type and function.

Read source text (PDF technical text) in English 1.0

To identify information voids (lack of equivalences, subject Identify information comprehension) voids 2.0
2.1

To research and employ appropriately parallel texts Create final and a online subject matter to dictionaries glossary (30 look up words minimum) information. 3.0
3.1

To create a subject matter related glossary. Identify segments

that require oblique translation 4.0 techniques

To translate selecting and using technical terms according to the context, Revise text function, translation draft type of reader, register and style. 5.0
5.1

1.1

4.1

Identify text, register, style and function

Identify unknown technical words

Download and install Abby Fine Reader software

Report segment with the class

Edit translation draft

1.2 2.2

3.2

4.2

5.2

Look for information in Spanish about the subject matter (in Function parallel texts) 1.3

Search terminology in online or analysisdictionaries up to task forums 2.3

Transform PDF into a doc format

Discuss a solution

analysis
3.3

Proof read translation draft

4.3

5.3

Comprehend subject matter

Filter information in order to guarantee its authenticity, validity and reliability 2.4 1.4

Upload the transformed source text doc file into Wordfast online software 3.4

Apply the discussed techniques 4.4

Revise, edit and correct format

5.4

Summarize source text

Share and compare terminology with the rest of the class 2.5

Translate as a draft

46
1.5 3.5

Select 20 and classify them by type of technique 4.5

Deliver and present final version of the translation 5.5

Means and Method Analysis Needs analysis

To technical translations looking by up improve 1. Students read Students will have the opportunity improve technical comprehensively identifying function, text register

Mission Profile

Methods-Means possibilities

Function Analysis
Learners must learn the proper subin solve

Review
Pros: a. Development of autonomy to

competences order to

solve translation

47

information selecting proper equivalences

and the

and style.

translations by looking up

translation problems. b.

problems. To doing. learn by

2. Students identify problems (information voids). 3. Students look up correctly information for in

information and selecting the proper equivalences according to the text style, register and function.

according to the text style, register and function.

Cons: a. English pronunciation is left aside as there is more emphasis on reading and writing.

online dictionaries, parallel texts, etc. 4. Students employ oblique translation techniques to solve words that do not have equivalence. 5. Create subject matter database. direct

Situation analysis The goal of situation analysis is to identify the factors that can affect positively or negatively- the completion of the curricular proposal, in other words, the strengths and weaknesses of the process.

48

i.

Societal factors: Translation is an ancient activity that paradoxically has developed in the last decades because of rising international trade, increased migration, globalization, the recognition of linguistic minorities, and the expansion of the mass media and technology. Especially in our region translation has focused on specialized technical fields (for example, mining, medicine, technology, etc), therefore, there is a need for specialized translator that can fulfill those tasks.

ii.

Project factors: The curriculum project has been an opportunity to take into account students needs, my experience as translator, the university itself and time; this last especially because the aim is to prepare translator in 2 years by focusing in competences rather than in content that would not be useful for the students.

iii.

Institutional Factors: The University where the program is imparted is a state educational institution where the principle purpose is about to give continuous and specialized training to its students at any field, however the aim was lost (at least in the translation program) as it did not consider several factors in order to make the program more effective. 49

iv.

Teacher Factors: Teachers participation in the development is of providing students the tools for learning and become autonomous.

v.

Learner Factor: The needs that learners have and will have were the most important at the moment of developing the unit, that is why there was an emphasis on competences, in that way they could learn by doing and prepare themselves to be autonomous learners and problemsolvers.

vi.

Adoption Factors: Any visible difficulties in carrying this project out, as it does not affect the teaching of contents or the final result: quality and specialized translations; however it is important to consider that each implementation needs a previous research in order to fulfill the real necessities of students.

