WELDING

Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material. Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

TYPES
Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external pressure (Ex) Resistance welding Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify (Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding Classification of welding processes: (i). Arc welding 1. Carbon arc 2. Metal arc 3. Metal inert gas 4. Tungsten inert gas 5. Plasma arc 6. Submerged arc 7. Electro-slag

(ii). Gas Welding 1. Oxy-acetylene 2. Air-acetylene 3. Oxy-hydrogen (iii). Resistance Welding 1. Butt 2. Spot 3. Seam 4. Projection 5. Percussion (iv) (v) Thermit Welding Solid State Welding 1. Friction 2. Ultrasonic 3. Diffusion 4. Explosive (vi) Newer Welding 1. Electron-beam 2. Laser (vii) Related Process 1. Oxy-acetylene cutting 2. Arc cutting 3. Hard facing 4. Brazing 5. Soldering

Arc welding methods

1. Metal arc welding It is a process of joining two metal pieces by melting the edges by an electric arc. The electric arc is produced between two conductors. The electrode is one conductor and the work piece is another conductor. The electrode and the work piece are brought nearer with small air gap. (3mm app.) When current is passed an electric arc is produced between the electrode and the work piece. The work piece and the electrode are melted by the arc. Both molten piece of metal become one. Temperature of arc is about 4000c Electrodes used in arc welding are coated with a flux. This flux produces a gaseous shield around the molten metal. It prevents the reaction of the molten metal with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. The flux removes the impurities from the molten metal and form a slag. This slag gets deposited over the weld metal. This protects the weld seam from rapid cooling. Fig.1 shows arc welding process. Equipments:(Refer Fig 2) A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.) Two cables- one for work and one for electrode Electrode holder Electrode Protective shield Gloves Wire brush Chipping hammer Goggles

Fig. 1 Arc Welding

Fig 2 Electric Arc Welding Equipments Advantages Most efficient way to join metals Lowest-cost joining method Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials Joins all commercial metals Provides design flexibility Limitations 1. Manually applied, therefore high labor cost. 2. Need high energy causing danger 3. Not convenient for disassembly. 4. Defects are hard to detect at joints. 2. Carbon arc welding In carbon arc welding, the intense of heat of an electric arc between a carbon electrode and work piece metal is used for welding. DC power supply is used. The carbon electrode is connected to negative terminal and work piece is connected to positive terminal, because positive terminal is hotter (4000c) than the negative terminal (3000c) when an arc is produced. So carbon from the electrode will not fuse and mix up with the metal weld. If carbon mixes with the weld, the weld will become weak and brittle. To protect the molten metal from the atmosphere the welding is done with a long arc. In this case, a carbon monoxide gas is produced, which surrounds the molten metal and protects it. Carbon arc welding is used to weld both ferrous and non ferrous metals. Sheets of steel, copper alloys, brass and aluminium can be welded in this method.( Refer Fig 3)

Fig 3 Carbon Arc Welding Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding Alternating Current (from 1 2 3 4 5 Transformer) More efficiency Power consumption less Cost of equipment is less Higher voltage hence not safe Not suitable for welding non ferrous Direct Current (from Generator) Less efficiency Power consumption more Cost of equipment is more Low voltage safer operation suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals preferred for welding thin sections Positive terminal connected to the work Negative terminal connected to the electrode

metals 6 Not preferred for welding thin sections 7 Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode

GAS WELDING
Oxy-Acetylene welding

In gas welding, a gas flame is used to melt the edges of metals to be joined. The flame is produced at the tip of welding torch. Oxygen and Acetylene are the gases used to produce the welding flame. The flame will only melt the metal. A flux is used during welting to prevent oxidations and to remove impurities. Metals 2mm to 50mm thick are welded by gas welding. The temperature of oxyacetylene flame is about 3200c. Fig 3 shows Gas welding equipments. Gas Welding Equipment 1. Gas Cylinders Pressure Oxygen 125 kg/cm2 Acetylene 16 kg/cm2 2. Regulators Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2 Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2 Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded. 3. Pressure Gauges 4. Hoses 5. Welding torch 6. Check valve 7. Non return valve

Fig- 4 Gas Welding Equipment TYPES OF FLAMES When acetylene is burned in air, it produces a yellow sooty flame, which is not enough for welding applications Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c) This flames are used for hardening the surfaces Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) Most commonly used flame because it has temperature about 32000c Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame Has the highest temperature about 34000c Used for welding brass and brazing operation Fig 4 shows the types of flames.

