In

the

Name of

God, -the Merciful.

Compassionate,

the

AMORPHOUS METAL CORES IN MEDIUM FREQUENCY POWER TRANSFORMER

Thesis

submitted
University of Salford

to

the
for the degree

of

Doctor

of

Philosophy

by

Morteza

Razaz

Department

of

Electronic University
Salford

and Electrical of Salford

Engineering

M5 4WT England June 1993

WIRII0281353 MIIEWIO

DEDICATED

To the and

memory of my father during

brothers

who provided of

me with Also
my

support to my
and

encouragement
mother, for their

my years
and sisters and

study.
and to

dearest children

wife

encouragement

patience.

i
CONTENTS Page
CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF SYMBLS vi vii x

No.
i

SUMMARY

CHAPTER 1: 1.1 1.2

INTRODUCTION

1 1 2 power supplies power transformer 400 Hz 2 3 6 8

Transformer Power 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 transformer Mains Aircraft frequency power

Switched-Mode materials of present

supplies

1.3 1.4

Core Aims
2:

investigation
THEORY AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

13
15

CHAPTER

TRANSFORMER

2.1 2.2

The

ideal

transformer equivalent circuit of two-winding

15

Linear

transformer 2.3 2.4 2.5 Transformer Transformer Approximate

3:

24 with core sinusoidal losses circuits excitation 32 36 37

41

equivalent
DESIGN

CHAPTER

TRANSFORMER

3.1

Factors 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3

influence's Transformer Leakage Effect core

transformer specification reactance

design

41 41 44 47 49

of

frequency

3.2

General

design

ii
3.2.1 silicon-iron 3.2.2 3.3 Built up laminated transformer Strip-wound core in grain-oriented 49 52 55
CORE LOSSES 57

Transformer
4:

winding

CHAPTER

TRANSFORMER

4.1 4.2 4.3

Core

losses loss loss

loss

57 58 62
68

Hysteresis Eddy
4.3.1

current

Anomalous

4.3

The
5:

effect

of

applied

stress

on power

loss

69
73 73

CHAPTER 5.1

TRANSFORMER material History of

CORE MATERIAL

Core 5.1.1

transformer

core

material

73

5.1.2

Conventional
(CGO)

grain-oriented

silicon-iron
77

5.1.3

High

permeability
(HIB)

grain-oriented
80

silicon-iron

5.1.4

Laser oriented

scribed

high

permeability (ZDKH)

grain85
86

silicon-iron

5.2

Amorphous

materials

5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3

Production The gun

of

amorphous

material

87 88

technique and double piston

Piston-and-anvil
technique

89

5.2.4

Centrifuge technique

and

rotary

splat

quencher 92

5.2.5 5.2.6

Torsion Plasma-jet

catapult spray

technique technique

92 93

iii
5.2.7 5.2.8
6:

Filamentary Melt extraction

casting

technique

94 98

technique

CHAPTER

APPLICATION

OF AMORPHOUS

MATERIAL

101

6.1

Introduction 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 Power devices materials core in machines transformer

101 101 106 107

Amorphous Wound type

distribution

6.1.4

First

prototype
in

amorphous
the UK

transformer

core
112 115 117

development 6.1.5 6.2 Electronic

6.2.1

Commercial devices
Magnetic

production

shielding

117

6.2.2 6.2.3
6.2.4
CHAPTER 7:

Cable Delay
Magnetic

shielding lines
heads
CORE DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND TEST

118 120
120
122

TRANSFORMER

7.1

General 7.1.1

design design

considerations comparison metal silicon-iron core material and type of with

122

amorphous 7.1.2 Choice of

122

amorphous

construction 7.1.3 7.2 Transformer core core dimension and annealing

125 128 129 129 core annealing for annealing of core process 131 133 133 134

Transformer 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 Core

manufacture

winding of

Purpose General 7.2.3.1 7.2.3.2

condition Preparation Annealing

atmosphere

iv 7.2.3.3 7.2.3.4 7.2.3.5 Temperature Handling Application annealing 7.2.4 Annealing conditions 7.3 Transformer 7.3.1 7.3.2 Test Core core circuit test test apparatus measurements using Voltech power 145 and secondary windings for test 150 of 2605-S2 of core with core loss and exciting power of 152 2605-S3A with 160 of and factor of of temperature temperature on core losses loop Metglas 192 of Core core losses losses components of losses of hysteresis of loop hysteresis DC method loop 195 195 195 196 199 202 core loss and exciting power with 165 178 185 process after of process under laboratory 136 145 145 cycle annealing field during 135 134 135

analyser 7.3.3 Primary cores 7.4 Comparison Metglas 7.5 Comparison 2605-S2 7.6 Comparison sinusoidal 7.7 7.8 7.9 Building Effect Effect 2605-S2 7.10 Separation 7.10.1 7.10.2 7.10.3 7.10.4 7.10.5

silicon-iron loss Metglas

square

wave-excitation

on hysteresis

Separation Determination Oscilloscope Results of

display core loss

separation

V
7.11 Comparison 2605-S3A 7.12 7.13 7.14 Core Effect Effect 7.14.1 protection of of clamping applying of postanneal pressure adhesive temperature on the to cores on the B/H loop on core losses of the B/H loop of Metglas 2605-S2 with 209 212 213 227

Effect

core
7.15 Core 7.15.1 7.15.2
7.16 Summary 7.16.1

treated
rise

with

adhesive

234
238

te mperature Amorphous Silicon-iron

and

Metglas core
of

2605-S2

core

238 244

Assessment

Test

Results

247 247

Introduction

7.16.2

Comparison silicon-iron

of

Metglas core losses

1605-S2,2605-S3A and exciting VA

and 247 261 263

7.16.3 7.16.4 7.16.5 7.16.6 7.16.7

Annealing Mechanical Core treated

process stresses with of adhesive

264 273

Separation Core heat

losses rise without and with

temperature sink

279 281
284 296

CHAPTER 8:
REFERENCES PUBLICATION

CONCLUSIONS

APPENDIXES

300

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First

and

foremost

I would

like

to

express

my gratitude

and sincere
help, project guidance .

thanks

to my supervisor
given

Mr K. T. Williams
throughout

for

the

and encouragement

theresearch

I would
Cooke course for of his this

also

like

to express
and helpful

my appreciation
discussion

to Dr.
throughout

G. H.
the

valuable

investigation.

Special departments

thanks workshop

are for

also their

conveyed

to

all

the

library, the

co-operation

throughout

duration

of

the

research

project.

I patience dearest children.

would and

also

thank

members during sisters

of

my

family my late to my

for

their father,

encouragement brothers,

my study: and

mother,

wife

and

Finally, Iranian

also

wish and

to

gratefully of Ahwas

thank for

the their

Government

University

financial

support.

vii
List of Symbols

Symbol A

Description area

Unit m2

Ac,
AFC

total
core

copper
leg

cross-section
area

per

winding

m2
m2

cross-section

AW B
Br b,, o

window flux

area

mZ T
T

density

remanence distance half b2 radial radial the between width of of centres core of window core legs

mm mm mm

bFc bl, bo

width

windings between core low-and

clearance

high
bol radial

voltage

windings
between core leg and

mm

clearance

low-voltage bot radial windings bW bx C D d width reactive capacitance mean path of core

windings between high-voltage

mm

clearance

mm window of windings mm mm F length of circle circumscribing mm cross section force area mZ V Hz force A m

width

diameter core circle

E. C. S. A e, f F E

effective electromotive frequency magnetomotive

viii
H H. hw ho1, ho2 magnetic coercivity height axial voltage i, I current of core window between and core low-and yoke high mm A field intensity A/m A/m mm

clearance windings

J
KW

current
space

density
factor due to insulation and

A/m2

conductor L Lc inductance assumed voltage Lmt mean equal windings circumference of the duct between height of lowand high mm H

the
M. P. C. N P,, P,, R
S

primary
path of of

and secondary
core

coils

MM
m -

mean number power eddy

turns in loss hysteresis loss

dissipated current

W/kg W/m3 9

resistance
transformer rating

VA

s1, s v,

s2

length (s, 1/2 =

of

mean + s2)

turn

of

winding

mm mm V kg 0

potential weight reactance of

difference core

Wt. C. X

X Z %Z

percentage impedence percentage

reactance

impedance

ix
reluctance Q metal flux p density linkage resistivity flux frequency factor A/Wb kg/m3 Wb c2m Wb rad/s

electrical magnetic angular anomaly

SUMMARY

Theoretical the using material metal flux size weight borne alloys for the possible

designs weight metal and in

have volume

been

carried

out to

which be

demonstrate obtained for The the when core

reductions of

amorphous in provides densities also and power available frequency for core use

place

silicon-iron transformers. ability to

medium such

frequency savings

power by its

amorphous at high core in air

operate The

without the is

excessive winding

core size,

losses. the

reduced reduction

benefits volume supply in

overall for

particularly equipment. Of

appropriate the various selected Several transformer cores, of The

rail

and

amorphous for cores

metal

ribbon band in a3 50

form, to kHz

two were 3000 20 Hz. kVA

evaluation were built

suitable built were

using after tests thesis related of

purpose

winding to

facilities. a

The wound series voltages.

annealing, using both

subjected and

comprehensive wave of the supply results

sinusoidal a valuable magnetic stresses cores as a

square

contains to the

analysis properties has also

obtained metal. The The flexible

and effect

of been to be

amorphous investigated. slightly

mechanical ribbon flaking, were on the tried.

wound and

amorphous prone to

were

found

consequence

several rise

methods tests

of have of

core been

protection conducted

investigated. completed The metal for cores

Temperature and has of various shown

methods the viability

heat of

dissipation the use of

research the cores

amorphous

medium

frequency

power

transformers.

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Transformer

A currents are used

transformer from high to

transforms low values in power all or

alternating vice versa. of rated to

voltage Transformers electrical at

and

extensively from weighing used in large

branches

engineering of MVA and

transformers hundred tons

hundreds signal only

several electronic

miniature and weighing

transformers a few grams.

amplifiers

A transformer upon located the the load which with are

consists wound to two each

essentially distinct other winding the the sets and is other

of of

a magnetic coils the winding to

core

suitably primary to which and which the

respect The

termed that

secondary. supply is

primary is is applied, termed

voltage connected

winding winding.

secondary

Developments largely focused

in on the

transformer new core

design materials in the

in

recent

years

have The whole type

now available. design The for the

new materials spectrum under of core of

have

implications

transformer in for

applications. this project the last falls low

transformer into the

consideration transformer

category alloy

power

which over

loss

amorphous has

material

developed

10 years

a particular

application.

1.2

Power

Transformers

Power applications currents to

transformers with wide The in

are

used

in of

wide

range voltages,

of

variations term power

winding

and power. used

transformer where the

may be applied ratings of of The exceed power 50/60 higher of the

transformers hundred

applications The beyond the operating the kilohertz possible

several transformers Hz to

watts.

frequency mains frequency range. as a result

now extends in become

frequencies have in

frequencies developments

power

semiconductor

switches.

1.2.1

Mains

Frequency

Power

Transformers

Transformers frequency make power mains chain point. step up an and

for or

use step

in down

power the

applications voltages of and power

at currents between

mains to the at in the

possible source frequency from the

economic the in

distribution The term to to the the

consumer. refers station

power

transformer

general

transformers first

generating

distribution

Nowadays, 1300 weigh core). MVA, about These (400

the kV,

largest 3250 tons A), (half

power they of

transformers are which about is the

are 10 m in the

rated height of of

up to and the the

400

weight

transformers

step-up

voltage

3 generators to that of the transmission system.

While distribution to supply

there

is

no

generally

recognised

definition, used

transformer power, levels for from rating somewhat exceed have limit higher for

may be defined general the is purposes,

as a transformer at final distribution

voltage The

higher-voltage usually regarded For however, 3 medium

distribution as 5kVA

system. but the

minimum is

maximum ratings frequently practical

indefinite. 1MVA,

public industrial MVA

supply

purposes,

rarely

sub-stations is normally the

ratings, at

loading

voltage.

The first

amorphous find in where from the

alloys

at.

mains

frequency in small types

will

in

the

instance

application single is light

distribution used in remote is

transformers, locations obtained

particular the loading core

phase and

maximum

benefit

lower

losses.

1.2.2

Aircraft

Power

Supplies

400

Hz

To transformers operating standard was the

reduce

the used

size in is

and airborne used, of

weight power namely

of

the

generators a

and higher the

supplies, Hz rather

frequency mains

400 The

than of

frequency

50/60 into at

Hz.

frequency the

400 Hz of

chosen core

originally materials

taking available

account the time.

limitations

The

core

losses

associated

with

the

earlier

core

4 materials used. The possibility the use of advent for a of further higher the new weight core flux amorphous reductions density alloys to be provides achieved incurring the by resulted in low operating flux densities being

without

prohibitive

losses.

As an example maximum identical and and on power core

Boll

and Warlimont of a toroidal

[1]

have

calculated based

the on

capacity dimensions

transformer

using

iron-based strip of of

amorphous thickness the power

alloy 0.1 mm

grain-oriented 0.3 the mm. Fig. peak is used and 1.1

silicon-steel shows at the 400

dependence Hz, the rise

output

induction 40C, was the Metglas

ambient 75C. 90 output The

temperature amorphous 50 mm

assumed metal I. D., possible

temperature

Fe81B13.5Si3.5C2with a maximum material mm strip power

mm O. D., of with and 780

25 with

mm width, the

VA is

amorphous core of 0.1

compared thickness

650 VA for 480 VA for the by 20t

a silicon-steel 0.3 power or 601 mm thickness output when for

with the

same

dimensions. alloy can

Consequently, be increased mm silicon core weight

amorphous with a

compared or be for

o. 1 mm and given rating

0.3 the

steel and

respectively, volume can

reduced.

Fi

800 VA 700

Fe81B13. ssi3.5C 0.035 mm jO

a
60C

0.1mm grain-oriented SiFe

Soa

40C 0 f= 400 HZ .
1.1

'`0.3 mm

30C
U. 0 Ub LU

1.4

lA

Flux

density

(B)

Fig.

1.1

Output

power

(Po)

of

transformers

with

toroidal

wound

core

versus

flux

density

(B)

(1).

6 1.2.3 Switched-Mode Power Supplies

Switched-mode standard increasing components components switches. are with required low mains extent. operating include

power power

supplies

are (d. c.

rapidly power

replacing supply) to

the an

supplies This at growing 10 to

market 200

requires kHz, the and

magnetic magnetic magnetic

transformers, materials at high in

inductors these varied

The magnetic to losses. in filter and operate

applications together effective and in

saturation

induction are carry low

Other

requirements which

permeability a high

inductors a low

a dc current permeability

remanence applications.

saturated

switching

The new amorphous attractive frequencies ribbon limit ribbons nickel amorphous Amorphous nickel-iron losses a large of and these in core high various losses

alloys

have magnetic

properties

which

make At

them high thin to thin

components. by eddy

are

dominated are

currents, used methods as of

resistivities Amorphous

commonly

losses.

materials about three

are times

cast those

and have iron

resistivities alloys. advantage can and be ferrites materials range, alloys when see in

the make

crystalline alloys alloys tapes of

These high

characteristics applications. are [3] has superior compared alloys that to

frequency which Chen

selected [2].

to the over the

conventional frequency of

with Fig. 1.2

amorphous and found extends flux

advantage and higher

amorphous

over higher

ferrites operating

higher

frequencies

densities

/0 5000

0.2 T 0.3T

00 2000 I OOO ' / "

0*

0.2 T

00 .
0.1 T

r 200 000

JO

---5 -"-

Fes1$13. Amorphous sSi3.5C. 3C8 Ferrite.

Crystalline Fe20Niso

50 10_275

100

. (kHz) Frequency

150

200 225

Fig.

1.2

Comparison amorphous crystalline

of

core

losses with

versus Ferrites

frequency 3C8 and

of

Feg1B13.5Si3_SC2

Fe2ONi80 [31.

8 are loss used. of the At low ferrite range level losses of than flux is 0/200 0.2 ferrite densities less kHz. and 0.3 at than for the example amorphous at the 0.1 T, the over core the flux have and 80 an of is

alloy

frequency density lower kHz,

However T, the

higher alloys 50 kHz

amorphous up to

frequencies alloys similar where

respectively. in type to the SMPS drive lower

Amorphous and other

therefore applications the

have

application inverter limited

transformers levels.

frequency

1.3

Core

Materials

The magnetic permeability, common with

most

generally are

desired high

characteristics saturation and low given loss. in flux The Table

of density,

all

soft high in

materials low up main to

coercivity the

materials 1.1 together

use

1970, s are

their

magnetic

parameters.

Recent large iron C) extent losses. material

developments have In is been

in driven 1.1 in

soft by

magnetic the (A), demand steel fhp hp Si-steel for high is

materials, for still

to lower (low nonmotors the and and crystal most power high

Table used is

category inexpensive in large 31

lamination motors efficiency still and

oriented [4]. Grain

(20W Si) oriented soft

used (GO)

important transformers, induction

magnetic characterized

material by

distribution low losses improved

its

with

low

magnetisation.

Through

Category

B3 (T)

P (PD-cm)

max

Typical loss core

(W/kg) (f /Bm, Hz/T)

A.

Steel lamination(Low non-oriented (2%Si) convent. grain oriented (CGO M-4) high grain oriented
(HGO)

C)

2.2 2.1

0.4 0.35

2.0 (60/1.0) 2.7 (60/1.0) 5,000 0.9 (60/1.5)

2.0

0.48

2.0

0.45

1.2 (60/1.7)

B.

Fe-(Ni, 40-5ONi

Co) 1.6 1.1 0.48 0.55 150,000 150,000 110 (50k10.2 40 (50k10.2)

77-8ONi(square permalloy)

79Ni-4Mo
(4-79 Mo permalloy, superalloy) 49Co-2V (permendur, superendur) C. Ferrite MnZn NiZn

0.8

0.58

106

33
(50k/0.2)

2.3

0.35

50,000

2.2 (60/2.0)

0.5 0.35

2x106 1010

6,000 4,000

35 (50k/0.2)

Table

1.1

Main

group

of

soft

magnetic

material.

10 orientation, oriented steps in the (HGO) loss introduction has brought particularly of high about at permeability further high grain

steel

significant induction [5].

reduction,

In (square thin the

category permalloy)

(B) has

Fe-(Ni, high (4-79 and

Co)

material

such commonly

as

77-8ONi used as a has

permeability, Mo permalloy, lowest core

ribbon. highest In

79Ni-4Mo permeability addition, saturation

supermalloy) loss of any metallic

material. the highest

49Co-2V induction

(permendur, of commercial

supermendur) soft

has

magnetic

material.

In they are

category usually materials During this of wide their densities. is used NiZn In general in is

(C), known, over time

ferrimagnetic have the their been course use and of use

oxides developed of has the become

or

ferrites as practical forty

as

magnetic years. many

last

five in now and and MnZn and the MHz of

established They properties frequencies as the

branches a very

electronics diversity general Ferrite electronic used ferrite at very

communication.

embrace

compositions, is at high such supply

applications, low flux

material power high are

material inductors. range.

transformers in wide

frequencies used in

materials high transformers,

range

applications inductors, ferrite wide antennas.

including band

frequency pulse

transformers, transformers and

In

the

1970's

new

class

of

soft

magnetic

material

11 become rapid types available solidification of amorphous with advent of amorphous Table currently Allied-Signal) [6]. Each metals 1.2 lists produced the from by three one with three which

techniques. metal alloys alloys, parameters have particular

available together of the

manufacturer their main

(Metglas magnetic metal their alloys

amorphous determine

characteristics

application.

(I) used in

Iron mains

Based

amorphous power ground 260500

such and fault is

as Metglas distribution interrupters. suitable In

2605S-2,

can be

frequency and

transformers, Iron-Based for use in pulse

inductors, type Metglas

motors

2605SC

and

transformers, amorphous application transformers ribbon in

magnetic types, medium high

switches. Metglas frequency sensitivity

addition, and

Iron-Based 2605SM, have

2605S-3A

transformers, ground fault

current interrupter

and

cores.

(II) can be

Nickel-Iron in shielding,

Based

amorphous field

ribbon

such

as

2826MB

used earth

magnetic and

sensors,

recording

heads,

leakage

cores

sensors.

(III) are as, being high

Cobalt-Based used in special

amorphus application

alloys

Metglas with smaller high sensors

2705M, mass

2714A such

frequency amplifiers,

inverter recording

transformers, heads,

frequency flexible

magnetic shielding.

and

12

Alloy

Bs (T)

C. L. (W/kg) (f/B, , Hz/T)

DC He (A/m, a nneale d)

Transition metals used

Typical characrteristic

(I)

Iron-Based

2605-S2

1.56

0.21 60/1.4

1.6

2605SC

1.61

5.9 lk/1.4

3.0

Low loss Low VA Low High cost induction 50-60 Hz Higher induction S2 than but higher loss 50-60
Hz

2605CO

1.80

o. 4 60/1.5 60 25k/. 4

3.5

Fe(Co)

High Hz

B3400

2605S-3A

1.41

<1

Fe(Cr)

Low loss at 10200 kHz; High Lm at . 50-60 Hz

(II)

NikelIron-Based 2826MB 0.88 0.4 FeNi High Lm

(III)

Cobalt-

Based 2705M 0.7 0.8(as Co Best as-

cast)
2714A 0.55 5 100k/. 0.3 2 Co

cast
properties High squareness at high freq. for saturable

reactors

Table

1.2

Commercially

available

amorphohus

alloys.

13 The alternative previously material apart cost from for the amorphous choice available. any to alloys the The application now various choice will of available steels a provide and ferrites magnetic many factors material manufacture, factors one to be an

suitable on

depend

magnetic quantity life,

characteristics. dependent), are just project frequency a few

The initial ease of of the

(usually service This of

assembly, considered. application

research

investigates power transformer.

such

a medium

1.4

Aims

of

Present

Investigation

The use of

project

is

concerned material

with for

the

investigation transformer particular

of

the

amorphous at of of

metal medium rating

power in an

cores for a in is in The for

operating transformer the range

frequencies, 20 kVA, This of the and

operating frequency of these is to

frequency range

1-3

kHz.

particular interest at

chosen inverter

as a consequence fed transformers of the and for

a manufacturer frequencies. be examined The the

operating

performance both of the power desirable is iron to be core sinusoidal

transformer square the wave

design voltage is of and low with for

supplies. also the at

rating of for is a

20 kVA chosen manufacturer. supplies factor. evaluated material

transformer

behest is

One application on railway The use and normally vehicles of this

transformer low weight

hence

loss

amorphous

material silicon range.

compared used

conventional this frequency

14 Transformer applications with low flux up to with silicon are iron normally the the core with densities. in cores used to in power operate and the The metal flux and

3 kHz to rise losses higher

designed core and

densities temperature

minimise in

losses winding.

subsequent markedly permits density weight of

lower the will the use in

core of

associated core flux a

amorphous A higher the size

turn and

permit winding.

reduction

core

The benefits transformers a common density practice cores are rating chosen for are

of

using

amorphous by The the suitable inspection by the

material

in design

the

cores study core

of for flux

highlighted of for 20 use cores, by kVA. in

a detailed values study of are

maximum based for the

on

current

steel

values of the

amorphous metal are for two a a of

determined supplied amorphous application,

amorphous There suitable compared

characteristics number particular these of

manufacturer. each study

alloys the

available design

amorphous

alloys.

The transformer design The

effect design for of of

of

the is

choice also

of

supply by

frequency carrying

on out

the the

compared and 3 kHz studies cores

study results

both the the

1 kHz design

operating will to be

frequencies. determine assembled the and

parameters tested.

transformer

15

Chapter

Transformer

Theory

and

Equivalent

Circuits

[7]

2.1

The

Ideal

Transformer

A transformer time-varying transfer usually circuits. energy difference is that strictly two flux electrical without Usually leaves at one which any

consists links two energy electrical the circuit it enters for so in

of or

a magnetic more coils. one

system Its circuit

in

which is

a to

purpose to

from

another, the which potential all place the turns that is flux of two the

connection difference from

between at the

potential is-different the

other.

Therefore, to some some 2.1 of thus take of the

necessary coils by are

transformer positioned one coil links in Fig.

action that

produced the a other

current The

coil.

arrangement and some are in shall

constitutes employed than this. in In to the that one the 2.2 on not a

transformer,

transformers no more circuits, be wasted. core by elaborate it To in is

communications transformers ensure coils a large coil, turns that are

equipment employed energy

power not

necessary this such in many aim, way any of

arranged is as

on a ferromagnetic in the as other core

flux and as

produced of of that the

a current links as

much

possible coils

possible a

on of a

the

core. two coils

Fig.

represents ferromagnetic

transformer core. In

consisting practice,

designer

would

16

'2

Uv12 Seco ndary

t2W'nd'ng

Primary Winding

."

Fig.

2.1

Principle

of

action

of

a transformer.

,I L1

(El V,
li

N2

Fig.

2.2

Basic

two-winding

power

transformer.

17 normally that will build become a transformer clearer in as the simple discussion as this, to for follow. reasons

If then first ideal a

the

behavior

of

the of

transformer it must for is the assumed

is be

to

be

analyzed, The is the

mathematical that will for

model be

constructed. transformer that:

model

derived it

transformer,

which

1.
2. 3. that

The winding
All The magnetic relative

resistances
flux is

are
confined of

negligible.
to the to the core establish ferromagnetic material the is flux core. so high in the

permeability mmf is required

negligible

core. 4. The core losses are negligible.

In the

Fig.

2.2 of

if

a potential N1, then mmf Ni, 1will

difference current il produce N,.

vl will

is

applied flow in 0 in

to that the in will

terminals The and then a i in

winding

winding. core time, be

resulting flux 0, linkage and

flux If vl

X1 of vary

winding in time,

varies e

X1 will

and

an emf

induced

winding

N1, where

ell

A, dt

(volt)

(2.1)

If

the

current in the

and coil act that

therefore will in all the the

the oppose direction flux

flux the

are change shown

increasing, in in current Fig. to the 2.2.

the

emf

induced law) it is and

(Lenz Is Since and

will

assumed

is

confined

core,

18 hence is linking all turns of winding N,, then

11 = Nl 4

(Wb-turn)

(2.2)

and

ell

= Nl

(volt)

(2.3)

Furthermore, be negligible,

since then

the

resistance

of

winding

N1 is

assumed

to

vi

ell

(volt)

(2.4)

Flux linkage induced 2.2 and X2. in of

q5 will If the

also flux

link is

winding inceasing, in the

N2, an direction

producing emf,

flux be Fig.

e22, will shown in

winding magnitude

N2 acting

e22

N2 = dt2

(volt)

(2.5)

If

passive of in to be

external winding Fig. 2.2.

load N2, then Since it

circuit e22 will the

is cause

connected current of

to i2 to

the flow N2 is

terminals as shown

resistance that

winding

assumed

negligible,

follows

19 v2 = e22 (volt) (2.6)

Therefore,

by

virtue

of

the

first

two

assumptions,

v, V2 _

eii e22 _

Ni N2

(2.7)

that and

is,

the

potential

ratio

is

equal

to

the

turns

ratio,

N1 V1 = N2 v2

(volt)

(2.

s)

The net

mmf acting

on the
F= Nlil

core

at

any
(A)

instant

is
(2.9)

- N2i2

By assumption

3,
N111 - N2i2 =0 (2.10)

This loop axis. of the

assumption core Eq. by

is a

equivalent straight line

to

representing coincident with

the the

X-i X

From

(2.10),

il

=N

2 i2 i

(2.11)

20 Therefore a no current can exist in il of into the in winding existence. ratio. winding N2, N1 unless current " The there i2, current so ratio is to

corresponding "calls the

current current inverse and

speak, is thus Eq.

turns

From

(2.8)

(2.11)

vlil

i2 v2. =

(W)

(2.12)

that

is

Instant.

power

input

= Instant.

power

output

(2.13)

This abolish
potential then the the

is

to losses

be anticipated, and energy

v, up is of a the

since storage
sinusoidal source,

assumption in the

1,

and If
time,

all

transformer.
of

difference system made

function the

transformer,

and

connected the a

passive rms or is

circuit effective given in

may be represented magnitudes Fig. as 2.3, two of the

by a diagram variables. the N, and coils be ideal N2 with N, and written

showing Such

diagram is to

where coils,

transformer dots N2 are directly used

represented the core. and

simply

represents on the

directions Phasor (2.11).

in equations They

which may are

wound from

Egs.

(2.8)

V. =N a

V2

(volt)

(2.14)

21

Il

= 72 I2 1

(A)

(2.15)

from

which

Vl [Ni]2

V2 =[

Nl]2ZL (fi

I1

N2

I2

N2

(2.16)

where

Z,

==

(i) 12

(2.17)

ZL is

the

impedance of winding

of

the N2.

passive According by ideal the

circuit to circuit transformer by an

connected equation diagram and (2.16)

to

the the in

terminals system Fig. passive may 2.4,

be in

represented which the are

shown connected Z'L

load

circuit

replaced

impedance

where:

Zz, _[N _]2

Z,

(f )

(2.18)

The impedance
turn the side of the

Z'L is
transformer. may be

said

to

be It ZL referred
the change source. obtain turns the This

to

the
ratio

Njof

" Therefore employed upon to the to

transformer of the

effective property power

impedance of the

load

imposed

transformer

may be

utilised,

maximum

22 transfer. to obtain Fig. 2.5 illustrates power a load the transfer of turns resistive ratio such a situation from a where, source of in order

maximum Z, to to

internal ZL, it is

impedance essential

impedance that

choose

ZL

[.

I ]2 2

ZL

= Z3

(0)

(2.19)

For

maximum

power

transfer

when

ZL may be

complex,

ZL = Zs

((i)

(2.20)

where

Z': is

the

conjugate

of

z,.

In flow

a practical a one

situation, transformer winding the winding is

where

the

direction it and is the which

of

energy to the source primary

through

known, primary is the

customary other the the which the for

designate secondary. of energy

The primary is The is In connected. secondary connected. general, difference which electrically

one

to

Energy winding Energy is

flows the one out

into to of

winding. network winding. potential transformers, circuits

the

load

flows is other,

secondary a higher

one than are

winding the employed

designed although to

isolating separate two

simply

may have

similar

windings.

23.
11 12

Zy

N1 N2

Fig.

2.3

Circuit

diagram

of

ideal'transformer.

I1

2
ZL -

1V=

Zi

Fig.

2.4

In

the

ideal

transfonILer

load-circuit

impedance

referred

to

supply

side.

J1 ft Zr 2 N ZL LA-J

Fig.

2.5

Maximum

power

transfer.

24 2.2 Linear Equivalent Circuit of a Two-Winding Transformer

The for all

ideal purposes

transformer and is when

is a

not

an adequate accurate model must

accurate prediction

model of

more a

transformer more means radical model. prediction conditions made: 1. Winding at A closely that

behavior to the than the

needed,

which be

corresponds This be less

physical and in

system

employed.

assumptions those made is

estimatation the of giving under

made must ideal

deriving capable behaviour

transformer very accurate operating are

model of is

which transformer obtained

most

when

the

following

assumptions

resistances the terminals by the

may of

be the

represented windings. one winding

by

lumped

parameters 2. into The flux

produced

mmf of

may be divided

two a)

parts: Leakage the flux mmf, linking but none all of of the the turns turns of of the the winding other

producing winding. b) 3. The

Mutual permeability

flux

linking of the

all core

turns is

of

both

windings.

constant.