Course Rationale

Syllabus design: The course syllabus includes: Technical text characteristics

50

How to recognize text function, register and style Technical terminology

Documentation in translation How to look for information on internet Use of online dictionaries Use of parallels texts Use and creation of glossaries Use of translation softwares (How to install and use Wordfast, Abby Fine Reader and Microsoft Word)

Tools for editing a translation Tools to transform the target text as close (format/esthetics) to the source text (Microsoft word, Photoshop, websites)

Technical translation: Medicine & health technology Psychology Psychiatry Genetics Medical radiography

- Ophthalmology

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Teaching Strategies

The teaching strategies employed in this proposal were several, however, it is important to mention that the integration of technology, specifically computers and internet is crucial as enhances and extends the learning experience. In fact, translation 52

scholars, like Schmied (2003) and Kiraly (2001) stress the need for online information resources as part of the modern translator education, as this resources are extensive and constantly updated, the necessary to acquire terminological and thematic knowledge.

Students developed the translator sub-competences by working on a translation project. The translation project consisted in the ongoing process of translation, which considered the reception of the source text, its reading, analysis, translation, application of strategies, revision, proofreading and final edition; the latter considers transforming the target text as close, aesthetically (format), to the source text. Finally, the translation project was delivered and evaluated according to a rubric (See Assessment). The translation project starting from the reception of the source text leave students, just like professional translators, in a position in which they had to make decisions in order to solve problems for translating and delivering successfully their translations. Following a description of what students did after the methodological implementation to developed the thematic, professional-instrumental and strategic sub-competence:

First, students had to read the source text and underline the terminology they did not know (the problem is recognized). Second, they had to solve the problem that represented not knowing the topic and its terminology by choosing the strategy to acquire the proper knowledge; this was performed by looking for information on 53

websites (such as www.wikipedia.com), online dictionaries, databases, forums, etc. (development of the strategic problem). Students also had to look for online parallel texts in Spanish in order to reach an in-depth understanding of the subject (development of the thematic sub-competence and the professional-instrumental subcompetence). It is important to mention that online reading is another teaching strategy considered the most effective way for learners to achieve in-depth comprehension of certain topics. After looking the information, in the third step students had to fill up a glossary chart (See Appendix) within the two hours class in the computer laboratory. The glossary and the parallel texts had to be the basis for the translations as an obligatory process, because they provide the necessary documentation to translate a technical text. After the filling of the glossary charts, the findings had to be compared and shared in form of unstructured oral discussions by the students in order to validate the equivalences.

After having the proper documentation, the translation itself began (i.e. transfer of information from one language to another), in which students had to apply the theoretical knowledge acquired in the previous semesters. They had to show, in separate pages after their translations, the application of oblique translation techniques through sentence comparison (See Appendix) in order to demonstrate and ensure the modifications produced along the translations when the structural or conceptual elements of the source language could not be directly translated without 54

altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the target language.

Students also had to deal with another instrumental problems just like professional translator do; they had to deal with texts that were not digitalized, this means hard copies. For a translator non digitalized texts are a challenge because it is much easier to translate texts from one source (hard copy or digital copy) as it minimize the errors product from transferring the information manually. So students had to learn to download, install and use an optical character recognition software, such as Abby Fine Reader, software useful to convert scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into word processors (like Microsoft Word) for its posterior translation, revision and editing. The terminology filled in the glossary charts and applied in the translation had to be digitally save (for its posterior use) in a translation memory software, which students also had to learn to download, install and use. Presentation is very important; therefore students have to solve another instrumental problem: how to make a plain sheet the most similar to the source text, specifically the type of font, its size and distribution of the paragraphs. It is important to mention that a two week deadline was established for submiting the translations. The translations were evaluated in their content, accuracy, register, grammar and style, shifts and omissions; however, they were also evaluated in the

55

application of translation techniques and the presentation of the glossary chart, as a way to consider the whole translation process (for more information see Assessment).

Case method also contributed as a teaching strategy because it could provide opportunities for students to apply what they learn in the classroom to solve problems with practical application. Group discussions were held in order to learn cooperatively with the exchange of solutions and ideas.

