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Relationship between the personal values and shopping orientation of Chinese consumers
Susan H.C. Tai
Department of Management and Marketing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Abstract
Purpose As the market of Greater China is becoming increasingly important for multinationals, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between the personal values and shopping orientation of working adults in Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach The total sample of 454 included adult working Chinese from Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong. Factor analysis was performed to identify separately the shopping orientations and dimensions of the personal values of the subjects. ANOVA analysis was then used to examine the differences among the subjects in terms of their shopping orientation and personal values. Lastly, correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships between dimensions of personal values and shopping orientations. Findings As expected, the results showed that Chinese consumers in Greater China shared similar personal values, but differences were found in their shopping orientation. Significant relationships were found between dimensions of personal values and the eight shopping orientations. Among the dimensions of personal values, self-actualization played a major role in six of the eight shopping orientations, with shopping gender roles and economic shopping being the exceptions. Personalized shopping, advertised specials, and shopping for self-satisfaction were found to be the three major shopping orientations that were closely related to personal values. Shopping gender roles and economic shopping were found to be unrelated to any personal values as they reflect individual shortterm goals rather than long-term values. Research limitations/implications The Shanghai data were collected using judgment sampling as there are regulations that restrict the distribution of questionnaires in public streets in mainland China, whereas the Taipei and Hong Kong data were collected using random sampling. Different collection methods in the sampling process may have led to a problem regarding the representativeness of the sample. Practical implications Among the dimensions of personal values, self-actualization played a major role in shopping orientation. The self-actualization needs of consumers could be achieved through smart shopping and bargain hunting, but also through personalized shopping and shopping satisfaction. Because consumer shopping satisfaction is generally not high in Greater China, improvements could be made to enhance shopping satisfaction by providing a shopping environment that enables consumers to demonstrate their intellectual thinking and that meets their self-actualization needs. Personalized shopping is also important for Chinese consumers who prefer closer personal relationships with salespersons. Originality/value Various studies have focused on the classification of the shopping orientations of consumers from different perspectives, but few studies have investigated the influence of personal values on shopping orientation, especially in the Greater China market. Keywords Consumer behavior, China, Social values, Individual psychology Paper type Research paper

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Received May 2007 Revised November 2007 Accepted November 2007

Introduction Personal values are widely acknowledged as the underlying determinants of consumer attitudes and behavior (Homer and Kahle, 1988). The term personal values is used to reflect the belief that values are being measured at the individual level (Hanna, 1980). As individuals possess fewer personal values than attitudes, the personal-value

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concept is a more parsimonious way of describing and explaining the similarities and differences among individuals, groups, or cultures (Rokeach, 1968). Shopping is one avenue by which people affirm themselves, and has become an expression of personal values (Michon and Chebat, 2004). As a result of the close linkage between culture, values, and consumer behavior, the psychographic examination of shopping orientation is a good way to understand shopping behavior. Various studies have focused on the classification of the shopping orientations of consumers from different perspectives, but few studies have investigated the relationship between personal values and shopping orientation. According to Mercers annual worldwide cost of living rankings 2005/2006, Hong Kong, Taipei, and Shanghai were ranked ninth, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth, respectively, among the worlds most expensive cities (China Daily, 2005). The survey covered 144 cities, and compared the cost over 200 items in each location. In just a short time, Shanghai has successfully reshaped itself from a traditional manufacturing-based city to an internationally oriented economic center. Consumers in Shanghai have always been noted for their sophistication, sense of fashion, and willingness to spend. In fact, they have the greatest purchasing motivation and ability among consumers in cities in China. The understanding about the consumers in Shanghai is valuable to marketers who want to explore the China market. Taipei has been transformed into the home of the worlds best-known luxury and international goods, whereas Hong Kong, an established cosmopolitan city, is evolving toward becoming a first-class world city. Hong Kong is also of strategic importance as a launching point for both local and foreign firms into the market in mainland China. As the Greater China market is becoming important for multinationals, investigating the relationship between the personal values and shopping orientation of working adults in Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong is of practical value. Characteristics of modern chinese consumers It has been found that shopping is not a favored leisure activity for large segments of the Chinese population. According to a survey, 48 per cent of Chinese women said they disliked shopping, whereas only 30 per cent of American women said they disliked shopping. The percentage of Chinese men who said they disliked shopping was 63 per cent, putting them roughly on a par with American men. However, modern Chinese consumers are becoming more sophisticated and increasingly put quality before price. In the survey, the middle-income group said the top three factors in choosing a product were trust in the quality of the brand, a positive impact on health, and the considerate treatment of the customer by the salesperson: a fair price was ranked only fifth. In another survey, quality, service, and variety were found to be the top three factors in choosing a shopping destination, with value coming in fifth (Wall Street Journal, 2004). Differences were observed among consumers in Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong in terms of their personal values and shopping behavior. Generally, Shanghai consumers prefer foreign goods, and they are among Chinas most brand-conscious consumers. Young Shanghaiese are among the first to pick up on new fashions and trends from Japan, Korea, and Hong Kong (Media Asia, 2005). Taipei consumers exhibit a down-to-earth attitude that is almost folksy, and the focus of life is the family. According to a survey by ACNielsen, more than 90 per cent of Taipei citizens said they were satisfied with family life, with almost as many saying they spend more on their family than they do on themselves (Media Asia, 2005). Hong Kong people are more business and money minded, and increasingly they are looking for brands and products that reflect their personality (Media Asia, 2000). According to a survey