4.

Core

losses

are

negligible

Assumptions made in deriving the

1 and the

4 are ideal

identical transformer of

with

the

assumptions Fig. 2, 2.6

model. 1 and diagram

illustrates the the magnetic transformer

consequences at the

assumptions of the

where

system

centre of its

represents The

deprived

winding

resistance.

25 magnetic representation produced Their i2. by the system of two are flux, is a therefore real no longer The the the both is given a leakage pictorial fluxes 01, and of il and Q. 012. and is If

transformer. are given with links mmf, 9L, then

windings consistent which

symbols

directions The mutual by their of the

directions windings the symbol

produced reluctance

resultant core is

N111-N212

m =
m

(Wb)

(2.21)

The Nli1>N2i2. 3 and material one loop there from of the 4,

fluxes Fig. which or, 2.7

and illustrates represents altermativively, Since Since

012 in the

Fig.

2.6

are

all

positive of

when

consequences of 4-i the loop are is B-H for

assumptions of core zero, constant, and name are it linear is core and the

a model the core

"loop" the

windings. zero a area.

losses

assumed assumed i,

has is this

permeability between

linear assumed circuit

relationship linear is taken.

0 and that windings the

relationship When both winding N, is

equivalent current,

carrying

the

flux

linking

=411

+4m

(Wb)

(2.22)

26

N,

N2

Fig.

2.6

Transformer

circuit

diagram

consequences

of

assumptions

1 and 2.

Fig.

2.7

Consequences

of

assumptions:

(3)

the

permeability

of

the

core

is

constant,

(4)

Core

losses

are

negligible.

27 Similarly, the flux linking winding N2 is

2 = 412

+ 4m

(Wb)

(2.23)

Since

the

total

flux

linkages

of

winding

NI and

N2 are

;=

N141

1l2 = N242

(Wb)

(2.24)

then

from

Fig.

2.6,

vl = Rl1l

+ ell

= Rl1l

Al +
dt

(volt)

(2.25)

and

dX2 va = -R212 + e22 = -R2i2 +

dt

(volt)

(2.26)

The

emf's

induced

in

the

two

windings

may,

from

Eqs.

(2.22)-(2.24),

also

be expressed

by

dgl
11 e= dt

1 = N.

d411
dt

1 + N.

!L_
dt

(vo1 t)

(2.27)

28 d e22 dt -N2 t2

+ NZ

'

(volt)

(2.28)

Leakage follows:

inductances

of

the

two

windings

may

be

defined

as

L11 =

NA1
11

L12 =

NZIZ
12

(H)

(2.29)

The may be

emf's

induced

in

the

windings

by

the

mutual

flux

designated

dm

dm

Nl

dt

el

N2

dt

= e2

(volt)

(2.30)

Substitution (2.26) then

from yields

Eqs.

(2.27)-(2..

30)

in

Eqs.

(2.25)

and

vl = Rli1

+ L11

dt + el

(volt)

(2.31)

v2 = -R2i2

L12 -

dt + e2

(volt)

(2.32)

The last two

circuit

diagram

in

Fig.

2.8 the

take

into

account system at

these the

relationships,

where

magnetic

29 centre its of the diagram of From represents the transformer and of deprived winding leakage of

properties

winding Eq. (2.30),

resistance

inductance.

el

Nl = N2 e2

(2.33)

These potential and N2.

emf's differences

are

in of

the an

same ideal to

ratio transformer

as

the with

terminal turns potential 2.8. This N,

They

may be of is the not

considered "ideal ideal, not zero, is not

be

the

terminal in the the Fig. net fact

differences "transformer" on the core

transformer" however, due since to

mmf acting that the

is of the

permeability

core

infinite.

Let winding called

I'm alone the

be

the to

current produce

that the

would mutual referred

be flux to

required qm. This

in

the may

N, be

magnetizing

current

winding

N,.

Then

N11;

= N111 - N212

(A)

(2.34)

from

which

il

im + =

N2 i

i2

(A)

(2.35)

30 Since inductive considered transformer winding The ideal in I'm is a current circuit. to describe with which I'm that shall an that Thus a produces Eqs. circuit flux, it and must (2.35) of across shown the in core an flow in may an be

(2.33)

consisting connected circuit mmf is met, is on since

ideal the N, 2.9. the

inductance This resultant be zero

flows. the

Fig. of

requirement transformer

N1 (-

IV,

i2 ]-

N2i2 =0

(2.36)

The

inductance

in

Fig.

2.10

may be. defined

as

Lm _

Ni4m
1m

N2 N1 =
m

(H)

(2.37)

and

this

is

termed referred to

the the

magnetizing N, winding.

inductance

of

the

transformer

The substituting ideal" circuit that alone, defined the

complete the

equivalent circuit shown Fig. 2.10. current

circuit shown in Fig. If it was Lm in 2.8, had im would

may Fig.

now be 2.9 for

produced the "nearly

by

transformer shown in

therefore been

obtaining assumed in been initially winding obtained,

the

magnetizing then by an the

flowing have

N2

inductance equation:

31

LR T1

R2
el2

12
2

t e2

N2

Fig.

2.8

Introduction

of

leakage

inductances.

N2

12

1:

I N1 N2

I=

Ideal

Fig.

2.9

Circuit

described

by

2.33

and

2.35.

equations.

0
V

fi 10

Ln

NZ NJ

Lii

Rz

12

ell

L;.

'm

Il

"1il
e2 M N2

V2

Ideal Fig. 2.10 Circuit circuit. diagram of transformer linear equivalent

32
2

Lm

$1

,. i,

(H) m

(2.38)

and turn Since,

this

inductance

would

have

been

connected

across

the

N2-

winding. on the basis of the assumptions made,

N1.1

,=

N2im

(A)

(2.39)

then

from

Eqs.

(2.37)

-(2.39),

L!
Lm

IV, =IN
2

j2

(2.40)

Therefore, winding N2.

Lm

is

the

magnetizing

inductance

L, referred 1,

to

2.3

Transformer

with

Sinusoidal

Excitation

When v, applied
winding and

by an energy
is

source

to

the
function

terminals
of of the

of
time,

N1o ft he transformer network entire in time. and is

a sinusoidal to the

a linear the 2.11(a), of circuit,

connected

terminals by are all

winding circuits

N2, then of Fig.

system which The the all rms

may be represented the values variables of the have

sinusoidal are shown by the

functions on the

variables been replaced

inductances

33 reactances operating. for For the frequency at which the transformer is

instance,

X11 =2n fL11

=c L11

(Q)

(2.41)

For

the

direction to as

of the

energy

flow

shown, winding

winding and

N1 may be N2 as the
by of all the the
the of (2.8),

referred
"secondary". referring ideal
secondary circuit the (2.11),

"primary"
of and the
are

The analysis the variables to

the

circuit

may be simplified on example,

to primary The

parameters For

one

side when

transformer
quantities shown referred (2.18) in

other.
referred is may be

side, magnitudes Egs.

Fig.

2.11(b)

obtained. obtained

quantities .

from

Ei=E2=

N El 2

(volt)

(2.42)

V.

=N a

V2

(volt)

(2.43)

Ii

NZ = N,

I2

(A)

(2.44)

ZL

[N1]2z N2

(Q)

(2.45)

34

X12 =

Nl 2

2 X12

(f)

(2.46)

R2 =[

N1)2 2

R2

(f)

(2.47)

After terminals making zero.

these of the Thus

transformations the ideal

have transformer

been

made, are its be

the

secondary

short-circuited, primary considered is eliminated terminal to be from

potential these

difference terminals and the ideal may

between also

short-circuited, the equivalent

transformer

circuit.

In the

a similar

manner, including giving the again of

everthing the source, in

on

the

primary

side to where equivalent

of the the

transformer, side, transformer The Fig. on the

may be referred Fig. from refer all 2.11(c), the

secondary ideal circuit. primary, depends for the the

circuit disappears

choice 2.11(b), problem

whether or that to is the

to

quantities Fig. A phasor primary the 2.11(c), diagram side

to

secondary, solved. to In load therefore out the

being

equivalent is been and factor.

circuit shown in

referred Fig. that 2.12. the and in point load

of

transformer it has

drawing circuit

phasor

diagram both lagging concerning effect of

assumed inductance, Since, the

possesses operates calculations is phasor diagram. the of at a

resistance power

carrying of chief circuit, phasor

a transformer, the transformer employed

interest the in the

on the as the

V2 is therefore

reference

Energyflow Ii R1 X,
V. D

35

(a), G
Zt

11

Ri

X,

2 7

Z'

1=

fb)

G ^

V,

1 IXm E, = E2
N,
X12
rm

N2

R,

Ri

ril

R2

'2

(c)

LT E2

V2

Fig

2.11(a)(b)tC)

..

Equivalent excitation.

circuits

for

transformers

with

sinusoidal

V, 7 JXn11

I.

'I

Fig.

2.12

Phasor quantities

diagram to

for the

system primary.

of

Fig.

2.11(b),

referred

all

36
That is,

v2 = VVL0

(volt)

(2.48)

The reactances the

effects are of are are error of so the in is of the greatly the

of

winding exaggerated magnetizing that order to the of

resistances in current. phasors magnitude draw Fig. a the Fig. 2.12, In

and as

leakage also is

magnitude

practice

these their be the The to in the the

quantities effects drafting phasor calculation circuit.

small same

representing as 2.12 would to scale.

attempting therefore magnitudes

diagram

merely of

useful

guide

variables

2.4

Transformer

Core

Losses

Core
as be eddy behaves gap. is they

losses
in in loss). a

occur
an

in

a transformer
reactor, 4.1 and 4.2

for
and

the
this

same
process

reasons
will and

occur

inductive

described current as Under similar

Sections Moreover,

(hysteresis on reactor no load with

loss

a transformer inductive the transformer being

simply no air

high-impedance conditions that the of an

these to I',,

exciting made and to be I', up the

current of two corea emf in

inductor,

components: loss phasor induced Fig. 2.13. component.

magnetizing the their winding

component; components relationship is therefore

Assuming showing primary

sinusoidal, with that the shown

diagram in the

37
A equivalent dissipated transformer longer being circuit circuit in core in element to R', may absorb be added to the transformer to circuit is 2.14. that of no The a load 2.15 of and the

a power

corresponding equivalent

losses. the

The complete zero-core-loss that for factor Fig. 2.12.

which is

assumption shown in Fig.

made phasor lagging compared flowing in the

therefore diagram power with in

corresponding circuit should current exaggerated with be I'c

transformer is shown The element

supplying in Fig.

magnitude R'c is

core-loss

greatly

diagram.

2.5

Approximate

Equivalent

Circuits

It equivalent adequate calculations much

is

not circuit

often of the

necessary Fig. 2.14 in

to

employ order of a to

the predict

complete with The are of

accuracy involved if

performance in using the

transformer. circuit A series to prediction are based on

equivalent are appropriate made.

reduced

further

approximations circuits' accuracy Circuits of (a)

approximate required shown in

equivalent degrees Fig. that 2.16. of

various are the

performance and (b)

assumption

Vl

El

EE - V2

(volt)

(2.49)

The

magnetizing

branch

consisting

of

R, and

X'm in

parallel

IC

EI

38

Im
I;

Fig.

2.13

Phasor

diagram

of

transformer

exciting

current

components.

Ii

R1

Xi1

Xrs

R2

1=

I
t' V I Ir Re

1I 1
I, X.,

Vi

ZL

Fig.

2.14

Complete to the

equivalent primary side.

circuit

of

a transformer

referred

V, p JXi1f1

I'll

11

Fig.

2.15

Phasor

diagram

for

circuit

of

Fig.

2.14.

39
may that therefore is most of the in to be connected for not be across the the circuit being at solved, Circuit current current core usually V1 and generally therefore relationships across to transformer (e). loss sufficient V2. In I,. and the point and (c) I', the is is This very for larger smaller

convenient I', will

problem

magnitude based negligible corresponds high solving core on

greatly that the the

affected. exciting winding

assumption comparison assumption

with of Circuit

negligible (c) is

permeability. for the the reactance the

relationships resistance X'cq. Circuit of

between R', is q (d) the is

transformers, than model and V2. the for

much

an sufficient between the the leakage applied to be V,

determination the be potential small to ideal

Finally, may

difference enough allow relative the of circuit

reactance potential represented

difference by the

model

40

(a)

li I

12

, R,'Xm 12

(b)

II '

R4

Xro

1=

V2

(c)

X'

12

I'

1
(d)

IZ

I'al2 0

-0

12

1
circuit a transformer.

0
Fig. 2.16 Approximate

(e) of

equivalent

CHAPTER

Transformer

Design

3.1 3.1.1

Factors Transformer

Influence's

Transformer

Design

Specification

In dimensions dimension full

the is of

design the this

of first frame

transformer and the most

the

choice

of stage. with

frame The the in and

important in the cost of winding accordance

are

determined for of simple

technical with [8]. in Fig.

specification considerations the

transformer materials transformer

combination assembly shown

Consider 3.1

two

The expressed density area Let AF., S=

rating in Bm total Transformer terms current

of of

single

phase frequency J, total

transformer f, core area maximum

may core

be flux

supply density

cross-sectional per winding Ac

copper

cross-sectional rating S=V1I1=V2I2

S=

(N)AN1I1) IV,

(3.1)

and
Vl = El =4 .44 fB,, AFeN,

42

h.

be" 2

Id

2bf, 221 1
1III1i2
bay 1

!
2-ff

hIwI

bo
b1 b2 ba2

72

s
2n II st 2n

Lc

I 1II1I

t1

_e _
II Inol 'n02 1t1 bcen t

IIIIjII Are

Fig.

3.1

Single between window plate; of

phase leg width; AF,

core-type centres; be.,

frame; h, half-width

bCe11, distance height; widest d, b,,, core

window of area-;

gross-sectional core circle;

diameter area.

circumscribing

k,

window

43

or
Vl 1 El Ni = 4.44fB (3.2)

Fe

Let At is

Ate, = total c. s. a. of

c. s. a. one turn

of

copper and

per

winding, of turns

Ac, = AN1 where

N, = no

Current

density
Il I1N1 = 71 AAs I1N1 = Acv

J=

(3.3

thus I1N1 = JAcu (3.4)

Let KW

AW = window = space factor

area, due

then to

2Ac,

= KwAW

(both and

windings) spacing

where between

insulation

conductors.
Hence J.,. 4W `T 2

I, N1 =

(3.5)

substituting gives

equations

(3.2)

and

(3.4)

into

(3.1)

S=4

.44

fJBmAFeAc,

(VA)

(3.6)

44 or expressed factor in terms of the window area AW and the window

space

K, = 2Ac, /Aw gives:

S=2.2

2 fBmJAFekwAw

(VA)

(3.7)

The commonly respectively. starting their and

current termed the The point in limits

density specific choice design. will

and electrical

the

flux

density

Bm are loadings is or of near a

and magnetic specific J and loadings Bm at cost areas the

of By reduce

the

choosing the

upper iron to but rating

material

copper Ac may

a minimum. not

The

cross-section since

AF, or

be varied a given

independently, remain

product

AFxAW for

must

constant.

However considered (a) the

there which

are influence reactance

number transformer on (b) which the to

of

other design, the

factors for

to

be

example of of the iron

leakage largely which the

regulation volumes A., iron cost of

transformer and and copper determine

depends relate proportion losses (c)

relative AFB and of the

directly and the

respectively losses iron and and

size

winding copper.

resistance

material

3.1.2

Leakage

Reactance

The

transformer

specification

normally

includes

45 value for the by to the is and be impedance. the leakage of The impedance The of good the the in turn is largely specified a small is current

determined relates impedance necessary needs to

reactance. the where use

impedance transformer,

nature required larger

voltage short

regulation circuit

values

where

limited.

With Fig. 3.1,

reference the primary of

to

the and

single secondary length.

phase

transformer

shown comprise reactance in terms equation

in two of of

windings The leakage expressed

concentric primary the [9] . and

coils

equal

secondary winding

windings number of

may be turns

primary

by the

following

X=

2nf,

Ni [bo

(bl +

+ bz)

]i Lc

(3.8)

where primary and coils

Lint is and

the

mean

circumference coils, widths Let L, is of

of the the

the length primary

duct of

between windings,

the bl

secondary the radial

b2 are

and

secondary

respectively.

bx = bo +

(b1+b2) /3

The winding

per is

unit therefore

leakage

reactance

in

terms

of

the

primary

I1X P. U=-

2tfoIlNibx)

(Lmc)

(3.9)

Vl

Vl

Lc

46 The transformer rating S= V1I1 and I, hence S/V1 =

XP. X) pn=

IlX
Vl

2ltfoSb.,
Vl NJ 2

(L`"r
Lc

(3.10)

substituting gives

V/N

(27r/2112) f&AFC in

equation

(3.10)

xp.

=[ v

Sb"
7LfB 2

Lmt)
Lc

13.11)

According
reactance L, the term section on the for

to

the

equation
rating (V/N) length core V/N is the ,

(3.10),
dependent

the

value
on the length on itself .

of
coil

the

P. U

a given per mean of turn turn

length the

voltage bx. The area voltage area

mean turn dependent AFB is

Lm, and the

Lmt is AFC and (V/N Ate, is

cross-

the per of the

iron turn

dependent The cross-

= 4.44fBmAFe) also influenced

sectional in term AFC for bx is

copper

by changes U) . The and

a given dependent coils

rating on the

(see the radial

equation width

S=2.22fBmJAF of the

radial coil

primary

secondary

and

separation.

It interrelated, somewhat design

is

therefore the

apparent formulation

that of

since an

all

these

items design

are is aided

economic employ

complex methods.

and most

manufacturers

computer

47 In increased mass of general, mass copper of a reduction iron and and copper in reactance iron and in the is associated loss, ratio is loss, a with reduced Lmt/Lc associated and ratio is

increased loss

decreased. with reduced

Conversely, iron loss

an increase and increased

reactance copper

Lmt/Lc is

increased.

Reactance determining considered approximate the at

is initial this can

thus

of dimensions

fundamental of is for bx. a design possible,

importance and should

in be an

stage. be

This found

provided

value

3.1.3

Effect

of

Frequency

The transformer given by:

induced due to

voltage a

developed

in varying

the

coil

of flux

a is

sinusoidally

magnetic

E=4.4

4 4mfN

(3.12)

or

E=4.44BmfNAFe

(3.13)

For of

a given

voltage and

rating N may be the

various used to

combinations conform with is

of

the the

values desired

Bm, AFC, f,

voltage.

Normally

operating

frequency

also

specified

48 and cases operating core core chosen, frequency, material, material only it the is at terms Bm, AF, and to the N need be considered. use density associated flux density are the laminations of the level with level In core of all by the the is on core core

appropriate or near

make

maximum flux factor the

saturation another before

material. must be namely the the itself.

However considered the core thickness

core flux of

losses density, the

which

dependent of the

volume and

The temperature the silicon loss not the cases in main power for the power

core

losses of

must the of material, the

be core 50/60

kept material Hz, suitably values

at

level not

so

that

the At loss core Bm do of some

limits frequencies steel core at

are by

exceeded. a low the density cooling and in

choosing laminated, of flux

sustained produce core by can oil

highest core

excessive be

temperatures. by provision oil immersion the the of

Adequate ducts is

obtained

immersion. instance with is to regard the

The

normally windings. sustained

needed The at

first concern frequencies

cool to

transformer core losses

transformer It losses is at

efficiency, the higher

particularly operating , the eddy loss to be flux The

the

larger that loss

ratings. the core

frequencies current proportional encountered density value of levels B.

become to f2

excessive and

being to with at must f.

proportional Excessive cores

hysteresis are likely maximum of 100 Hz.

temperatures operating much be in at

steel

their

frequencies therefore

excess by

reduced

either

increasing

49

the
the

core

cross-section
of winding

area
turns

AF, or alternatively
N.

by increasing

number

If section the (a) (b) core the the

the area

value

of

B.

is

reduced in core

by

increasing losses and

core

cross-

AFC, the

change are

consequently factors,

temperature dependency degree by of

dependent losses volume

on

several

core the

on B, of the core material is

which

increased (c) the increase in cooling in in the surface a transformer the particular Bm where and hysteresis frequency n is the in the core volume area. are loss the essentially and the comprised eddy current loss depending 2. B. on four. is of is associated with an

increase The two loss. core

losses

components, For a

hysteresis 1.6-2.0 loss in

dependent on the The core

on the material

range

eddy

current fully

depends chapter

core

losses

are

explained

more

3.2 3.2.1

General Strip-Wound

Core

Winding Core in

Design

Feature Silicon-iron

Grain-Oriented

Strip-wound material, shaped full in mandrel use of the the or

cores form former. of

are

manufactured strip, of

by upon

winding a suitably

the

continuous This method

construction of the in gives small material, the the

allows by

magnetic the flux

characteristics path This is widely is always

ensuring direction possible

that of iron the

rolling lowest

material. and

arrangement used in

loss

distribution

50 transformers. transformers entire core up It to has 3.3 also MVA in annealing is been required. extended been the after In to loops. applied USA [10] forming, small power , to but, an large since power the

requires plant can three type

expensive

manufacturing the cores show phase phase principle by the using wound

transformers three-limb (a) and a and singlethreeis are not no from (b)

three-phase Fig. 3.2

interwound cores,

single-phase and core. since, does not Fig. The

one-loop 3.2(c) latter although readily

two-loop three-loop on or joint to

respectively interwound large losses, cores, flux

shows pattern there

practicable corner one loop

transfer

another.

51

Core

Cores

(b) (a) winding

Core

III

II

(c)

Fig.

3.2

Forms one-loop; three-1

of

core (b) oops.

built one-phase

from

wound two-loops;

loops: (c)

(a)

one-phase

three-phase

52 3.2.2 Built up Laminated Core Transformer

The using various between to pre

majority cut types the limbs a

of strips of

power to

transformer form the limbs in

cores and 3.3

are yokes .

built of

up the joint

cores and the

as yokes

shown

Fig.

The

requires circuit a large

particular with range on of the The a

attention mechanical joint degree majority joint use would but two , generally three or in The so that as are be forms of

provide

suitable There is

magnetic quite

construction. available optimisation of cores are limbs in Fig. and

the required

method of

chosen the

depends

magnetic some three "magnetic kind

circuit. of

assembled and 3.4. yokes. The

with The best

interleaved forms in

between shown obtained in four practice at

common

properties

by interleaving laminations to minimise or

alternate are used

laminations, interleaved caused of in needs is not

a time,

unevenness slight are bucking cylindrical limbs space

by variation the plates.

laminations windings the nearly It core is for

thickness transformers of as to

shape, to to to in different be

cross-section circular possible by using

the

core if a close widths

made

possible

be wasted. a circular a stepped strip build. three,

achieve different

approximation of strips of to

arrangement, widths Fig. four, 3.5 which

limited the

only

by

the is

number prepared core

manufacturer some typical fourteen steps

cut

and

illustrates seven and

sections

having

respectively.

53

InJ
(a)

(b)

CTF7-1
I i
L.

II

II

(c)

(d)

Cei) . I
Fig. 3.3 Forms phase, phase, wound (e) of

J L.
core limb limbs side built

It
.JL.
from with (c) (d)

.J
flat side laminations: yoke; (b) two (a) onelimbs one-

one two with

wound wound; yoke; five-limb.

one-phase, three-phase

three-limb;

three-phase

Fig.

3.4

Forms mitre;

of (c)

interleaved 45 mitre.

; o:. nt:

(a)

square;

(b)

35I55

54

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig.

3,5

Typical limbs: steps;

sections (a) (d) throe fuurt:

area steps; _en

of (b)

core four

type

transformer (c) seven

steps;

steps.

55 3.3. Transformer Windings

The transformer various requirements. used foil current distribution groups from voltage currents in about but and is in

basic coils forms,

material are limited

used to on

as

conductors and

for aluminium and are

the in

copper current

depending Round wires years Wires low,

the

voltage commonly use where of the of form or

and rectangular there are as has been

strips an

recent

increased

sheets. fairly

generally in high either a very current

suitable

voltage-windings in wide level single current in the When can replace

transformers. parallel 10A to of very are the used,

Strips, over

range lowthe the

highest power foil

winding are not

large large,

transformers. or wire

strip.

The insulating or glass

wire

or

strip such choice the

may as

be

covered

with enamel,

a silk,

range paper,

of

materials tape. chiefly The by substance the winding.

synthetic of the of fills

particular the the of insulating space foil,

material fluid between especially have but paper been

is or the at made

governed impregnating turns the [11] of edge, to

nature which

The some

insulation problems, enamel by the using coil.

presents coat is the more foil

attempts insulation a thin

with

interturn or plastic

insulation during the

common of

manufacture

Surrounding

the

windings

and

insulation

of

the

majority

56 of power transformer purpose core from of and the is a liquid good and most is the the most insulant. insulation for removing such This serves between the material of the the heat is which

double winding, resulting oil. sulphur this cooling

providing tank losses. development (SF6) good is parts The

common use of

A more

recent

gases, Under and

hexafluoride gas has properties. very

common.

pressure also good

electric

strength

CHAPTER Transformer

4 Core Losses

4.1

Core

Loss

It power copper and load (2) or

is

usual distribution of iron

to

divide

the

energy into

losses two termed commonly

incurred group, the load (1)

in

transformer the windings of

the

losses the

commonly the core

losses the no

losses

termed

losses.

To enable losses must

a transformer be the kept use to of a

to

have

a high For to

efficiency power reduce B

these frequency and more

minimum. iron reduces materials.

applications, copper using to existing

more

reduce

resistance,

the

losses

incurred

conventional

The great wasted. well cost energy more rise in of

losses

in

mains with of mains losses losses

frequency respect transformers frequency are in not high with of to

power the

transformers cost of for the

are

of

importance The ratings of

energy

designed are much

frequencies and terms the of are

excess the cost.

smaller in transformers

energy The to

so significant frequency respect the core to

likely exceeding

be of the

concern limitations

the material

temperature and the

insulation.

The

losses

in

the

magnetic

circuit

are

divided

into

58 two types, loss (1) in hysteresis core loss in core laminations, (2) eddy

current

laminations.

4.2

Hysteresis

Loss

in

Core

If specimen zero, but the lies

the is

magnetic increased B-H it to

force saturation does

applied and not

to then

ferromagnetic again to

reduced the initial

return above

curve

retrace is in called Fig.

curve and of B

[12].

This is

effect given the

hysteresis The value

a typical when H is

characteristic zero, flux it is called

4.1 flux

residual To

density the

OR (or specimen

remanant completely, force H. If

density, is necessary by OC,

Br). to this force in Fig. the 4.1). to the The loop.

demagnetize a negative the

apply is is called

magnetizing force, reverse similarly

represented the

coercive in this is the

magnetizing saturation (point D in

increased direction finally, reversed,

direction, obtained, force to its is

opposite If, zero, original complete

magnetizing increased the curve

gradually maximum be value

reduced in out.

and

direction, curve forms

DEFA will loop called

traced a hysteresis

a closed

The indicator represented Consider

hysteresis or diagram. by a toroid the

loop During area core

can

be

regarded cycle,

as

magnetic of energy

each

an amount loop is

enclosed of mean

by

the

absorbed. 1 metres, of N turns value and is

circumference, metres. If the A coil

cross-sectional uniformly wound

area, over

A square the toroid.

instantaneous

59

(Tesla)

H TRE)

Fig.

4.1

Hysteresis substance.

loop

of

a typical

ferromagnetic

60 of the magnetizing force H is current given by is i amperes, then the

magnetizing

equation. (4.1)

turn) ampere onetre

If is rate B,

the

value the

of

the

induction e in

at

the the

instant coil to is

considered given by the

then of

induced of flux

voltage, linkages

change

according

equation

(4.2)

Nd4' NA dB e = dt __ dt

(Vol t)

(4.2)

The this

current

i voltage

flowing and

at

that

instant power increase (4.3).

will will in

be opposed have current. to

by be This

induced in

therefore the equation

expended required

order is

to

maintain by

power

given

Power

at

any

instant

= ei

1AHdB = dt

(Watts)

(4.3)

Work done

in time

dt

1AHdBdt = dt

(joules)

1AHdB =

(joules)

(4.4)

Total

work done for

one cycle

f (joules) lA HdB =

(4.5)

61 It element (for volume an of can of be the seen B-H from curve is is 1A. Fig. 4.1 that shaded) area HdB is and the area of an

(shown the

therefore, by loop.

jHdB The

entire the

cycle) toroid

enclosed

work

done

_ area

of

loop

Joules) metre3

(4.6)

metre3

For electrical for the

the

common

steels and given

employed machines by

in

the

construction relation

of

transformers loop area is

an approximate

Area

of

loop

kBB =

(4.7)

where an 2.0.

k is

a constant, determined the material per hysteresis for loss the is

B.

is

the

peak is

flux in

density the range f

and of

n is 1.6of per to f. in

empirically If

constant is carried then is the directly

through energy

cycles

magnetization second Therefore, hysteresis in

second, loss entire given by

dissipated

proportional power dissipated

core,

the

Ph

= KhfB,

(kg)

(4.8)

62 where Ke is a constant material determined and dimensions by of the the nature core of [13]. the

ferromagnetic

4.3

Eddy

Current

Loss

A time-changing either induced magnetic by these ferromagnetic voltage flux. round Circulating

magnetic or closed

field

in

conducting produces the in the

solid, an of

non-ferromagnetic, paths currents known as that encircle

lines conductor and

produced eddy

voltages heat these thin from losses losses sheets, one

are

currents In the an

the to is are flux

resulting minimize made up of insulated path.

are in or

undesirable.

effort material

transformers, laminations. and placed

core

These parallel

laminations to the

another

The classical volume length B is

eddy theory.

current

losses with

can

be

calculated, to Fig. 4.2

using a and

Consider of and a lamination depth of

-reference of thickness, The field

element 1 metre varying The

d metres, flux shown bounded

1 metre. in the

density where by the

sinusoidally field flux element flux is

direction the area

B=Bmsinwt. shaded by the

0 through is given

differential pulsating

2xBmsinwt. by

The voltage

induced

63 d

(4.9)

e=

dt

(2xBmsinw

t)

(4.10)

RMS voltage

E=

21Cf (2XE. ) 2

(volt)

(4.11)

The down on

current the other

in

the

strips is given

dx, by

flowing

up

one

side

and

side,

2=E=

?e dx

Edx 2P

(4.12)

where material differential

is in

the

electrical Let dx, be

resistivity the power

of

the

lamination in the

Ohm-metre. element,

dissipated

Pdx, then

P=

EI

(4n2f2B2x2dx) = P

(4.13)

The

power,

P dissipated

in

the

lamination

is:

P=f2 op

PdXdx

4,ga f2

B 1fo Z x2

(4.14)

64

dx

dx

im

dx

Fig.