Fig 5 Types of Gas Flames Advantages 1. Equipment has versatile 2. Same equipment can be used for oxy acetylene cutting and brazing by varying the torch size 3. Heat can controlled easily Disadvantages 1. Slower process 2. Risk is involved in handling gas cylinders

GAS CUTTING
Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is projected onto the surface, which rapidly oxidizes Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are blown away by the force of the jet, to make a cut Fast and efficient method of cutting steel to a high degree of accuracy Torch is different from welding Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for oxygen jet PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the edge of the plate Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface

Fig 6 Automatic Gas Cutting

Fig 7 Manual Gas Cutting

Weld joint
There are 5 basic joint types in welding Butt joint: Two materials are in the same plane, joined from the edges. Corner joint:The corners of two materials form a right angle and joined. Lap joint: Two parts overlaps. Tee joint: One part is perpendicular to the other, making a T shape. Edge joint: Edges of the two materials joined.

Types of weld
1. Fillet weld: Used in T joints,corner joints, lap joints. 2. Groove weld:Used in butt joints. 3. Plug weld: Used in lap joints. 4. Slot weld: Used in lap joints. 5. Spot weld: Used in lap joints.

6. Seam weld: Used in lap joints. 7. Flange weld:Used in edge joints. 8. Surfacing weld:Not a joining process, it is used to increase the thickness of the plate, or provide a protective coating on the surface.

Fig 8 Types of Weld Joints

Weldability is the ease of a material or a combination of materials to be welded

under fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service

Brazing and Soldering Brazing

It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures above 840 F and it generally affords strengths comparable to those of the metal which it joins. It is low temperature in that it is done below the melting point of the base metal. It is achieved by diffusion without fusion (melting) of the base Depending upon the method of heating, brazing can be classified as 1. Torch brazing 2. Dip brazing 3. Furnace brazing 4. Induction brazing

Fig 9 Brazing Advantages Dissimilar metals which canot be welded can be joined by brazing Very thin metals can be joined Metals with different thickness can be joined easily In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence there is no distortion Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders Disadvantages Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding Joint preparation cost is more Can be used for thin sheet metal sections

Soldering
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures below 840F for joining. Soldering is used for, Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans

 Electrical Connections Joining thermally sensitive components Joining dissimilar metals

Fig 9 Soldering

Questions: PART A Short Questions

1. Define the term welding. 2. What is plastic welding? Give some examples. 3. What is fusion welding? Give some examples. 4. Name few gases used in welding. 5. What is the function of regulator in gas welding? 6. What is carburizing flame? 7. What is neutral flame? Write down its temperature. 8. List out the advantages of gas welding. 9. List the different equipments and accessories used in electric arc welding. 10. What is torch brazing?

PART B - Essay Type Questions 1. Classify the welding process. 2. Explain the principle of arc welding process. 3. Compare the use of A.C and D.C. in welding. 4. What are the equipments used in gas welding? State their functions. 5. What is brazing? Describe briefly two methods of brazing. 6. Write short notes on the following: a. Gas cutting b. Soldering 7. With a neat sketch, explain metal arc welding process. 8. With a neat sketch, explain different types of flames used in gas welding process. Also list out their uses.

DRILLING MACHINE The drilling machine has revolutionized industrial work of every kind and made so such a lot of complex tasks seem easy. The drilling machines available in India are made of the finest quality materials and adhere to the latest technological and engineering innovations and standards. These machines are used for a plethora of machining works. Drilling machines manufactured here are in demand all over the globe especially for their cost effectiveness and efficiency notwithstanding. Drilling machines need to be fast hitting and quick penetrating. There are a variety of drilling machines which can be used for a variety of purposes and find applications in foundations, pop holing, boulder splitting, quarry work, leveling work etc.

Some of the most popularly used machines include the rock drilling machine, handheld rock drilling machine, radial drilling machine, core drilling machine, horizontal direction drilling machine, magnetic drilling machine, all geared drilling machine, heavy duty all geared precision radial drilling machine and all types of heavy duty drilling machine and pillar drilling machine. Core drilling machines are Compact, handy power tool for core drilling in steel reinforced concrete, masonry and other materials. Core drilling machines are useful for when it comes to installation, metalwork etc. The radial drilling machines india manufactured here are known for their precision, accuracy and efficiency. Radial drilling machines come in varying dimensions of drill head, base plate and capacity. These are designed to meet the most exacting requirements of engineering and allied operations and utility. They ensure smooth rotation of column and avoid angular deflection of spindle axis.