conducted by Mindshare Hong Kong 3D (Media Asia, 2005), among the three cities, Hong Kong consumers are the most money conscious but are less concerned with political affairs, Taipei consumers spend money more generously, and Shanghai consumers would like more time to make money. Literature review Personal values and their measurement Rokeach (1968, 1973) defined a personal value as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Personal values are generally accepted as a major influence on human behavior and consumption patterns (Keng and Yang, 1993), and are used as a tool for marketing segmentation (Vinson and Scott, 1977; Schiffman et al., 2003). Past studies have suggested that personal values are useful in understanding behavior as complex as the selection of a particular brand within a product class category (Pitts and Woodside, 1983). It is importance for marketers to grasp the cultural connections evoked by a brand and match them more strongly with the personal values of the target audience (Miller, 1999). Most research examining the influence of personal values on marketing and consumer behavior is based on the conceptual and measurement contributions of Rokeach (1968, 1973). Rokeach developed a list of 18 instrumental values and a list of 18 terminal values, which are summarized in the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) that has been used in many studies (Bond, 1988; Hofstede and Bond, 1984; Ng et al., 1982) to identify values. Terminal values are single beliefs that some end-state of existence is personally and socially worth striving for (e.g. leading an exciting life, family security, or pleasure), that is, values that serve as long-term goals in life. Instrumental values relate to modes of conduct and represent single beliefs that are personally and socially preferable in all situations with respect to all objects (e.g. ambition, independence, or self control), that is, values that serve as guiding principles in day-to-day activities. The wide use of the RVS is due to the instruments validity and reliability for consumer research (Valencia, 1989; Beatty et al., 1985). The RVS measure has also been applied successfully across a wide range of cultures (Rokeach, 1979; Valette-Florence and Jolibert, 1990). Therefore, the RVS measure is employed in this study. Shopping orientation and its measurement Shopping orientation has been defined as a shopping lifestyle and is used to predict consumer behavior (Valencia, 1982; Ownbey, 1991). Sproles and Kendall (1986) developed a consumer style inventory (CSI) based on the assumption that shopping behavior can be explained by eight central shopping orientations that influence a consumers shopping behavior: perfectionistic/high-quality conscious, brand conscious, novelty/fashion conscious, price/value conscious, recreational/hedonistic, impulsive/careless, overwhelmed by information, and habitual or brand/store loyal. Many studies have investigated shopping orientation and resulting shopping types across different cultures (Moye and Kincade, 2002; Michon and Chebat, 2004). A modified seven-factor model for Chinese consumers was tested by Fan and Xiao (1998), but only five shopping orientations were found to be valid, including brand, time, quality, price conscious, and overwhelmed by information. The application of the CSI in a Chinese context was further refined and validated by the findings of Hiu et al. (2001), which resulted in an instrument that includes seven shopping orientations. Ten shopping orientations relevant to Chinese working women were identified by Tai