4.2

Calculation

of

eddy

current

loss

65

or
n2f222d3 6p (Watts) (4.15)

P=

and the

since eddy

the current

volume loss

of

the per

element unit

considered P..

is

d in

metre3

volume,

Pec

I rfR
v t+

i-11Z

watts metre3

(4.16)

It to the

is

noted of

that the the

the

eddy

current d, of

loss the

is

proportional In by

square

thickness, eddy current

laminations. are minimized resistivity. greater

electrical the Silicon

ordinary alloys The given equations total volume are

machines of steel
sheet

losses having

use

laminated has
steel.

material resistivity
The resistivity three core loss flux

high times
the of new

several
of times may density those thus at

than

amorphous steel. for by the a

approximately expected and (4.21)

silicon

be any

determined frequency

maximum

Phy = khBm f

(--E)

(4.17)

Pedd = keBm f2 d2

() M3

(4.18)

66

Total

expected

core

loss

P=

Phys + Peddy

(4.19

or
(keBj f2d2) +1 (4.20)

P=

khBmf

Total

expected

core

loss

per

cycle

P=

Kh + Kef

(4.21)

where

hysteresis K, cycle as =

loss/cycle (kcBmf2d2) are measured shown on to and

K'h = KhBm and A plot in test Fig. of 4.3. the

the

eddy

current losses total

loss/cycle for each

component the

However the total The total

loss/cycle calculated between values is the

exceeds

loss/cycle difference loss/cycle

according measured the

equation the

(4.21).

calculated loss.

termed

anomalous

67

Mef Total Loss/Cycle

lal

eddy current loss

Loss/ Cycle
le

k'11

Frequency

I kHz

Fig.

4.3

Separation

of

core

loss

components

68 4.3.1 Anomalous Loss

In attention the is total to

recent since loss be noted

years it in can

the be

anomalous responsible at classical the the material flux

loss for

has as

received much as

much 50% of [14]. loss and It is has the

silicon-iron that that and order has to become hysteresis cycle obtained of zero plotted the

power

frequencies eddy-current is homogenous fully methods separate current frequency the power to

calculated constant laminations. these losses,

assuming permeability In it

penetrates the to eddy

into

determine customary and

reduce total

the

measured The in the total Fig.

losses loss 4.3 This

into per is range to

components. is loss shown over the

against

by measuring 1000

frequency

20 Hz to frequency.

Hz and

extrapolating eddy-current The sum of

characteristic loss is

The

classical

calculated hysteresis loss The difference the the according loss. is

from

equation loss and

(4.16). the

the

extraploted eddy-current losses. the is

calculated less than the total

classical measured loss and

significantly between hysteresis loss. equation An the

measured and

sum of termed

estimated "anomalous" to

eddy-current factor, express

losses n, is this

anomaly to

defined anomalous

(4.22)

_1+

Anomalous Classical

eddy eddy

current current

loss loss

(4.22)

69

The anomalous
current been loss. attributed

loss

is
of

treated
this

as being

an excess
loss cause domain

eddy
has in

The origin to many

excess [15]. the has

eddy-current The principal of origin.

causes is the loss

grain-oriented [16], and about

silicon-iron 75t of

existence this

walls

4.4

The

effect

of

Applied

Stress

on

Power

Loss

Grain-oriented sensitive, the the materials transformer by the whereby

silicon-iron applied stresses

is

well have

known

to

be

stress on in

a marked are

effect induced stresses

magnetic core bolts and A

properties. laminations or clamps in by holding the

Stresses the the

localized core

produced by

together being

and

depressions clamping.

waves further

lamination of core.

removed is the

during temperature

cause the

stresses

variation

throughout

Silicon-iron Wilkins amplitude compressed, stresses the same of and of

laminations Thompson 3 mm per in the [17] metre have are

as

produced

are that

not waves

flat with

and an is core,

reported common. of Another found that one

When the a

material

construction produced. often shown

transformer defect sheet

2 MPa are

production in of the

is the of rise

saucer-like investigators 12

depression have

and

these

defects gives

diameter to a stress

cm and of

approximately flattened.

1 mm depression

7 MPa when

70 The together to least Walker transformer so that in use, achieve 3 build of up stacks a stress MPa and in order of of a transformer laminations. perpendicular to maintain [18] down and a stress of up core The to a involves manufacturer's the tight laminations core. found stresses that are the bolting aim of However, as reduced several this of a is at

co-investigators ages order an it to initial be applied. result in settles maintain stress

have the of

3 MPa after to five in induces times

years magnitude

must will

Thickness bending

variation which

a stack a further

laminations stress.

All stress direction. [191 the using of

these

contributions 7 been

when MPa

summated (1000 by in psi) Banks

can in

result the

in rolling

approximately This strain has

confirmed mounted

and

Rawlinson on

gauges laminations.

different

directions

silicon-iron

The domain applied of

aforementioned structure on the rolling of

stresses silicon-iron. direction perpendicular

have

a marked

effect

on the stresses formation direction

Compressive tend to lying walls to induce the in the [100] the will

domain

patterns the The

([100] cubic both graph gradient 4.4.

indicates crystals). the of static power for

edge-direction 90 domain

x-axis

for

produced loss a

increase The

hysteresis loss against

and anomalous stress

components. large positive see [20]

shown

increasing of

applied Brown,

compressive Holt and

stress, Thompson

Fig. on 46

Investigations

71
grade silicon-iron 30 of at increase 1.5 in T peak power stress induction loss of showed that under the rolling an the

approximate application direction.

was obtained 3 MPa in

a compressive

Domain stresses secondary domains furthermore postulated mobility, in losses the by in

studies the domain rolling

by

Houze direction

[21] of

have up to

shown

that

tensile the

45 MPa remove and transverse energy [22] had earlier

structure to reduce

such the

as

spike

which the that

serve

magnetostatic Houze improved loss.

and

180 domain this should reducing of single

structure. lead the to power

1800 domain A large

wall

thereby when

decrease

a tension of and orientation

approximately crystals [23]. of crystals of The

15 MPa was applied silicon-iron effect was with actually it will be use magnetic necessary. less was were much

along found smaller indeed size the in

4 I easy axis Yamamoto

Nozawa

when in the

the

perfect, grain

commercial application loss. From a an

materials of this

particularly stress

normal

a tensile observation for into stress

increased clear in that power

power

evaluating

material

potential its is

transformers under conditions

investigation of applied

properties

72

-S
Compressive

-4
Stress,

048
/m2 MN Extensive

Fig.

4.4

A graph

of

power

loss

against

stress

in

3.25

% Si-Fe

CHAPTER Transformer Core

5 Material

5.1 5.1.1

Core History

Material of Transformer Core Material

The

cores

of

modern

power developed

transformers over a hundred into the at 8 W/kg. a

still years

retain

the

same essential the first power

features

ago when The first the of in now

transformers mild steel

came for

existence. magnetic core the flux

transformer core 1.5T, core less for loss in

used these

circuit, density

transformers

50 Hz was approximately material, than one the tenth material early, core of loss the with ' there

With

development is The lower in

in

modern loss in

transformers the past. and

core higher

search loss the

new core very

permeability distinct

began

are

several

stages

developments.

The of silicon.

first

developments Barrent, et silicon alloyed the of al. to

were [24] low

associated discovered carbon silicon of the

with the

the

addition

beneficial [25] maximum loop and [26] silicon led scale to the

results found

of that

adding iron

steels. raised hysteresis ageing. alloyed

Hadfield the

with area

permeability, eliminated investigated because production started respectively. in of its of the the

reduced effect

magnetic of iron

Gumlich with this

the

advantage electrical

raised

resistivity, on a the silicon commercial U. K. to in iron,

silicon-iron U. S. and in of

which 1906 same

1905 at

and the

The

addition

74

time

depressed with of

the

saturation

magnetization properties, were quickly from the the flux carbon of loss but

and

introduced the and in hot hot

difficulties advantages rolled time.

mechanical alloy took

nevertheless

this

recognized steel the being 1.5 [27] T.

silicon-iron Between 1900 improved at 50

over 1930

a short rolled to

and

quality power

silicon-iron 2.2 major process with and W/kg

with a core in

reduced The

Hz and

density when by Goss two

second the

breakthrough which intermediate further the was

came

1934,

invented cold rolling

characterized gauge by of by type annealing. Armco

stage process

This steel

was modified scale. original by

developed degree

on a commercial in it was the

Although material adopting the power

preferred Goss high was

orientation about 40%-,

produced a batch loss general a power change by

improved

temperature 1.1 W/kg in W/kg in

anneal (at 50

which Hz,

reduced 1.5 T).

to

around improvement

Subsequent achieved significant iron produced

manufacturing by 1960. Since

techniques then siliconno

loss has this

of been

0.9

seen

grain-oriented process.

conventional

The higher forward [28]. and Steel oriented in

appearance

of

grain-oriented HIB, power Taguchi was The marked loss and

silicon-iron another as shown great in [29] by Fig. in

with step 5.1 1965

permeability, in The the reduction

named in

invention -the

was by new product

Sakakura

1968

commercialized high permeability

Nippon grainin

Corporation silicon-iron

[30,31]. (hereafter

HIB)

achieved

a reduction

75

'

11. SJl.

eat rrsJ [I. S. JACUHs )

u..fio, wi

a nc

ac hilral lu. tim)

rrado

Ii

1.1
O
4

lll.: illw1

F' j0

I. u

HI-8 1u.alnn1

A' I
U. li

Ls ir-irrsJiai J Ill-B IQ.:illool *7a --X *HI

I. Aarr-irrsJii cJ

IlrrFV
n:

Ill-B

111.23nm)
'-'o

in

'441

*eAl

Year

Fig.

5.1

Historical iron [281.

improvement

in

power

loss

of

silicon-

76 core iron texture. permeability producers. [33] and In began loss [32] of 159 compared to the its with the grain-oriented oriented similar 3k silicon crystalline kinds by other of high steel RG-H 1973

thanks Since

almost

perfectly of been HIB,

introduction have

silicon-iron 1973 Kawasaki

developed

Steel production [34]

corporation in in 1974.

announced Also in

commercial Terni- and

TERNI-CSM steel steel material in

developed

and Electric

1975 Co. in

Allegheny introduced loss of

Ludlum Bron core

Corporation [35]. Another

General great by

reduction the refinement [361. by

power of

was developed

magnetic years

domains ago the of [37]. et al.

grain-oriented in steel it had that that scratch. of the fact when not it

silicon-iron power was been could loss reported put be into

Over

sixty the and until

reduction electrical However [38] similar a sharp

scratching by Hayes

surface Wolford Kuroki small rather

practice by

found to

obtained by

a very pen, was not

strain than

introduced The that the initial the

a ball-point method effect of

successful could not

because

the

scratch stacked. power in of Steel

be maintained et to al. [39]

scratched that the to

samples improvement the

were in

Nozawa loss due wall laser

explained

scratching With

was attributed the successful developed

reduction application

domain a

spacing. irradiation [40], oriented Together power 50Hz) in

system 1982, silicon-iron with reduced of 0.6 laser

by

Nippon high

Corporation grainavailable. a lower at 1.7 T,

scratched (ZDKH) thickness at 1.5

permeability

became and T,

commercially improved 50 Hz texture, (0.8W/kg

loss was

W/kg [411.

achieved

77
5.1.2 Conventional grain-oriented silicon-iron (CGO)

Goss iron, important conventional called contrast the which

invented was commercial

the developed

Cold by

rolled Armco

grain-oriented Steel, material. (CGO) it It or is is

siliconthe most called

soft

magnetic silicon-iron steel or

grain-oriented silicon permeability engineering of transformers, material grains the has whose sheet

sometimes [42] in In in the large it angles planes Thus is

oriented to electrical high

electrical

steels silicon-iron. particulary is texture, lie their in at used i. right [001] Fig. 5.2.

grain-oriented industry, the a CGO material (110) [001] planes with as

production quantities. made to up rolling to crystalline of

in e.

The the of the

(110)

direction direction of is

parallel the

rolling texture

shown

conventional often referred

grain-oriented as "Cube-on-

silicon-iron edge" or "Goss"

(CGO)

material

texture.

The oriented iron form, one of is

most

significant is of assist edge <100> a <111> approximately of crystals

magnetic its

characteristic anisotropy. cubic

of

grain-

silicon-iron made the cube the is at up

magnetic of

Siliconlattice along of any

body-centred of magnetization which The which to the in hardest in the

with the are

direction directions, directions. direction, 55

terms

Miller of of the

indices

direction plane

magnetization sheet Magnetic the lies

rolling

direction. depends crystalline on

anisotropy of

grain-oriented alignment

silicon-iron of the

degree

orientation

78

texture. field at

This strength

is of

indicated 1000 of At/m 1000

by

the

flux the [43].

density flux

induced

at

(B10 is At/m)

density

produced

a field

strength

After gradual and 1960. process loss of

the

discovery in of no 0.9

of

the

process

by

Goss

in took

1934, place

improvement loss then

manufacturing W/kg at 1.5 T,

techniques 50 Hz was has been

a power Since for

achieved seen in the in

by the

significant The was The

change recent mainly

CGO material.

improvement due of to a

power in in

CGO material thickness. core even 0.18

reduction used mm, in the

lamination transformer recently for

thickness from is In 0.35

CGO lamination mm to 0.20

ranges

more U. S. CGO

mm (7mil) transformers.

being

employed 0.28

distribution

Europe

mm thick

(28M4)
loss of

is
0.8

the

principal
at 1.5 T,

core

material
1.2

with
W/kg

a typical
at 1.7 T,

power
50Hz.

W/kg

50 Hz and

79

44

O
r_

L J X iii

:a

a
r ci

L a Zn Zn O ID

r
1 0 E
fri

0 it
CD 0

v u .r4 41 E ci t u N
.5

L ri 4-1 ri E O O U 13 .

G' !L
O )

cu

! tism

80 5.1.3 High permeability grain-oriented silicon-iron (HIB)

In (HIB) type

1968

high

permeability by Nippon was

grain-oriented Steel Corporation by some

silicon-iron and the same steel grain

was of

produced

electrical These achieved nitride inhibitor (100) pole

steel materials by in

developed have a a new of

other of

producers. oriention (aluminium conventional typical average direction within average grains crystalline typical improvement mainly due a

higher grain HIB) in

degree growth addition Fig.

adding the case

inhibitor to 5.3 [44). the rolling are the

(manganese figures of the is of HiB [001] 7 and of material deviation. rise material of more to 100

sulphide). and

shows The

CGO materials axis 75% of [45]. from the The

deviation in

CGO material of deviation in HiB 10 gives of power reduced HiB loss

grains

range deviation

corresponding almost all the

is

3 and This

are

within texture

highly

oriented and more. the The

high is

permeability 1.92 than T or

B10 value in to

1511 was

achieved

hysteresis

loss.

The at grain of the the

higher time, of is

degree resulted is

of

grain in No. 7

orientation larger 3 (X1) grain

of size.

HiB

material, typical that size to a of

same size CGO widereddy size diameter

The whereas grain leads the the

HiB

ASTM No. wall loss. loss be

(10-15mm) Large in found out However that the turn

ASTM domain

(X1)

(3-5mm). which [43]

causes higher grain grain

spacing, Littmann and around pointed 1mm.

current on power would

effect optimum

detrimental

81 effect tensile crystalline stress [46]. the coating, Consequently, HiB was of large stress grains as shown of the was in overcome Fig. HiB 5.4 material, in to a certain The together extent progress with by in the

[44].

texture also

achieved the noise by

a reduction of 4-5 Fig. transformers db 5.5

magnetostriction assembled with the that improved from HiB from of

decreased transformers. of full are size

compared shows

conventional performances material of identical (461.

transformers in comparison from

assembled with

They geometry

shown assembled

transformers

CGO material.

82

b v a)

0
0
U

0 ro l
w 0

41 ra tJ U)

r-,

a)
u-+

0
O O

u b G
H

a
-

0
'o

CD C) O

CD

co Ui w

83

Totalloss

1.0
"

C. G. O. 0.35 mm 800AIm:1820 perm.at 800A 3-5 graindia: 3 -! mm

0.9
HI-8 HI-B0.35 mm 800Aim:1920 at 800Ah perm. graindia: 10-15 mm

0.8

0.7
Withoutsurface coating

0.6
3

3
M N 0

0.5

single crystal0.15 mm 2035 perm. at 800AIm:

0.4

D.C. Hysteresis loss

0.3

C. G. O. "

single crystal

0.2
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 0.6 Tensile stress,kglmm2

HI-B

1.0

1.2

1.4

Fig.

5.4

Effect and HIB

of

tensile

stress [ 441.

on power

loss

of

CGO

material

84

Core Lou

5 C
Y

"

10

" ..
116

`"_
: "

"

15

" " "

".

20 _ 0

EicitingPower ""
".

v E d
0

zo "

" ":
" " "

E 40 _"

"
"

"

"
"

CO O C Y

No ise

"
-"
v 7 Ya

;" """
"
(1

"

" ""

"
""

"""

"

'"

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Transformer Capacity MVA

Fig-5.5

Improved from HIB

performance material from in

of

transformers comparison [46).

assembled with those

assembled

CGO material

85 5.1.4 Laser scribed high (ZDKH) permeability grain-oriented

silicon-iron

The measure It was

domain for further

refinement reduction that the small about in wall

method in domain regular

was

developed loss of HIB due the

as

new

power

material. to the of power to formation scribing focused surface the

found of

refinement strain on

introduction silicon-iron loss. reduction of [39] The

surface in

brought improvement in domain

a significant power loss resulting by either . The is is laser emitted is

reduction attributed from the

spacing caused [47]

supplementary or laser the steel. of lines the at

domains irradiation

mechanical beam pulse, onto in spots the the

through of the

optical The

lens laser and

system, beam the of

scanned

transverse parallel

direction dotted

steel intervals

irradiated several mm.

form

The power 0.05 W/kg on and the

loss 0.15

obtained W/kg at of et the al.

by laser 1.7 the [41) T,

scribing 50 Hz.

ranges The and the

between

improvement degree thicker is of the the

depends orientation. sheet reduction

thickness

material found that

Ichijima the which higher results.

the

and

permeability,

the

larger

In pulse techniques with

addition as

to

the

domain

refinement there are

by

the

laser alternative

beam

mentioned which have pen

above, been [381

some Mechanical successful

suggested. was the first

scribing attempt

a ball-point

86 to reduce the power a ball it was loss. It was [48], by extended however the "spark electrical the et order al. It was [50] of laser to an improved of the A was

method low

employing

bearing replaced

because scribing. ablation"

productivity control making

domain developed, [49]. achieved a method the An

technique use of in high core

named voltage loss of

discharge 10% was suggested claimed at [51]

improvement by the spark a in

ablation. continuous the power

Krause

employing reduction any the The strip range

CO2 laser. loss of 9t Holle by in a power cores T and 1.8

was

that 1.7

achievable Schoen

T without

coating domain average and of

damage. refinement reduction experimental 1.0

Von

and

investigated Nd: YAG laser. both flux in single

continuous-wave loss was T. 9 measured in the

density

between

5.2

Amorphous

Materials

Amorphous years crystalline structure alloy is but, ago,

metal the on

alloys term

were amorphous

known

more

than

twenty meaning

five not atomic

generally scale atomic or

any with

significant short range metal used in the the in

random

ordering. There are

Amorphous a variety of of

sometimes that are

called can be

glass. the

techniques but they

production solidifying or liquid alloys magnetic liquid

amorphous of phase, the so

all

involve from are frozen of of

rapid gas their

alloying quickly The

constructions that atoms

configuration. appear materials, to have the

magnetic

properties over those

amorphous existing

advantages

87

property engineers unique structure, sections

of is

greatest their

potential low which power result

significance loss. from in Amorphous their 7.

to

electrical alloys have

properties these deal with

non-crystalline The following

are the

discussed production

chapter of

amorphous

material.

5.2.1

Production

of

Amorphous

Material

Amorphous (TM) so Mzo, where metals, represents elements, (Si). Iron one

material (TM) (Fe), or

alloys represents Cobalt

are one (Co) the

of or and

the more

basic of the

composition transition and M

Nickel or

(Ni),

more (P), may chemical

of

metalloid (B), by Carbon several

glass-former (C) or Silicon e. g.

Phosphorous These alloys

Boron be made

methods, deposition,

electrodeposition, including though applicable materials scale is ion rapid to of production

deposition, The preferred

or vapour method because of it

sputtering. cooling a wider greater [52].

manufacture is faster, gives to large

from range uniformity

the of

melt

composition, and is

probably adaptable

To quenching temperature crystallizing. temperature kinetic. arrangement,

obtain

the

amorphous the glass factors alloy

phase must

by cool

any

of

the the

liquid melting without

techniques, to the The and The

through temperature, the both glass

transition controlling are are size

transition and atomic factors

crystallization factors and atomic

structural with These

structural bonding

concerned effects.

88 tend tend Turnbull nucleation compared resistance glass too far to to to to have be limited dominant [53] and the and by predictive [52]. The value, kinetic and rate The and factors Turnbull and alloy of occur a low the at kinetic factors by the rates a and high the not

studied [54] are

Spaepen growth rate.

crystal cooling homogeneous temperature

diffusion must crystals temperatures have

nucleation must Thus of

transition below to the the

liquidus. point

eutectic

temperature element the coupled formation interest with the melt. of their The alloys cost al. of

compared with of in

melting eutectic phase. magnetic

metallic favours of the

a metal-rich the amorphous

composition The majority is

present

amorphous by in can this

metals solidification stems as from from

concerned from

preparation interest that

direct method

the the

wide potential of

variety lower Duwez for et

be made as well Since of high devices the

preparation. a number

pioneering have been rates are

work reported and for

[55], the

obtaining continuous the following

necessary filaments. sections.

quenching devices

producing in

These

described

5.2.2

The

Gun Technique

Fig. by the orifice not fall Duwez metal

5.6 and or of

shows Willens alloy

schematically, [56]. is melted A small in at

the

gun

technique up crucible The surface to

developed 100mg with melt of an does

quantity,

a graphite the of bottom. high

about

lmm diameter the orifice

through

because

tension.

89 The molten the of can metal, orifice thin be ejected and foils maintained by the at the high high in by means onto to at rupture and low of of a shock a copper in wave, substrate passes in The shock

through the form

spreads (up

15m

thickness). The

substrate wave located of thin area. uneven properties. is

temperatures. a thin myler chambers, is

generated between gas porous thickness

diaphragm, by means

low-pressure The product with varying

an inert foil, The

pressure. and foils is

an irregular

nature of the it

cross-sectional and to owing measure to their their

varies difficult

cross-section

5.2.3

Piston-and-Anvil

and

Double

Piston

Technicrue

Pietrokowsky the anvil droplet A number either piston simple magnetic Cahn cases physical can be as et is the have design. yokes al. [581. to concept and cuts of of fast

[57] catching moving of

developed a molten piston. light, of this or over shows, the

this droplet During triggering device the

technique between its the with of fall

and

utilizes

a stationary the molten motion. in the this using by above both

a beam variations

piston differences releasing based device

melting been

technique developed Fig. 5.7

process the years, piston

on

two and

close The final

piston

anvil in

developed all the for

product uniform

obtained thickness investigation.

a foil

of

almost

suited

and mechanical large in the as

property i. e.

The thickness ten cooling times rate that is

100m,

approximately but the

obtained

"gun"

technique,

90

considerably is in from this both

reduced. surfaces is

Although, of still the of foil,

since the order

the

extraction cooling

of

heat rate

overall of

technique

the

105 C/s.

91
HIGH PRESSURE MYLAR DIAPHRAM

CRUCIBLE GRAPHITE

MELT

Fig.

5.6

Apparatus technique,

for due

splat to

cooling and

by Willens

the

gun ( 56).

Duwez

MELT

PHOTO-CELL -E

LIGHT

COPPER PLATES

Fig.

5.7

Apparatus to Cahn et

used al

for (58).

the

two-piston

technique,

due

92 5.2.4 Centrifuge and Rotary Splat Quencher Technique

This built foils, 0.6mm melt ejects Since rates a

technique simple

was developed apparatus the to

by Kumar a

and melt

Sinha rapidly crucible

[59]

who into

solidify in top,

by melting diameter in the the the are hole crucible. metal foils

material near The the

a graphite and then force surrounding quite two by the by a pair the

with

a the

centrifuging thus the

centrifugal drum are least

developed crucible. cooling of In a

onto or

a copper formed be at

flakes to those quencher drop falls vanes

thick, or three

the

expected less splat melted than

orders

magnitude the rotary

obtained described onto atomize

"gun" Cahn of drop

technique. et al. (581, rotating project

levitated vanes against in

rapidly and

vacuo.

The

it

a surrounding

copper

cylinder.

5.2.5

Torsion

Catapult

Technique

This device technique of a torsion

is

a technique by is and its strikes at

based Roberge melted then in

on and

a spring-loaded Herman [60]. placed at

catapult In the this end

developed the alloy bar During when to it travel

a crucible against torsion absorber until it

catapulted the shock speed this at

a cold bar while strikes foil is

copper abruptly the the melt cold

substrate. stopped continues conducting were those obtained of

motion, a a high With

substrate. solidified the

device,

bulk rates

specimens with

quenching

comparable The

piston-and-anvil

technique.

greatest

93

advantage with physical the catapult deformation. thickness all of to of the the an

of

this

method thickness

is

that of

foils, 40 to

without 60m and

any porosity, suitable In contrast by of the foils, plastic the In amount have for to the

average

and mechanical

tests

can

be obtained. foils

piston-and-anvil technique In along spite their are

technique, free of entire described Since of the from

obtained effects of to the

the

continuity length so very the tends far, fast foils are of in the

be irregular. size and rates of

techniques is limited.

product

cooling will no

be realized, to be to

the small.

thickness However, or the

necessity, as of are

have regards

there width foils sections.

restrictions Methods

the rapidly in

length

sample.

obtaining described

quenched following

large

quantities

the

5.2.6

Plasma-Jet

Spray

Technique

This quenching produced Both there the

technique rates of

was the at

developed order the of rate

by

Moss

et The

al.

(61],

with was

107 C/s. of a few can

material per

continuously and

grams be

minute. since of the

reactive is alloy

refractory problem. into at

metals In this

quenched fine plasma onto a

no container is droplets substrate. injected

method,

powder and

a high-temperature a the high velocity of

molten copper have the

impinge Although for they the

cooled

products of 89%

this

technique properties, that of the the

been fact

used that

measurement are only

mechanical dense suggest

mechanical

properties

may not

be truly

representative

94

behaviour

of

the

material.

5.2.7

Filamentary

Casting

Technique

Pond technique, with

and this

Maddin

(62]

developed of casting

the

filamentary flat Fig. 5.8, a to cage does

casting filaments in this

technique of molten a graphite spinning so that the 5 to

produces in

a thickness the from of slowly a

50m. is mould drum.

As shown forced and A

technique orifice interior mould previously a variation technique rotating alloy cooling with high variation this as rolls speed

alloy

through allowed

sapphire the the the

strike raises not hit

pneumatic melt and shown into Miller in

impinging Chen As

solidified of the steel solidifies rate is this molten rollers, while estimated with been

ribbon. technique. alloy

[63] Fig. a pair 5.9,

developed in this

was ejected held passing to together

of

rapidly The The

under the A similar surface Babic commercial the ingot

pressure. rollers. technique, rotating et al use [64]. [65]. of the

through

be 105 C/s. chrome by now in

covered has of this the Fig. is

a hard investigated is

at

a A In

technique melt is

technique shown in

ejected A small

onto

outside of resistive argon through

a drum correct or high under

5.10. in On

composition frequency pressure in is the to end

melted

a quartz

tube

by of

heating. the of tube, the

the

application melt is ejected

gas

the

an orifice where into ribbon it a

tube

onto The of

a rotating solidified the drum and

copper melt the is

drum formed

instantly by the

quenched. rotation

ribbon

finished

95

GAS

MELT

Fig.

5.8

Apparatus due to

used Pond and

for

continuous [6 2).

casting

of

ribbon,

Maddin

96

Fig.

5.9

Double
[64 j.

roller

casting

of

ribbons,

due to

Babic

Fig.

5.10

Single
[651.

roll

casting

of

ribbon,

due to

Liebermann

97 may be collected of the length of on has the been after operation and the diameter The is it has are of angle also left the the at the melt orifice which drum. The crucial gas speed of

factors pressure, the surface

temperature, and the the

drum.

ejected This kind

melt of in but [65] range and

impinges device many

drum used, to

[65] with produce

important. degree of many of

a varying alloys

success,

laboratories similar,

different, and be Graham in to m/s. thick the

basically have

compositions. that the gas

Liebermann pressure of range and up to must from 20 25 to to

demonstrated with an drum

28-7OkPa the were lengths production surface

orifice speed 1 to a few in

diameter the

340 40

480m

Ribbons with

initially varying speed

made from was

2mm wide metres

50m

kilometres. of

A typical ribbon.

approximately

2 km/min

The that in is contact

drum-quenched cooled with dimples is the from the one drum caused

technique side is only.

produces Hence the

in

air

ribbon is

surface flat but

which contains The

macroscopically by trapped smooth are to not form air and parallel. a factor ribbon toroid as can under it is

elongated surface therefore the difficult profile operating [66). ribbons vacuum This of ribbons

bubbles. shiny but

upper

macroscopically two are to surfaces stacked

curved, if it 90%. is The by

Consequently or high be vacuum possible system core, as

achieve quality quenching also

a packing of the

and the

improved conditions to

apparatus showed using a that

study

make under

7mm width

single-orifice

conditions.

98 A wider orifice arranged row. or so ribbon two that this may be made by using of jets simple fill 5cm however 15cm wide up wide for will jets the a single with gaps ribbons use in the left are power by at rectangular second the row first

rows its

Using

methods

present

commercially materials reported successfully the scale most of

available, at least ribbon produced and and

transformers It has wide technique been has is large The will drum [68). of more the is 106

be required. 17-20cm production in of Metglas plant of this that be be

that been suitable

approximately [67]. efficient from Signal per year the an This

method economic that

terms point

of view.

manufacture

announcement build a

by Allied ton

Inc.

products using method the quality with that

60,000 system there

production

quenching Although many

shows seems of to the

importance

be a possibility ribbon it can rate point to of be will cannot increased. required, to the

parameters and of the from

improved foreseen This typically glass a truly

research thickness due C/s, to

development, the ribbon cooling melting is an

limitation 105 or transition

high the that i. e.

temperature condition, rather than

necessary assembly

achieve

amorphous spheres,

dense

random-packed

a micro-crystalline

structure.