Assessment Translation assessment has been considering problematic, especially for teacher, as the lack of methodological framework does not help to clear what factors should be taken into account in assessing. The first step in order to assess translation is to establish a model of quality and then to transform it into a set of metrics that measure each of the elements of that quality. It is important to consider the several aspects that play a role during the translation process. By creating a rubric, multiple metrics that assess several aspects 56

of what is to be measured can help recompose the overall framework and give an indication of which parts of a process work well and which part does not. In essence, a rubric provides a consistent means to score student performance and provides rich feedback on the level and characteristics of students present learning relative to the objectives. The rubric (See Appendix V) is a comprehensive component-centered rubric based on functionalism, that given to the complexity of what translation entails is divided in two, with a total score of 100 points each. The score of each component of the rubric is determined according to the percentage of its prevalence in the tables. One rubric is related to direct aspects of translation, such as: accuracy, equivalences, register, grammar and style, shifts, omissions, additions and inventing equivalents with a value of 80%, and the second rubric is related to theory (translation techniques), instrumental aspects, i.e. documentation (this section was added with the implementation of the curriculum and methodology) and mechanics (typography, orthography and presentation) with a value of 20%. After obtaining the total score of each rubric and henceforth a grade, this has to be converted into the mentioned percentage (80% and 20%). Finally, by adding those grades the total grade is obtained. Even though this rubric may seem complex it has been useful to come up with a more objective and complete assessment of students translation works. Students can also benefit from the rubric since they are able to improve their translations as they are

57

aware of the comprehensive criteria; the rubric provides information on the strengths and weaknesses of each individual student. Moreover, this rubric fosters transparency and gives the teacher a deep understanding indicating the way to proceed with subsequent learning/teaching.

Interpretation of Results

Based on the obtained results from the gathered data it is possible to say that the implementation of a curriculum and methodology that emphasized translation subcompetences, such as the strategic sub-competence, thematic sub-competence and the professional instrumental sub-competence was successful. As these were reflected in 58

activities such as internet research for terminology, reading of parallel texts, creation of glossaries, use of softwares (translation memory, optical character recognition and word processor softwares) which led students to improve their translations in one semester; the produced translations were understandable, fluent, and coherent; they presented all the points of the source text and showed word selection appropriate with the text function, type of reader, register and field. This was also reflected in the increase of the course average grade (from 4.4 to 5.9) and the students participation in class. It is important to mention the relevance of the use of a computer laboratory, as it proved to be a great tool for the development of the translation sub-competences, with which students could reach an understanding of the thematic field and knowledge of specific terminology by researching on internet and creating glossaries. On the other hand, this research showed that the campus does not provides the necessary conditions for the development of the program, as it should consider a rigorous selection of the teachers with proper competences and a proper infrastructure. The total agreement of students in the need for a computer laboratory available emphasizes the proposal done by Kiraly (2000) of translators as a multilingual and multicultural communication expert.

The success of the imposed design and methodology can be attributable to the interests and ethics of the translation student as sometimes some of these students just 59

limited to copy and paste information without reading, this maintained the ignorance in certain topic and maintained the errors or inaccuracy in the translations.

It is possible to say that the class began to have a constructivist approach, as the documentation process, specifically in the creation of glossaries took into account the learners` knowledge without imposing which words they had to look for; therefore, students themselves had to shape their own knowledge. It is important to mention that constructivism is opposite to the traditionalist teaching methods in that the first requires a dynamic interaction in which the student is an active interpreter that has to reflect on meanings and not passive recipient information, therefore, constructivism led to the transformation of the classroom, allowing students empowerment to act responsibly, autonomously and competently. The classroom itself can facilitate the process through which these future translators join the profession.