The horizontal direction drilling machine can be used in re-entry, drain hole, bore hole surveying, trench less construction, micro tunneling & river crossing. These machines are rugged, reliable and accurate. When it comes to underground installation of gas, electric, water, and telecommunication or soil remediation lines, without excavation or trenching, the horizontal direction drilling machine is extremely useful. It ensures minimal or no environmental disruption and is always a preferred choice for installations in diverse rock and soil conditions. The all geared drilling machine india comes in varying capacities ranging from 40mm to 75mm and the drilling radius ranges from 1050mm to 1950mm. The bearing, shafts and main assemblies are force lubricated and the Gears are Induction Hardened and the Spindle is Hardened and Ground. The machine castings strictly conform to different grades of IS: 210 and accuracy standards. It allows for centralized operations due to Electric Control Panel with Inching arrangement. And the spindle and arm are provided with Centralized Locking Arrangement. The Heavy Duty All Geared Precision Radial Drilling Machine comes in several models and one can go for the machine that best suits their needs. The arm swivel features and spindle speed are exemplary. These drilling machines have the highest degree of accuracy due to kind of quality control that it is maintained. The capacity, spindle and working range of the pillar drilling machines are one of a kind due to the exactitude in measurement. There are available in different thickness and sizes and can drill large pieces of materials and produce large holes. These machines are immensely popular with workshop, garages, automotive industries etc. drilling machine india, radial drill india, radial drill manufacturer india Radial Drilling Machine types JAN 19TH

Radial Drilling Machine When it comes to mechanical machining, radial drilling machine is used for all functions such as drilling, counter boring, spot facing, lapping, screwing reaming, tapping and boring. Radial drilling machines work well with a variety of material such as cast iron, steel, plastic etc. Drilling machines hold a certain

diameter of drill (called a chuck) rotates at a specified rpm (revolutions per minute) allowing the drill to start a hole. Radial drills are of three types. With the plain radial drill, the drill spindle is always vertical, and may not swing over any point of the work. The spindle in the half-universal drill may be swung over any point of the work and it may swing in one plane at any angle to the vertical up to complete reversal of the direction of the drill. And the spindle in the full-universal drill can be swung in any plane at any angle to the vertical. The specialty of radial drilling machine is that they are of robust construction and are designed for heavy duty drilling. The machines need to have all cast parts of fine close grained grey iron casting machined to close tolerance. They have to be subject to rigid inspection at all stages of assembly to ensure accuracy. Superior machines are known for their Grade 1 accuracy. Radial drilling machines having oil bath gearbox and hardened gears tend to have a very long life. The rotation and easy sliding of gears in bearings gives very high reliability. Gears are internally splined and shafts are externally splined. The radial drilling machines can have 32 mm 125 mm drilling capacity; mt-4 spindle nose; head stock is bored on toss imported boring machine; double column grinded by wmw german-make cylindrical grinders; and has 2425 standard accuracy. The smt 40/1000 dc radial drilling machines are useful in almost every tool room as well as maintenance purpose. Our radial drilling machines have heavy-duty high precision all-geared drill head with forged steel gears and toughened spindle. Face milling and keyway milling operations is made easy thanks to the automatic vertical movement of arms as well as horizontal automatic movement of main spindle head. Accurate inclined drilling is made possible with arm lilting at 360 degrees. A lot of time is expended due to the changing of the position of work on a machine. In a radial drill machine, the drill table is placed on a solid foundation for holding very heavy work. When a piece of work is secured on the drill table, the drill spindle may be placed over any part of the work without moving the latter.

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radial drill, radial drilling machine, radial drilling machine manufacturer Radial Drilling Machine :: Alfa Machines International JAN 3RD Posted by admin in Radial Drilling Machine Alfa Machines International Radial Drilling Machine Manufacturer To know more about our product range and info on our Radial Drilling machine, please visit our website What is a Radial Drilling Machine? Radial Drilling machine is a machine fitted with a rotating cutting tool called drill bit. This radial drilling machine is used for drilling holes in various materials such as steel, cast iron and. The use of machine is in the metal working industry. A Radial Drilling machine is a large gear headed drill press in which the head moves along the arm that radiates from the column of the machine. The arm of the machine can swing in relation to the base of the machine. This swing operation helps the drill head to move out of the way so a large crane can place the heavy work piece on the base of the radial drilling machine. Also this helps in drilling holes at different locations of the work piece without actually moving the work piece. Power feed of the spindle is a common feature. Also coolant system is a common feature of the radial drilling machine.