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(2005), and four new orientations were distinguished that are not found in the CSI, including personal style conscious, environment/health conscious, reliance on mass media, and convenience/time conscious. The items related to the shopping orientations used in this study are based on the CSI and extracted from Ownbey (1991). Questionnaire design The questionnaire for the study consisted of four sections: shopping orientations, terminal values (values as long-term goals), instrumental values (values as guiding principles), and personal information. The English and Chinese versions were presented together in one questionnaire to ensure the understanding of the intent of the items by those who could read both English and Chinese. Part one of the questionnaire consisted of 45 statements related to 11 shopping orientations, including impulse shopping, shopping self-confidence, shopping gender roles, brand-loyal shopping, shopping center enthusiasm, economic shopping, personalized shopping, shopping interest, patronage loyalty, shopping opinion leadership, advertised-special shopping, and fashion conscious (Ownbey, 1991). Parts two and three consisted of the 18 terminal values that serve as long-term goals in life and 18 instrumental values that serve as guiding principles in day-to-day activities, respectively (Rokeach, 1968, 1973). For greater ease of administration, the questionnaire for this study incorporated a 5-point Likert rating scale instead of the 7-point ranking scale of the original RVS. Researchbased data indicate that both the rating and ranking scales are reliable and valid (Moore, 1975; Rankin and Grube, 1980). In addition, Moore (1975) recommended the rating version of the RVS for group description purposes. Data collection The sample for the study was selected from adult working Chinese from Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong in 2004. Five hundred questionnaires with stamped return envelopes were distributed randomly through personal distribution in central districts in Taipei and Hong Kong. The respondents returned the questionnaires by mail. The sample in Shanghai was collected through personal interviews using judgment sampling. The total number of questionnaires returned was 454: 201 from Shanghai, 107 from Taipei, and 146 from Hong Kong. The response rate of Taipei was 21.4 per cent and that of Hong Kong was 29.2 per cent. The response rates were high because the respondents could return the questionnaire in the stamped return envelopes. Also, some people declined to fill out the questionnaire if they had no intention of returning it. The demographic profile of the respondents is listed in Table I. White collar workers made up the majority of the respondents in the three markets, constituting 31.7 per cent of respondents in Shanghai, 34.5 per cent in Taipei, and 46.2 per cent in Hong Kong. The income level of the Shanghai respondents was evenly distributed from high to low among different income levels. The average income of the majority (48.5 per cent) of the Taipei respondents was at the top level, whereas the average income of the majority (58.2 per cent) of the Hong Kong respondents was at the median level. The majority of the respondents were aged between 18 and 30, constituting 77 per cent of respondents in Shanghai, 70.1 per cent in Taipei, and 73.3 per cent in Hong Kong. Concerning education level, 80.2 per cent of Shanghai respondents and 79.5 per cent of Taipei respondents had university level education, whereas only 43.8 per cent of Hong Kong respondents had university level education. The majority of the respondents in Shanghai (65.1 per cent), Taipei (72.9 per cent), and Hong Kong (76.7 per cent) were single, while the distribution of gender tended toward women, who constituted 51.3 per cent of respondents in Shanghai, 54.2 per cent in Taipei, and 58.2 per cent in Hong Kong.

384

Characteristics Occupation (%) Blue collar White collar Managerial Technical Professional Other Monthly income (%) Under rmb 10,000 Under Taiwan$ 2,500 Under HK$ 10,000 Rmb 10,001-15,000 Taiwan$ 2,501-5,000 HK$ 10,001-20,000 Rmb 15,001-20,000 Taiwan$ 5001-7,500 HK$ 20,001-30,000 Rmb 20,001-25,000 Taiwan$ 7,501-10,000 HK$ 30,001-40,000 Over rmb 25,000 Over Taiwan$ 10,000 Over HK$ 40,000 Age (%) 18-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 Over 40 Education level (%) High school or below University Postgraduate or above Marital status (%) Single Married Sex (%) Male Female

Shanghai (n 201)

Taipei (n 107)

Hong Kong (n 146)

Total (n 454)

Personal values and shopping orientation 385

3.0 31.7 18.6 12.1 19.6 15.1 24.6

5.7 34.5 12.6 6.9 13.8 26.4

1.4 46.2 10.5 8.4 25.2 8.4

3 38 14 9 20 16

17.2 17.7 17.8 17.2 58.2 23.0 7.1 19.1 27.2 10.1 4.3 7.3 48.5 0.7 41.5 35.5 11.5 4.0 7.5 19.8 76.6 3.6 65.1 34.9 48.7 51.3 55.1 15.0 9.3 6.5 14.0 10.5 55.2 34.3 72.9 27.1 45.8 54.2 30.1 43.2 15.1 6.2 5.5 56.2 40.4 3.4 76.7 23.3 41.8 58.2 41 33 12 5 9 29 60 11 71 29 46 54

Table I.
Demographic profile

Research findings Factor analysis of shopping orientations Principal component factor analysis was performed to identify the underlying dimensions of shopping orientation. Varimax rotation was also performed to facilitate the interpretation of each factor. A scree test and eigenvalues >1.00 were used as the criteria