Limitations of the study

The limitations presented in this action research are brought from two different sources. The first one is related with the campus infrastructure versus the needs of the translation program, as the campus only has two computer laboratories for all the programs provided by the university. Therefore, for the aims of the 60

proposal a formal letter was made to the program coordinator and the educational chief to formally request the use of one computer laboratory during all the translation classes. As reply, they granted only five hours in the laboratory; the two hours left were in a regular classroom, which were employed for case method and theoretical discussions. The second limitation was the background knowledge students had from high school or their previous studies. This was noticeable as students do not know their mother tongue formally (for example, grammar, punctuation mark, parts of speech, etc.) and they do not know how to compose a text or to recognize text types. However, this limitation was cope by the practice of translating and revising the translations, even though composition and style classes are needed.

Conclusion

The previous sections of this paper showed the processes and results of an action research performed in a translation class at a local university in Arica, Chile, which aim was to improve the technical translations produced by the students through

61

the implementation of a competency-based curriculum design and methodology which emphasized specific translation sub-competences. The hypothesis of this action-research can be confirmed, as the initial research question (what can be done to provide students technical translation training methodology and improve their translations in one semester? ) was answered and achieved good results.

Finally, it is important to add that this investigation might help translation teachers to reflect on their performance and especially on the methodologies and techniques they employ in translation classes and universities or program coordinators to provide the necessary for the development of the programs.

Further investigation is required to have a complete picture of the phenomenon. References

Berthoff, A. (1987). The teacher as RE-searcher. In D. Goswami & P. Stillman (Eds.),Reclaiming the classroom: Teacher research as an agency for change (pp. 2238). Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton & Cook. Burns, A. (1999) Collaborative action research for English language teachers. Chapter 1. Bruce, Les. 1995.Helps for lexical semantic analysis. Unpublished manuscript.

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Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition. Routledge Falmer, London and New York.

Corpas, G. (2004) La traduccin de textos mdicos especializados a travs de recursos electrnicos y corpus virtuales. Universidad de Mlaga. Extracted from: cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/esletra/pdf/02/017_corpas.pdf

Delisle, J. (1993): La Traduction Raisone, Canada: Ottawa. Delker PV. (1990). Basic Skills Education in Business and Industry: Factors for Success or Failure. Contractor Report, Office of Technology Assessment, United States Congress.

Foyster J. 1990. Getting to Grips with Competency-Based Training and Assessment. TAFE National Centre for Research and Development: Leabrook, Australia. ERIC: ED 317849

Goussard-Kunz, I. (2009) Current trends in translation teaching. Facilitating African Language translation in the South African Department of Defence [sic]. Retrieved from http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/2105 Hurtado, A. (1999) Ensear a traducir: metodologa en la formacin de traductores e interpretes. Madrid: Edelsa. 63

Kelly,D. (2002).Un modelo de competencia traductora: bases para el diseo curricular, Puentes. Hacia nuevas investigaciones en la mediacin intercultural. 1,920

Kiraly,D. (2000) A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education . UK. St.Jerome Publishing.

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1988). Curriculum: Foundations principles, and issues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mayoral, R. (1994) La Documentacin en la Traduccin, in De Agustn, J. et al. (eds.), Traduccin, Interpretacin, Lenguaje, Madrid: Fundacin Actilibre.

Nida.E & Taber C.(1974) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden, E.J. Brill

Nord, C. (1991) Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic 64

Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Nord, C. (1994). Translation as a process of linguistic and cultural adaptation in Teaching Translation and Interpreting 2.

Nord, C. (1992). Text analysis in translation training, in Dollerup,C. & Loddegaard, A. (eds.) (1992): Teaching Translation and Interpreting, Training, Talent and Experience. Papers from the First Language International Conference 31 May 2 june 1991 (Copenhagen Studies in Translation), Amsterdam/Philadelhia, 39-48.

Nord, C. (1997). Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. Norton RE. 1987. Competency-Based Education and Training: A Humanistic and Realistic Approach to Technical and Vocational Instruction . Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on Technical/Vocational Teacher Training in Chiba City, Japan. ERIC: ED 279910. Park, W. (1993) Translating for the Small World. In Wright/ Wright, Jr.