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Alfa Machines International Radial Drilling machine manufacturer and supplier radial drilling machine manufacturer Radial drilling machine are necessary for industrial machining functions. Radial drilling machine ensures high level of accuracy and saves a time and brings about greater efficiency. Offering an exemplary range of heavy machines, Alfa Machine International stands by the superior standard, excellence, and incredible permanence of their products. Combined with an innovative heavy machine manufacturing units, with everything from designing to finishing, to knowledgeable and trained professionals operating a brilliant and novel infrastructure equipped with superbly well maintained mother machineries that do more than merely meet product requirements. Alfa machines International is your best bet when it comes to procuring the radial drilling machines of ace quality. These machines are known for their ace quality and excellent service that they provide for the several functions. They have the distinction being outstanding as they are manufactured from graded raw material procured from reliable sources and confirm to the international standards. Consistency in producing better quality machinery is an adopted method at Alfa Machine International. Moreover, offered is the option of interchanging machine parts as well as personal selection of materials used when producing the machine, providing the added benefit of customizing heavy machinery during the initial stages of design. Renowned for their enduring faculty of exactness and precision when it comes to the production of heavy machinery, Alfa Machine International works in tandem with the client. Understanding the clients needs by giving their enquiries maximum precedence is how the international machine head works. Initiating improved and enhanced client interaction, Alfa Machines International also looks to the betterment of their employees knowledge. With regular trainings that are conducted to further improve the level of confidence, technical skills and abilities as well as building the individual toward becoming a progressively able, skilled and proficient worker. Thus ensuring better manufactured goods to the clients.

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Alfa radial drilling machine model Z3050, Z3063, Z3080. In this radial drilling machine, hydraulic preselection speed and feed change mechanisms are adopted. The spindle head, radial arm and columns are clamped by the hydraulic clamping mechanisms, and the forward, reverse, stop (braking), as well as the setting of spindle in neutral position are all controlled by a single-lever, the machine has the characteristic features of perfect performance, safe, reliable and easy operation, convenient maintenance,high accuracy, ample rigidity and long service life. It is used for drilling, counter boring, spot facing, reaming, tapping and boring. It is the machine widely used in every department of mechanical machining. This is a extra heavy duty radial drilling machine Approx Wt of the Radial Drilling Machine Z3050 50 mm radial drilling machine: 3500 kgs net Z3063 63 mm radial drilling machine: 5000 kg net Z3080 80 mm radial drilling machine: 11000 kg net Also available in 100 mm capacity radial drilling machine model Z30100 Alfa Machines International (www.alfamachines.com) is a leading radial drilling machine manufacturer and supplier. Our clients are located all over the world: South America, USA, Canada, Europe, Africa, India, South Asia. Alfa Radial Drilling Machine available in capacity of 32 mm upto 100mm and above. To Enquire about our here: www.alfamachines.com radial drill kindly fill in your details

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Drill From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Drill (disambiguation).

Use of a cordless drill in assembling a book case

Drill scheme This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2008) A drill or drill motor is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment, usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for drilling holes in various materials or fastening various materials together with the use of fasteners. The attachment is gripped by a chuck at one end of the drill and rotated while pressed against the target material. The tip, and sometimes edges, of the cutting tool does the work of cutting into the target material. This may be slicing off thin shavings (twist drills or auger bits), grinding off small particles (oil drilling), crushing and removing pieces of the workpiece (SDS masonry drill),countersinking, counterboring, or other operations.

Drills are commonly used in woodworking, metalworking, construction and do-ityourself projects. Specially designed drills are also used in medicine, space missions and other applications.

History

A wooden drill handle and other carpentry tools found on board the 16th century carrack Mary Rose. The earliest drills were bow drills which date back to the ancient Harappans and Egyptians. The drill press as a machine tool evolved from the bow drill and is many centuries old. It was powered by various power sources over the centuries, such as human effort, water wheels, and windmills, often with the use ofbelts. With the coming of the electric motor in the late 19th century, there was a great rush to power machine tools with such motors, and drills were among them. The invention of the first electric drill is credited to Arthur James Arnot and William Blanch Brain,[1] in 1889, at Melbourne, Australia. Wilhelm Fein[2]invented the portable electric drill in 1895, at Stuttgart, Germany. In 1917, Black & Decker patented a trigger-like switch mounted on a pistol-grip handle.[3] Types

Inside an electric drill There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use electricity (electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the motive power, and a minority

are driven by an internal combustion engine (for example, earth drilling augers). Drills with a percussive action (hammer drills) are mostly used in hard materials such as masonry (brick, concrete and stone) or rock. Drilling rigs are used to bore holes in the earth to obtain water or oil. Oil wells, water wells, or holes forgeothermal heating are created with large drilling rigs. Some types of hand-held drills are also used to drive screws and otherfasteners. Some small appliances that have no motor of their own may be drill-powered, such as small pumps, grinders, etc.

Carpenter using a crank-powered brace to drill a hole Hand tools A variety of hand-powered drills have been employed over the centuries. Here are a few, starting with approximately the oldest:

Bow drill Brace and bit Gimlet Breast drill, also known as "eggbeater" drill Push drill, a tool using a spiral ratchet mechanism Pin chuck, a small hand-held jewellers drill

An old hand drill or "eggbeater" drill. The hollow wooden handle, with screw-on cap, is used to store drill bits

Pistol-grip (corded) drill

Anatomy of a pistol-grip corded drill. Drills with pistol grips are the most common type in use today, and are available in a huge variety of subtypes. A less common type is the right-angle drill, a special tool used by tradesmen such as plumbers and electricians. For much of the 20th century, many attachments could commonly be purchased to convert corded electric hand drills into a range of other power tools, such as orbital sanders and power saws, more cheaply than purchasing conventional, self-contained versions of those tools (the greatest saving being the lack of an additional electric motor for each device). As the prices of power tools and suitable electric motors have fallen, however, such attachments have become much less common. A similar practice is currently employed for cordless tools where the battery, the most expensive component, is shared between various motorised devices, as opposed to a single electric motor being shared between mechanical attachments.