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for the extraction of factors. Items that loaded heavily on more than one factor or that had low correlations with other items were dropped. In total, 19 items from the questionnaire were dropped. The remaining 26 shopping orientation variables were loaded heavily on one of the identified factors, with factor loadings greater than 0.50 and ranging from 0.5086 to 0.8077. Eight factors with eigenvalues greater than unity were generated and accounted for 63.13 per cent of the total variance. Cronbachs alpha coefficient was used to assess the internal consistency among the set of items on each factor. The coefficients ranged from 0.568 to 0.877, which is considered modest and acceptable for an exploratory study (Nunnally, 1978). The results of factor and reliability analyses and the mean of each group that agreed with the statements are listed in Table II. Shopping orientation of Chinese consumers in Greater China The average score of the eight shopping orientations of respondents ranged from 2.51 to 3.26 on the five-point Likert scale (Table II), which indicates that generally, respondents had moderate scores in all shopping orientations. The ANOVA results show that significant differences exist among Chinese consumers in Greater China. Except for shopping self-satisfaction, the region of the consumers surveyed significantly influenced their responses to shopping orientations, such as personalizing personalized shopping, shopping interest, shopping gender roles, advertised-special shopping, and economic shopping (Table II). Shopping self-satisfaction. Shopping self-satisfaction involves the degree of satisfaction the consumer has with respect to product and store selection. In general, respondents had a medium score in shopping self-satisfaction (overall mean 2.96), and no significant difference was found among the respondents in the three markets. They paid moderate attention to current fashion trends, had a moderately up-to-date wardrobe, and obtained only a mild psychological lift from shopping, which shows that Chinese consumers could be more excited by shopping. This finding is similar to that of the survey reported by the Wall Street Journal (2004), that is, that shopping is not a favored leisure activity for large segments of the Chinese population. Personalized shopping. The personalized shopper is interested in having an interpersonal relationship with store personnel, which leads to product and store selections (Valencia, 1982). On average, respondents were not interested in personalized shopping (overall mean 2.74), but significant differences were found among them. Consumers in Taipei preferred more personalized shopping, followed by consumers in Shanghai and Hong Kong. Taipei consumers especially liked to shop where the clerks and salespeople knew their names, and were more likely to communicate with salesclerks; Hong Kong consumers were more likely to shop on their own, without much socialization with salesclerks; and Shanghai consumers were somewhere between these two positions. Shopping interest. Shopping interest refers to a persons interest in shopping in any store, and shopping lifestyle indicates a persons tendency to view shopping as an interesting experience outside the home (Valencia, 1982). Respondents showed only average shopping interest (overall mean 3.26), but significant differences were found among consumers in the different markets. Taipei consumers ranked shopping centers are fun places to visit (mean 3.70) and I am interested in shopping (mean = 3.6) very highly, followed by Hong Kong consumers. Consumers in both Hong Kong and Taipei tended to agree that shopping is fun anywhere, whereas consumers in Shanghai tended to disagree with this statement.

Shopping orientations (mean) Shopping self-satisfaction ( 0.8077) I think I am a good shopper I am very informed about current clothing and fashion trends I think I am a better shopper than most people In general, I think I am an experienced shopper I keep my wardrobe up-to-date with current fashions I get a psychological lift from shopping Personalizing shopping ( 0.7915) I like to shop where the clerks know me by name* I like to shop in a store where salespeople know me* I try to know the clerks in the stores where I shop I often like to talk to salespeople in the stores I visit* Shopping interest ( 0.7624) Shopping centers are fun places to visit* For me, shopping is fun anywhere* I am interested in shopping* In general, I enjoy shopping Shopping sex-roles ( 0.6799) The woman of the house should have the responsibilities for shopping* Shopping is one of a wifes major responsibilities* Shopping is a womans job Advertised-special shopping ( 0.5757) I always check the supermarket ads before shopping for groceries* I read most of the advertisements in the paper carefully I usually watch advertisements for sales* Patronage loyalty ( 0.6219) Once I find a brand I like, I stick with it Once I get used to a store, I hate to change it* Economic shopping ( 0.6508) Prices are higher at smaller stores* Shopping is too expensive in small stores* Impulse shopping ( 0.5086) I often end up buying things I had not intended to buy When in the store, I often buy items at the spur of the moment* Note: *denotes level of significant at 0.05

Shanghai Taipei Hong Kong Total (n 201) (n 107) (n 146) (n 454) Loadings 3.02 2.91 2.96 3.21 2.76 3.28 (3.02) 2.77 2.91 2.58 2.79 (2.76) 2.91 2.53 3.14 3.36 (2.99) 3.02 2.91 2.74 (2.89) 2.93 2.54 3.17 (2.88) 2.58 2.76 (2.67) 2.64 2.42 (2.53) 2.98 3.03 (3.00) 2.92 2.71 2.80 3.06 2.67 3.15 (2.90) 3.14 3.22 2.69 2.84 (2.97) 3.70 3.18 3.60 3.53 (3.50) 2.29 2.22 2.38 (2.30) 3.32 2.78 3.72 (3.27) 2.63 3.02 (2.83) 3.02 2.97 (3.00) 2.80 2.86 (2.83) 2.94 2.76 2.71 3.33 2.68 3.45 (2.98) 2.53 2.58 2.34 2.50 (2.49) 3.10 3.05 3.43 3.55 (3.28) 2.27 2.28 2.51 (2.35) 2.79 2.61 3.40 (2.93) 2.52 2.42 (2.47) 2.45 2.42 (2.44) 2.84 2.64 (2.74) 2.96 2.79 2.82 3.20 2.70 3.29 (2.96) 2.81 2.90 2.54 2.71 (2.74) 3.24 2.92 3.39 3.48 (3.26) 2.53 2.47 2.54 (2.51) 3.01 2.64 3.42 (3.03) 2.58 2.73 (2.66) 2.70 2.60 (2.65) 2.87 2.84 (2.86) 0.747 0.735 0.706 0.703 0.635 0.568