Pym, R. (20001) Trial, Error and Experimentation in the Training of Translation Teachers, Traduccin & comunicacin, Universidade de Vigo.

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Savage, L. (1993) Literacy Through a Competency-Based Education Approach, (pp.15) Approaches to Adult ESL Literacy Instruction. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Schmied, J. (2003) Translation of Texts in Press Engineering. Hauptseminar Translation in Theory and Practice.Retrieved from http://www.tu-

chemnitz.de/phil/english/chairs/linguist/independent/kursmaterialien/translation/press _engineering.htm

Sevilla Muoz.M. & Sevilla Muoz. J. (2008) La percepcin de las caractersticas del texto cientfico-tecnico por los alumnos de traduccin: un estudio de casos Extracted from www.periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/traducao/article/download/.../4998

Shuttleworth, M. & M. Cowie. (1997). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Manchester, UK: St Jerome Publishing

Sullivan, R. (1995). The Competency-Based Approach to Training, Extracted from http://www.reproline.jhu.edu/english/6read/ 6training/cbt/sp601web.pd

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Vermeer, H. (2000). Skopos and commission in translational action (A. Chesterman,Trans.). In L. Venuti (Ed.) The translation studies reader(pp. 221-32). London: Routledge.

APPENDIX I Questionnaires:

Following translations of the applied semi- structured questionnaires: Questionnaire I (Applied on October 27th, 2011)

1. How would you qualify your translations? (e.g. bad, good, so-so, improving, good, very good, I dont know, etc. ) Why? 67

_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 2. What are the steps that you employ to translate? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 3. What difficulties do you encounter in the translation tasks? (e.g. , syntax, unknown words, lack of information, etc.) _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 4. What do you think helps you translate? (e.g., English proficiency, writing skills, a good dictionary, etc.) _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 5. What do you think it is necessary to be able to translate in classes and improve your translations? (e.g., more bilingual dictionaries, computers, internet connection, encyclopedias, more teacher assistance, more translation theory etc) _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Questionnaire II (Applied on May 17th, 2012) 1. Currently, how would you qualify your translations? (e.g., bad, good, so-so, good,

68

very good, I dont know, etc. ) _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 2. If they have improved this time, do you think the use of Spanish parallel texts or glossaries has helped you to accomplish that? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 3. Currently, what difficulties do you encounter in the translation tasks? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 4. What factors help you or have helped you to improve your translations? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

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APENDIX II Interview Following the translation of the most important question of the semi structured interview:

1.What do you think about your performance in the translation class?

2.What are the common errors or difficulties that you face when translating?

3.How do you feel when you face those errors?

70

4.How do you think they can be solved?

5.What do you think is necessary to change in order to improve your translations and grades?

6.Do you think your level of English if a relevant factor to translate?

APENDIX III

Reflexive log Following an extract of most relevant parts of the reflective journal written between October 10th, 2011 to May 29th, 2012. 71

October 10th, 2011 Despite the translator training program has been promoted by the University nobody in charge seems to care about what the program needs to be carried out successfully; there is only one computer laboratory that is used by the entire university, the internet connection is poor (the signal do not reach all classrooms) and there is only one library that has only 10 books related with English. I do not see viable for translation students to learn to translate technical texts with basic bilingual dictionaries, they need specific technical knowledge Is it possible to translate without having an advanced proficiency in English? I dont think so, I think is possible to do it with an intermediate level of English, but with a higher level of knowledge in the mother tongue

October 18th, 2011 The English level of each student was confirmed with the program coordinator and the English teacher; all have an intermediate level according to the TOEIC examination.

December 3rd, 2011 I noticed that students are not sure of the words they select, however they would know if they research about the subject in Spanish, in that way when reading the

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source text in English they will have a clear idea of what they are reading, what it means and how it supposed to be in Spanish I wish the two notebooks (brought by the students) I see in class were helpful, however there is not internet signal .