Drills can also be used at an angle to join two boards. Hammer drill Main article: Hammer drill The hammer drill is similar to a standard electric drill, with the exception that it is provided with a hammer action for drilling masonry. The hammer action may be engaged or disengaged as required. Most electric hammer drills are rated (input power) at between 600 and 1100 watts. The efficiency is usually 50-60% i.e. 1000 watts of

input is converted into 500-600 watts of output (rotation of the drill and hammering action). The hammer action is provided by two cam plates that make the chuck rapidly pulse forward and backward as the drill spins on its axis. This pulsing (hammering) action is measured in Blows Per Minute (BPM) with 10,000 or more BPMs being common. Because the combined mass of the chuck and bit is comparable to that of the body of the drill, the energy transfer is inefficient and can sometimes make it difficult for larger bits to penetrate harder materials such as poured concrete. The operator experiences considerable vibration, and the cams are generally made from hardened steel to avoid them wearing out quickly. In practice, drills are restricted to standard masonry bits up to 13 mm (1/2 inch) in diameter. A typical application for a hammer drill is installing electrical boxes, conduit straps or shelves in concrete. In contrast to the cam-type hammer drill, a rotary/pneumatic hammer drill accelerates only the bit. This is accomplished through a piston design, rather than a spinning cam. Rotary hammers have much less vibration and penetrate most building materials. They can also be used as "drill only" or as "hammer only" which extends their usefulness for tasks such as chipping brick or concrete. Hole drilling progress is greatly superior to cam-type hammer drills, and these drills are generally used for holes of 19 mm (3/4 inch) or greater in size. A typical application for a rotary hammer drill is boring large holes for lag bolts in foundations, or installing large lead anchors in concrete for handrails or benches. A standard hammer drill accepts 6 mm (1/4 inch) and 13 mm (1/2 inch) drill bits, while a rotary hammer uses SDS or Spline Shank bits. These heavy bits are adept at pulverising the masonry and drill into this hard material with relative ease. However, there is a big difference in cost. In the UK a cam hammer typically costs 12 or more, while a rotary/pneumatic costs 35 or more. In the US a typical hammer drill costs between $70 and $120, and a rotary hammer between $150 and $500 (depending on bit size). For DIY use or to drill holes less than 13 mm (1/2 inch) in size, the hammer drill is most commonly used. Rotary hammer drill

A rotary hammer drill used in construction The rotary hammer drill (also known as a rotary hammer, roto hammer drill or masonry drill) combines a primary dedicated hammer mechanism with a separate rotation

mechanism, and is used for more substantial material such as masonry or concrete. Generally, standard chucks and drills are inadequate and chucks such as SDS and carbide drills that have been designed to withstand the percussive forces are used. Some styles of this tool are intended for masonry drilling only and the hammer action cannot be disengaged. Other styles allow the drill to be used without the hammer action for normal drilling, or hammering to be used without rotation for chiselling. Cordless drills

A cordless drill with clutch A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable batteries. These drills are available with similar features to an AC mains-powered drill. They are available in the hammer drill configuration and most have a clutch, which aids in driving screws into various substrates while not damaging them. Also available are right angle drills, which allow a worker to drive screws in a tight space. While 21st century battery innovations allow significantly more drilling, large diameter holes (typically 1225 mm (0.51.0 in) or larger) may drain current cordless drills quickly. For continuous use, a worker will have one or more spare battery packs charging while drilling, and quickly swap them instead of having to wait an hour or more for recharging, although there are now Rapid Charge Batteries that can charge in 1015 minutes. Early cordless drills used interchangeable 7.2 V battery packs. Over the years battery voltages have increased, with 18 V drills being most common, but higher voltages are available, such as 24 V, 28 V, and 36 V. This allows these tools to produce as much torque as some corded drills. Common battery types of are nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries and lithium-ion batteries, with each holding about half the market share. NiCd batteries have been around longer, so they are less expensive (their main advantage), but have more disadvantages compared to lithium-ion batteries. NiCd disadvantages are limited life, self-discharging, environment problems upon disposal, and eventually internally short circuiting due to dendrite growth. Lithium-ion batteries are becoming more common

because of their short charging time, longer life, and low weight. Instead of charging a tool for an hour to get 20 minutes of use, 20 minutes of charge can run the tool for an hour. Lithium-ion batteries also have a constant discharge rate. The power output remains constant until the battery is depleted, something that nickel-cadmium batteries also lack, and which makes the tool much more versatile. Lithium-ion batteries also hold a charge for a significantly longer time than nickel-cadmium batteries, about two years if not used, vs. 1 to 4 months for a nickel-cadmium battery. There are three major drawbacks to Lithium Ion batteries: 1. They do not perform well in low temperatures 2. The batteries are very expensive to replace 3. The overall batteries can only handle about 1/3 of the recharges over a lifetime as a NiCad or NiMH battery. Drill press