Personal values and shopping orientation 387

0.798 0.774 0.744 0.697

0.776 0.736 0.658 0.627

0.805 0.782 0.732

0.781 0.711 0.618 0.824 0.811 0.877 0.845

0.789 0.771

Table II.
Shopping orientations of Chinese consumers in Greater China

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Shopping gender roles. This measure of shopping orientation refers to the reinforcement or inhibition of shopping activity and enjoyment as a result of perceptions of the appropriateness of specific tasks being done by men or women (Valencia, 1982). Respondents had a relatively lower score in shopping gender roles (overall mean 2.51), showing that there has been a small shift in responsibility for shopping from women to men. However, consumers in Shanghai had a significantly higher score in shopping gender roles (mean 2.89) compared to that of consumers in Taipei and Hong Kong, and tended to agree that the woman of the house, particularly the wife, was responsible for shopping. Advertised-special shopping. The advertised-special shopper is responsive to retail advertisements and promotions and tends to use coupons and watch for in-store specials (Valencia, 1982). Respondents were generally neutral (overall mean 3.03) toward sales promotions. Taipei consumers paid significantly more attention to advertisements for sales and checked supermarket advertisements before shopping; Hong Kong consumers tended to watch advertisements for sales; and Shanghai consumers tended to check supermarket advertisements before shopping for groceries. This indicates that Shanghai consumers are not as price conscious as consumers in Taipei and Hong Kong. Patronage loyalty. Patronage loyalty refers to the degree to which a shopper is willing to remain loyal to existing stores or shopping centers (Valencia, 1982). In general, respondents had a relatively lower score (overall mean 2.66) in patronage loyalty. Taipei consumers were significantly more loyal to particular stores (mean 3.02) than Shanghai (mean 2.76) or Hong Kong (mean 2.42) consumers, but consumers in all three markets had similar scores in brand loyalty. The finding of the high patronage loyalty of Taipei consumers is consistent with the finding that they are more likely to shop at stores where the salespeople know their names. Economic shopping. Shoppers with an economic shopping orientation evaluate stores and products in terms of price, quality, and merchandise assortment (Valencia, 1982). Respondents were generally not price sensitive (overall mean 2.65). Consumers in Taipei significantly agreed that prices were higher at smaller stores, and that shopping at smaller stores was expensive, followed by consumers in Shanghai and Hong Kong. This finding is consistent with the finding that Taipei consumers pay more attention to advertisements for sales before shopping. Impulse shopping. Impulse shopping refers to the tendency to buy products or services on the spur of the moment without much consideration (Valencia, 1982). The results showed that respondents had neutral scores in this orientation (overall mean 2.86). Consumers in Shanghai (mean 3.03) significantly agreed that they often purchased items on the spur of the moment compared to consumers in Taipei (mean 2.86) or Hong Kong (mean 2.64). This finding is consistent with the finding that Shanghai consumers are less price conscious than consumers in Taipei and Hong Kong. Factor analysis of dimensions of personal values Principal component factor analysis was performed to identify the dimensions underlying personal values, and varimax rotation was performed to facilitate the interpretation of each factor. A scree test and eigenvalues >1.00 were used as the criteria for the extraction of factors. Items that loaded heavily on more than one factor or that had low correlations with other items were dropped. In total, six items of terminal values (values as long-term goals) from the questionnaire were dropped. The remaining 12 values variables loaded heavily on one of the identified factors, with factor loadings greater than 0.50 and ranging from 0.6017 to 0.7452. Three factors with eigenvalues greater than unity were