5.2.8

Melt

Extraction

Technique

There producing and Mobley

are

two

melt ribbons developed

extraction in a continuous a crucible

systems method. melt

capable Maringer extraction

of

amorphous (69)

99 technique developed the disk the crucible contacts periphery and the pendant et al drop [70] melt . Fig. extraction 5.11 of the shows technique a diagram rotating alloy. some out As metal of the was of

by Maringer melt the

technique. clean

The edge surface of the disk

rapidly metal

a molten liquid

passes adheres to of

through the

metal, brought and is time.

solidifies, liquid. force, after the melt As the

and

is

a result metal, on

thermal the form for depth,

contraction of a ribbon, of

centrifugal thrown free

now in the

residing disk and

disk

a period speed, of on the

By varying of the may

geometry, other By

contact

temperature ribbon wheel, geometries short to operating melt

parameters, introducing directly. slag in in is of is and vacuum. Fig. 5.12

a variety notches

be made. can be

ribbons keep the under

produced free gas is of or

Care must-be exercised other The and by impurities pendant is its a very own The of This in a by drop

surface an inert

extraction technique. tension advantage and crucible of its an on of

method The the this and

shown drop a rod

similar surface great

molten end of

supported the the

same material. elimination

technique their

orifices

attendant is beam for

problems. readily heating. run

technique, vacuum

because system

simplicity, electron

using

100
WIPER

`1

COOLING WATER FIBER

MELT

Fig.

5.11

Crucible Mobley

melt [69,1

extraction,

due

to

Maringer

and

MELTSTOCK
MELT ELECTRONBEAM

FILAMENT

o FIBER

WIPER

Fig.

5 12

Pendant al [70].

drop

melt

extraction,

due

to

Maringer

et

CHAPTER

Application

of

Amorphous

Material

6.1

Introduction

It

was considered which could

appropriate have then of already

to

investigate

the

various metal. in is may the the be

applications Such design subject divided devices. experience and of into

employed and

amorphous put core to use

be utilized the transformer The

construction the two current

which

research. power

applications and

categories,

devices

electronic

6.1.1

Power

Devices

For amorphous distribution the the

many alloys

years was

the the

driving saving [72,73,74] the of of

force energy .A

for in of

the power

use

of

system in in The low

transformers has

decade

progress involved [71]. are the and iron

development commercial in and

highlighted

complexity alloys

introduction favour therefore are thickness reported is Hence, lower of the low

amorphous of amorphous

arguments losses

use

alloys

operating flux with of

costs, density silicon the in be total

major very [75].

disadvantages small Luborsky power ribbon has generated

saturation when [73] compared that as the iron core loss 0.5%

electric

lost if

losses could

distribution reduced by a

transformers.

102 factor alloys, the The of say 3 by replacing $300 20 million million silicon-iron could a year using those for be saved in the by amorphous annually U. K. [73,76). 2605 ribbon made obtained that for the the in

approximately and of have 3.2s about

U. S. A. costs

building been

transformers compared Fig. with 6.1

Metglas

material from

transformers results assumes times of of the that

silicon-iron. to cost the for It would of its Luborsky Metglas can

shows the [73]. It

according material silicon-iron. materials by 127%

report 2605 will

be 1.5. the use cost but extra The

be seen the level

that overall

amorphous the

ribbon

increase present would of the cored [77,78]. metallic This tested the

transformer saving times

[73], this

energy cost many

during during of small

operation the life

recover transformer.

measured has been

performance reported Corporation weighing 102 by

amorphous workers a large [79]. was that commercial power, the the

transformers Recently glass

several constructed kilograms transformer tests

Allied transformer three

utility-scale at output

phase up to

toroidal These than rating. a At 60% of It core a is and 1511 in of should

powers is unit more of

30kW.

showed

transformer dry-type total unit 87.5 power as and were despite resulted

efficient same less Fig.

comparable its that rated of

the was in

loss shown 21%

than 6.2. in only reduction

commercial that the

significant copper increase saturation silicon iron losses in

reductions with 20s the

respectively total weight, that

achieved the from

induction by

replacement It

ferromagnetic

amorphous

material.

103

13

a O x13 ci

11

0.9

03

15 13 1.1 0.9 Si-Fe To Relative Cost, CoreMaterial

1.7

1.9

Fig.

6.1

Comparison

of

costs

of

transformer

made

from

amorphous
due to

FeB and conventional

[73 ].

Fe 3.2% silicon,

Luborsky

104

Commercial

Metallic

t dry-type)
Core Loss, W Exciting Current.A 112 25

Glass
14 0.12

lossat Copper Energy W 1SKVA.

210

166 70

Operating
100 0

100

13

Q-90
Cu
W

Transformer Glass Metallic o Transformer Steel Silicon o

OutputPower KW ,

15

25

Fig.

6.2

Comparison kVA

of

metallic [ 791.

glass

and

conventional

15

transformers

105 be noted that loss, flux the losses in recent times, because are material silicon-iron between the is of the premium on the to

power operating decrease [80]. of very

transformers level in the cores (ribbon which being steel. firstly, increased in serious if is of

designers the core

decreasing in order

conventional difference and

transformers operating decreasing. m) not of flux The the to

Consequently, alloy

amorphous thin

silicon-iron thickness a characteristic about This the by number a factor and one-tenth has of of

thickness material drastically, sheet [75] is increase is less

2605-S2,25 is of two sheets at

amorphous change electrical disadvantages a given an

likely

conventional independent required least ten cost. for with This is

device

obvious

handling if

assembly

deficiency used sheets Secondly, factor

a wound-core stacks of ten or

construction more amorphous

and may be alleviated can as be handled

like thickness effect is

conventional decreases, particularly thickness with

laminations. the severe and difficulty that the of a stacking if the

lamination This not only of

decreases. are 0.9 has

laminations factor laboratory electrical amorphous insulation would further of

uniform been It is and

stacking under high the

obtained possible small the need

conditions. resistivity alloys coating reduce

however sheet to

thickness

may remove between the

provide

an electrical if used

layers, stacking

such factor.

insulation

106 6.1.2 Amorphous Materials in Machines

Amorphous lower losses

alloys than

offer

soft

magnetic to and not only

material be used machine in in

with low

conventional such made also use of the as in in

silicon-iron transformer this Eastern area

frequency Progress USA India a. c.

devices has been but The or

cores. and and of an a with same

Europe China stator

[81-86], [91]. motor

Europe ribbons a d. c. losses. field the the In a 360 field

[87-901, in type In is the

amorphous rotor in the of magnetic. magnetic

in

would

permit

significant transformers, direction in a. c. and

reduction where only the or varies flux

contrast in vector the

polarity d. c. rotors

of

changes, of rotor, the for for amorphous flux re-

stators field the pair materials to A laminated

orientation a d. c.

magnetic instance, each ribbon orientation steels. using [92]. less use of field

continuously. paths each undergo

re-orientation The use of

during

revolution. permit the

would occur more

required than in horse by the

readily core, of

conventional power motor, Electric losses stator. the such solution as the from are The

stator alloy was

a 1/3 made that

amorphous Power than of

recently taken of show

General core

measurements fifth those alloys

one

similar motors

silicon-iron will require

amorphous difficult of of

in

some

manufacturing fabricating a very thin [93] ribbon and are for

problems, electrical very hard

difficulty laminations in General

machines material. on the which

Designers concept eliminates of

Electric of

working motor stators

helical

casting

107

the

necessity

for

punching

laminations

and

resolves

these

difficulties.

Finally, of amorphous

there alloys

are in

good power it is

reasons devices clear investment of

to

believe could be much be alloys.

that

the

use

commercially engineering required to

advantageous, ingenuity exploit and fully

although manufacturing the

that will

advantages

amorphous

6.1.3

Wound

Type

Core

Distribution

Transformers

Amorphous 1970's and as

metals economic

became evaluation manufacturers

commercially of the

available core to losses investigate

in grew

the in the

importance, feasibility USA, General

several of building

began core its

amorphous Company in April had

transformers. first The 75kVA initial shown

In

the

Electric installed core and

amorphous amorphous Fig. 6.3. using core and

transformer transformer The primary a gear leg. It driven has to levels at the

1982. the

designed secondary

by GEC in coils were

USA is

continuously around for over core loss the six

wound centre years and of

split now operate when

arbour been with first in

assembled service the

continues current results during

same low built. measured A

exciting the test

summary at periodic 6.1,

rated past

excitation six years is

intervals [94].

shown

in

Table

108

Coil

Amorphous core

metal

Cross material
i

hatched saved

at using

corners inversion

Fig.

6.3

The by type wound

initial GEC in wound onto the

amorphous USA, cores the centre

cored formed

transformer with are two

designed cruciform

the

coils leg.

continuously

109

TEST-DATE

CORE-LOSS,

(W)

EXCITING-CURRENT,

(A)

31/3/82

34.9

0.80,

29/6/82

34.7

0.84

26/4/83

34.8

0.73

29/9/83

34.8

0.79

12/4/84

35.2

0.73

28/8%84

34.1

0.79

40/4/86

35.4

0.75

20/5/86

35.1

0.80

90/6/87

34.7

0.81

Table

6.1

Summary amorphous

during

five

years

in

service

of

a 75

kVA

transformer

[ 94 1.

110 In 1983, the Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI)

in

USA initiated cores and were

a programme through extensive shared in and the field this the

to

accelerate of

the a pilot of the

development manufacturing transformers.

of

amorphous facility Costs General Research wound made a two and been Only for utility [92]. to no five reasons in core

building testing

development Empire State

programme Electric

between Energy

Electric Corporation. distribution [95]

A thousand transformers shipped The losses to

pole-mounted with 25kVA

single-phase rating were for

1985

and trial. core

90 EPRI member have

utilities been

year date

field the

transformers have to remained the

monitored There has core.

stable.

failures of the such and

attributable 1000 as being demonstration lightening subjected

amorphous have

metal been

units strikes, to three

returned from a

falling times rated

pole The

load is [94].

typical with

performance

of

these

1000 in

transformers Table 6.2.

compared

silicon-iron

transformers

The material products ribbon of

transformer developed with

cores and produced from itself phase

were

built

using Signal The to which the Electric of 25kVA The Inc. thin the the

amorphous Metglas amorphous production turns of are the to

by Allied the EPRI. readily onto In 1986

sponsorship lends single built

material loop

most cores,

wound

wound initial

by purpose research the

machinery. led

success

programme commercial distribution

General

Company and company

announce single-phase

availability transformers.

5OkVA is

111

Amorphous

Silicon-Iron

Core

loss

(W)

15.4

57

Load

Loss

(W)

328

314

Exciting

current

(%)

0.14

0.36

Impedance.

(%).

2.45

2.45

Audible

Noise

(db)

33

40

Temperature

Rise

(OC)

48

57

Weight

(kg)

200

184.5

Table

6.2

Comparison amorphous iron

of

characteristic to [ 94 1. an

of equivalent

25

kVA

transformer

silicon-

transformer

112 now in offering any standard Electric manufacturers Westinghouse single-phase combination has now transformers of sold primary 1000 from and units 75kVA to 500kVA

secondary of core various

voltage. sizes,

General other include

making Electric,

amorphous

transformers and Kuhlman.

McGraw-Edison,

Now commercialized, a large

that the

the task of will the

first remains the require

transformers to make From them a

have competitive manufacturing degree problem making have

been in

segment this to

market. introducing process. handling made Allied Metglas have is in the to date

standpoint, automation the new larger

a higher Part of the in area

of is the been

assembly of material efforts

amount

involved in this

transformers. out Allied amorphous the in

Most the Signal core main

carried renamed phase although distribution majority cores. strips thereby flux. 6.1.4

USA, Inc. units demand

by

Corporation -Products).

(recently Some in single Japan). or the threeUSA, phase The wound

been for

produced small USA use by (and toroidal winding special

transformers of The the wound units core produced can

be

formed

continuous machinery path for

through eliminating

pre-formed joints

coils and

using making

a continuous

First

Prototype in

Amorphous the UK

Transformer

Core

Development

A Electric

development Company in

project the UK.

has The

been object

undertaken of the

by project

General was to

113 build system assembled, the second transformers to gain one for metal the to field was which service assess trials. available of design could experience. the manufacturing At the only beginning as options. pole-mounted, having the wound a type voltage with 25m be used Two on the UK supply were and project and for

transformers difficulties of thick The the

amorphous this a limited

ribbon was

choice oil

design

single-phase of the

cooled, rating, was of

distribution ratio windings of on

transformer 11000/250V both legs.

16kVA core

Two using

cores

were 2605S-2

manufactured and were were delivered wound fitted

by

the to in with Both

Allied GEC in six cast step

Corporation the annealed cruciform sleeves were using limbs. the a

Metglas The

condition. construction, to enhance

cores limbs

the

epoxy

mechanical by and winding

strength. the former of turns fitted an L. V. onto were

transformers the the core core coil,

manufactured removable Each H. V. leg

through around coil the taken of a

rotatable consisted

winding

and

H. V.

being

wound Loss

directly measurements loss was the as

L. V. with on flux both density

suitable cores in and the

insulation. Fig. cores. material, and coated 6.4 shows Core

the No. 1

a function with

bound core

polyester with to the

adhesive cotton tape

whereas with applied, between (b) and (c) an

No. 2 was resin. losses two

bound Due were

elastomeric different these of

different The in the

stresses difference curves

measured. are shown figure

measurements 6.4. In the

figure

same

curves

114

C. 557 C

C a)
-ce 0. r, be Jd Core No. i

O. ? S: 0 .a
c C, L
r

I)

0.

42

0.000

0.8

0.9

1.0 Flux

1.1 Density

1.2

1.3

?.

B (T)

Fig.

6.4

Power phase in the

loss core UK;

against assembled (a) and

flux from (b)

density Metglas core

for

the 2605-S2

singleby (c) GEC core

No. 1 and

No. 2.

115

(b) before cores the

and

(a) and

show after

the

difference of unstable in core

between no. 1, and the of

the

measured

loss The

assembly

respectively. brittle metal nature

were material

mechanically resulted It the was essential

of

particles to prevent

becoming particles

detached. entering transformers subject to

metallic oil. One

winding was put into

or

insulating service and in loss

of and [96,971.

the is

October measurement

1984

periodic

inspection

6.1.5

Commercial

Production

The project, processes, manufacturing commercially. introduced 75kVA and and

favourable plus led the General and A for

results progress. Electric selling

of

the of in

assessment suitable early amorphous core 1986, 1986

in

the

EPRI

manufacturing to continue

transformers transformer was by a

50kVA sale

amorphous in mid

general rating 6.3

followed 3-phase,

later

100kVA Table

and shows

more the

recently commercial from produced clearly

150,300 of as and of the a will for

500kVA.

availability GE company to date

amorphous August volume leadership. provide distribution optimistic investments.

distributions 1988. doubling It a full is With 10,000 every

transformers units

year,

GE has that

established development transformer Allied are

expected of

continued and 3-phase EPRI, and in

range purposes.

1-phase The

companies, of amorphous to invest

and GE are making ton major metal

about Allied

the

future has plans

a 60,000

116

"-. M. t

0C-+ N-D 0N0v t'3L''NC1%1)

0000 0000 0 L" -0 0NNV! ct

a.

\" ,

CO 0, 'Ul `J0-o

-{ bi -+-0 Id"

-{cir=; V)t 4
fl o.3 f-ri t`JF')['J

V)DI
U ri 41 UN

U
L:

L'St
U

..

i3t*-.
......

a) C4ict fl) IN
....

"a"-

Lq

co

Ll.

-4 WO r ( 4 N
0

61
3.. 4
! 4

L t) t) t c`J
V)it .C

ill cJ ri Q
-"1cJr';

(13

0)

L rf O
o

cr -J--0 CJ -NNc`JN it DI
44, ""+ 0` t) pN Vi c-; - N C--4

0CJ0 tv. C
dt ' t-. I' 0 Vi -Al

CD 44 O 41 ""i
4-3 ", -l

a)

i') i0

.r;

Co V)

o %.

0N

U) ", {
(S

om

Co 0)
u

Z 0

N 41

1ocf7NP)0

OC-C-

o Ui
Q) U 0v
"

r4

(Ij
9.4 0

:!
t

L0
"""..

U7ViL'-C`
"

rt"C
"".

U) 0 4 0 U . rI rl . ri N

WUv
GL
O

E a

z c

." ^. y n

[`J-+0l:;

L7d

iNNt`J bi G*- 14- W

0a w 4 Or a0 co co

4 0

V to U
Q y

3 L U1 Q 0

C-41 10 0C-

NC-

O to ;: O 14"0'3Vi
0 b)0 hifl00 -+ F? L7

a) r-I .A E-4

W0 bi 0 0bi tfN0 -+-1C .' ci -4

ci

GI G

cf

>. -----

-., ----

r -

rr 1--

IV
a

117 casting entered mechanize significant facilities to facility into the the [98] . In addition, phase making in production of EPRI, the ESEERCO and GE have project is to making and

third core

amorphous and GE

process manufacturing [76].

investment scale up

processes

6.2

Electronic

Devices

There of coils choice enable widely the Thus fraction applications, therefore metallic for of the

is

a rapidly glasses in

growing special

interest

in

the

application and inductor

transformers [99-101]. heat to of treatment be

use

in

electronic and of

circuits subsequent these device In most used is of the in

Appropriate of ribbon to meet

composition properties

tailored

differing of cost of the

requirements. magnetic of the total the material material cost

electronic device an In

devices, is small.

amount the

each

normally device.

insignificant these types of and

performance alloying

characteristics additions are

dominate permissible.

expensive

6.2.1

Magnetic

Shielding

Mendelsoh amorphous permeability to be used were a alloys and in made

et

al for

[102] shielding. yield

have

investigated The combination

the

use of

of high

high flexible by The

strength magnetic weaving of

allows shields process the

amorphous [102,103). and then

alloys Large coated shields

sheets with

a simple properties

polymer.

cylindrical

118 made from these to an woven equal 80% The which when shielding is a measure with Ni fabrics weight 20% Fe foil of the were measured shield neither the woven at 60Hz and from was

compared polycrystalline annealed. material higher woven flexibility because commercial shielding it

wrapped shield

ratios of the

amorphous is The of

shields

effectiveness foils. the advantage performance The for first

compared

polycrystalline has

amorphous

material,

however, the to

without is less

changing sensitive utilizing offered

shielding strain. alloy

mechanical amorphous by Allied

product was Metshield

magnetic [103].

Corporation

6.2.2

Cable

Shielding

Several field tubing Amorphous uniquely braided permeability. for of here, winding of cables 1 A/cm pick-up or

choices of braided alloys with for

are

available for example of

to

eliminate thin walled

the

magnetic

cables,

convoluted alloys. materials they of of can material frequency a. c. field [104] helical and be

sheaths zero this

high

permeability are because loss

magnetostriction application without factor measured 6.5.

suitable or woven

practically

The shielding with is 8 mm O. D. shown a in

as a function in Boll by a constant and

Fig. braid mm strip

Warlimont

compare of

cable

made of

contiD-uous

3 mm x 0.03 amorphous

crystalline

Permalloy

Co base

material

[105,106].

119

100 Sc

Co Fe4 (Mo Si 8)x ss , , amorphous

20 10 CrystalliM

Permalloy

55

ca. 3 mm

strip 0.03 mm OGmm

2
1L0.01
V. 1

%Cable

"v

""-

f-

Fig.

6.5

Shielding

factor

S as

a function

of

frequency

of

thin

cable

braids,

due to

Boll

and Warlimont

[104].

120 6.2.3 Delay Lines

The coupling and Fe-Ni

high factor

magnetostriction, and the low

the magnetic glasses in variable

large

magnetomechanical of Fe-rich

anisotropy make these

based for surface alloys al [107]. and

metallic

materials and use in of by in Their and AE

attractive tunable amorphous Azai radar, quality behaviour, applied variety al [108] et

application acoustic in acoustical Delay other by the AE

delay

lines The

wave

components. delay are was important first

reported components

lines signal their

computer is

processing

equipment.

determined where AE is H. The

magnetomechanical in is for Young's extremely delay lines. modulus large

change effect tested

E with in a et of which

field of

amorphous investigated alloys by delay

alloys

Shirae

another their lines ribbons. telephone use and in

potential a transversal use are of

application filter magnetostrictive used

amorphous are

essentially in

make They

waves

amorphous and

frequently

in

communications

lines.

6.2.4

Magnetic

Heads

Alloys have been

with used

low as

magnetostriction cores The in zero recording

and

high heads

permeability by high several cobalt

researcher amorphous Materials induction

[109-112]. alloys for are magnetic

magnetostriction for based these on the

preferred heads initial

applications. principle adequate of

require

high

permeability,

121 saturation, hardness desirable. properties attractive tape and high wear electrical resistance. combination amorphous heads. resistivity, Zero of alloys The with long low high mechanical is also

magnetostriction magnetic makes reliable distortion response material and these

The unique of for some

mechanical materials

magnetic recording

operation with are group. materials of 0.95T

of high the The for [113] of

recorders, tapes

coercivity potential application magnetic and even at

and of

high-frequency the based new

advantages of heads more 1kHz

Fe-Co-Si-B with a saturation 1.3T [114]

amorphous flux density

up to were

and

an initial

permeability

20,000

reported.

CHAPTER

Transformer

Core

Desicrn.

Manufacture

and

Test

7.1

General

Design

Considerations

A design
for a given

exercise
transformer using

was carried
rating

out
the and

initially

to

compare
core

transformer amorphous metal for

parameters the core

when material. cored

silicon-iron this

for an

Following transformer essentially

exercise the 3-kHz

a design core 20-kVA were core of was the

amorphous being several tested. so and that

was finalised, to size of meet a

dimension rating, built and

tailored cores In

for

this

transformer uncut be made

addition

a silicon-iron comparison could

purchased electrical

a direct

magnetic

properties.

7.1.1

Design Core

Comparison

Silicon

Iron

v Amorphous

Metal

The a silicon-iron are were 800/600 design densities windings

advantages core by

of for the

an amorphous a medium parameters a design design

metal

core power in

compared

with

frequency listed

transformer 7.1. a at for the 20 1-kHz the foil These kVA, and flux type The

illustrated obtained

Table for

following

exercise operation produced of

V transformer, No. 2 for shown, being 3-kHz. the

No. 1 for were

The designs number of to turns the

on each density

appropriate

flux

specified.

123

Amorphous Description Design No. 1 Type Phase

Frequency (kHz)

Metal 2605-S2 Design No. 2 Air cooled Single

Silicon Design No. 1 Air cooled Single

1

Iron Design No. 2 Air cooled Single

3

Air cooled Single

1

Rating

(kVA) (V) (V)

20 800 600 1.4

7.5

20 800 600 1.4

22.2

20 800 600 1
11

20 800 600 0.4

26.7

HV Winding LV Winding Flux

Density(T)
(V)

Volt/Turn

Total Total Weight

No. No. (kg)

turn' turn'

107 80 6.8 8
82

36 28 4.34 35
228.0

72 54 14 23
322

30 23 25 19
475

Spec. Loss(W/kg)
Core Loss (W)

Thickness

(mm)

0.025

0.025

0.05

0.05

Overall Core (mm) Dimension Window Dimension Cross Area

High

328x146

186x146

320x178

275x227.5

(mm)

248x66

106x66

193x51

97x49.5

section (mm)
voltage

40x40
Low voltage

40x40

50x50

60x60

Table

7.1

Comparison silicon iron

of

transformer and Metglas

design 2605-S2.

using

cores

of

124

transformer typical space and

core impedance

design values. 0.75 and

also Building 0.88

took

into of

account 1.5 in the and

assumed 1.0 and

factors assumed

factors silicon-iron

of

were

amorphous

designs

respectively.

The been material specified. available most

design on and

for current the

the

silicon practice densities different iron

iron with used

cored regard at

transformer to the metal appear the

has core

based

flux of the

frequencies alloys to to be were the A the the the used.

A number of which for amount metal name of of flux of 3-kHz with in the

amorphous based in alloys the was by For alloy of by 1.4 the The metal with Allied this 2605S-2 T was

suitable

frequencies of information produced

band

3-kHz. for under

considerable amorphous trade

available Signal

alloys

Metglas. the Metglas value provided optimistic.

comparison have chosen been

characteristics The maximum

density data be

following although

inspection 1.4 T at

manufacturer higher a flux

may the

density

possible reduction point in to core

amorphous weight in the

produces silicon

significant Another reduction metal silicon3-kHz. The

core

compared comparison at 3-kHz was

iron. further

be noted weight a similar

was the in the

achieved reduction reduced loss other

amorphous with at be

design, iron due

not

possible necessary however

to in

the core

flux at

density may

increase using

3-kHz amorphous

unacceptable for example of table

2605-S2

and

metal later

alloys, comparison

2605S-3A, 7.2)

may be more

suitable

(see

125 7.1.2 Choice of Amorphous Core Material and Type of

Construction

The according nickel based Hz to material conventional powercore power iron alloys

characteristics to the based are composition and best cobalt suited In

of

amorphous of the alloy, are

metal i. e. available. in ribbon

alloys iron

vary based,

alloys to

The the form, similar range

iron 50-

frequencies to is the

200-kHz

[115].

addition

a strip to

called steel strip is

powercore* laminations. intended

available, As the in built for 6 layers

name up

implies, cores of iron ribbon strip in

for

use

frequency

transformers The powercore

as a substitute strip the comprises associated quantity associated in ribbon of ribbon type. Of and the range of

silicon of the

laminations. loosely are ribbon strip preclude has the been core bonded

together, for the

losses

with of with 1-kHz

greater form. when its

than The used use

equivalent losses

material powercore to

larger at and

frequencies only the

3-kHz metal that alloys to be

form

amorphous dictates based appear for are

considered. will by and be Metglas another using of

The use the both design these wound

material the iron

produce suitable transformer Table

2605S-2

2605S-3A was made results

comparison alloys, the

a 20 kVA given in

7.2.

powercore

is a trade name used"b. Allied y

Signal Inc.

126

Description Type

Amorphous Air cooled

2605-52 Air cooled

Amorphous Air cooled

2605-S3A Air cooled

Phase
Frequency Rating HV LV
Flux

Single
(kHz) (kVA) 1 20 800 600
(T) 1.0

Single
3 20 800 600
1.0

Single
1 20 800 600
1.0

Single
3 20 800 600
1.0

(V) (V)
Density

Volt/Turn Total Total Weight

(V) No. turn' No. turn+ (kg) (W/kg) (W) (mm) Core
(mm)

5.3 150 112 8.3 5.2 65.0 0.025

16 50 38 4.8 25.0 180.0 0.025

5.3 150 112 8.43 3.0 38.0 0.0175

16 50 38 4.87 10.0 73.0 0.0175

Spec. Loss Core Loss

Thickness Overall
Dimension

416.6x146

213x146

416.6x146

213x146

Window Dimension Cross

Area (mm)2

(mm)2

336.6x66

133x66
40x40

336.6x66

133x66

Section
40x40 40x40 40x40

nj. gn voicage

- Low voltage

Table

7.2

Comparison 2605-S2 and

of

transformer

design

using

Metglas

2605-S3A.

127

The predicted at 1.4-T, 1-kHz flux for but

core not

losses at of

for 1.4-T,

2605S-2 3-kHz

may be acceptable (see table used 2605S-3A 7.1), in a the

reduced comparison to

density Table but 7.2.

1-T

was

therefore losses is of

The lower material will

appear 30% more rise must

be advantageous

the

approximately be the temperature temperature

expensive. of not the core,

The deciding the 150C. maximum

criteria continuous

service

exceed

It mainly purchased sufficient a small

was on the to to

decided cheaper make

initially Metglas cores the of core

to

concentrate Enough 4-6 of kg the

the

research was range, Only

2605-S2. in the

material weight results.

several

evaluate

consistency

quantity for latter gained one core with

Metglas of about only cheaper

2605-S3A 5 kg be in weight.

was

purchased, The assembly

sufficient of. had this been

would the

attempted 2605-S2

once material.

experience

The may be a) at b) the 1.4

main

reason as this and

for

choosing

2605-S2,

apart

from

price

summarized losses T at with 1-kHz the of early

follows: material possibly stages of were at 1.0 likely T at to be acceptable

3kHz. a the certain winding

during

core to

manufacture, occur until

amount techniques c) The

wastage were

was

-likely

perfected. 2605S-3A ribbon was likely of to prove more

thinner to wind. were

difficult and

The 0.025

ribbon

thicknesses 0.0175

Metglas

2605-S2 The

2605-S3A

mm and

mm respectively.

128 space number usually windings preferably on the factor of would turns cut to be be inferior Wound to on to the allow limbs. for 2605-S3A using due to the larger are

required. (C-cores) placed flat circuit.

cores the

silicon

iron

separately The mating gap a difficult such the have

assembled surfaces and its are effect assembly to achieve

ground magnetic for

minimise To

the

air

implement will be

similar

method without the the

amorphous cutting

ribbon facilities. during core

special

Even with and to

facilities clamping detrimental of

stress finished on to

introduced transformer the use magnetic uncut the directly

manufacture were likely

effects was made directly coil

characteristics. wound cores It onto was an with the

Hence windings that could

the

decision assembled

onto winding

limbs.

foreseen core

methods easily

for be

uncut

developed. 7.1.3 Transformer Core Dimensions

The dimensions were based on the at of design 1.5 see a flux and

of design

the for

amorphous a 20-kVA, of 1-T factor

cores

to

be manufactured V transformer, A core were building assumed in was

800/600 3-kHz. of The of 0.75

operating factor the only being cross given Cross Window

density a core 7.2 a the core as

and

space for

Table in to The 7.2 area

2605-S2. number requirement

ribbon widths, for modified a

material 50

available nearest section. in table

limited ideal

mm wide core those

square from

dimensions follows: (mm2) (mm2)

were

section

= 50 x 32 = 125 x 65

dimensions

129 7.2 7.2.1 Transformer Core Winding Core Manufacture and Annealing

Transformers the core losses

using reduced with this attention core

amorphous by the low as

metal much as

for

the

core

can

have with

60-700

compared electrical

transformers steel. require annealing susceptible core loss. The the core to be self core

made

best loss

grain-oriented in the handling, amorphous can in

Achieving careful and to

transformer core metal turn

will winding, alloy was

to material The

support. stress

bending

which

increases

shape intended

chosen to

was a simple be wound on which into onto the

rectangular both ribbon whether annealing mandrel limbs was

core through to

with the

windings window. form self the

The mandrel core must or core this a be take

be wound core will A

account the the

the

supporting

not would

during have a

process. removed before

supporting in

annealing, required. chosen process. during affecting removed steel removable axle main on

case simpler left

collapsible non in collapsible

mandrel

would mandrel

be was

However which It would was

place

during to expansion these was the thus core a

the support of

annealing the the core

considered despite the of

beneficial likely the

annealing, the after strip side which inner

mandrel could be mild Two

turns

ribbon,

turns made

annealing. to the plates the of

The mandrel dimensions were fitted was of

from

window.

and rotated.

centrally Fig. The 7.1

located shows the was

mandrel the

features

mandrel

assembly.

mandrel

130

Fig.

7.1

Construction wound to form

of the

mandrel

around

which core.

the

ribbon

is

transformer

131

mounted pay brake The off to

in

a lathe The

and pay

rotated off spool

to

draw had

off an

the

ribbon

from friction

spool. tension

adjustable onto the 1 is shown

the tension

ribbon used lathe found to the and

during was pay

winding approximately off spool

mandrel. kg. in The Fig. after

winding of system

arrangement 7.2. The

the was

to the

operate mandrel the

satisfactorily alignment side plates and

adjustments tension. were of S3A. After

were

made

ribbon axle

winding before were the

ribbon,

and

removed three

annealing using

process 2605-S2

commenced. and one using

A total 2605-

cores

wound

7.2.2

Purpose

of

Core

Annealing

The METGLAS annealing. of stress

magnetic alloy The caused processes. for the

properties 2605-S2 reason during The for and

of

amorphous may was to the of

alloys be

such

as by

2605-S3A

optimised the in the and

annealing casting combination cycle of

minimize and

level core time

ribbon

winding chosen the

temperature that it would

annealing as of the far the

was such possible alloy.

relieve causing field for in the

stresses

as amorphous

without A used magnetic primarily

crystallization applied inducing ribbon. HH stresses casting during uniaxial

annealing anisotropy

cycle

was

(domain

alignment)

Liebermann in process amorphous could

[116] alloys

investigations caused at by

showed the rapid

that

the quench as

be removed

an anneal

temperature

132

Fig.