December 10th, 2010 despite the fact the first semester I taught the translation process and their steps, I see that my students do not follow them strictly, they limit to read the source text partially and translate, without considering the type of text or complexity of that they are translating Discussions in class is almost inexistent and strangely I have noticed that despite the fast that my students talk a lot outside the classroom, when they are translating they do not normally address each other, if I were them I would be discussing terms with my classmates [] Curious about that, I thought about their previous teacher so I asked them how they thought he was as a teacher, how did he teach and what they learnt (I asked the first semester, however I repeated the question again in order to triangulate the information). Student told me that the teacher not always gave them technical translations and that he was the source of all knowledge, all doubts regarding vocabulary should be asked to him. Considering that I began to compare my teaching style with his; definitively I do not attempt to be the source of knowledge in my classroom, I wish to give my students the tools for a better translation, other 73

way is absurd, they will not count with me always, they need to be prepare for their professional future. Abril 11th 2012 After having implemented the creation of glossaries as an obligatory process I have seen that student more dedicated in class. Surprisingly I have noticed that students are beginning to talk a little bit more, there is no total silence as before, however I have not noticed the use of parallel texts. The use of a translation memory was questioned by one student in particular as he did not seem to find its utility, after explaining it with details and showing my own memory (constructed after 10 translations or so) he seemed more willing to use it

May 3rd, 2012

The glossary chart is really useful for students, they seem more confident, apparently the format itself is not so threatening for them and with the use of online resources they advance really quick in filling it.

May 23th, 2012 I hear students talk and discuss about the translations frequently and I notice them more secure about the word selection.

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...the five students that come regularly to class, produce larger glossaries and use the translation memory have shown a great improvement their translations; I am surprised despite the spelling mistakes, which can be improved with the use of an online corrector.

APENDIX IV

Case studies

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Student X Student X is a quiet student. He is 22 years old and he works at the airport customs. According to his TOEIC results so far he has an intermediate level of English. At the beginning of the semester his translations were good enough in comparison with his classmates, however still they presented degrees of incoherence, inaccuracy in term selection and spelling mistakes. His average grade was the best of the class (5.8). After the implementation of the computer laboratory and glossary chart, his translations improved a lot, especially in the selection of words according to the context and register. He employed a lot the online language forums to ask question regarding equivalences, he wanted to be sure. At the beginning he was not comfortable with the use of the translation memory, however after a few days he realized he could translate much faster with it. Finally he got a 6.4 as average grade after the two evaluated translations.

Student Y Student Y has 23 years old. He is unemployed. According to his TOEIC results so far he has an intermediate level of English. Considering the three first translation projects his average grade was 4.4; his main errors were selection of inaccurate words according to the contexts and inadequate language structures.

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The implementation of the computer laboratory affected him as he was distracted with social networks (e.g., facebook) and another instant online messaging programs; sometimes he did not perform the tasks asked in class, in fact he never use parallel texts, however several times he used successfully online dictionaries or language forums to solve translation problems, along with this, the creation of glossaries helped him to improve the accuracy of his translations, getting a 5.6 as average grade of the two translations made with the glossary chart and translation memory. His translation still presented some minor word order errors, which I attribute to his lack of concentration in the classroom.

Student Z Student Z is a single mother of 21 years old. She got previous studies on agriculture, however currently she is unemployed. According to her TOEIC results so far she has an intermediate level of English. She is the most responsible student in the class (i.e. she brings her homeworks on time, assist to all classes, etc), however her average grade in translation was 5.0. At the beginning of the semester, her main problem when translating were the selection of the most accurate words according to the contexts and sometimes incoherence in some sentences, according to her this incoherence was attributable to the fact she did not know anything about the subject she was translation.