A drill press A drill press (also known as pedestal drill, pillar drill, or bench drill) is a fixed style of drill that may be mounted on a stand or bolted to the floor or workbench. A drill press consists of a base, column (or pillar), table, spindle (or quill), and drill head, usually driven by an induction motor. The head has a set of handles (usually 3) radiating from a central hub that, when turned, move the spindle and chuck vertically, parallel to the axis of the column. The table can be adjusted vertically and is generally moved by a rack and pinion; however, some older models rely on the operator to lift and reclamp the table in position. The table may also be offset from the spindle's axis and in some cases rotated to a position perpendicular to the column. The size of a drill press is typically measured in terms of swing.

CASTING PROCESSES Casting

Casting is a process by which a fluid melt is introduced into a mould, allowed to cool in the shape of the form, and then ejected to make a fabricated part or casing. Four main elements are required in the process of casting: pattern, mould, cores, and the part. The pattern, the original template from which the mould is prepared, creates a corresponding cavity in the casting material. Cores are used to produce tunnels or holes in the finished mould, and the part is the final output of the process. Casting may be used to form hot, liquid metals or meltable plastics (called thermoplastics), or various materials that cold set after mixing of components such as certain plastic resins (e.g. epoxy), water setting materials such as concrete or plaster, and materials that become liquid or paste when moist such as clay, which when dry enough to be rigid is removed from the mould, further dried, and fired in a kiln. The casting process is subdivided into two distinct subgroups: expendable and nonexpendable mould casting:

Expendable mould casting

Expendable mould casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, and investment (lost-wax technique) mouldings. All of these involve the use of temporary and nonreusable moulds, and need gravity to help force molten fluid into casting cavities.In this process the mould is used only once.

Sand casting
Sand casting is a means of producing rough metal castings that are further refined by any or all of hammer peening, shot peening, polishing, forging, plating, rough grinding, machine grinding or machining1. Sand castings not further worked by polishing or peening are readily recognized by the sand-like texture imparted by the mould. As the accuracy of the casting is limited by imperfections in the mould making process there will be extra material to be removed by grinding or machining, more than is required by other more accurate casting processes. Sand casting is used to make large parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass, Aluminium). Molten metal is poured into a mould cavity formed out of sand (natural or synthetic). The processes of sand casting discussed in this section, include patterns, sprues and runners, design considerations, chills, cores and casting allowance.

Patterns
From the design, provided by an engineer or designer, a craftsperson called a patternmaker produces a master of the object to be produced, often using wood. As the metal to be cast will shrink somewhat between the time it first solidifies and the time it is cool the master must be made slightly larger than the finished product. To simplify the making of the pattern the patternmaker will use an appropriately scaled oversize rulercalled a shrink rulespecific to the type of metal to be cast. Additional paths for the entrance of metalthe sprueand the exiting of gasthe riserare added to the pattern. The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (an approximate duplicate of the real part), which are typically made out of wood, sometimes metal. The cavity is contained in an aggregate housed in a box called the flask.

Fig 1. Cope & drag with cores in place on the drag

Typical Components of a Two-part Sand Casting Mould

In a two-part mould like the one in Fig 1, which is typical of sand castings, the upper half, including the top half of the pattern, flask, and core is called cope and the lower half is called drag. The parting line or the parting surface is a line or surface that separates the cope and drag. Moulds are made in segments that may be latched to each other and to end closures. For a simple objectflat on one side the lower portion of the drag, closed at the bottom, will be filled with prepared casting sand or green sanda slightly moist mixture of sand and clay. The sand is packed in through a vibratory process called ramming and, in this case, periodically screeded level. The surface of the sand may then be stabilized with a sizing compound. The pattern is placed on the sand and the cope is added. Additional sand is rammed over and around the pattern. Finally a cover is placed on the box and it is turned and unlatched, so that the halves of the mould may be parted and the pattern with its sprue and vent patterns removed. The object is to remove the pattern without breaking the mould cavity. This is facilitated by designing a draft, a slight angular offset from the vertical to the vertical surfaces of the pattern. This is usually a minimum of 1 or 1.5 mm (0.060 in), whichever is greater. The rougher the surface of the pattern, the more the draft to be provided. Additional sizing may be added and any defects introduced by the removal of the pattern are corrected. The box is closed again. This forms a "green" mould which must be dried to receive the hot metal. If the mould is not sufficiently dried a steam explosion can occur that can throw molten metal about. In some cases, the sand may be oiled instead of moistened, which makes possible casting without waiting for the sand to dry. Sand may also be bonded by chemical binders, such as furane resins or amine-hardened resins.