7.2

Winding

ribbon

onto

lathe

mounted

m, indi_el

from

F,uuy off

spool.

133 low excess stress finished as 310C. of most 310C likely was Since were to that the use of annealing this temperature suggests that in the in

recommended, inhibit optimum

magnetic with ribbon

properties winding.

cores

associated

'

As has

already properties

been in

stated, the may magnetic by

METGLAS alloys as-cast be state.

possess In

good some

magnetic applications annealing results Ribbons flexible retain annealing following

annealing improves were which than their obtained have in the the

inappropriate, performance in were and main a and magnetic to also

however optimal field. be tend of in less to the the

annealing annealed state The by

been

found they

as-cast shape. suggested

annealed

features are given

procedure section.

Metglas

7.2.3 7.2.3.1

General Preparation

Conditions of Cores

of

Annealing Prior to

Process Annealing

The avoid organic

cores

when

formed of would

into the

their material.

final

shapes The use

should of any

excessive materials All the * The for provide material.

stressing which wire,

oxidize or

during tapes

annealing must be

should of or

be avoided. withstanding outgassing. structures used suitable to

adhesives

capable

annealing thermal the

temperature expansion mandrel field must must

without of any

distorting supporting The

example the

be minimal. be insulated

wire a

magnetic

with

134 7.2.3.2 Annealing Atmosphere

An inert be used, also for

atmosphere, example

free argon, but

from nitrogen

oxidizing or

agents, helium. due

should A vacuum to a lack was

would of used

be acceptable heat the transfer

may cause [117]. In in

problems our the case laboratory

convective during

nitrogen

annealing

process

furnace.

7.2.3.3

Temperature

Cycle

The the soak

core

was field

placed applied. and

in

the

inert core at

gas was

filled brought

furnace up to for

and its the and The upon

magnetic temperature soak

The

maintained then cooled.

that The

temperature inert

required magnetizing temperature the

time field cycles

and were

atmosphere the cycle.

maintained for

throughout use most The vary cycles

recommended properties, 450C importance the furnace. be the were [118,119]. during

depending used a of than

desired

magnetic below

soak the the

temperature core was of

temperature rather cores, monitor cool-down inserted the

most of

annealing For large to and case, measure

temperature thermocouples temperature

multiple the core

would during

necessary soak our to

heat-up, used positions in

periods. inside

Two thermocouples the core in different

temperature.

135 7.2.3.4 Handling After Annealing

One of mechanical only be

the

prime

objectives therefore forming

of

annealing of before. core

was the

to

relieve can after

stresses, done stress it and brittle Proper care after can

annealing and in to not the

cores Even

annealing, abusing were cause excellent

be induced be taken

by mechanically this. The handling in cores ribbons can with

must after

avoid and

more

annealing annealing will

rough

damage.

result

magnetic

properties.

7.2.3.5

Application
Process

of

Magnetic

Field

During

Annealing

The magnetic
the direction use. in Once field d. c.

field
which the were

used
the

during
core

annealing
would be

was applied
magnetized to generate of during

in

normal

ampere-turns determined, were selected.

required a suitable

the turns shown with a

magnetizing and that d. c. during (domain anisotropy, saturation that using to the most field the

number

current

Experiments would be

have

benefit applied annealing

from of

annealing

obtained field

800 AT/m process To fully material annealing field the core

[1201. induces develop

The magnetic uniaxial this anneal

used

anisotropy induced magnetic noteworthy value or The

alignment). the during core the

should process. than

approach It the is

a magnetic saturate effect

greater material

minimum

required detrimental

has magnetic

no beneficial properties.

on the

resultant

136

following turn

equation for

(7.1)

may be used to determine core and field

the

ampere-

requirement

a given

strength,

IN=HD

(At)

(7.1)

Where:

I=d. D= N= H=

c. mean number

current path of

(A). length turns. (m).

magnetic

field

(At/m).

The a suitable any was

magnetic wire

field size localized with

was selected

applied to

by minimize

winding its

the

core

with and wire

resistance Bare copper

noticeable used

heat

dissipation. beads and to the

insulated turns and

ceramic the turns

prevent core.

shorting

between

between

7.2.4

Annealing

Process

Under

Laboratory

Condition

Fig. laboratory. Corporation S2 was (i) as

7.3

shows The

the

annealing

test cycle for

apparatus recommended amorphous

set

up in by

the

annealing researchers

Allied 2605-

and other follows up from rise at the

Metgias

[116,117,121]: ambient rate soak of to between the soak 1-10C temperature per minute. as between 340with a

heat

temperature (ii) hold

temperature,

specified

137 410C (iii) for cool 2 hours. with the temperature decreasing at a rate of 1-

10C per

minute.

The annealing

magnetic cycle.

field

should

be

maintained

throughout

the

From be used

the for and

information Metglas

available, 2605-S3A [116] soak was

the not

soak clear, that should

temperature for for be just alloy by

to

example optimum above

Nathasigh magnetic or was below 358C.

Liebarmann the

suggested

properties the Curie soak It

temperature which for

temperature temperature decided i. e.

the

2605-S3A was use temperature to repeat the a

The

recommended therefore below the to

Metglas

however soak and the Curie

430C.

was of

initially Curie tests now

temperature then anneal after at the a

310C, performing

the

electrical of 385C,

soak

temperature

above

temperature.

The 2605-S2, cooling temperatures Metglas the hours. the rate

heat the rate

up soak 5C

rate time per

for was

Metglas for three Fig. the

2605-S3A and 7.4 a half to of

was

similar and show different were

to the the

hours 7.6 three

minute. during

recorded cores.

annealing temperatures

2605-S2

The soak and the was

recorded approximately 1-5C per

in two and

range The cooling could

365-371C heating down be up rate

soak

times

rate was by

between minute. of

minute cooling

1C per the rate

The of

down gas

influenced

flow

nitrogen

138 fed cycles into for the furnace. Fig. 7.7 for and soak 7.8 show the of annealing 310C and using in

Metglas

2605-S3A The inserted The produced core

temperature were between in

385C respectively. two thermocouples positions. for exciting 2605-S2

temperatures in the core

recorded the the

ribbon annealing core

different cycle and

slight

differences effect three

negligible on the

on the cores

loss

VA per

kg measured

assembled.

139

inert
vent inert gas outlet

gas

inlet

3
J

1-Temperature 2-Temperature
3-D. C. cur_ent 4-Transformer

control

unit unit

measurement
source core

5-Inert

gas

furnace

Fig.

7.3

Annealing

apparatus

of

amorphous

material

140

0 0 Co

O L O 0 0

O O

to

CL E H
O

0 0 qt

O O U 0

CL O E

to N
%- CO

mU)

OE o

CL E

Vm
O

>+ N

C G)

cO Z
4)

Co <0

O O N

4) 0 C

ti _o LL

U
N L I4) H

O
r

a E If

CL E
00000 t4

0 Lip
st C') N

141

O O Co

a)
L

C
V

0 0 to

a E
H
40 Co

0 0
.WA% C

r-" m

O O V 0

m
w.. ON
O mC 00 vO

O9 O
MW

CL E

O c

"
<N

Co

C0 Cm

0 0 N

m C, Co C

L0 ti ti _ LL

U
O

a cc L. a

0 0 r

CL E

OO00 000

qqt

MN

O "-

142

0 0 Co

G)
L

0
0

0 0

E
0 cd

0 0

O L O 0

2
ach
a c o 0)
' _(0

ll OE Mm

0 a E
H

E H

C0 C CO QN

0
0 N

O V C

Co ti

LL

U
v m

O O
T

a E

4+

a E H
Q000a 0000 qt

0
Co cm r

143

O 0
4) O 0

0 0 c0

vO

CL E H
co 0, m O

0 0 U)
O U 0

2
yj

O
UC

0
E a) E

0 m

>'

a
H

O U

0< c Co
i Co cm
N

0
M

0 0 04

O C) C G

FFa) iz

r. O

0 O 1
cc Im Q
-o

a E

E H

L0 c)

0 0 M

Q 1) CM

c2 0 N

v 10 T

0
1

144

0 0 CD

O L O V
""-

0 0

OL E
aD

0 0 le
C

a) O V
"-

2
v. O4 00 rV : m

oE Om E H

CL E

V Co

Ea mc6
C

'0 c 0 0N

0 0 N

w V
O
C 1
II-

OD ti
cm U.

V
m
r-r

0 0 r

CL E If

ca

CL E H

Qvvo O00

O (l) N

145

7.3 7.3.1

Transformer Test Circuit

Core

Tests

Apparatus

The exciting electrical in the range

circuit the test

arrangement cores are

of and shown

the

components of for for the mains. power by

used the

for core

measurement in Fig. derived from kHz Fig. 7.9 7.10 from the the

parameters

frequencies 50 Hz supply using supply

400. - HZ-_ 3 kHz power voltage in the at

and

in

source. a variable frequencies from a

The

50 Hz was isolated 400

mains For

source range

Hz -3

was derived a signal

1.0

kW

Savage

amplifier

controlled

generator.

7.3.2

Core

Test

Measurements

Using

Voltech

Power

Analyser

Most been The

of

the

electrical the

measurements Voltech autoranging Accurate power true PM 1000 for

on AC

the Power

cores

have

obtained instrument

using

Analyser. current and of

was fully

voltage, can

frequency real real V to ranging sinusoidal power power

measurements. (W), factor and DC to apparent W/VA, current 20 was

measurements (VA) with distorted

be made waveforms,

RMS measurements 20 A AC)

of at ,

voltage frequencies of

(2

700 V AC) from

(20 mA to kHz. also The

harmonic

analysis

non-

waveforms

possible.

The

instrument by

contains sampling and then

a micro-processor and digitizing the the required

that voltage

effects and

measurements current

waveforms

computes

measurement

146

in main

its

processor. functional an

Fig.

7.11 of

shows the

in

block

diagram For the

form

the

components input low a 25mf2

instrument. (8Mg impedance) signal. generates are permit with

voltage a

measurement proportional measurements voltage differential with signals respect from

attenuator level current voltage

generates For a low by to current level the float

shunt signals

signal.

These (1) other

buffered the inputs to are

amplifiers to the each

which and

respect

ground. amplified selected input

The by by

differential amplifiers

amplifiers (2), the the gain of the fast of The depending data value the The in of

programmable-gain the and processor current to effect and

being the

according signals. digital

to

magnitude from by

voltage are (3) on the is of the

The outputs information

gain A-D the

amplifiers converters signals of

converted which voltage controlled the voltage

simultaneous current

scanning channels. (4)

rate

scanning frequency by

by the

processor The to compute (5),

on the

signals. is used the

digital the and (6). is given

captured the is

processor selected the the 4 1/2 PM 1000

measurement presented on of I.

by

keyboard LED display analyser

result full the

digit power

specification appendix

147

0
6

1234567-

Advance Savage

signal amplifier

generator (1.0 oscilloscope AC power monitoring under DA116 test kW) DM64 analyser resistor 2 ".I-

Telequipment Voltech Current Transformer Avometer

PM1000 waveform core model

Fig.

7,9

Schematic total loss

diagram and at

of

the

circuit power Hz. of

used single

to

measure phase

exciting 400-3000

transformer

148

iii 0

123-

Variac Isolation
Telecuipment

transformer
oscilloscope DM64

4567-

Voltech Current Transformer Avometer

PM1000 waveform core model

AC power monitoring under DA116

analyser resistor 2 f2

test

Fig.

7.10

Schematic total loss

diagram and at

of

the

circuit power of

used

to

measure phase

exciting 50 Hz.

a single

transformer

149

Vi cl

Cl cl

1234-

Differential Gain
A-D

input

amplifier
converter

Processor

56-L.

Keyboard B. D display

Fig.

7.11

Schematic

functional

arrangement

of

PM 1000.

150 7.3.3 Primary and Secondary Windings for Test Cores

The winding. essentially be covered

test The by

cores

were

wound of

with

a primary turns the flux

and was density from

secondary determined range the to

number the the

primary of range The core of the

requirements voltage

and each to

available purpose flux of

supply

source winding waveshape

at was

frequency. monitor the

the value

secondary and voltage. its

density

by a measurement

secondary

induced

The separately error.

cross

section

area in the

A for

each

of

the

cores minimize

were the

calculated

following

way to

E. C. S. A.

(Wt. C) (M. P. C) x (M. D)

(7.2)

where: E. C. S. A. = effective cross section area (m2)

Wt. C.
M. P. C. M. D.

= weight
= mean = metal

of
path

core
of

(kg)
(m)

core

density

(kg/m3)

The number
the induced

of

primary
equation:

turns

was calculated

from

voltage

Erms=

4FfB

xAN1

(Volts)

(7.3)

where

151 A effective (E. C. S. A) Elms F= = the the and N1 = the voltage form for cross (m2) induce factor, square of in (which wave, primary the for F=1) turns windings sinusoidal (V) input F=1.11 section area of the core material,

number

f=

the To cater

supply for-a

voltage

frequency flux

(Hz) density of 1.2 T at 2

maximum core winding

winding of

and
core. use

3 kHz a primary
The at secondary

of

10 turns
wound

was wound
with a

onto

the
For coil was the

was also

10 turns. primary PM 1000

frequencies of as 20 turns shown

50,400,1000 was used. 7.9 The and

Hz, Voltech 7.10

winding connected

in

Fig.

to

measure

primary exciting

winding power

supply (VA). The

voltage, secondary
and

current, winding
the with earth

core induced

loss

and

voltage
on

was measured storage current circuit of the type

using

an Avometer

waveform the lead

displayed winding primary

oscilloscope (the

together oscilloscope to the winding winding

primary in the

waveform was

connected and and

terminal). voltages a negligible on dc

A comparison on both the

primary

secondary

oscilloscope The and in primary 0.059 this 9

Avometer

revealed

difference. were the 0.118 loss in and 0

winding for

resistance 10 turns been losses 50 T, Hz

measured respectively, assumed (for were were 0.47 129.7 to

20 and has the 1.0 at 1.0

power

resistance with at

be

negligible core 1.02 40 loss

comparison copper loss

core T,

example W and

X 10-3 W x 10-3 W

respectively, respectively).

3 kHz

W and

152 7.4 Comparison 2605-S2 with of Core loss and Exciting Power of Metglas

silicon-iron

The wound

silicon-iron with the

core following

used

in

the

tests

was

an

uncut

type

specification:

Core Overall Cross Window

lamination dimensions section dimension

thickness

0.05 256 51.2 154 x x

(mm) 150.2 x 49.4 50 (mm2) (mm2) (mm2)

area

Three test

amorphous

cores (per the Tables Table

using kg) of results

2605-S2 each given A. 6 list to

were only are the the

assembled differed for test results of the in 50 Hz, core by

the an No. 3

measurements amount, 5.9 kg.

insignificant which for weighed silicon-iron 2605-S2

A. 2 to A. 7 II).

results for core Fig. 400 and for VA at

and (see

A. 11

Metglas losses 7.12 Hz, to 1kHz,

appenxix power are of As

A comparison graphically of per kg

and exciting 7.16 for

illustrated the

each and

the

frequencies the for loss

2kHz VA are Table each

3kHz.

expected less

losses

exciting example 1-T for

considerably compares test the

Metgias and

2605-S2, exciting

7.3 of the

core

frequencies.

The results
a given core

may be used
loss Table at 7.4 for

to

identify
of the such materials

the

flux

density
operating

for

each provides both

various a for

frequencies. operating flux

comparison core losses

of of

density

153

Co
T

NC

N r

yo 3 o a

a) N C) 00 X CO ON= C 1Io O !r

CL
o CI) Cl

XX WW

co c

'

co Y
L

OC -=O O .Cv 0 >x U

O

C w.

Co
ci

C N
(0 GD c0 c 'I c O GD 0 00 OO Co
N Iti

CO

a (> Co
Co

a'E O0 o,

N O

mm OO UU

C" iz

-Q

tV

10
T

I0 O

154

d'
T

N
T

NC

co
T

O
N N C : 90

3 D 0 a3

"m

0 co Co.
Om .r
Y

20 N=

10 0 cop OCIS wm O"C tm

xx WW

cD

c m 10

03x VC
O '0O 0 N Co

c ;r .v

a a
0

Co aD

C O mi co 00 00 mm 00 UU co

CL E3 0
a

.0.0

Co

x m
N O

a Y
Co Co

M Iti

U
Ow
T

JO

a7

cV

155

'
r

N
1"

Nc all

O ..
= U)

%i
r

XN

a3 v) O
c
cc 6m ..

cl

CD v,+ D cJ Q 14- >N

xx
A

(: .ate

a Y

'o
W

X
LL

0. h- y% O OU..

3 0 CL m c x l; -Z . CD

cv
`a' ct
tu 0. ' Cl 4, ri

0U
Q r x
a 1 F_T L_

CV 6
ai

S
1

G>

O3

f
,i

Cf)

U) NNr

U)

o *-

U)

-o

156

NC

N0
T

aN CN

XON mN= 0

OL Ca
'C)

cm 0
U

~ co Om

'C )t WW
It

'o coo c(0 &

-tC p' vc

a)

m 3

CO X 6 .2 UN CO

o
0
.. r co

c= co0 00: mo
C

a m

,qt O

00 R% mi ap

x as
Y

E o 00

a4

3
O

N O

00 "m 00 UU

Tti IL

0
0

0000 Co

Co

It

cm

157

d'
1

N
T

NC Co
T

O aD
ON CC) 4. O XON

a3 im 0
ca
H Om
Co C m "K C X Co

N=

O CO M

WW

0m_ O"O c -t

0
Q v

-m m "- v
Vc Ow , Co

Co

13
U.

3 0 a cm c m \ co a 0 m
U

N Co
ql

W Co 7

Op0 =_ cd "0 Co
C

3
U0 a
co Iti

Co

0i

3
00

aD

N 0

mm 00

L LL

UU

Flo
O O
T

JO

0 OD

0 co

,it

0 N

158

Frequency
(Hz) 50 400 1000 2000 3000

Core

loss

(W/kg)
si-iron 0.65 6.53 19.8 45.6 75.98

Exciting
2605-S2 0.105 1.98 7.22 18.87 33.17

power(VA/kg)
si-iron 0.87 8.0 23.5 52.6 86.66

2605-S2 0.097 1.89 6.91 18.18 32.0

Table

7.3

Comparison Metglas 3000

of

core with

loss

and

exciting at

power 1.0 T,

of 50-

2605-S2 Hz.

silicon-iron

159

(a)
Frequency 20 W/kg 1000 Silicon-iron B (T) 1.0 2000 0.6 3000 0.44 (Hz)

Met

las

(T)

>1.2

1.0

0.74

(b) Frequency
15 W/kg

(Hz) 3000 0.35

1000 Silicon-iron B(T) 0.84

2000 0.5

Metglas

B(T)

>1.2

0.86

0.6

Table

7.4

Comparison frequency for a core of

of

operating

flux and 20 W/kg

density Metglas and (b)

and

silicon-iron of (a)

2605-S2 15 W/kg.

loss

160 (a) clearly possible 20 W/kg and (b) 15 the Metglas W/kg greater at 1,2 and 3kHz. The flux results

illustrate when using

operating

densities

2605-S2.

7.5

Comparison with 2605-S2

of

Core

Loss

Results

Metglas

2605-S3A

A towards

quantity the

of end and

Metglas of the

alloy project This where

2605-S3A to alloy a design

was

purchesed its been was

evaluate has already

characteristics referred made with the alloys to in

suitability. 7.1.2 2605-S2. thickness,

section alloy ribbon

comparison

Metglas was the

One major 2605-S2

difference 0.025 =

between mm, 2605-

S3A = 0.0175

mm thick.

A core used tested. Metglas frequencies losses density Metglas 31,24,21 of at previously Fig.

was

wound for

using 2605-S2,

2605-S3A the core at core loss

with was

similar then

dimension annealed for and

7.17

shows material

the

results flux to 7.20 at loss and

amorphous for the flux

2605-S3A of both

different 7.18 material Hz. Core

densities compares different of

50-3000 types of of

Hz.

Fig.

amorphous 50-3000

frequency at

amorphous Hz was 34,

2605-S3A and

50,400,1000,2000 than 2605-S2

3000

20% lower

respectively.

The measured particularly annealing cycle at

loss 3-kHz, followed

of

2605-S3A it was was not

were

higher

than likely

expected, that the low

considered the

optimum

one

for

161

0 r
N O O O M

N 2 O O O N
A` I-

4-'
My

oc as

04-0,4 I ozz to O N O O O r Q)

MMO V
O Co 0

C 10 X

EO

L.
I

+
N O 0

Gov 0 N
0O 00 . T-

00 0 ,' . Y

a
N

F-

2
0 0

0 CD to 0
00 r TT00 1-" rrQ r 0

O LO

w
LL

O O

162

'
T

N
T

al

T-

H CO ' Om

N Co 1 L) 0 Co N

01=

a, * O E

'O to d1 OQ CIO C

i O

ca

cr)
U,
0 (0 N

O to 000 o N" O Z 00

N cti {n Cl.

k,
CI) Y

Um N

Elo 00

N O
W

F L.

0
0

0
r O N 1 O V0 co O 0 CO O 0 O O N O O O

163

Cr)
T

N
T

r
T

NN

W= OO = OV Co t() to
w0 O

a) 0

OO OO NN 0

C l0

+ CO a

to OO O NN
-

4. OOX

4) 13

O'G V w(04 ONE.. y L

O
GD tu

'3 N

0 ) C! O
Y

N= =O OO OO

Um
1

Co Q Eu 00
N

Co

aa MM
N O
r 0
CO OO OO to NN Co

rn ti
LL

to
0

0L co
(0 It

J0 0

164

N
T

NN

N om

=I OO Co O ... F-

oa oO NM
NN

ZO 00 =O

aM O, 0

Co 0
OO

Ec

oc

co

co
9+ CO

NN

co

N
G0 4. O Co x O C7

:2

Oc x U.

OC V O ONCO

10

R! "3 .
NN

OO
OO O0 NM

a E O

N O

QQ MM N t

Co N
O
N ti

co co 0

oO (0 co NN

LL

C' I..
U)
(")

O
C')

l)
04

O
04

90
T T-

LO

J0 0

11i

165

loss.
the

The information
annealing of

obtained

from

Allied
such

Signal
information

regarding
being

2605-S3A

was vague,

of

a proprietary

nature.

7.6

Comparison Sinusoidal

of and

Core

Losses

and

Exciting

Power

with

Square

Wave-Excitation

Measurements
applied and Fig. 7.23 Fig. using flux to the

have been made with

2605-S2 core. are and and of

a square
The results

wave excitation
of core loss in Fig. in tests peak

Metglas

exciting 7.21 and 7.25 to 7.24 to

VA measurements 7.24 are 7.30. and should (Fig. square The 7.21 wave) basis

illustrated 7.22 for are sine

individually wave and

comparison for

purposes the the

equivalence excitation for both

sinusoidal density

square be the

wave same

was that cases.

This waveforms

is in

translated the manner

into

voltage

amplitudes below.

for

the

two

described

V=N(d)

(7.4)

4=

NfVdt

(7.5)

For

the

sinusoidal

case

V=

V'sinwt

where

166 V" is the peak N the sinusoidal number of voltage, winding turns w is the angular

frequency,

Therefore

_ -(I) N(Z)cost

(7.6)

therefore V* " = (ON

(7.7)

For

square

wave

v=V

in

any

half

cycle

Nf

vdt

= Nt

(7.8)

Peak

flux

0* where

t=

T/4

where

T is

the

waveform

period

" =N4 _y

(7.9)

Equating

peak

flux

0' for

sine

and square

wave

V* WN

(7.10) 4N

with

w=

2irf

and

T=

1/f

167

then

2tcfN

v=

4fN

(7 . ii)

or

v. _nv 2

(7.12)

but where

V'

(sine Vm

wave

peak) of =

Vom, 1/2 = sinewave V voltage.

= rms V2

value V.

substituting

(7r/2)

or

Vrs=

'IV 2r2-

=1.11

(7.13)

Hence

for

the of

same peak the sinewave

flux

or

flux is the

density 1.11 case times of

conditions, the the The

the

rms value of the

voltage In is flux of the

amplitude wave

square the of

wave flux the is

voltage. waveform triangular about 80t

square

voltage, component square the

triangular. waveform sinewave The higher

fundamental by the by

produced flux order with

voltage

produced harmonic the

sinusoidal of

applied a triangular

voltage. waveform

amplitudes

decrease

square

of

the

order
with

(1/n2).
square

Hence
wave

slightly

lower

losses

would

be

expected

excitation.

168

0
N O O O co

N O O O N

x a2
CN cZ

E m

j
N O O O r

NO
O N

...

i -CO

NZ

cc
O 4) Mr c

3 04o

V X

LL

+
N

o00 2 O 0 mO

Goo 0N o o 00
'9N
ti

f
0) Y N I O r

Go 0
0

U-

o0 0T
T

r O O

169

O 1
I

N O O O (f)

N 0 O O N

O IO O CO+m-N

Ei
H m A
r aD C m 'D K
l

LV "- O COVZ 1Co D 0NO

=V NOO

2 O O O
T

vy0 ) c,
OO

3C
OO>,

r-

U.

+
N 2 O 0

6- 0 mOO VOO

OOD Ox
cm
"V O xO W le
N ti

Y
Q v

i
N

3 0
cp C_ f+ .

2 0

Cl) U.

x w

111 11111
T

hillEl
T

1111111
r'

oo O
r

C5

0" 0

1 70

0
N 0 0 0 CO

OK
I O O 0 N N

et
OCN

H co >, t t t
i

Co

1U to

N O O O r N=3 O oo O M
Cr w> OO

UU C V X LL

e
N O 0

Co 0O 0OG 0 ON 4)O b- O OO 0
c) N ti

a, N 2 0 OD

0
0

CD LL

a) 0

oo o
T

rrrr

*-

C5

oO

Oq 0

1 71

N O O O

Oc N a) N l0 v- o z tv N
NV o

F\l`

N=

m
rr
t

i
l

N= =O

0 cr) 4) mQ 0 C)

V
K

OO OO M st

LL

o Lo (D 3N
0_C

sA

0.0 '0 o 0, c0 x
0)

x
N O 3 O co C X W NO =O OO to N 1

x0 W It

a C4 ti
C, LL

o0 pT

rrr

T0 0

Oq

172

Ti

N r

a}

A >+ CO

4)
7

Q Co

c> '3 o

4
W VC

ca

10

c 0

> ca Co
ci

OIC C

JL

3 a c

.cuN3 aCoa)
EO co
UN
Lf) N ti

GD Rf tu

6
Y

3 0 4) 0
-o

tV 6

o LLL

00
r

CO
r

*
T

N
T

r d

00 O 0

CO O 0

qt O 0

N O 0

173

t
T

t 1
N r
NN N=

O
T

O b 4)

N NXN
O "' C

>> ca 33 4)
CO (5m ~

Qa

(P " 3
0)

ON3

-= Co K
LL

cu

v
0

O O r' I

'-o O C)'0
cti

a o v C_ C rV1 O
>
0

0)

Iq 6

NN

`o.
tu

ci.

O OO

E o U cD N ti LL

CD

N O
OD

33 cn cn

a 01N0 T-

11111 CO tco st N

-o

1 74

N
T

NN 2= YY N Co
T

3 I Co ~

O"-' m aD NCN O aD (VO m""

CV Om0 0m l O w_ 3 O

Co

Om
22 .Co C m V X

cQ a) 0

f1'

- O
V O

m
0' 10

co 0

IL

CC O Co C 0N .

0
0.. cb
x

NN YY N 00 0 Co CO

EN
Oco

U
ti N ti o _

N 6
Co Co

33
mm

C m

_c m v)

U
O0000 Ll) le 00 N *"

-o

f+

175

Co
T

CD to

(0 >, IM I "D ON M -0O

T F-

1 cc
Co

xZ .*. O a)
O+' O U

Co c a) 0

a, vM" c ".X

a)
u.

4)
O

C)

c' CO
-0

3 a) C

to NO
(a

D. U) "to

I-

v) ii

'J. O

Eo OW 0N
Co

N O

c4 ti

LL

N OrOQ

LO OO

19)

176

Co r

'
T

Q N
T

NN __ O

0 o

to x C :3N

(D (, >> 3;
Q
H .. r

4 QQ

a) Cu
0

,4- U

a0
CO " sp C 'O

Q
Co

Z-0 Cr 'v c xtu 0 0OC '4- o co O

c am,c

Oct 0N
NN

C, O

'ao ato, Eo c O CO (L) 0N10

4) 0 a m c U x w NO rrr co co st cm CM O

>> ca 33
y G)

C)
N ti

t_J1

{li cn
tt

U-

177

N r
NN

__ O0 OO

00 N
T>>

c)

0x
p1 _ CC a) -0 U >

33 4) a I_
fl0 fl in
r C V

cti

b'

QQ Co Co rj

(D x O
LL

u ao cc ... ma c 5Co X CU
aC

003)
CN

NN

It d 0,

2= 00 00 0o N
>> tb

` to . N{-' a Co U) E LO C pOy 0 U(0

(V) N

C_ 'cA

a Cl)
c x

3 0

CM 0

33
C c_

0 M
_0) U-

:u_
O CO
0 LO 0 It

O M

O N

O r

178

A comparison
wave losses 201. sine density The core If voltages namely the

of

the

test
a

results
corresponding

for

sinewave
difference are reduced rms the

and square
in by square peak the about and flux

produces the square

wave

losses based

comparison

had been to be square the

on equal then the

wave

voltages for square losses 1.2

applied would for times

the 1.11

winding, times

sinewave then have

value. been

wave sinusoidal

would losses.

approximately

7.7

Building

Factor

The

manufacturers devices various

of

electrical magnetic steel. the

steel

for

use

in for

electromagnetic each quoted, particular British of their

provide grades to of as is

characteristic The power loss, in loss for per

kg

commonly grade Standard

refered of material

specific

each with

determined [122].

accordance

specification

According measurements, core arrangement. using

to

the

British core core loss, is

standard, are up made to

the on the a

magnetic standard specified This test

including The the is

built

dimensions core

material often

under referred

investigation. to as an Epstein

specification

Square.

The when core actual

term

building

factor to factor

is

commonly provide is derived an

used

in

industry of ratio the of core

designing losses. core

transformers The building losses measured

estimate from the

on a completed

transformer

179 and the on the built the core as losses derived for the by the same core British are able weight standard to estimated method. using Based predict obtained on in

losses experience, core

manufacturers using cores building of

accurately

losses

factors there

previously are

up or

wound

which

many variations

construction.