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In one occasion students had to translate a text about compost and its processes; as she had previous knowledge about this the text was easier for her to translate, she knew what equivalences to use in Spanish. After implementing the emphasis on documentary skills she was receptive to the use of parallel texts and creation of glossaries before translating, however I noticed that she limited to the creation of glossaries, as it was a way of advancing and delivering the translations faster. Despite this, her 2 last translations in which she did the glossary chart) were very good, especially in the selection of terms and coherence, getting a 5.8 as average grade by the end of this research. APPENDIX V Translation rubric (80%)

Score range 25-30 21-24

Description Content (25%) No identifiable problems of comprehension; original message has been conveyed completely; no omissions or additions. No identifiable problems of comprehension except with some vocabulary with no influence on TL readers understanding; apparent omissions and

16-20

additions Information is conveyed to TL readers with some difficulty due to translator misunderstanding of some parts of original message; apparent

11-15

omissions and additions Poor expression of ideas: numerous serious problems in understanding ST interfere with communication of original message; difficult to understand

10-1

TT Severe problems interfere greatly with communication of original 78 message; TL reader cannot understand what original writer was trying to say.

Accuracy (30%) 20-25 All lexical and syntactic elements have been understood; precise vocabulary usage; words have been chosen so skillfully that the work 15-19 reads like a good publishable version. Full comprehension and good usage of a wide range of vocabulary and structures; specialized vocabulary presents some problems with unsuitable 10-14 equivalents. General comprehension of a fair range of vocabulary although some gaps observed; some vocabulary misused; some evidence of plausible attempts to work around difficulties of finding equivalents, perception, wordplay 5-9 and other linguistic features. Comprehension of vocabulary and structures show quite noticeable gaps

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which obscure sense; problems in finding correct vocabularies; unable to cope with specialized vocabulary. 4-1 Inappropriate use of vocabulary; comprehension of original impeded even with fairly vocabulary and structures; translation as a whole makes little sense. Register (20%) 17-20 Good sensitivity to nuances of meaning, register and precisely and sensitively captured; there is a sophisticated awareness of the cultural context; translation shows a sophisticated command of TL lexis, syntax 13-16 9-12 and register. There is a fair degree of sensitivity to nuances of meaning, register and context. There is a lack of sustained attention to nuances of meaning, register and context; no awareness of register; TL lexis, syntax and register are not 4-8 always appropriate. There is scant attention to nuances of meaning, register and context; there are serious to severe shortcoming in the use of appropriate lexis, syntax 1-3 and register. There is no appreciable understanding of nuances of meaning, register and context; no concept of register of sentence variety. Grammar and ST style (15%) 13-15 The translation needs no improvement from grammatical and stylistic points though one or two natural failing might be observed; native-like 80

10-12

fluency in grammar. Shows flair for stylistic manipulation of TL items as if text were written in TL originally except where the language is placed under severe pressure of comprehension; maintains advanced proficiency in grammar; some

7-9

grammatical problems but with no influence on message. Tends to have awkward grammatical usage in TL and literally of rendering though but not impeding sense in a significant manner; some attempts to reflect stylistic features of the original; some grammatical

4-6

problems are apparent and have negative effects on communication. Clumsy TL; often nonsensical grammatical usages in TL; unnatural sounding; little attempt to reflect stylistic features of the original; there is evidence of clear difficulties in following style; grammatical review of

1-3

some areas is clearly needed. Little sense of style which often makes poor sense in TL; knowledge of grammar is inadequate; use of TL grammar is inadequate; severe grammatical problems interfere greatly with message. Shifts, omissions, additions and inventing equivalents (10%)

9-10

Correct use of relative clauses; verb forms; use of parallel structure; creative inventions and skillful solutions to equivalents; no fragment of

7-8

run-on sentence. Almost all shifts appear with partial trespass, attempts variety; some inventions for not available equivalents in TL; no fragment or run-on

5-6

sentence. Some shifts but no consistency; awkward and odd structure; only few run-

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on sentences or fragments present. 3-4 1-2 Lacks variety of structure due to now preserving necessary shifts except for few cases; little or no evidence of intention in equivalents. Unintelligible sentence structure due to completely ignoring necessary shifts; no skillful handling of equivalents; no trace of invention.