generated, and accounted for 55.3 per cent of the total variance. The coefficients ranged from 0.570 to 0.777. Only one item of instrumental values (values as guiding principles) was dropped. The remaining 17 variables had factor loadings ranging from 0.7085 to 0.8608. Four factors with eigenvalues greater than unity were generated, which accounted for 60.2 per cent of the total variance, and the coefficients ranged from 0.506 to 0.787. Both results are considered acceptable for an exploratory study (Nunnally, 1978). The results of factor and reliability analyses and the mean of each group that agreed with the statements are listed in Table III. Personal values of Chinese consumers in Greater China Overall, the dimensions of personal values of respondents were ranked highly, with overall means ranging from 3.86 to 4.40 on a 5-point Likert scale (Table III). The ANOVA results showed that no significant difference was found in personal values among the respondents in Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong, which indicates that the region of the consumers surveyed did not significantly affect their overall responses to either terminal or instrumental values. Terminal values (values as long-term goals) Self-expectation. There is increasing evidence that people use their emotions to guide their judgment and shape their behavior (Harber, 2005). People with high selfexpectation rely more on their emotion-related skills to establish social bonds. Respondents generally showed high self-expectation (overall mean 4.40). In particular, consumers in Shanghai had scored significantly higher in self-respect, wisdom, and social recognition, followed by consumers in Taipei and Hong Kong. All respondents had similar scores in true friendship and inner harmony. Orientation toward life. Orientation toward life, which develops within the framework of free time, privacy, and leisure activities, has come to dominate all sectors of human life (DEpinay, 1992). All respondents had a high score in orientation toward life (overall mean 4.39), and had similar scores in peace, equality, and freedom. However, Shanghai and Taipei consumers (mean of 4.39 and 4.37, respectively) had significantly higher scores in beauty than Hong Kong consumers (mean 3.97). Self-actualization. All respondents generally had high scores in self-actualization (overall mean 3.86). Taipei consumers (mean 4.29) had significantly higher scores in sense of accomplishment than consumers in Shanghai (mean 4.11) and Hong Kong (mean 3.93). Instrumental values (values as guiding principles) Self-integrity. Integrity is honesty and unity with ones self and others (Genie, 1992). In the cultural model of the self, maintaining self-integrity is not a matter of being consistent across situations, but rather a matter of fitting into the norms, rules, and expectations of particular roles and situations (Cross et al., 2003). Self-inconsistency is motivating when it threatens the perception of self-integrity (Pitts and Woodside, 1983). The respondents generally had a high score in the dimensions of self-integrity (overall mean 4.36). However, some significant differences were observed among respondents. For instance, Taipei and Hong Kong consumers (both with a mean of 4.45) had a significantly higher score in loving than Shanghai consumers (mean 4.21). Taipei consumers (mean 4.68) had a significantly higher score in responsible than consumers in Shanghai and Hong Kong (mean of 4.59 and 4.42, respectively). However,

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Values as long-term goals (mean) Self expectation ( 0.7452) Self-respect (self-esteem)* True friendship (close companionship) Wisdom (a mature understanding of life)* Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Social-recognition (respect, admiration)* Orientation toward life ( 0.7272) A word at peace (free of war and conflict) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts)* Freedom (independence, free choice) Self actualization ( 0.6017) An exciting life (a stimulating, active life). A comfortable life (a prosperous life). A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution)* Values as guiding principles (Mean) Self integrity ( 0.8608) Polite (courteous, well mannered) Loving (affectionate, tender)* Honest (sincere, truthful) Responsible (dependable, reliable)* Obedient (dutiful, respectful) Forgiving (willing to pardon others) Clean (neat, tidy)* Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful)* Self confidence ( 0.7642) Imaginative (daring, creative)* Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient)* Courageous (standing up for your beliefs) Helpful (working for the welfare of others) Intellectual thinking ( 0.7303) Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)* Logical (consistent, rational) Working ability ( 0.7085) Capable (competent, effective)* Ambitious (hard-working, aspiring)* Broad-minded (open-minded)* Note: *denotes level of significant at 0.05

Shanghai Taipei Hong Kong Total (n 201) (n 107) (n 146) (n 454) Loadings

390

4.70 4.64 4.53 4.49 4.19 (4.51) 4.49 4.30 4.39 4.54 (4.43) 3.15 4.18 4.11 (3.81)

4.51 4.62 4.50 4.50 3.94 (4.41) 4.50 4.35 4.37 4.59 (4.45) 3.37 4.26 4.29 (3.97)

4.28 4.49 4.33 4.36 3.92 (4.28) 4.43 4.18 3.97 4.55 (4.28) 3.19 4.25 3.93 (3.79)

4.50 4.58 4.45 4.45 4.02 (4.40) 4.47 4.28 4.24 4.56 (4.39) 3.24 4.23 4.11 (3.86)

0.748 0.715 0.689 0.618 0.570

0.755 0.753 0.727 0.637

0.777 0.693 0.691

4.59 4.21 4.47 4.59 3.98 4.25 4.43 4.71 (4.40) 4.20 4.55 4.08 4.20 (4.26) 4.53 4.22 (4.38) 4.46 4.34 4.52 (4.44)