In also

the

case loss

of

the

amorphous

metals, for their is

the

manufacturers alloys. in

provide since form,

characteristics amorphous type measurement common of with ribbon core wound of

various

However ribbon by

the a different

material

manufactured has be the onto ribbon length is been

common core of is what made tight The path core

adopted the of a

Metglas

for loss.

the This

may in

termed form

specific toroid bobbin either and the

constructed and 25 secured or

hand tape.

a ceramic width is 13 is cm

polyimide mean

50 mm, the of

magnetic The

weight

30 grams

[117).

annealed

with

a longitudinal

field applied in the ribbon direction

The therefore the

building be calculated wound specific factors

factor from cores and loss.

for the the

the loss loss

amorphous measurements as 7.31 flux silicon-iron and 3 kHz predicted to 7.33

alloys made using show for core respectively. factor at

may on the the the at

assembled

manufacturers building two supply Fig. for

Fig. for the

calculated alloys of the and 1

a range wound 2kHz of the at

density

amorphous frequencies 7.34 Metglas shows

kHz,

comparison with

building 1,2 and

1T

2605-52

2605-S3A

3 kHz.

180 In and 0.74 0.3 0.9 the case the the 1.0 T. of the wound factor flux the uncut decreased density building range. at 1 level factor For silicon-iron from was just core, over at one 2 to

3 kHz as to over

building operating At 1 kHz

increased from

from 1.3 alloy almost factor to

ranged the

the the at

same flux building about 1.3. from the

density factor At

amorphous remained building 1.3 gave at

2605-S2, constant decreased The results

kHz the

2 and 1.7

3 KHz, at 0.3

slightly for

about

T to

1.0

T.

amorphous more to 2.3 widely at

alloy

2605-S3A each 1.5 to

building 2.3 1 kHz.

factors to 2.5

which at

varied 2.0

between 2 KHz and

frequency, 1.8 at

3 kHz,

The illustrates in will the alloys may be (1) more (2) is

building the

factor effectiveness core loss. losses

of

less of

than the

1 for uncut square at For

the wound core the the

silicon-iron type of core

minimising incur built the

The

Epstein

arrangement corners where

greater up

particularly overlap. factor

laminations building to: ribbon wound

two with

amorphous 2605-S3A

larger

associated

attributed smaller to be

the turns the unlikely

thickness for a given to the

of

2605-S3A of

will core was

require

weight

annealing to have

treatment been

which

2605-S3A

subjected

optimum.

For range reliable wound

the

amorphous to 1.6

alloy

2605-S2, on core flux

a building density) to be

factor will expected

in give

the a a

1.3

(depending of core. the

prediction type uncut

losses

in

1 81

{r3 r C O N rp

C0

13 x tEN 3 o
bfli

V10

O
Co N

40
im A

Co 0
o

.y CZ C x
i LL

a a L D E

ro c) co
vL ac 1..

o
16. 0

E
c

Co C3

t4 N c O CD to O

90 .tc

Il; 6

7 c)

0
mb-

E
6

cm c

ty

U)

U)

C? 00 _1

182

O T rO .C

`I,

0) 0

N Co I0 O m N Co Z 0 L

xV '~ N = t Eo O0 a0

CO ^ O

Co

E Q

CL I0

a 0m 0 Qm O U
co O

cm

'v

" a*;
0U

(0

E
O"

O LL
CO

LA O0

(i O m N
10
N M

O
O a e0 v. C_ V

ti

a 0 OE

LL

LA N

111C! 1n
T0

*-

to

00

183

r r
C

O
C

Cl)

C)
m

-`
N Co

x
a

co 6
-. .H ...

O m N N

U)

EX ..
` co 0m0 +r h- M 0O
to O0 V Co

00O

3 0 t

a co*v
Ox LA.

E Q

LrO.. _ aW OO Eo

o co= co c o= 0c3
to >
c) co Fo L

U) 0

Co 10 0 Co
N
aD

qqt O
I0 0 co 'O

0 t

Cr) 6

a b0 E

JN
Cri U) N U) fit) O

O0

184

to 6

0 M Co 1 to 0 Co r4 0 co

IL) N

V C c0 N I-

w
IO N O= N
C 4) N CIO

N CV Z
Y

Lip
U.

N CI) t; ) O O N CO)

T-

O
m co F-

L. 0 V U. co c

U) O

_m U-

U) N

UC) "-

UC) 6

185 7.8 Effect of Temperature on Core Losses

Under run at

normal

operating well depend

conditions above on the the ambient. method cooling out and in Fig. to

the

amorphous The actual

core

will

temperatures will construction tests on

operating core provided. the effects core following was and

temperature winding Accordingly of temperature

of

transformer

and were the as

arrangements determine VA. and

carried losses shown

exciting 7.35

The the

placed provisions (a) a the

inafurnace made: primary

excitation sleeve. The of

winding melting

used point

has of

copper both

wire wire

with and

fibreglass were two in

sleeve (b) inside furnace.

excess

400C. used the to monitor and temperature, the other in one the

thermocouples amorphous

were between

the

ribbons

The power amplifier temperature to 7.40 and

to

the the at

winding core values core

was again loss between

supplied with

by the the . Fig.

Savage core 7.36

measured 25C and measured

set show

178C for the 0.7 2 kHz

the

losses a flux 400 the

amorphous to 1.4 3 T at kHz

material frequencies respectively. with

2605-S2 of As

over 50 Hz,

density Hz, core for 1

range kHz, loss

and

expected temperature,

measured at 1-T

decreased 3 kHz, the The the

increasing loss in of at

example and be at

measured reduction resistivity and thereby

36C was 32 W/kg losses core the material eddy will

132 was 29 W/kg. attributable with to temperature

core the

increasing current losses.

reducing

186

123-

Advance Savage

signal amplifier

generator (1.0
oscilloscope

kW)
DM64

Telequipment

456-

Voltech
Current Transformer

PM1000
waveform core

AC power
monitoring under

analyser
resistor test 2 c2

789-

Inert

gas

furnace thermometer model DA116

Electronic Avometer

Fig.

7.3 5

Core applied

loss

and

exciting

power

measurement

with

temperature.

187

to
T

cr)

r I-cm
T

V to PI I[.

'0-

O
WG W OL O OW V=

Tm

U
Li)

N
Tx
1i .

O 10 (P 4.0 r..
16.

U.

H
0 U) CM

Eo Gm
OO

0 C. 10 cm

0)

O
Co

CD C) ti LL

0 m I0

Co Co

ti
C;

co
U) M U) N U)

r'

U)

00

188

I)
T

Cl)
T

U P L0
N
T

O WC 0O

ci

". . H
T

+
tO N

O .21 1V ON 00 0

r G 0 V T

bOy

x
LL
0 U

ai

o i, co . N
O0 Co .s. 0-3 wO

o
c;
cm

rCV)
ti o Li.

0
m

0
V Ct) 04 *00

Co

189

I0
1

\i .

\ Y \ \t H \

'' r

C7
T

N
T

10 ti 1
... F-

MO
OC

f
I0 N T

O 1-o
ON

to g)

u_
Cp Op `O +. O t0 N a) (n

rm r
A

a,

\'
T

C V

x
L O

H
0

a Ein

(PO
+- N O O 4- O 0wy

\ \
co Y

\,. \
O

ao M ti o W

ca
W

0 U NO
TTT

9 Co Co qe cm O0

190

10
T

(Y3
T

U I0
N
T

Op
C

r O
l)0 c
O

H
Tm
0L/ Y!

ON ol

0
N

CO 00

Wo N
O ON CO OL

Eto'
LL

-o U
l
ON UO

co

v
C;

LO 04

v- a.. W

co
jit

C;
N

M N rn_ LL

co 0

0 0 U
U) Cf) 0 M LC) 04 0 Nr I[) O It) OO
Co

191

FAD
T

d' r

N. r

co

a
00

o ". o
0) C
v

H
WM

pr,

UI CO 00

cr)
C r

LL

00 4 Co

u o co (5
ti 0 0 0) L 0

;,,
1

a m 0 ti
V) Lt

m x 3

oooaoa Co LO

Igt

C)

*'

cc 00 _i

192 7.9 Effect 2605-S2 of Temperature on Hysteresis Loop Metalas

Temperature a change in of the

is

one

of

the

important characteristic.

factors

in The

causing greatest but its

magnetization is point

influence in the

temperature

rarely

near the

room

temperature loses

region . of', the " Curie properties.

where

material

magnetic

In hysteresis point. Metglas diagram the

this

section loop is

the examined

effect at

of

temperatures below temperature shows (a full loop the

on the

the

DC

temperatures operating Fig. 7.41 loop B/H

Curie of the

The maximum material used to used is obtain to

recommended 150C. the

circuit of in The

dc B-H the the furnace had of

description is of B/H included losses). loop

method

determine with in the

section test once were to core the used

7.10.4

dealing

separation and the

was heated core

obtained

temperature inside temperature

stabilised. the core the in

Two thermocouples different positions

inserted the

measure

inside

core.

B/H maximum loops the density show core that

loops flux

were densities are of core

measured of given

at

ambient,

100C and III). the

and 1.2 T

150C with (the 7.5 loop B/H shown flux

0.6,0.8,1.0 in appendix on

recorded effect for the

Table maximum

temperature of

set

values area

magnetising

current. with

The

results the

loop

sligthly

decreases

increase

temperature.

193

L a, a,

2
LL

a) 4rV L a) d

E Cl) 4-

4c

90
a) 4.
0

4u a) 99rn C 'O C w

MC
4-

a)

Cu

a a E0 ai m

WO

E 0
4-

CIJ

E 0
y 41 H
O y. 0

0
LN C
f0

cv
w

. 4-

u V0

ra ti

LL-

194

Maximum

loop

flux

density

B,,. Bx Bx

Ambient 100C 150C

0.6 0.58 0.56

0.8 0.78 0.74

1.0 0.97 0.92

1.2 1.15 1.06

Table

7.5

Effect
flux

of
density

core
for

temperature
set values

on the
of

maximum loop
magnetising

current.

195 If to the same magnetising a in core the had to be particular temperature remanent been flux maintained as core force value used of B in at ambient was a Br. temperature an of B,,,

establish

maintained, reduction If the

increase and flux would similarly

results density the

same peak current

densities need

magnetising

increased

temperature

increased.

7.10 7.10.1

Separation Core Loss

of

Core

Losses

Components

The losses
of ishysteresis taken to

in
and

transformer
eddy current the eddy their

cores
loss. classical current

fall

into
The eddy eddy

the

categories
loss the

current plus description in be

include

loss

additional of 4. these For

anomalous losses the core the . and

loss.

A brief are it given will

dependencies and of tested each of the

chapter to next used

designed

useful The

determine section for their

magnitudes outlines some

component methods

loss. which

may be

separation.

7.10.2

Separation

of

Losses

There loss loss eddy the from in

are the this

a number eddy section loss of and this current will the

of

ways (future refer

to

separate references

the to

hysteresis eddy current

to

the

sum of current

the

classical loss). in of For the the

current purposes is

anomalous

eddy absolute

research

accuracy indication

separation

not

essential,

only

an

196 magnitude whether of interturn the eddy current of loss the is ribbon required is to necessary. assess

insulation

The loss
the the were the B/H core loop with

separation
area. The

has been
hysteresis so that extra to the

obtained
loop virtually loss. As per the was

by measurement
found no by eddy exciting currents

of

DC current, to produce

generated net energy to the of

shown unit

previously volume loop will for

delivered area that

material within

be equal one

contained loop.

hysteresis

traverse

The ac hysteresis V (m3) and loop area

loss

Pl at

any

frequency for a

f0,

core

volume maximum

ABH(Joule/m3)

particular

flux

density,

may then

be calculated

using

Pl = ABHVfo

(7.14)

The from the the

eddy

current

loss between

component the

P2 may

now

be

obtained P and P1

difference loss

measured using

no-load hysteresis

losses loop,

hysteresis

as

determined

P2 = P-Pl

(7.15)

7.10.3

Determination

of

Hysteresis

loop

DC Method

The 7.42.

circuit core

used under

to

measure was

the wound

B/H with

loop two

is

shown coils.

in Coil

Fig. CP

The

test

197

was switch used

connected S and to

to the

the

battery

source switch RS.

via The

resistors resistance value and R2 The to

R1,

R2,

reversing the the

R1 was setting set an coil of to

adjust to current to

maximum peak

current

corresponding intermediate Cs was connected the flux the change

induction the F which S or

level

below

maximum. provides

other

a fluxmeter the the switch coil for

a measure operated arrangement 2605-S3A

when in

RS were the above and

change B/H peak digitiser around using

current were

P. Using Metglas

loops flux

obtained of

2605-S2

for

densities to obtain loop

0.6,0.8,1.0,1.2-T. (x, y) co-ordinates within appendix the IV) of loop

Using various

a Bitpad points

the

B/H

The area . (see

was calculated

a Fortran

program

198

Test Core

i
1L

Coil

Cp

Coil CS

Fig.

7.42

Circuit

diagram

for

determination

of

hysteresis

loop.

199 7.10.4 Oscilloscope Display of Hysteresis Loop [1231

The oscilloscope,

hysteresis the

loop trace is

can

also

be Lissajous

displayed figure.

on

an With

called

reference
VY, which to the

to
is

the

circuit

diagram
to Y-plate the

shown
flux and

in

Fig.

7.43
B, V. Again is

voltage
applied is core

proportional

density voltage X-plates. the current

oscilloscope to was H, is

which the

proportional under test

applied with The

to two

the

wound

coils,

primary i,

Cp and a

secondary

Cs winding.

magnetising

provides

voltage
magnetising

drop

V, across
force H

the

resistor

R, proportional

to

the

VX =i

R5

(7.16)

HI

= .i

N1

(7.17)

il

=N

H1

(7.18)

Therefore RH N,

VX =

(7.19)

The the

secondary rate of

winding change of

Cs induced the core

voltage flux.

V2 is For the

proportional propose of

to the

200 B/H density and C loop a was was voltage needed. employed proportional An integrating to obtain a to the network voltage flux or the flux of R

consisting VY which

was

proportional
For the

to

or

B.
of the transformer core:

secondary

winding

VY =1

fi2dt, C

i2=

V2

if

1 <R WC

Vy

Cf

V2dt

(7.20)

but dt

V2 = N2

(7.21)

so

VY

Jd RCN

dt

(7.22)

Vy =

RCS

(7.23)

The speed above of was

frequency the tracing fast of

of

the spot for

supply on the

voltage screen human However

V,

determines at to 50 have Hz

the or the loop

which observer the

enough a static

the

impression

display.

displayed

201

Test Core
CP

Cs la II

R
vy

RS

Fig.

7.43

Oscilloscope

display

of

B/H

loop.

202 will the include hysteresis with loop depend the eddy frequency, as the not only loss the a component but eddy also current with magnitude loss the frequency loop a current component The actual of the on eddy the associated of accuracy B/H loop current of the will loss. of therefore the with

associated displayed therefore Since supply deteriorate

loss. the

compared on the

current square

current

depends

accuracy

will

increases.

The B/H useful shape increase at in with of

loops a very

obtained limited

by this way, in

method fact be The and in the

were the

therefore change in to

only loop the

increasing the eddy

frequency-may current loss. 50-Hz shown

attributed

oscillograms 3-kHz and

obtained peak V. flux

frequencies between

between 1-T are

densities

appendix

7.10.5

Results

of

Core

Loss

Separation

The in section

separation 7.10.2 with

of

core

losses of

used the

the total of

method core the The

outlined loss when

by measurement a derived the d. c 1,2 to 1.4 Table and 50-Hz eddy to does

excited loss

a. c and from of

measurement B/H and loop. 3-kHz

hysteresis losses of 7.44 at peak to to at loss

obtained

frequencies flux 7.48 densities for the of

50,400-Hz, from 0.7 2605-S2.

for

a range in Fig.

T are 7.6

given enables

alloy the

a comparison loss eddy a need sustained current to

be made 1-T at for 3-kHz

hysteresis of

current The

frequencies for Metglas

3-kHz. indicate

2605-S2

consider

2 03

W cc 0

to
T

V 13 W

to

0 ,D

OO t

as CL b00 R! r O Z -0 Om OL 04.0 OOU

CV)
0 0 O co

CM
TC a

Q} Ia)

oE a)UI oho
,

x LL r

to A

O N^ IO Oi-+ c co ON2 ( cu cd

Co a O

O
T

O O U cd

oc Co E

CID Y

a ti LL

3
a 4) 0 0
M O 10 N O N O to *O 10 O

0) O

H If

J cc
00

204

LO
T

d'
T

0 0 0 r.. a) I-

M
T

U V W

N
T

+
H
0 0 O .Z m CD W
d+ C m V

0NO_ ONO to om, . cd Co a O O

OOT O .OD O L.
co Z

l0

Tm T

OO
L.

Tx

m >, O tU 0O O
r

LL 0)

OO

=E wm Co Co 0
4)
0 V

ZU
cop

0. m CO CO
U, a ti
LI.

00

co 0
0

0
V

Co
C') Nr 00

205

L4
T

fi
T

0 0 0 r. " C m

M
T

C)

V W

i I I I

N r

+
H CIO
O 0 m
> C V

10_ 00 Co O NO

im00 4.4 Co Co O

"- a o Mo CO o 0mZ OO
40 mO O= U.., 10 w 00
t C00

T-

I ,I
rx

m Co

I
LL

i I .I

0)

0 I i CR Y

0
O

mN 0N
CD N

ZE (U cop a

_D
0

co 0
m

0 U
N0 rr CO CD It N00

206

-1It
T

W 0 0 rr 16. b.

t. )
T

V 1N '0 W

N r

+
. ". H
Co 0 O m
4-.

O= O C) COO NO
N c O a o

Tm

Mo

rT
C a) V

AD 0) mz -(D4 a) L.
W ao O o >+ U

m a, U)

rx

LL 0)

OO COO

a)
a

CD Y
tti

=E cc

O
o

ON co CO)

'-U OO CL

ti C6 LL

H
ca m 0 W 160

0
LO (f)

II

Co
LO 00

0 C*)

U) NNrr

U')

207

It T

I2

0 ID
r, r

CO
r
'a '0

IN In _ 00 CD O NO
cr)

.4.0

F,. co

m D O

CD-

"a Wo io
to 0 Z

4)

O
Tx =

00 >I
O

U; 00 L

0) O

C ;+ 00

D
W W

cd co w N

0 Co p
a,

OD

a
Co 0 0

I..-

F-

ci LL

o00000 CD IC)

It

CO

*-

J Co o

208

Frequency (Hz)
50

Total (W/kg)
0.107

loss

Hysteresis loss
0.08

Eddy loss

current (W/kg)

(W/kg)

0.027

400 1000 2000 3000

2.00 6.90 17.9 31.0

0.72 1.80 4.1 5.9

1.28 5.1 13.8 25.10

Table

7.6

Comparison loss of

of Metglas

hysteresis

loss

and

eddy Hz at

current 1. OT.

2605-S2,50-3000

209 the provision provision of insulation of affect number of insulation the core between between space of very the the layers layers of of ribbon. ribbon so up

However will with the

seriously a large core.

factor, thin

particularly ribbon making

turns

7.11

Comparison 2605-S3A

the

B/H

Loop

of

Metalas

2605-S2

with

The using the

B/H dc

loops loop in Fig.

for

Metglas with and from

2605-S2 a peak 7.50 the the

and flux

2605-S3A density The of

measured 1-T are

method 7.49

illustrated comparison a) at the for

respectively. loops: magnetising 2605-S3A. for 2605-S2

following

may be made peak 2605-S2 flux and force

density, 8.6 AT/m

forces

were

2.4

AT/m b) for c) than the

for AT/m

coercive

was 0.94

and

1.48

AT/m

2605-S3A the loop loop area area to the of of the Metglas 2605-S3A is slightly greater

2605-S2 data provided force that by Allied is the greater annealing of B/H small loop of Signal, for the peak and than was and

According the coercive

magnetising It is for very the likely optimum

2605-S2 cycle loop for less used area

2605-S3A. not high correct

conditions The

saturation that be

flux a peak to

density. saturation minimise

2605-S3A than current. 1-T

indicates would

density the

appropriate

magnetising

210

Cr)

.r

E
VT

y us
C

0 V C

4)

0 LL Di
C_ N i:. 4) C Q ld

ro

"' 0 o r a> a
o: '

l0 D H
1 1 C O i:. U 7 C

ma

N
C_f

a
C O

LL

2
T

M r 1O O U) t0

O i

"-

211

O T

(0

E.
... E Z
N v 0

O LL
0, C_ N C 0,

CO c o10 to cm x

co 0

m co = cti O1 C

wm

tu H
co C 0 U C O G3 C

2
It) i

oa am 0 0

2 co

0 N-

_a LL

2
U) : i) 66 O :A :n

0 r

212 7.12 Core Protection Postanneal

The method consideration stress methods the onto formers. core a placed of

of

assembly

of

core with

and regard

winding to there

needs any are

careful

particularly on the core. (a) the and

mechanical two possible whereby are the wound

Essentially the conventional or is (b)

assembly,

arrangement the windings by

supports former

windings the core

supported

winding

The in its flaking. protection. glass a the

amorphous as-cast

ribbon The

material material becomes required (a) the with the using core

is

very

hard annealed

and to

flexible improve to and fibre

state. properties, core For thus

when brittle some could

magnetic The

and of

prone support in to

form

method then

be wrapped epoxy

tape

and

coated for clamped

a castable windings. the could of a 7.13 VA. to

provide the Both to was effect a low also

suitable limbs these

foundation could forms of be core

Alternatively winding subject clamping describes The the the use core results. formers. the ribbon force the of was

core of

protection The and and adhesive effect section exciting

mechanical therefore on the

stress. investigated core losses

viscosity investigated

anaerobic and

applied describes

section

7.14

213 7.13 Effect of Clamping Pressure on the Core Losses

After protected the method

annealing, due to the for inevitably (see VA

the brittle core

core

will nature

need of and to

to the coil the

be

mechanically Whatever some

ribbon.

used will

protection be applied 4.4) to have

support, core. that the the

pressure investigations and

Previous losses ribbon test as and

chapter subject to to The to was

shown

exciting was

were

change stress. to

when

material was

subjected devised 7.51. applied applied The losses the of given that

mechanical pressure rests limbs

A simple the core (not hook to limbs shown)

therefore in Fig. was

apply core both

shown pressure The core

on a table by the

and

weights. the using for psi

pressure limbs.

therefore exciting yokes. psi appendix effect

similar VA were The (19.3 VI. on core

clamping

and core 0,2.8 in the

measured loss results and is 5.6

windings applied (38.6 from

wound pressures kN/m2)

onto

kN/m2) It core with as was loss the the

are

apparent almost

the

results the

was

negligible, would recorded. have

inaccuracies of the

associated same order

measurement differences

been

The exciting illustrated range kHz. levels 0.2

effect VA was in to 1.4

of

the

applied more to

clamping and flux

pressure the results

on

the are

much Fig. T for

pronounced 7.56 for of

7.52

densities 1,2 at - T, 1flux

in and

the 3-

frequencies

50,400-Hz,

The increase above

was particularly for example

noticeable at 1.4

density the

0.8-T,

kHz,

214

ring
wood "ubber insulator

ransformer oil winding AC supply

core

Fig.

7,51

Method

of

applying

pressure

to

the

core

limbs.

215

N
T

a Co L0

a co
0D id wC OO

+
T

CL ao
1W QC

Co 22 N
00

cv
4) 13

Q= m

x Z
LL

0 co 0 N L

o .c. 3
cm N C(/) "V to Wm

CL

Y
v V m

0 z

N U, ti

3 C
a CD c :r x W (0 UI) OOOOO6 'e MN 1O

N 0

U.

216

Co Ti

le r

a
N
T

I0

40 Co

f
CD pNr

Co

a..

0C 4)

GD yU G p 10
K

O O 3e 3m
N Q.
ON CCD _+ 1n

{ID 6

u.

co Y

0
O

CD 00 WN x

M U, N
T

a a
c
X

W O r

CO

Co

lqt

217

co
T

N
T

a CO Ui

ap a4 0a
Oo0

f
r

wC Or

i-

CIL

CO O . NZ . +-' O0 CN m

OD N
QC

10

x
LL co

f
m ca 0

o
3L0

00

O
N C(/) " 1A XO CO N

CO Y

CL 0
0

v m

F-

3 0 a co c :r .v x w

N 0

to C)

0 (')

LO N

0 04

U)
TT

10

218

Co
T

It r

N
T

a co li

+
T I-

cc t0 c0 16 4'a

co

ONa

Co

a
Co
W=

z
0

a)

LO y 0 CIO
. tN

x
Co 0 LL

0 16.
0 L

3 CL

co Y Q

a 0
O

; '00 xco WN
U, U, ti

04 a N U)

` 'F

3 0 a co c .v x w

N O

LL

o000000 N Co

_O 0

10

lt

(1)

cY

219

(0
9m:

Co

N 1

a Co 9i

Co to eoui 4.0 10 mC O

4
H

0NZ >Q .0 'o oI

CL 00

x
t0 LL

bO a0 Co L

0
W 0

r ,.0 22 Co

'Co 0.3 c4 a
Cb
CN

a
v m

CL 0

00 x co WN
Co

1
N O

ti D LL

3 0
a c x W

OOOOO0
N0
rr

O Co Co qe N

220 exciting 25.8 VA measured VA/kg with at and 1.4 5.6 was 13.8 VA/kg with zero the pressure corresponding with zero and

psi(38.6 T, at 3 5.6 kHz psi

kN/m2), was (38.6 60.5

measurement pressure

VA/kg

86 VA/kg

kN/m2).

A pressure significant same effect 2.8 psi

comparison and 5.6 increase value pressure (19.3 of that at it

of

the psi in

B/H (38.6 exciting

loops kN/m2)

of

the applied to to

core

with revealed

zero a the the 0,

current Fig. loop (38.6 It can at at 7.57

establish 7.62 show at

peak of

flux on

density. the 5.6 1.14 B/H psi T.

on Metglas kN/m2) be seen

2605-S2 with from peak fig.

kN/m2), 0.92 the zero can and

flux 7.57 from at 5.6 the zero was by

densities to 4.56 psi. 7.59

magnetizing psi be at at to 5.42

force AT/m fig.

0.92 2.8 7.60 from psi

T increased and 7.62 AT/m psi. 6.71 that at It

AT/m Also

seen 1.14 2.8 of psi loops

from

to 5.4 at

magnetizing psi found applying to 7.67 that

force AT/m the

T increased and were 9.0

AT/m

5.6

area

only

slightly

increased

pressure.

221

(0

qt

m o

cm , E 2
v 0

r- a a
N I

a tu

00 CO 0 N

LL
0, C N
m C CO

aa v c af
B)

aci a

to Co 0

C 1

o " mo

c 0 V c C) c
'

ti LO ti ci _ LL

10 0

I0 O

T 1

{0 1

222

(0

It

13 m,

N . E 4 I
m 0

o. N a

(AWE
Z

oY C) CO N)

oLL co
c N

ro ma
ON

Co ld

ca W H

O 00
=m CL

0 C) "v
c
U

Kg)

CD
ti

` 1

LL

C co cc

2
TU) 0 O L0 O
T 1

Co 1

223

Co

Co

d'

'0 F: N aO)

E N Q
Z
O 0 0

N, ^
E OZ OY N Co 0 Co Co M

oLL a)
C N

30
NC

0 A. 0 a au

`) 2
co

Co W
9

o -o mo o, m
U, ti d_s

m C a V C C) a C c r LO 0 O
I0 O
T

It

{0
1

LL

co 1

224

(O

It

X wm .2 -d

N .. E

ca
N 0O

m
a Co

v 1 0

O0 CO CI) N qD

OI c 'N c cc
0 H

a -a O c 4, mFFy"

0,

Ni

a>, o o" =m \V

m
C 0 a 1 C O m C co w

0 CD ti o LL

2
1A rOOI r to O 11) r 10 *
1

{D
1

225

00

Co

It

V. (P 1--

as a
N Q I
C)

Co

Co ;r

JE
NY
0

o, COZ
cf)
O IOl "" aD O

0
co C_ N

NC cc
Co

iOD N
2
Ce to

am O
O CO 2m CL
cG

qqt 1
N
{p

0
V

c
V

LL

m 0

2
r
T

I co
LO O t r L
1

O
1

2 26

O T

L0

m t.; a as r:
"r

Ipp-j

c4 cd

a I
V I0

0--,

'0 E-

mz NY

OLL
mi C

co Co

N
O

3 Co CL
O)

4). -

C Co 0

CO

cc
0 H
m C O V V C V

am

.
10 1

o 2m

co

a
N Co F

LL

m C l0

2
to
rQO1r

0
r IA O to
11

1"

10

227 7.14 Effect of Applying Adhesive to Core

The alternative Permabond locking the core

use

of form

low of

viscosity protection. is

adhesive The commonly the in adhesive the

was

tested

as used

an was

core

adhesive used for

A126. of

This

adhesive components, to wick

permanent applied of ribbon. to

threaded

when layers

was allowed

between

The good,

durability made to results

of with

bonds this

made with type Chemical of

Permabond adhesive resistance

A126 show is

is

very

bonds

excellent also before very and

resistance good. after are only The

vibration. of adhesive Fig. 7.63 core to to

loss core 7.68. at flux

and

exciting

power core in levels to the

applying given in

No. 3 (third An increase density the

be wound) core loss 0.6 T, to

becomes the above 1.0 T.

significant frequency. 0.6 It T and may be in The

above

whatever increase above

Similarly the increase

exciting becomes

VA begins more pronounced

concluded the ribbon

that more increase

the than in of

adhesive when exciting the B/H the

caused core VA was loop

significant limbs further particularly were

stresses clamped. investigated at

resulting by

examination temperatures.

elevated

228

N
T

a) Co OD 6

N 1A O Ot CID= C-4 3V) cis Co 0

3
H

A (0

r i
O

mC 3-0U adox>

:t

Oc

v
x
'O

wm mit t' m
cam;
0

" = Co Y

l0

3
Y

CL E ms., 0 Co 0
M (0 ti

N 6

ci
LL

aD 0 m 0 U

0 NO
TT

00

Co

tt

N0

229

N r

w
T

4) t 10

N 0-4'' O 0 CO 3M

cis
t

3
Ov Q

O Co O >Z mCo 00 X O? m rr t om

10 C V U.

c ONM a=C

aN E o ms,, a) U
le (0 ti

DD Y

3
a co

N 6

U.

0
m C

o C)

U) NNrr

1n

10

230

N
T

T4)
N

a)
CO O
H

w
O= N Co

O ,3M c;
.r

cd

>Z

0 , 0x> o
QY a+ L b- C 'O V l0

CO c

x LL
lqt O

r .O
O

Z O vOM (=C Co

3
0,

aM E4,, o tu 0
IC, co ti

N 6
W 0 0
16.

LI.