TOTAL SCORE:

Transtation theory, glossary and mechanics and presentation rubric (20%)

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Score range

Description Application of translation theories and techniques (55%)

7-10

The translation presents appropriate use of translation procedures and proper application of translation strategies and techniques to solve

6-3 1-2

problems. The translation presents use of translation procedures and poor application of translation strategies and techniques to solve problems. The translation does not presents a correct use of translation procedures and the translation techniques are incorrect or poorly applied.

Glossary (30%) 9-12 The translation presents a solid 50 word glossary following the format given; the words have their correct technical equivalence and are closely 7-8 related to the subject. The translation presents a solid 50 word glossary following the format given; the words have their correct technical equivalence and are closely 5-8 1-4 related to the subject. The glossary does not follow the format; some words relate to the subject. The glossary does not follows the format and it is poorly creationed; the words are not technical and do no relate to the subject. Mechanics and presentation (15%) 8-10 The translation adheres to the official norms established by the program, faculty and university; respects norms spelling, punctuation, accentuation

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and other mechanical aspects of a written document. There are no problems in relation with the format of the text (indentation, margins, typography, etc.); organization (page numbering, figures, 4-7 graphics, pictures, titles and subtitles, index, footnotes, etc.) The translation adheres to the official norms established by the program, faculty and university; however presents some spelling, punctuation, accentuation mistakes and some mechanical errors. Presents problems in relation with the format of the text (indentation, margins, typography, etc.); organization (page numbering, figures, 1-3 graphics, pictures, titles and subtitles, index, footnotes, etc.) The translation does not adhere to the official norms established by the program, faculty and university; presents spelling, punctuation,

accentuation mistakes. The format is incorrect and the organization difficult its reading. TOTAL SCORE:

84

APPENDIX VI:

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Second semester 2011 Traduccin II Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Average 41 50 34 43 40 58 50 45 42 34 53 44

First semester 2012 Traduccin III 62 58 34 43 40 64 50 50 56 41 57 5.9

** Average grades from March 25 to May 25 *The semester ends on July 30

APPENDIX VII
Second semester 2011 Lengua Inglesa IV* Student 1 57 Second semester 2011 Lengua Inglesa V* 60

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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Average

66 61 49 61 65 62 60 66 52 63 60

66 58 58 61 63 62 63 66 59 63 6.2

*English classes that are taken in parallel. APPENDIX VIII: Examples of errors in translation: 1.

Bull's-eye maculopathy has been associated with various macular diseases, most notably chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine maculopathy, cone dystrophy, and Stargardt disease (Table 1).1-4 To our knowledge, bull's-eye maculopathy associated with chronic macular holes has not been previously reported.

Students translation before the application of the competence based methodology:

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La maculopata de ojo de toro ha sido asociada con muchas enfermedades maculares, las ms conocidas es la hidroxicloroquina y la maculopata cloroquina, la cono de distrofia y la enfermedad

stargardt. Hasta donde tenemos conocimiento la maculopata no ha sido asociada con los maculares agujeros crnicos. Accurate translation: La maculopata en ojo de buey ha sido relacionada con varias enfermedades maculares, las ms conocidas son la maculopata

hidroxicloroquina y la maculopatia cloroquina, la distrofia de cono y la enfermedad de Stargardt. Hasta donde sabemos, no se han realizado reportes en que se relacione la maculopata en ojo de buey con los agujeros maculares crnicos. 2. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) releases appraisal consultation document on treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension in adults Students translation before the application of the competence based methodology: El Instituto Nacional para la Excelencia de Salud y la Clnica

(AGRADABLES) release versin el documento de la consulta de la valoracin en tratamiento de la hipertensin pulmonar arterial en adultos.

Accurate translation:

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El Instituto Nacional para la Salud y Excelencia Clnica (por sus siglas en Ingls, NICE) pblica un documento de consulta y evaluacin en relacin al tratamiento de la hipertensin arterial pulmonar en adultos.

Appendix

Student translation proyect example

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