4.68 4.45 4.29 4.68 4.01 4.16 4.21 4.66 (4.39) 4.26 4.36 4.10 4.32 (4.26) 4.42 4.13 (4.28) 4.17 4.11 4.49 (4.26)

4.42 4.45 4.25 4.42 3.95 4.12 4.22 4.53 (4.30) 3.81 4.23 4.00 4.12 (4.04) 4.28 4.16 (4.22) 4.33 4.20 4.29 (4.27)

4.56 4.37 4.34 4.56 3.98 4.18 4.29 4.63 (4.36) 4.09 4.38 4.06 4.21 (4.19) 4.41 4.17 (4.29) 4.32 4.22 4.43 (4.32)

0.749 0.704 0.670 0.666 0.626 0.614 0.547 0.539

0.681 0.648 0.640 0.596

0.784 0.782

Table III. Personal values of Chinese consumers in Greater China

0.787 0.652 0.506

Shanghai consumers had a significantly higher score in clean and cheerful than consumers in Taipei and Hong Kong. Self-confidence. In general, the respondents had a high level of self-confidence (overall mean 4.19). Hong Kong consumers (mean 3.81) had a significantly lower score in imaginative than consumers in Taipei and Shanghai (mean of 4.26 and 4.20, respectively). Shanghai consumers (mean = 4.55) had a significantly higher score in independence than consumers in Taipei and Hong Kong (mean of 4.36 and 4.23, respectively). Intellectual thinking. Generally, the respondents had a high score in intellectual thinking (overall mean 4.29). However, Hong Kong consumers (mean 4.28) had a significantly lower score in intellectual thinking than consumers in Shanghai and Taipei (mean of 4.53 and 4.42, respectively), which is consistent with the finding that the Hong Kong respondents had a relatively lower level of education than the Shanghai and Taipei respondents. Working ability. On average, the respondents were very strong in working ability (overall mean = 4.32). However, significant differences were found in all dimensions of working ability among the respondents. Taipei consumers had significantly lower scores in capable and ambitious than consumers in Shanghai and Hong Kong. However, Hong Kong consumers had significantly lower scores in broad-mindedness than consumers in Shanghai and Taipei. Relationships between dimensions of personal values and shopping orientations Shopping orientations including personalized shopping, advertised-special shopping, and shopping self-satisfaction were found to be significantly related in a positive direction to seven, five, and four dimensions of personal values, respectively. Shopping gender roles and economic shopping were found to be unrelated to all any personal values as they reflect individual short-term goals rather than long-term values. Selfactualization was found to be significantly related to four of the six shopping orientations, with shopping gender roles and economic shopping being the exceptions. The results of the correlations among dimensions of personal values and shopping orientations are listed in Table IV. Personalized shopping and seven dimensions of personal values Personalized shopping was found to be significantly related to all seven dimensions of personal values in a positive direction. Because Chinese consumers are found to be more dependent and family-oriented, and tend to seek social approval, it is unsurprising that they tended to prefer more personalized service from shop assistants. This finding is consistent with the finding of a past study, that is, that social affiliation value was positively related to a favorable attitude toward regional shopping malls and played a greater role in influencing attitude than did self-actualization (Shim and Eastick, 1998). Advertised-special shopping and five dimensions of personal values Advertised-special shopping was found to be significantly related in a positive direction to five personal values, including self-expectation, self-actualization, self-integrity, intellectual thinking, and working ability. The shoppers who were more attentive to advertised specials considered themselves to be smart consumers, rather than just looking for special deals. Personal values dimensions such as self-actualization and intellectual thinking could be achieved through smart shopping and bargain hunting.

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R-value (t-test) L1 L2

S1 0.136 (0.005)** 0.088 (0.066) 0.292 (0.000)** 0.80 (0.094) 046 (0.341) 0.120 (0.012)* 0.117 (0.015)*

S2

S3

S4 0.035 (0.466) 0.036 (0.449) 0.008 (0.867) 0.037 (0.434) 0.010 (0.838) 0.028 (0.558) 0.033 (0.483)

S5 0.134 (0.005)** 0.069 (0.147) 0.143 (0.002)** 0.126 (0.008)** 0.068 (0.154) 0.102 (0.031)* 0.114 (0.016)*

S6

S7

S8

392

L3 P1 P2 P3 P4

0.172 0.075 (0.000)** (0.120) 0.121 0.092 (0.011)* (0.052) 0.289 0.120 (0.000)** (0.011)* 0.136 0.049 (0.004)** (0.309) 0.209 0.031 (0.000)** (0.515) 0.114 0.029 (0.017)* (0.546) 0.193 0.037 (0.000)** (0.436)