0)

000000 to lqt

0
rf) C14

231

t
1

N
T

43
M
T

cb :2p CoZ (D CL) 4) b.. m O

U

3
Co Om ~

mO 3. O `~

4) O

I
c> 0 V x
LL

cm

0 ON

2t or
Co rr 0
17

o
N

0, Y

E0m o co 0 N3
co co ti

Q m 3 0 a co c x w
0
(y

N 6

U-

(n
T

1O

232

N
T

r-

a) a)
Co O p
L

co +. rnCM Z

3
a

x0'

m co
c; c 4) 0 x U.
O > .L Cl,

"'v co x 41 N
rL.. Oi

d' 0
m Y a Q

to r"" O s

C _..

Oc

" NO O E0 O ro

3
N 6

O N
ti co ti

4)

0 a
c
U X

U.

000000 LO At

0 cr) CM
Irl

233

N
T

CD a) tti
00 A cti ++

Co O
. f-

0 30Z x o, c
M 4)

m cc c
x

4)

C-

a)

"vc x

d' O
cm je i
v 4)

C c am. C Ota 2NZ "%O

Cl U)

,Y3 O co

3
N 6

E0
N
CD ti

0(0
Co

3 a a. m c .v x W

LL

o0000000 ca LO

qe

r4

1-

234 7.14.1 Effect of Temperature on B/H Loop on Core Treated

with

Adhesive

The Metglas 7.69 150C. to The

B/H 2605-S2 7.71

loops core for

measured treated core of the the

using with

the adhesive of to

dc

method are shown

for in

the Fig. and of the more

temperatures tests It was was

ambient, the

100C effect at to the

purpose on temperatures

observe

temperature elevated stress The force with

core. the

anticipated be subjected and the flux

that

ribbon of

would the

due loops

to

the

interaction show to that

adhesive in

ribbon.

measured

an the

increase

magnetising density and

was required a small increase

maintain in loop

same peak

area.

235

I0
1

0 1
0c I. w

OZ

,-:

99)

NE

!--

OD .w

r m
Oi w
C

4)

cx Go .ofc or c

c 10

O :t: = aim O ao ma "o o "E 0 m m"

Co L

. . H .. m
O i-. V C U O C 0, l0

12

T 1

CO

2
10 OO O 10
r1 1

236

U) 1

N r0., o o CO bNO

t
Q

m V

oo

0 .40Co b0 E>"> Co
Ot DX

m C N
C co 1
v

2t"_ . ao3o

CL ? o

. F-

C O V 10 C C) C

z
O r 1
0 1ti

o
LL

2
r to OO 0 to

to

2 37

to
T

O r

o, Z
LO -

^ r/

E
4 Z v Oa
C, C N 4) C 01 L
1

> >o CO
at E`y

3
av

0Na

N
=N

C 0 :r U V C U 4) C Cf tti

a T

IN ti LL

2
In dO 0 to

U)
T

238 7.15 7.15.1 Core Temp erature Metglas Rise 2605-S2 Core

Amorp hous

Under must idea exciting and not of

normal exceed the the

operating the continuous

conditions service rise frequencies temperature reached for

the value could

core of be flux

temperature 150C. gained densities for each density 1 kHz, will the or 1.0 Some by

likely core at the final for and core

temperature various final

and

measuring The was 400 the the cooling Hz, remain or was 400

reached for a flux

condition. of 1T for

temperature 3 kHz, no 131C

186C Hz

2 kHz, Hz.

68C for factors example

37C

change

for"50 temperature

Many for whether suggest

influence windings, natural T will 50

service

transformer is used.

enclosure The above and

and result

forced that at

Hz and the

1 kHz

2 kHz, limit be two 200

the but at

core 1T

temperature and The 3 kHz use a of the 40 mm was shown

within forced

required would

heatsink heatsinks overall fins cut in and into Fig.

cooling

necessary. were 100 Each to the

therefore of

tested, each were of and

heatsinks mm x

used,

dimensions a thermal two 7.72. equal

mm with heat core sink as

resistance sections

0.54C/W. clamped

The without for rise are 1-T

results and at with 1,2

of

the

core are The

temperature shown in

rise Fig. of core

tests 7.73 to

both 7.75,

a heatsink and 3 kHz.

comparison of Metglas

temperature measured

without summarized

and in

with Table

heatsink 7.7.

2605-S2

239

Fig.

7.72

Metglas

2605-S2

core

with

heatsink

attached.

240

0 to N

0 0 N

4) 4.0

O c0 +..

3. CL
O I0 1

3
A

E=
OZ

C_

F
C N

o4, oo o
Q)

>O

C_

E F=
O 0

114.0

Nt O1+.

4)

0 3
U
m cD Im a

ODNC OD tv

a E om U
M ti ti

0 to

U.

E H

oo0000000 CD CO o

0 qt m CM r

241

0 to N

0 0 CM

Y
C

.Cl)

Co a) r
r

r. " t

3 a cri E=. 0
Z

0 U)
T

3
C_ E E H

F
Y C O

00
moo N
>
T "-

=NM

0 O

c) L
0
q4

0 CO

O r

3
0
0 to
A

0 tu Co 0. E

02
a ti ti o

0 4)

c0

E H

oo000000 cm qe
rrr

0
0 Co co lt N

242

0
N

0 0 N

Y C

to
L t rr

O c0 +-

3
0.

0 LO
1

E 2:
OO CO O C C)

C_ E a) E_ FY C

OFY > 0 T4) 4.

Ec9ZNt
O L

0 0 1

G) t O

`n 3 cO
yNc
.`y

o(0-0

tu

3
6

E o U ti ti ) LL

0 to

E H

4) a 0

00000 0 cm

10 1r

In

243

Frequency
(kHz)
1 2

Core
Without

temperature

rise
With

(C)
heatsink
22 54

heatsink
52 114

166

88

Table

7.7

Comparison and
1,2

of

core

temperature of Metglas

rise 2605-S2

without core at

with
and

heatsink
3-kHz 1-T.

244

7.15.2

Silicon-iron

core

The uncut core The

results

of

temperature (9.9 kg)

rise are when

test shown

carried in Table

out

on the The

silicon-iron loss as expected

core

7.8. increased.

decreased service 150C. for these the

temperature of

maximum must

continuous not exceed

temperature The temperature operating

silicon-iron rise flux of the

material test and core

were

measured From predict

various

densities it is and is the core gives

frequencies. to for Fig.

temperature core

rise flux rise.

tests density

possible frequency shown in

operating core

a specified 7.76 from and A similar operating

temperature

A graph for

which flux

predictions density graph, fig. for 7.95

may be made 80C and for core

operating temperature predictions rises.

frequency rise. of

100C

2605-S2,

f and 7.16.7.

B for )

various

temperature

.. -(see section

245

(a)
Frequency (kHz) 1 2 3 Core loss (W/kg) Temp. Ambient 4.05 11.2 18.9 Core Final loss(W/kg) Temp. 3.97 9.8 15.8 Temp. (C) 39 80 99 rise

(h

Frequency
(kHz) 1 2

Core

loss(W/kg)
Temp. 8.65

Core
Final

loss(W/kg)
Temp. 8.08

Temp.
(C) 66 131

rise

Ambient

22.42

18.68

(c)
Frequency Core loss(W/kg) Core loss(w/kg) Temp. rise
101

(kHz)
1

Ambient
14.0

Temp.

Final

Temp.
13.0

(C)

34.06

26.6

170

(d)

Frequency (kHz)
1

Coreloss(W/kg) Temp. Ambient

21.0

Core Final

loss(W/kg) Temp.
17.6

Temp.

rise
127

45.6

Table

7.8

Temperature core. 0.4T; (9.9 (b)

rise kg) 0.6 for T;

tests three (c) 0.8

for

uncut hours T and

silicon-iron time (d) at 1.0 (a) T.

246

U) M

UV o o0 co

to C%

m co

U
O
N N=
Y

UY

O 1
m

U C m 7
T

am EL m Z0
m

U O Co

00 ( L C. 0

a. LL

O 0
T

U)
cD ti ti o LL

O
C

x
LL 1III1

Co OOOO

Co

4e

CM

J0 0

247

7.16 7.6.1

Summary Introduction

and

assessment

of

Test

Results

The on in the the

test

methods

and and

the

results cores chapter

of

the have

test been

programme presented with purpose some of and

silicon-iron previous and

amorphous of this on is to

section observations sections

together The

comments the

those provide

results. further

following of

analysis

assessment

the

results.

7.16.2

Comparison Silicon-iron

of

Metalas Core

2605-S2,2605-S3A and Exciting VA

and

Losses

direct of flux

comparison 50 Hz, 400

of Hz,

the

core

losses 2kHz graphs and in

measured 3 kHz Fig. for

at a to same of 1T in

frequencies range 7.81. of

1 kHz, by the

densities

are

given of

7.77 the graphs VA at

Similarly and to 7.86.

a comparison flux density Also the

exciting are given and

VA for by the

frequencies Fig. are Fig. 7.82 plotted 7.87 The are and

range core

loss on

exciting

against 7.88. associated less 7.9

frequency

logarithmic

scales

losses

with than (a)

the

Metglas of the the

amorphous silicon-iron, at 1T exciting for the

metals for for the VA, same

substantially the Table

those

example various Table

compares Similarly

losses for at the 1T

frequencies 7.9 (b) compares The

used. the losses f or

measurements and each exciting of the

the

frequency measured

range. on uncut

VA are three core

values

cores

materials.

248

N r

C O C O U

WL C O O LV

aCo a0 E
N
ON

Om
U) O (O N

N ao'2
mNa.. O
VMC Co O O

Otn

Cp O CO N

Y INS

M Co 1 L0 0 Co N i

Eo 00 ti ti ti
LL

3
Co Co O m O

N O

U
N T1COOO CO co d' N0

249

N
T

C O

f
~ N Co to O (0

Op L "0.

Co

ONN 0100 - 00
N CI) 0 +4 t0

dm
N C 4) 'O

co x
M Co 1 L0 O Co N

C0 O Co AN ` 0
tu

It 6

cb Y

a Ev O 3 00 ti ti
_0 iL

3 o 0
m IC-)

N O

0 r

IIiIi0 co

co

lqt

N0

250

N r

C O

O
r

2 O . CL= 6- CO O= E
ON -00 0N

c~ Om
A 4 C "

N CO O O Co N

Ni

(o x 03

1
M Co 1 to O Co N

0<Co CO r v O
Om N
16. 0 Co

Co

It d

Co Ch. E

00
rn

-. .cri Y

ti N

N 6
0 C
m L

LL

o MNN

90

000

1-

U4

251

N
1

C O C O V Co

c
O

Co 6
H N Co
CO 8

O =U d8- W 0=

0NN 0) 2 0100 OpO t00 0NN O py Cp O CO a l0 O

40 C

fit) O Co N

x
i-L

lot O

.,. Y

O Co 1 10 O Co N

CO C aO

E c

00
0 Co ti o L

N O

0 0

0
m

oo0000 to 't

0
MN

252

N r

C O C U 0
OV L "-

OD 6

H N 1 u) O Co N

a- 0 0 E4-. c 3 w ONN
00V)2 Co O

co.

.CDcO
NM

j) 200
M

Oc v

O UQ
pO Co 00

..

) C! Cr) 1 U) 0 Co

Eo 00 03
IOD ti o_ IL

00

N 6
0

CO 0
U

m 1 0
00000 Co Co le N

253

M
T

N
T

O V
T

ZC 00 =. -O Cl -_ Co O. OrL..

0) 6 H m 0 N Co L0 O Co N x
LL L')

.3 ON
<I_
0O

Oc co

+" "X

N QC

CO 0

1
c) Co to 0 Co N

O 10 c0 O tC 0N

O Y

om
N co ti c_ LL

a m 3
0 a m c

cr)

O 0
0 N

:r

10
Q

2 54

M
T

N
T

0 0
0
co

OO t .-

Co OE H

CL 0 %.. 0 E

co
N 9) O O Co N
ON

a
++

c; Co OV m

m N

x Co m cf) r

*-CO2 ob
0 qe

om oN

cp

"-

a C')
Co

CO

O U) 0

E cb om Co ti m U.

CL

O
m

3 C
a co c x W N0
TT

0 0

Co

CO

qt

N0

255

N VZ

I-

C O C O U 0
ZC OO =.

O
H N N Co 1 L) 0 Co c4

a-_ 0 E

-O

3 w. ONN
N= 90 0 Op O c CO
Q MO OO Co 00 0N

co y'
O
0 V

0
co

b.

Co N
3 0
CD

to 0

a`E D O ar 03 a
CO ti

N O

x w

o Cr)

10 iV

0 04

U) T

U)

256

M
r

0 I0 U
00

i c

O Co N Cf) I U) 0 co N j

t=O a I 0

w3 ONN
Z Co 5l o 9)
C MO NN 0 CY

Co O 13 m

r.. .QO 4.0 4) C7

V) O O

O
Q

CO O co 0N

le O
Y

M 9) O Co N {

Co Ep Om 03
to co ti 6 L_

O C N

3 0 a
a
c
U X

O
T

00000 Co

Co

le

cm

257

T T

0) 0

C O C O
OO tV

CO O

O
O H

m CO >,

N CO to O t0 N

.3 ONN
aOO cNM

}'i }
L Ox c
It O LL

i
M I0 O Co cV

,O O

cl) Co

M O N

GO o(0 coN "0 Co 4

E o ar 03
co 00 ti

_O

LI

o0000 0 CO 1

Co

lt

CJ

258

0 0 0 0
C O C O V

0
00 0

0 0 0 T
I N

N N co 0 co N

00

Co

`. N .. O
in re OC C0O

V C O' O U.

.w+ CQ

cr) Co to O,
Co

O r-

0 0
T

000
c7 0N

Co 1 O Co N LO O

Um ti ti LL

0 Y

Co

ao

{
OOrrr O
r

1 0 U
* pO

0
1

259

0 0 0 0 1

C O 1 C O L)

0
w. C OO V "N

0 0 0 1
tJ .. r A V C C 4) ILL

N Co U) O Co N c0 4)
4? "O N -4- C CC 0

Uc 0l -X Q CI) co QOC eo

0 0
T

M U) 0 m N

N cm "= CO "U C) x

9)

m 3 O

Co Co ti

a co c .v x W
o0TTT

3
a
T

LL

oroc T0

260 (a) Frequency (Hz) 50 400 1000 2000 3000 Metglas

2605-S3A

Core

Loss Metglas
2605-S2

(W/kg) Silicon-iron 0.63 6.5 19.8 45.6 76.0

0.07 1.27 4.94 13.50 24.20

0.10 2.0 6.9 17.90 31.0

(b) Frequency
(Hz) 50 400 1000 2000 3000 Metglas 2605-S3A 0.10 1.64 6.0 15.9 28.6

Exciting
Metglas 2605-S2 0.11 2.11 7.22 18.6 33.1

VA (VA/kg)
Silicon-iron 0.87 8.0 23.5 52.6 86.6

Table

7.9

Comparison of Metglas Hz,

of:

(a)

core

loss

; and

(b)

exciting

VA at

2605-S3A, 1 T.

2605-S2

silicon-iron

50-3000

261

Normally allow having assembly silicon of for

when ease

silicon of

iron assembly

cores of

are the on

used windings, formers

they

are the before

cut windings final

to

being onto iron

wound the cores

independently limbs. will The thus losses be

and

exciting

VA for When the

cut

even is to be the

greater. possible, at least of

a choice amorphous for turns compare the a

transformer will core a given actual used building the range allow loss,

operating the

frequency frequency reducing It so called is

cores given for the

doubled winding to

thereby voltage. the

number

supply loss and

interesting specific for cores loss

also to

obtain purposes. found levels to

widely The in

building factor 0.74 For to

factor for 1.3 uncut

necessary silicon

design was

be and

depending 2605-S2,

on flux the 0.3 be

density

frequency. between factor a reliable relating to 1.3 for

Metglas 1.7 at

building to 1-T. than to the

factor The

varied buuilding but

to

1 to

3 kHz, to

2605-S3A figure the

was may not

found be

higher due

2605-S2 uncertainies

quoted

annealing

cycle.

The and during the

following influence the

sections of the of

analyse various the core.

in

more

detail

the

results

conditions

encountered

manufacture

7.16.3

Annealing

Process

According serves The to ribbon reduce as

to

previous the losses is

studies from in those the

the in as

annealing the cast as cast

process state. and for

supplied

state

262 optimum core stresses manufacture. results manufacture. set up the annealing The during annealing casting should will as well be carried thus as out relieve during after the core

In of a

addition magnetic uniaxial

during field

the will

annealing further

process reduce

the the

application losses by

inducing

anisotropy.

It amorphous which This is

is

believed alloys

that

non-field an anisotropy ordering to pin of the the

annealing at each

of domain atoms walls

these wall [124]. during The the at

indicates by local tends and hence

caused

metal

anisotropy

domain

magnetization field sample domain properties annealing is walls are

degrades eliminates saturated

magnetic this and hence

properties. since ordering

process

anisotropy atomic improved

magnetically cannot obtained. now

occur,

magnetic

Optimum field the the the annealing soak

core

loss cycle,

results namely and time

will the of

therefore rate soak, of the

depend temperature cooling have

on

the

rise, rate and that the

temperature field of

magnetic application

applied. a

Previous field

studies of a

shown at

magnetic minimal

strength A small

saturation in not the

level magnetic

produces field

losses. the used

variation level annealing losses is

strength temperature

about

saturation during the

critical.

The

soak have

process

can however

considerable

influence

on the

263 [125] . Crystallisation is on loss the may taken magnetic result. of too the high ribbon which can in and occur has if the soak

temperature effects power

turn a

disastrous increase in

properties

large

It would process.

may be most likely This

concluded be of is borne

therefore greatest out is in the

that concern results. from the on the and

the

soak

temperature the annealing 2605of and However were not were for the

during For the

Metglas

S2 adequate the annealing

information process results 2605-S3A and the were

available

manufacturer temperature cores.

including obtained of loss in

soak several

consistent for so Metglas specific

details core

soak exciting

temperature VA results factor

disappointing one core made.

resulting

a large

building

7.16.4

Mechanical

Stresses

(Clamping)

The stresses manufacture. externally of the

annealing induced Once applied core limbs.

process during annealed mechanical

should the the

relieve

the process

mechanical and subjected clamping core to

casting core

may for

be

stresses,

example

Only

small

increase pressure

in

the

core see in the

losses appendix exciting 7.52

was VI.

measured However flux A

when a clamping there density was

was applied increase 1 T, see

a significant levels above

VA at to 7.56.

figures

264 comparison pressure current figures of revealed required 7.57 to the a to 7.62. B/H loops with and without in flux the clamping exciting see

significant establish the

increase peak

density,

The results of powercore of of less values strip

agree

with

earlier

research material bonded increase in losses high

[126]

on a sample several in the VA at

(the

powercore

comprises together in

ribbons form and high

amorphous

material

loosely

a lamination). significant of these applied values large that are Bm (1.4 tests for of power when set angles layers of

A significant increase T) refer our the and to small order

exciting evident of The pressure clamping less,

became values

at

(100kPa), pressure 39.6 only likely stresses also the kPa, for

a 50 Hz supply. cores 100 was kPa

considerably be It

would

appropriate is more than

frequency

transformer. is of applied, the being

clamping up in to the it, each

pressure direction the limb. latter

compressive force to waves and in

applied due

a righ ribbon

7.16.5

Core

Treated

with

Adhesive

The effect and Fig. core applying core loss exciting 7.89 to

of VA 7.94 and

the of where after to

inter-laminar amorphous direct

adhesive Metglas

on the is for

core shown the effect of

loss in same of the 7.10

2605-S2 is made The an

comparison

before

applying the core the

adhesive. results in

adhesive and

increase Table

exciting

VA in

amorphous

ribbon.

265 compares 3-kHz. the core losses and exciting VA at 1-T for 1,2 and

The with the

increase adhesive results. stresses right

in

the applied It is the to

core

loss when

and

exciting with

VA is the

greater clamping sets up

compared that the in the

pressure greater and at

likely ribbon

adhesive rolling

in

both

direction

angles

the

rolling

direction.

26 6

0 0 0 0
N > a, t

'C

to

10 m O=
V
C

0 0 0 T
N

3 a)

CL
cc I
M CD

0 U

m3 C0 0 O

(6

U C m Q m 1. L'

aj .U)

4co r- : OOt V MD

'.OC

C 3-0 O0
C_

0 0

E o Cc 0_
0
N1 Oy OOC .. O b-

'0

ca Y

a) L. 0

(D 2
rn co N U.

3
0 0

0
m

0 U
OOTTT

0
T

TO

T00

26 7

0 0 0 0
1

CS)

r
cd

V O O "a O~ OtO Q= c
%0-

0 0 0 T
N 2

4)
U

0
m

vO

cti .. Co C +' OL

V C 4) Q m I

d > O L

Vt,,

34)
N

V td
O t
co (0 N
Co OO .C

O O T

r_r

3
O a) O

3 a) 0

3
0 rn ti
0_ LL

U
oQrrT

0 1

oro
T

268

0 0 0 O r

d > .0 t V t 10 m O "-

0 0 0
T

>CL

U
N

a) 0

mm1 "- "0 m Cc'

c=

C) C Q m

00.0

ti a) -o Co
"" N

cc CO c_

l0

ato

0 O

"mN sCO
OO}; Ri C O

ccow

. -. Q Y

a)

O +' Um
T

0)

ao 0

LL

0
0 U

OOrr OrO

0
T

269

O O O O T

G) G)

'0

tv
t
O-

O O O 1
N I

cCa

4) 0
I

cr
w-0 C ` ' o c 0 O= v_ c+o c 3-0 CoCO,c to "cu
cu

V C Q ILL

a > .t Co 'O tti

0 O
Y

QO >C

cm cm

Z w
N Cf ti o LL

tu

3 a 0

r-

a a
c

3 0

i
O
OOrrr O
T

x w

U 1

r-

ci

O
ci

270

0 0 0 0 1
G)

'0 0: 2H 3

0 0 0
T

Qo

U
N

a) 0

Co Co > (D
Rf

Z OOL
Cam'

V C m Q

_O U0

3, fl
Co C

C Z (n

le- in1 .
CoO

E
m

Co 0 Co N
0 O 1
DD Y

Co C

O .

C am. y .a. O_

xC

CL

a
0 a v

W0

m 3

c, rn Fo LL

c x

OOrrr O
T

0
T

0O

271

0 0 0 0
T

> t V -F t

0 0 0
T

U
N

3 a L 0
0o 3 -o
t0 4.0 c 1'

V C
4) Q 4)

v
CN =(o

41 ca

LL

Q to to

N Nc to

0 0
C, Y

C, w, y

-a -0

W0

U
a

IO

rn ti ci, _ LL

3 0

m c
U

fill

00
oT T

0 T

2 72

Frequency (kHz)

Core loss (W/kg)

Exciting

power (VA/kg)

(VA)

Without adhesive
1 2 3 6.91 18.18 32.00

With adhesive
8.49 22.15 38.45

Without adhesive
7.22 18.87 33.17

With adhesive
12.23 29.24 48.70

Table

7.10

Core

loss

and without

exciting and 1-T. with

power

(VA)

of

Metglas at 1,

2605-S2 2 and

applied

adhesive

3 kHz,

273

Previous
increase reduction. the rolling the

research
losses

has
whereas

shown

that

compressive
pressure well the these be

pressures
lead to a in of may it the be is

extensive may by up

A compressive direction When due to with to the differing separate of core

stress the ribbon

established

interaction stresses However

adhesive. enhanced impossible resistivity

heats expansion the effects from

properties. of the increasing

material to stress.

temperature

changes

due

7.16.6

Separation

of

Losses

The can be

classical calculated

eddy using

current the

component formula:

of

the

losses,

Pe,

Pe =

( 6f

t) Z

W/kg

(7.24)

where B= f= t= p= a= the the the the peak flux density frequency

magnetization sample material's density. thickness

resistivity

material

The value

of

the

total

eddy

current

loss

is

obtained

from

a measurement
The value of may

of
the be

the

total
excess

losses
eddy

less
current

the
or

hysteresis
anomalous

loss.
loss anomaly

component

determined

and

the

associated

274
factor, 4.2.1. q, which is defined in equation 4.22 in chapter

Table p and p and Table factors S3A and

7.11

gives a, used

the in

values this

of

thickness,

t,

resistivity, of a, .

density, thickness 7.12 at to 1.0

investigation. from values the literature

The value

were 7.14 T,

obtained the

[127,128] of the anomaly

show

calculated the Metglas factor than for for and the for the for

50-3000 The is

Hz for anomaly higher

2605-S2,2605the Metglas factor 50 Hz is 22. were (Metglas (silicon much sheet

silicon-iron. and for 2605-S2 the the Metglas at for 3%

2605-S3A measured magnetization 286, for

much

anomaly at

silicon-iron, factor is 103

example

anomaly 2605-S2

(Metglas silicon-iron anomaly factor , 26.7 are

2605-S3A) is

However, reduced 2605-S3A) iron), higher steel.

higher example

frequencies at 3 kHz the

factors for and

anomaly was factor

was, 4.3. than

50,

(Metglas of

2605-S2) anomaly in

The those

values

however

measured

conventional

electrical

275

Material

Thickness t (m)

Resistivity P (c7m) 1.37x10-6 1.38x10'6 0.48x10'6

Density a (kg/m3) 7.18x103 7.29x103 7.65x103

Metglas Metglas Silicon-iron

2605-S2 2605-S3A

2.5x10'5 1.77x10'5 5x10'5

Table

7.11

Material 2605-S3A

parameters and

of

the

Metglas

2605-S2,

silicon-iron.

276

Frequency

Total

power
loss

Hysteresis
loss (W/kg) 0.08 0.72 1.82 4.1 5.9

Excess
current

eddy
loss

Anomaly
factor (ii) 103 76.6 48.8 33.0 26.7

(Hz) 50 400 1000 2000 3000

(W/kg) 0.107 2.0 6.9 17.90 31.0

(W/kg) 0.026 1.26 4.99 13.38 24.1

Table

7.12

Total
current 2605-S2

power
loss at

loss,
and 1.0

hysteresis
anomaly factor

loss,
of

excess
Metglas

eddy

T core

No. 1

277

Frequency

Total

power loss

Hysteresis loss

Excess current

eddy loss

Anomaly factor

(Hz)
50 400 1000 2000 3000

(W/kg)
0.63 6.53 19.8 45.6 76.0

(W/kg)
0.55 4.4 11.0 22.2 33.30

(W/kg)
0.078 1.95 7.60 18.90 32.65

(27)
22.0 12.0 6.9 5.2 4.3

Table

7.13

Total
current
at 1.0

power
loss
T.

loss,
and

hysteresis
anomaly factor

loss,
of

excess
silicon-iron

eddy

278

Frequency

Total loss power (W/kg) 0.074 1.27 4.97 13.50 24.2

Hysteresis loss (W/kg) 0.039 0.31 0.77 1.55 2.32

Excess current

eddy loss

Anomaly factor (0) 286 123 86 61 50

(Hz) 50 400 1000 2000 3000

(W/kg) 0.034 0.95 4.16 11.75 21.56

Table

7.14

Total current

power loss at

loss, and 1.0

hysteresis anomaly T. factor

loss, of

excess Metglas

eddy

2605-S3A

279 7.16.7 Core Temperature Rise Without and With a Heat sink

The deciding and the flux core. density The

criteria of maximum a core

for

the will

maximum be the

operating temperature temperature

frequency rise of of of the

continuous to

service the

amorphous must were and not

material exceed

according 150C. The for without was found

manufacturer rise operating with a of the flux heat at

Metglas cores

temperature various and to

test

therefore frequencies A heat the attached of to for Fig.

measured both sink

densities sink 1-T, two a being 3-kHz heat

attached. to stop

be necessary 150C. each

core

temperature to the core From the

exceeding yokes, these operating core

The had rise

sinks resistance is

thermal tests it and is the core The in core

0.54C/W. predict a specified 7.95 from

temperature core flux rise.

possible

density A graph for

frequency shown in

temperature predictions density and a example operating with significant at

which and flux

may be made for a various heat

operating temperature addition operating temperature increased of

frequency rises a flux rise from heat both

without permits for the 0.9-T.

sink. increase and a

sink

density, of 0.5-T 80C, to

3-kHz flux

density

may be

2 80

1.5

without

heatsink

With heatsink

1.0
N C!

80C

%i-

100C
0.5 Metalas 26055-2 80C 60C

0123 ; requency) kHz

Fia.. 7.95

Core

temperature

rise.

281
CHAPTER 8

8.0

CONCLUSION

The advantages iron ability possibility Similar dimensions. iron Allied power the which and in

initial of medium to

design using

comparison metals

studies compared

illustrated with Their density silicon-

the

amorphous power levels

frequency at high

transformers. of flux in result

apparent the

operate of

provide and the

considerable would various were The type chosen

savings also

core

size

weight. winding two by in be

economies Of alloys the

with alloys range commonly therefore chosen had

amorphous from the has was

available, manufactured been likely was lower used to

based

Signal. frequency cheapest from would

2605-S2 and The other

transformers available.

type

2605-S3A losses than For the

inspection therefore

of be flux chosen

its

characteristics at higher

useable

frequencies

2605-S2 transformer has 0.9

with

high rating

density-levels for be the core

maintained. design, at core cooling immersion, The other 1.2 the T,

research 1 kHz and rise form of flux

shown T, 3

that kHz With

2605-S2 without attention fan

may

operated

excessive to assisted oil possible. type were

temperature in the higher

occurring. heat sinks,

forced and

or possibly are the its losses would

densities material disappointing 1T3 much kHz. higher

frequencies

amorphous provided 2301 less at kHz, data

investigated, results, Although levels this would

2605-S3A, only about at

permit

operation

1T3

be doubtful.

The manufacturers

282 indicated kHz, for when a much comparing and greater directly 2605-S2. almost further reduction the The for specific cause of due follows example loss the to 57% at figures higher the later. 1T3 quoted than

2605-S3A losses carried

expected process

was out,

certainly comment

annealing

The material alignment were of

assembly posed of

of few

the

wound

type with careful

cores only

using ribbon

the tension Uncut

ribbon and cores cutting and

problems needing to

mandrel essential would

setting. The

deemed the ribbon

minimise required

losses. special

actual techniques

have

equipment.

The careful mechanical two

method

of

assembly

of

the

core with

and

winding regard to there

needs the are

consideration stresses placed

particularly on the core.

Essentially (a) the the windings core is

possible

methods whereby the onto

of core

assembly supports and factor the core chosen, core which the core, is

conventional or (b) the by that is

arrangement windings the are

wound formers.

formers

the to

supported is

windings the to

Another of the was

be considered ribbon

following prone

annealing and (b)

the flexible. the itself is

material After careful supported

flaking method

assessment, by the

core

being was able core

winding in-

formers. polyimide in excess was .

The tape of then

protected to sustain

by

wrapping temperature allowed. applied

maximum to

temperature externally

The

core

subjected

minimal

pressure

283 An adhesive a very core alternative wicked rigid losses set self and up in method between supporting exciting in the the core type. to any of the core support layers. was tested This using produced in likely the to the better type the a of core long

ribbon

core. VA was

However sustained

an increase due most

stresses increased than core the would

ribbon treated

by

the with

adhesive. adhesive of cycling effects

Despite cooled this of over

losses untreated

Extended assess detrimental

testing whether

be necessary produced

temperature period.