Risers
A riser is an extra void created in the mould to contain excessive molten material. The purpose of this is feed the molten metal to the mould cavity as the molten metal solidifies and shrinks, and thereby prevents voids in the main casting.

Chills
If it is desired to have most of theiron or steelcasting in a tough, ductile, state but with a few surfaces hard, it is possible to introduce, into the mould, metal plateschillswhere the metal is to be hardened. The associated rapid local cooling will form a finer-grained and harder metal at these locations. The inner diameter of an engine cylinder is made hard by a chilling core.

 Cores
To produce cavities within the castingsuch as for liquid cooling in engine blocks and cylinder heads negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-moulded, cores are inserted into the mould after removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are made that avoid the use of cores, due to the additional set-up time and thus greater cost. Core print is the region added to the pattern, core, or mould that is used to locate and support the core within the mould

Sprues and Runners

The molten material is poured in the pouring cup, which is part of the gating system that supplies the molten material to the mould cavity. The vertical part of the gating system connected to the pouring cup is the sprue, and the horizontal portion is called the runners and finally the multiple points where molten material is introduced to the mould cavity are called the gates. Additionally there are extensions to the gating system called vents that provide the path for the built up gases and the displaced air to vent to the atmosphere.

Design Requirements
The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the moulding sand and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A slight taper, known as draft, must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in order to be able to remove the pattern from the mould. This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gases within the mould in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a piece of core or mould become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further work is performed. The cavity is usually made oversize to allow for the metal contraction as it cools down to room temperature. This is achieved by making the pattern oversize. To account for shrinking, the pattern must be made oversize by these factors, on the average. These are linear factors and apply in each direction. These shrinkage allowance are only approximate, because the exact allowance is determined the shape and size of the casting. In addition, different parts of the casting might require a different shrinkage allowance. Sand castings generally have a rough surface sometimes with surface impurities, and surface variations. A machining (finish) allowance is made for this type of defect.

Green Sand
Clay-bonded sands have provided the principal medium from which moulds for castings have been produced for centuries. In essence the mould material consists of sand, usually silica in the quartz form, clay and water. The water develops the bonding characteristics of the clay, which binds the sand grains together. Under the application of pressure the mould material can be compacted around a pattern to produce a mould having sufficient rigidity to enable metal to be poured into it to produce a casting. When the mould is used in its moist condition it is referred to as green and the method of producing the moulds as the green sand moulding process. If the mould is dried at a temperature just above 100C (212F) the majority of the free moisture will be removed. This is the principal of the dry sand moulding process. Removal of the free moisture is accompanied by a significant increase in the

strength and rigidity of the mould. This enables the mould to withstand much greater pressures and so, traditionally; the dry sand process has been used in the manufacture of large, heavy castings. The relative abundance of sand and clay minerals means that the material costs for the process are low. The mould material is reclaimable, with between 90 and 95% of the sand being recycled, although new sand and additions are required to make up for the deliberately discarded loss. From an environmental view the process is also acceptable, although problems may arise from the use of organic additions to the sand and from the generation of fine silica dust. These features, combined with the relative ease of mould production, have ensured that the green sand moulding process has remained as the principal method by which castings are produced. The green sand process remains unchallenged as the process capable of the mass production of castings at low cost, especially in cast irons. However, the engineering industry has progressively increased its demand for castings with improved dimensional accuracy, surface finish and soundness. This led to the development of the socalled high-pressure moulding machines, which produce the high-density moulds necessary to meet the customers' demands. Mould materials and properties The principal addition to the sand is clay, which, in the presence of water, provides the bond necessary to develop mould strength. In addition to water and clay, the moulding sand may contain organic materials to improve moulding characteristics and mould properties. In this section the materials added to the sand will be reviewed, together with the method of sand preparation and the development of properties. The sand used for green sand moulding must fulfil a number of requirements: 1. It must pack tightly around the pattern, which means that it must have flowability. 2. It should be capable of being deformed slightly without cracking, so that the pattern can be withdrawn. In other words, it must exhibit plastic deformation. 3. It must have sufficient strength to strip from the patter and support its own weight without deforming, and to withstand the pressure of molten metal when the mould is cast. It must therefore have green strength. 4. It must be permeable, so that gases and steam can escape from the mould during casting. 5. It must have dry strength, to prevent erosion of the mould surface by liquid metal during pouring as the surface of the mould cavity dries out. 6. It must have refractoriness, to withstand the high temperature involved in pouring without melting or fusing to the casting. 7. With the exception of refractoriness, all of these requirements are dependent on the amount of active clay present and on the water content of the mixture.