0.024 0.032 0.062 (0.615) (0.509) (0.199) 0.059 0.060 0.069 (0.214) (0.190) (0.147) 0.101 0.010 0.095 (0.032)* (0.830) (0.045)* 0.040 0.015 0.030 (0.394) (0.745) (0.522) 0.002 0.039 0.001 (0.960) (0.418) (0.984) 0.031 0.016 0.065 (0.512) (0.740) (0.172) 0.015 0.022 0.004 (0.757) (0.644) (0.931)

Table IV. The results of the correlations of the personal vales and shopping orientations

Notes: Personal values: L1, self expectation; L2, orientation toward life; L3, self actualization; P1, self integrity; P2, self confidence; P3, intellectual thinking; P4, working ability. Shopping orientations: S1, shopping self-satisfaction; S2, personalizing shopping; S3, shopping interest; S4, shopping sex-roles; S5, advertised-special shopping; S6, patronage loyalty; S7, economic shopping; S8, impulse shopping

Shopping self-satisfaction and four personal values Consumer satisfaction could be significantly achieved through meeting ones selfexpectation, self-actualization, intellectual thinking, and working ability. As the respondents in general experienced only moderate shopping satisfaction, improvements could be made by finding out ways to satisfy their self-actualization needs. Self-actualization and shopping orientations Self-actualization was found to be significantly related to six of the eight shopping orientations, with shopping gender roles and economic shopping being the exceptions. Self-achievement could be achieved through shopping satisfaction such as finding a bargain, receiving personal attention from a salesclerk, patronage loyalty, or impulse buying. For consumers with strong terminal values for respect, self-fulfillment, and sense of accomplishment, shopping at specialty stores may be seen as a way to acquire expensive items that are congruent with their self-image. Being seen and recognized as shopping in more exclusive stores may be a means of expressing pride for a broad range of shoppers with stronger self-actualizing values. Conclusions, implications, and limitations People who share similar value systems tend to have similar perceptions and behaviors (Egri and Ralston, 2004). As expected, the results showed that Chinese consumers in Greater China share similar personal values, but great differences were found in their shopping orientation. Significant relationships were found between their personal values and shopping orientation. Among the dimensions of personal values, self-actualization was significantly related to six of the eight shopping orientations, with shopping gender roles and economic shopping being the exceptions. Personalized shopping, advertisedspecial shopping, and shopping self-satisfaction were found to be the three major shopping orientations that were closely related to personal values. Shopping gender roles

and economic shopping were found to be unrelated to any personal values as they reflect individual short-term goals rather than long-term values. Consumers who are highly coupon- and sales-prone perceive themselves to be smart shoppers and enjoy shopping to a greater extent, which suggests that they have a strong underlying ego-related dimension (Garretson and Burton, 1998), as their selfactualization needs can be achieved through smart shopping and bargain hunting. Chinese consumers seem to be price conscious, but they want to be perceived as smart consumers because of their self-actualization needs. This is further validated by the finding in this study that economic shopping was found to be unrelated to personal values. Although Taipei respondents seemed to be more price sensitive than consumers in Shanghai or Hong Kong, they also wanted to be perceived as smart consumers. Self-actualization needs could be met not only through smart shopping, but also through personalized shopping and shopping satisfaction. With a shift in consumer priorities, people begin to move away from work and materialism toward thing that matter, such as family, home, and a sense of individual identity (Bricker, 2002). Therefore, people gravitate toward stores that address their need for a greater sense of community and connectivity. Personalized shopping becomes more important when consumers feel the importance of having a personal relationship with store personnel. Because of the characteristics of the personal values of Chinese consumers, who are found to be more dependent and family-oriented and tend to seek social approval, more personalized service should be provided to them, and especially to Taipei consumers who prefer closer personal relationships with salespersons. Shopping satisfaction is the major incentive to go shopping, but the scores of the respondents in Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong did not show high shopping satisfaction. Improvements could be made to enhance the shopping satisfaction of Chinese consumers by providing a shopping environment that enables them to demonstrate their intellectual thinking and meets their self-actualization needs. Shopping satisfaction could be achieved by using different strategies tailored to the different needs of consumers in Shanghai, Taipei, and Hong Kong. For instance, respondents in Taipei and Hong Kong showed a high degree of shopping interest in this study, and therefore a higher degree of consumer involvement could be provided by applying experiential marketing. The respondents of Shanghai were found to be less price conscious and often impulse buyers, and therefore point-of-purchase communication could be more effective. The Shanghai data were collected using judgment sampling as there are regulations that restrict the distribution of questionnaires in public streets in mainland China, whereas the Taipei and Hong Kong data were collected using random sampling. Different collection methods in the sampling process may have led to a problem regarding the representativeness of the sample.
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