Another process. be paid Adequate but not to For

feature minimal

of core

core

manufacture careful

was

the

annealing needs rates. cycle for were for was to

losses soak

attention and cooling annealing

heat

up rates, is

temperature for

information for 2605-S3A. cores It was to not carry

available Consistent made but likely optimum further the that

2605-S2

results results the

were for soak

obtained 2605-S3A

several

2605-S2

disappointing. 2605-S3A available

was the out

temperature ribbon

and

insufficient

investigation.

Summarising, frequency expensive the core power

the

assembly is

of

an

amorphous feasible objectives met with

cored without of operating are

medium any

transformer

perfectly The been

machinery size of and 1T with at

requirement. weight 3 kHz. alloy have

limiting flux to

densities be possible

Higher types.

frequencies

likely

other

284

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MEDIUM IN USE CORES FOR METAL AMORPHOUS FREQUENCY POWER TRANSFORMERS

Engineering Power Universities 28th in (To be published U. K., Sept. 1993) Conference in Stafford,

K. T. Williams,

G. H. Cooke, A. B. Crompton, M. Razaz, A. Benhama

University of Salford, UK

ABSTRACT The low loss associated with amorphous metal has been utilised in the design of a medium frequency power transformer. The density, flux levels being high to of of able operate at ability in the losses, leads to tolerable economies with core significant size and weight of the transformer compared with those using ferrite or silicon material The design and construction of an amorphous cored transformer is described. The reSNts of a comprehensive test programme on the core are given.

flux density of 1.4-T was considered to be feasible at 1-kHz and I-T at 3-kHz. The rovlts of the design comparison are given in Table 1. Table 1 Design Comparison of Amorphous and Silicon Steel Core material Metgaas 26055.2 Design I Design 2

I.

171 ROnucrav

Specific loss W/kg

Freq kl-iz Flux den T Core wt kg

1.0 1.4 6.8

:-

3.0 1.0 4.8 26

10
Core material

With the advancement in the switching speeds, current and voltage capabilities of power semiconductor devices, high power inverters are now possible, typically l0-kW with operating frequencies in the region of 10-kHz For higher power ratings where gate turn off thyristors are used, the inverter frequencies are much lower. These inverters are often used in conjunction with isolating transformers and inductors. The core materials available for use in these components include the various types of low loss silicon steels, the amorphous metals and ferrates. A comparison of these materials would Indicate the suitability of the amorphous metals for high power ratings in the frequency Their range O5-kHz to 3-kHz and possibly up to 6-kHz particular advantage at these frequencies is their ability to be operated at high flux density levels with tolerable core losses leading to economies of both size and weight of the transformer. 20 TRANSFORMER DESIGN STUDIES

Silicon steel

Design I Freq kHz 1.0 Flux den T 1.0 Core wt kg 14.0 Specificloss W/kg :23

Design 2 3.0 0.4 25.0

19

The higher flux densities possible with the amorphous metal produce a significant reduction in are weight compared with silicon steel. This is particularly evident at 3kl{z where the operating flux density level of the silicon steel has to be % 0.4-T losses. to tolerable to reduced maintain core 22 CHOICE OF AMORPHOUS CORE MATERIAL

For the frequency range of 0.5-kHz to 3-kHz and inverter power ratings of say 20-kW where the switching devices are likely to be gate turn o! f thyristars low loss silicon steels wad the amorphous metals are two possible choices for the core material of any transformers or inductors in the circuitA tentative design comparison has therefore been carried out to assess the advantages of utilising the higher operating flux densities of the amorphous metals. 21 DESIGN COMPARISON AND SILICON STEEL OFAMORPHOUS METAL

A 20-kW, 800/600-V, transformer rating was used for the comparison at two operating frequencies, 1-kHz for design No 1 and 3-kHz for design No 2. In the case of the silicon steel designs, data relating to Alphasil 1050 (0.05mm thick laminations), a cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel was used. The flux density levels chosen were those commonly employed at the frequencies being addressed. For the amorphous core designs, data provided by Allied Signal for their Metglas range of alloys was used. A number of different amorphous alloys are available of which the iron based alloys appear to be the most suitable for use in the frequency band of 0-5-kHz to 6-kHz. The Metglas alloy 26055-2 was chosen for the comparison and following inspection of the material data, a maximum operating

metal alloys are produced in ribbon form by rapid cooling and solidification of the molten metal on a fast moving drum before the atoms crystallise. The result is a metal alloy:.: g; zm 'Jce aturk Strcru e. 11-ei ch:imct1 &s vary according to the comoosition of the alloy, i. e. iron based. nickel iron based and cobalt based alloys are available. The iron based alloys are best suited to frequencies in the rang. SdHz to 200-kHz: Of the iron based alloys produced by S-2 and 26055-3A are likely to Allied Signal, both Metglas 2605. be suitable. Metglas 2605S-2 has already been used for the core material in power frequency transformers and '"- se may extend up to 3-kHz before its losses give rise to excessive core temperatures, necessitating a reduction in the operating flux density. In comparison, the lower core losses of Metglas 26055-3A at frequencies above 1-kHz suggest it may be used with advantage without excessive core temperatures occurring at frequencies up to 6-kHzAs a preliminary exercise, several uncut cores were wound The 4-5kg. 2605S"2, in Metglas the weight range using 2 Table kg in losses with the are compared per measured core factor building Metglas. The by data loss supplied core kg on loss is the in per table the the of ratio measured quoted the finished core to the loss per kg data provided by Allied Only sufficient Metglas 2605S-3A material was Signal. Jso losses 5-kg its : are core, measured available to wind one included in Table 2 together with the losses from Metglas Amorphous

data.
Table Measured Core Losses

2000 3000

182 32.0

18.9 33.2

297,

Core material 26OSS-2 Flux der, -icy T

43 1D 1.0

SEPARATION

OF CORE LOSSES

Frequency kHz

Measured loss W/kg

1.0
6.9

3.0
32.0

Metgias loss W/hg Building Factor Core material 2606S-3A Flux density T Frequency kHz Measured loss W/kg Metgias km W/kg Building Factor

5.2 1.33 1.0 1.0 4.8S 3.0 1.62

26.0 1.23 IA 3.0 24.7 11.0 2.2

Some idea of the relative magnitudes of the eddy current and hysteresis losses were of interest with a view to the need for inter turn insulation of the ribbon. The B/H loop of the core was thus measured and the hysteresis loss calculated for each The eddy current loss was then obtained by frequency. subtracting the hysteresis loss from the total loss measured. This method was considered accurate enough for general conclusions to be made. Table 4 lists the separated losses at frequencies of 50-Hz, 40D-Hz. 1-kHz, 2-kHz, 3-kHz for a flux density of 1-T. Table 4 Separation of Care Losses Frequency Hysteresis Eddy current

From the cace loses neared the L ! di.-.g factor for M-tg! as 2605S3A was much higher than expected although the annealing cycle used may not have been the optimum for minimum lasses. The precise details of the annealing cie were not readily available and further experimentation is required. 3.0 CENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS kHz 'TRANSFORMER FOR A 3-

Hz 50 400 1000 2000

3000

loss(W/kg) 0.06 0.64 1.60 32

4.8

Ioss(W/kg) 0.02 1.25 531 15.0

272

the preliminary design studies, the research has concentrated on the assembly of an amorphous cored 3-kHz, 100/200 V, 20-kW transformer. Me! g S-2 2 VMS chosen for the core material and wound to form a rectangular uncut acre. The windings have been wound directly onto both legs through the core window. Fail windings have been used rather than multistrand Utz type wire, it was considered that foil would be easier to wind and the larger eddy current losses associated with foil would not be excessive at 3-kHz. 4.0 TRANSFORMER CORE

Following

The eddy current loss at 3-kHz does suggest a need to xmsider 4-nmia`ng between the layers of ribbon, however such insulation will seriously affect the core space factor, particularly so with the large number of turns of thin ribbon making up the core. For the cores wound, the number of turns for 2605S-2 was about 1000 and for 26055-3A about 1400 for the same net csa.

4.4

EFFECT OF CLAMPING

CORE LIMBS

A number of cores were wound and subjected to various tests to establish the best method of core manufacture and transformer assembly. The cores were built to the folo-Wing g dimensions: core window_125mm(leg) x 85mm(yoke), net csa_1275mm2. 4.1 CORE ASSEMBLY DETAILS

The transformer core may be subjected to mechanical stresses caused by the method used to support the core and winding. To evaluate the effect of pressure on the limbs, both limbs were damped and various pressures applied to compress the ribbons together. The effect on core losses was found to be negligible, however a measurable increase in exciting VA was noted at flux density levels above 0.9-T, for example at l-T: damping pressurekN/m Exciting VAlke at 1-kHz Exciting VA/kg at 3-kHz 0.0 7.2 33.2 38.6 9.4 38.0

The 50mm wide amorphous ribbon 06055.2) was wound onto a mandrel made to the din lions of the core window. The mandrel was mounted in a lathe and rotated to draw the ribbon from a pay off spool The pay off spool had an adjustable friction brake to tension the ribbon. The core was then annealed in an inert atmosphere with a magnetic field applied in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.

The B/H loop measured with the core damped showed an increase in the exciting current at the peak flux dens: / but little change in loop area.

4.2

CORE LOSS AND EXCITING VA

4S

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND EXCITING VA

ON CORE LOSSES

The core losses and exciting VA of Metglas 260552 measured at IT at frequencies from SO-Hz to 3-kHz are listed in Table 3. Table 3 Core Loss and Exciting VA at I-T Frequency Core loss WAS 0.1 1.9 6.9 Exciting VA

Hz so 400 1000

The results given so far all relate to ambient temperature, however under normal operating conditions the core temperature will be sgnifcantly above ambient. Tabe S compares the core losses and exciting VA at ambient and at ISM the maximum recommended core temperature. As expected, both were found to decease with increasing core temperature. Table 5 Effect of Temperature on Core Loss and Exciting VA At 1-T and 1-kHz :-

VA/kg 0.1 1.98 71

298
Ambient 6.1 6.4 7.2 C 15O
Without

Care loss adhesive With adhesive 6.5 W/kg 7.8 W/kg

Temp. rise 62C 58C

Core loss W/kg Exciting VA/kg At 1-T and 3-kHz : Core low W/kg Exciting VA/kg
4.6

6.7

Ambient

150 C

32.0 332

272 28.8
RISE WITHOUT AND

Similarly at 1"T, 2-kHz: Without 15.8 W/kg adhesive With adhesive 19.6 W/kg

136C 122C the transformer by the winding with polyimide heat dissipation.

CORE TEMPERATURE WrM A HEATSINK

Method (b) was subsequently adopted for assembly in which the core was supported former. The core was protected by wrapping tape which was found to have little effect on 5.0 For high TRANSFORMER WINDINGS

The Bedding criteria for the maximum operating frequency and flux density will be the temperature rise of the core, the maximum continuous service temperature of the amorphous material must not exceed IS(PCThe temperature Lise of the test cores were measured for various operating flux densities and frequencies both without and with a heatsink being attached. The two heatsinks attached to the core yokes, each had a thermal resistance of 0-54C/W. From these temperature rise tests it is possible to predict the operating core flux density and frequency for a specified core temperature rise. A graph is shown in figure 1 from which predictions may be made for the operating frequency and flux density for various core temperature rises both without and with a heatsink. The addition of a heatsink permits a significant increase in operating flux density, for example at 3-kHz and a core temperature rise of 80'C. the operating flux density may be increased from 0.5-T to 0.9-T. 4.7 CORE PROTECTION POSTANNEAL

frequency and high current transformers, the multistrand Litz type of conductor could be used to limit the eddy current losses in the windings. At hequendes of up to 3-kHz, the copper foil type of winding Is likely to be a feasible alternative, offering the benefits of a higher winding space factor, better heat dissipation and simplified winding manufacture. The foil type of winding was therefore chosen. The method of core support and winding assembly used is illustrated in figure 2. A comprehensive analysis of the foil windings has been carried out and will be the subject of a future publication.

6A

CONMUSiONS

The amorphous metal cores after annealing were slightly flexible and prone to Baking. The method of assembly of the core and winding needs careful consideration particularly with regard to cooling provisions and any mechanical stress placed on the core. Essentially there are two methods of assembly (a) the conventional arrangement whereby the core supports the windings or (b) the winding formers support both the core and the windings. For method (a) the core could be wrapped in fibreglass tape and then coated with a amble epoxy to provide a suitable foundation for the windings. However, such a coating would inhibit heat dissipation and the use of a low viscosity anaerobic adhesive was tried as an alternative. The adhesive was allowed to wick in between the ribbon layers and after curing a very rigid core was formed. The measured core loss and exciting VA were both found to increase, the results are given in Table 6. The increases may be attributed to the mechanical stresses set up in the ribbon by the interaction of the adhesive between the ribbon layers. These stresses would be further enhanced by any changes in the core temperature. Table 6 Effect of Adhesive on Core Loss and Exciting VA Without With

The advantages of using amorphous metal for the cores of medium frequency power transformers has been proved with regard to the reduction in size and weight when compared For the transformer built, an with silicon steel types. operating frequency of 3-kHz and a flux density of 1-T was about the limit for acceptable core loss and temperature rise using Metgias 26055.2 Lower temperatures could have been obtained by further attention to the cooling provided or by the use of Metglas 2605S-3A. The winding formers provide the main support structure of the transformer, leaving the core mechanically unstressed. Both the winding of the uncut core and the assembly of the foil windings by winding through the core window, posed few problems. The rigid core produced by the application of a low viscosity adhesive deserves further evaluation despite its higher losses. This core requires oJnimal external protection and the windings may be supported by the core on less substantial formers. ACIQJOWLEDCEMENTS The research was supported by a SERC Cooperative grant with NEI Controls of Gateshead. In addition the authors also wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance of BBH Coils of Bishop Auckland and the facilities provided by the Electronic and Electrical Engineering Departments of the Universities of Salford and Northumberland.

Core loss at 1-T/1-kl-iz Core loss at 1-T/3-kHz Exciting VA at 1-T/1-kHz Exciting VA at 1-T/3-kHz

adhesive

adhesive

6.9 W/kg 32.0 W/kg 72 VA/kg 332 VA/kg

85 W/kg 383 W/kg 12.2VA/kg 48.7VA/kg

Despite the Lxieased low the core was found to dissipate its meat more efficiently. For example, the core loss and temperature rise measured on the same core before and after applying adhesive at 1-T, 1-kHz were: -

299

i
Fig, 1

tnour

ne t sin:

rn heatsint

bO*l

"requency,

kH

Core

temperature

rose

shield

aluminium edge clamps ed and

Tufnol spacers 9.5mm, gtued to former 10off

7.5.3mm t approx 5mm

Fq_

Cross-se_non

cf Leg.

APPENDIXES

Appendix Appendix

I II

Specification Core and losses amorphous of

of and

AC power exciting

analyser VA of

PM 1000 silicon-iron

301

Metgias on B/H loop of

303 amorphous 314

Appendix

III

Effect Metglas

temperature 2605-S2 of area loops sensitivity of

Appendix Appendix Appendix

IV V VI

Calculation AC hysteresis Core with loss

hysteresis

loops

327 331

of

amorphous

Metglas 341

pressure

APPENDIX

Specification

of

AC power

analyser

PM 1000

Appendix

I
3 02

Range
Voltage Frequency range

2V to
DC and

700V
5Hz

rms
to 20kHz

Accuracy

5Hz to

1kHz

0.25%

of

reading

235C Sine Wave 1kHz to

Input Range Current Frequency
(Ama)

20kHz

0.40
8MQ 20mA to

of

reading

Impedance

20A rms 5Hz to 20kHz

range

DC and

5Hz to 1kHz Accuracy 23 5 C Sine Wave 1kHz to 20kHz

Input Range Power Frequency
(W)

0.5% of 0.8% of
0.0552 max circuit 40mal to

reading reading
inc. fuse

Resistance

14kW 5Hz to 20kHz

range 1kHz

DC and PF 1.0 PF 0.3

Accuracy 5Hz to 23 5C Sine Wave

to 0.3 0.75% Y 1.5% to )--70'-.

1kHz to
Apparent Power (VA) Range Frequency Accuracy 23 5C Sine Wave range 5Hz to 1kHz to

20kHz

PF 1.0

to

0.1
14kVA

1.5% of
VA

40mVA to DC and 1kHz 20kHz 0.75% 1.2%

5Hz to of of

20kHz

reading reading

Power
Factor (PF) AC Supply
Frequency (FREQ)

Range
Accuracy 23 5C Sine Wave Range Accuracy 5Hz to 1kHz to 1kHz 20kHz

0.000

to

1.000
of reading reading

0.75% 1.2% 5Hz to 0.2%

of

20kHz of reading

Harmonic Analysis (HARM)

RMS Current Harmonic

Range Freq. Range

20ma to 5Hz to 0.8% 0.8%

20A rms 20kHz of of readings readings 2mA 5mA

Accuracy AC Components 23 5C DC Component

Table

A. i

Specification

of

AC power

analyser

PM 1000

APPENDIX

II

Core

losses

and and

exciting amorphous

VA of Metglas

silicon-iron

304

PT Bm"` V. Ipri. Total Core (T) (V) 1.07 2.02 3.04 4.09 5.07 6.08 7.08 8.09 9.11 10.11
11.14

Core Loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power

loss (W) (W/kg) 0.011 0.040 0.090 0.149 0.212 0.281 0.357 0.445 0.544 0.650
0.778

(A) 0.326 0.435 0.508 0.566 0.608 0.654 0.695 0.748 0.801 0.863
0.940

(VA) 0.354 0.883 1.54 2.32 3.10 3.97 4.92 6.04 7.31 8.68
10.45

(VA/kg) 0.035 0.089 0.155 0.234 0.313 0.401 0.496 0.610 0.738 0.876
1.055

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
1.10

0.114 0.403 0.892 1.48 2.10 2.79 3.54 4.41 5.39 6.44
7.71

1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50

12.15 13.16 14.14 15.21

1.045 1.176 1.38 1.71

9.15 10.81 12.83 15.34

0.924 1.09 1.29 1.46

12.66 15.54 19.58 25.90

1.27 1.57 1.97 2.61

Table

A. 2

Total
of 3t

and per
silicon

kg core
iron at

loss
50 Hz.

and exciting

power

305

PT

Core Loss
loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power

Bmx

V..

Ip,;.

Total Core

(T)

(V)

(A)

(W)

(W/kg)

(VA)

(VA/kg)

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20

8.10 16.21 24.30 32.47 40.60 48.60 56.70 64.90 72.95 80.10 89.10 97.23

0.541 0.662 0.708 0.753 0.785 0.825 0.864 0.908 0.952 0.998 1.067 1.169

1.97 6.78 12.11 18.16 24.35 31.28 38.81 47.14 55.96 64.70 77.21 91.70

0.198 0.684 1.22 1.83 2.49 3.159 3.92 4.76 5.65 6.53 7.79 9.26

4.40 10.78 17.20 24.46 31.89 40.13 49.00 59.00 69.48 79.93 95.06 113.67

0.44 1.08 1.73 2.47 3.22 4.05 4.94 5.95 7.01 8.07 9.60 11.48

Table

A. 3

Total of

and

per

kg iron

core at

loss 400

and Hz.

exciting

power

3% silicon

306

PT Bnm V. IPri, Total Core (T) 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 (V) 18.25 36.50 54.67 72.76 91.20 109.4 127.8 145.8 164.1 182.4 200.6 219.8 (A) 0.685 0.791 0.866 0.918 0.972 1.033 1.070 1.136 1.20 1.28 1.357 1.47 5.11 17.39 32.60 49.20 68.19 89.17 110.9 136.0 164.2 196.0 229.0 273.0 loss (W)

Core Loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power

(W/kg) 0.516 1.75 3.29 4.96 6.88 9.00 11.20 13.73 16.58 19.79 23.13 27.57

(VA) 12.49 28.82 47.30 66.91 88.77 112.70 137.26 165.52 196.90 233.20 271.4 326.1

(VA/kg) 1.26 2.91 4.77 6.75 8.96 11.38 13.86 16.71 19.88 23.55 27.41 32.93

Table

A. 4

Total of

and

per

kg iron

core at

loss 1000

and Hz.

exciting

power

3%-silicon

307

PT Bmx V. Iprt Total Core (T) 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40

0.50

Core
Loss

Exciting
Power

Exciting
Power

loss (W) (W/kg) 0.814 3.06 6.34 10.27

14.91

(V) 18.34 36.45 54.81 72.90

91.20

(A) 1.16 1.50 1.74 1.93

2.10

(VA) 21.29 54.56 95.16 140.59

191.70

(VA/kg) 2.15 5.51 9.61 14.20

19.36

8.06 30.32 62.77 101.77

147.70

0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20

109.34 127.70 145.90 164.20 182.22 201.00 219.60

2.26 2.42 2.55 2.71 2.87 3.09 3.31

197.8 256.50 315.0 385.0 451.3 536.2 617.3

19.97 25.90 31.81 38.88 45.58 54.16 62.35

247.40 309.20 372.10 447.00 521.10 623.30 727.00

24.98 31.23 37.58 45.15 52.63 62.95 73.43

Table

A. 5

Total of

and

per

kg iron

core at

loss 2000

and Hz.

exciting

power

3'6 silicon

308

PT B V.. Ipli_ Total Core (T) 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 (V) 21.41 42.70 63.76 85.08 106.4 127.8 149.0 170.4 191.6 212.7 (A) 1.19 1'. 84 2.32 2.70 3.02 3.31 3.56 3.72 3.84 4.03 loss (W) 12.30 49.00 104.81 175.90 256.2 348.3 447.3 548.1 644.4 752.3

Core Loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power

(W/kg) 1.24 4.94 10.58 17.76 25.87 35.18 45.18 55.36 65.09 75.98

(VA) 25.61 78.51 148.26 230.0 321.0 425.0 529.6 632.8 735.2 858.0

(VA/kg) 2.58 7.93 14.97 23.23 32.42 42.92 53.49 63.91 74.26 86.66

Table

A. 6

Total
of

and per

kg core
iron at

loss
3000

and exciting
Hz.

power

3% silicon

309

PT Bmx V.. Ipri. Total Core (T) 0.31 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.81 0.92 1.0 1.13 1.22 1.3 1.4 (V) 0.71 0.9 1.12 1.37 1.58 1.83 2.08 2.27 2.55 2.76 2.92 3.16 (A) 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.36 0.40 (W) 0.085 0.125 0.177 0.246 0.306 0.395 0.499 0.582 0.721 0.842 0.936 1.10 loss

Core
Loss

Exciting
Power

Exciting
Power

(W/kg) 0.014 0.021 0.029 0.041 0.051 0.066 0.083 0.097 0.121 0.141 0.157 0.184

(VA) 0.09 0.132 0.183 0.257 0.320 0.414 0.533 0.625 0.784 0.943 1.06 1.29

(VA/kg) 0.015 0.022 0.03 0.043 0.053 0.069 0.089 0.105 0.131 0.158 0.178 0.216

Table

A. 7

Total in core

and

per

kg

core from core

loss

and

exciting material

power, type

assembled 2605-S2

amorphous 50Hz.

Metglas

No. 3 at

310

PT Bm" V.. Ipry. Total Core (T) 0.194 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 (V) 3.6 5.42 7.20 9.02 10.80 12.6 14.5 16.21 18.0 19.82 21.78 23.45 25.11 (A) 0.25 0.32 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.52 0.57 0.61 0.65 0.70 0.76 0.82 0.92 loss 0.86 1.72 2.70 3.87 5.07 6.40 7.94 9.57 11.28 13.08 15.43 17.55 20.00 (W)

Core Loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power

(W/kg) 0.14 0.28 0.45 0.65 0.85 1.07 1.33 1.60 1.89 2.19 2.59 2.94 3.36

(VA) 0.89 1.77 2.77 4.00 5.24 6.63 8.20 9.98 11.82 13.83 16.67 19.38 23.00

(VA/kg) 0.15 0.29 0.46 0.67 0.88 1.11 1.37 1.67 1.98 2.32 2.80 3.25 3.86

Table

A. 8

Total

and

per

kg

core

loss

and

exciting

power,

in

core

assembled
2605-S2

from
core

amorphous
at

material

type

Metglas

No-3

400Hz.

311

PT Bmx V. Ip,;, Total Core (T) 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
0.70

Core
Loss loss (W/kg) 0.611 1.154 1.763 2.448 3.191
4.018

Exciting
Power

Exciting
Power

(V) 9.13 13.64 18.08 22.51 27.0

31.63

(A) 0.41 0.515 0.592 0.657 0.715

0.772

(W) 3.64 6.87 10.49 14.57 18.99

23.91

(VA) 3.74 7.04 10.70 14.80 19.45

24.48

(VA/kg) 0.628 1.183 1.798 2.487 3.268

4.114

0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30

36.0 40.40 45.28 49.50 54.12 58.30

0.826 0.880 0.947 1.01 1.10 1.21

29.08 34.50 41.15 47.26 54.57 62.00

4.887 5.798 6.915 7.942 9.171 10.42

29.78 35.46 43.00 50.00 59.72 70.56

5.00 5.959 7.226 8.403 10.036 11.858

Table

A. 9

Total

and

per

kg

core

loss

and

exciting

power,

in

core

assembled
2605-S2

from
core

amorphous
1000

material
Hz.

Type

Metglas

No. 3 at

312

PT Bnm V. Ipri_ Total Core (T) 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 (V) 18.10 27.18 36.02 45.04 54.10 63.10 72.20 81.27 90.07 99.30 108.2 (A) 0.594 0.727 0.814 0.888 0.958 1.02 1.09 1.17 1.24 1.32 1.42 (W) 10.49 19.40 28.68 39.00 50.40 63.14 77.26 92.30 108.20 125.16 143.80 loss

Core Loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power (VA/kg)

(W/kg) 1.76 3.26 4.82 6.55 8.47 10.61 12.98 15.51 18.18 21.03 24.18

(VA) 10.79 19.76 29.33 39.88 51.87 64.94 79.46 95.20 112.30 131.54 153.50 1.81 3.32 4.92 6.70 8.71 10.91 13.35 16.00 18.87 22.10 25.79

Table

A. 10

Total in

and

per

kg core

core from core

loss

and

exciting material Hz.

power, type

assembled

amorphous 2000

Metglas

2605-S2

No. 3 at

313

PT Bn,, x V. IPri. Total Core (T) 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 (V) 27.10 40.65 54.20 67.84 81.20 94.60 108.2 121.9 132.2 148.6 162.5 (A) 0.753 0.874 0.973 1.070 1.155 1.220 1.30 1.38 1.463 1.56 1.676 (W) 19.59 34.27 51.13 71.28 92.46 113.47 138.0 163.8 190.5 220.4 252.8 loss

Core Loss

Exciting Power

Exciting Power

(W/kg) 3.29 5.75 8.59 11.97 15.53 19.07 23.19 27.52 32.01 37.04 42.48

(VA) 20.4 35.63 52.7 72.76 93.64 115.83 140.42 167.56 197.40 231.40 272.90

(VA/kg) 3.42 5.98 8.85 12.22 15.73 19.46 23.6 28.16 33.17 38.89 45.86

Table

A. 11

Total in core

and

per

kg

core from

loss

and

exciting material

power, type

assembled core

amorphous 3000Hz.

2605-S2

No. 3 at

APPENDIX

III

Effect

of

temperature

on B/H

loop

of

amorphous

Metglas

2605-S2

315

In
1

I-

x
LO

aE_
2

a
1 U 0

u E
to c
N 4_

W CL

LL
C

E c
,4w 0 3

Co) 4w
tu

N
C a,

to

w 00

Cc to H c
C

a o o -c 4) 2 m

O
T

Q _a, U.

U
C

a,

la 2

I co 60c;

it

ry 6

I_ a

In
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APPENDIX

IV

Calculation

of

area

of

hysteresis

loops

Appendix

IV

Calculation

of

Area

of

Hysteresis

loops

Using

a Bitpad

digitiser

to

obtain

(x, y)

co-ordnates

of

various
was of Fig.

points

around
using see

the

curve.

The area
programme

within
based on

the

curve

calculated the A. 13 areas

a Fortran page 330

summation shown in

Area

of

polygon

Pz

Pn

Fig.

A. 13

Polygon, hysteresis

using loops.

for

calculating

the

area

of

the

Number diagram. areas of The

the area

vertices of the formed

anti-clock polygan, as g,

wise is that the is,

as

shown

in of

the the

summation

triangles

P1P. P;,;

329

g=

at

(A.

1)

where Thus,

ai

is

the

area

of

triangle

P1P1Pii1

g=2E

[y1

(Xj+1

x1)

+ Yj

(Xi

Xj+1)

+ Yj-i

(Xi

Xi)

(A. 2)

330

C C C C C C C C C Co C Co C C C C C C

by a set Program to find the area enclosed (x, y) co-ordinates. The (x, y) values must in which they are taken from the the order it in an anti-clockwise direction... around X1 X2 Y1 Y2 (X2, (X3, Xn Yn X5, (X4, Note that the The last point Y4) o follow points (Xn, Yn) must y(1000), fname Y2) o o

of points, given in be in a file, in curve, going o (Xl, Y1)

Y3)

(Xn, Y5)

Yn)

each other around not be a duplicate area

the of

curve. the first

real x(1000), i integer character*80

(*, *) 'Please type name of data write fname (*, ' (a)') read status='old', open (file=fname, unit=5, do1i=1,1000

file: err=4)

'

read n=i
1 2 3 continue area
do 3i=2,

(5,

*,

end=2)

x(i),

y(i)

0.0 =
n-1

area 1 1+ write stop write end

= area

+ 0.5

(y(i) ) * (x(1) x(i+i) (x(i) ) * y(1) x(i+l) -* (x(i) y(i+l) - X(1))) 'Area of enclosed data file' figure is', area

(*, (*,

'(a, *)

G12.4)') 'Could not

open your

APPENDIX

AC hysteresis

loops

Appendix

V
332

cbi

Fig.

A. 1 4

AC

hysteresis

loops

of

Metyla5

2'oUt-

()

5U

Hz; 3000

(b)

400

Hz;

(c)

1000

Hz;

(d)

2000

Hz and

(e)

Hz at

B, =1T.

333

[C

Idi

334

(e)

335

(a)

(b)

Fig.

A. 15

AC Hz; (e)

hysteresis (b) 3000 400 Hz Hz; at

loops (c)

of 1000

Metgic, Hz;

s (d) 2000

(u) Hz and

B, =1T. n,

336

(c)

(d)

337

(e )

338

(a)

(b)

Fig.

A. 16

AC

hysteresis

loops

of

silicon-icon

(, 1)

H)

(i:,-

1.6

T;

(b)

400

Hz

1 T;

(c)

1000

Hz

0.8

T;

(d)

2000

Hz

0.6

T and

(e)

3000

Hz 0.4

T.

339

(c)

(d)

340

t:

APPENDIX

VI

Core

loss

sensitivity

of

amorphous

Metglas

with

pressure

342

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