Process Outline

With a completed mould at the appropriate moisture content, the box containing the sand mould is then positioned for filling with molten metaltypically iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminum alloy, or various metal alloys, which often include lead, tin, and zinc. After filling with liquid metal the box is set aside until the metal is sufficiently cool to be strong. The sand is then removed revealing a rough casting that, in the case of iron or steel, may still be glowing red. When casting with metals like iron or lead, which are significantly heavier than the casting sand, the casting flask is often covered with a

heavy plate to prevent a problem known as floating the mould. Floating the mould occurs when the pressure of the metal pushes the sand above the mould cavity out of shape, causing the casting to fail. After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from the initial cooling and to add hardnessin the case of steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened by surface compression treatmentlike shot peeningthat adds resistance to tensile cracking and smooths the rough surface.

Cooling Rate

The rate at which a casting cools affects its microstructure, quality, and properties. The cooling rate is largely controlled by the moulding media used for making the mould. When the molten metal is poured into the mould, the cooling down begins. This happens because the heat within the molten metal flows into the relatively cooler parts of the mould. Moulding materials transfer heat from the casting into the mould at different rates. For example, some moulds made of plaster may transfer heat very slowly, while a mould made entirely of steel would transfer the heat very fast. This cooling down ends with (solidification) where the liquid metal turns to solid metal. At its basic level a foundry may pour a casting without regard to controlling how the casting cools down and the metal freezes within the mould. However, if proper planning is not done the result can be gas porosities and shrink porosities within the casting. To improve the quality of a casting and engineer how it is made, the foundry engineer studies the geometry of the part and plans how the heat removal should be controlled. Where heat should be removed quickly, the engineer will plan the mould to include special heat sinks to the mold, called chills. Fins may also be designed on a casting to extract heat, which are later removed in the cleaning (also called fettling) procees. Both methods may be used at local spots in a mould where the heat will be extracted quickly. Where heat should be removed slowly, a riser or some padding may be added to a casting. A riser is an additional larger cast piece which will cool more slowly than the place where is it attached to the casting. Generally speaking, an area of the casting which is cooled quickly will have a fine grain structure and an area which cools slowly will have a coarse grain structure.

Shrinkage
Like nearly all materials, metal is less dense as a liquid than a solid, and so a casting shrinks as it cools -- mostly as it solidifies, but also as the temperature of the solid material drops. Compensation for this natural phenomena must be considered in two ways.

Volumetric Shrinkage
The shrinkage caused by solidification can leave cavities in a casting, weakening it. Risers provide additional material to the casting as it solidifies. The riser (sometimes called a "feeder") is designed to

solidify later than the part of the casting to which it is attached. Thus the liquid metal in the riser will flow into the solidifying casting and feed it until the casting is completely solid. In the riser itself there will be a cavity showing the metal which was fed. Risers add cost because some of their material must be removed, by cutting away from the casting which will be shipped to the customer. They are often necessary to produce parts which are free of internal shrinkage voids. Sometimes, to promote directional shrinkage, chills must be used in the mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat away from the casting more rapidly that the material used for moulding. Thus if silica sand is used for moulding, a chill may be made of copper, iron, aluminum, graphite, zircon sand, chromite or any other material with the ability to remove heat faster locally from the casting. All castings solidify with progressive solidification but in some designs a chill is used to control the rate and sequence of solidification of the casting.

Linear Shrinkage
Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed for the relevant alloy. Pattern makers use special "shrink rulers" to make the patterns used by the foundry to make castings to the design size required. These rulers are 2 - 6% oversize, depending on the material to be cast. Using such a ruler during pattern making will ensure an oversize pattern. Thus, the mould is larger also, and when the molten metal solidifies it will shrink and the casting will be the size required by the design.

Alternative Casting Methods

Sand casting for mass production has largely been superseded by other methods.Modern mass production methods can produce thin but accurate mouldsof a material superficially resembling paper mache, such as is used in egg cartons, but that is refractory in naturethat are then supported by some means, such as dry sand surrounded by a box, during the casting process. Due to the higher accuracy it is possible to make thinner and hence lighter castings, because extra metal need not be present to allow for variations in the moulds. These thin-mould casting methods have been used since the 1960s in the manufacture of cast-iron engine blocks and cylinder heads for automotive applications.Various automotive mechanical components are now frequently made of aluminum, which for appropriately shaped components may be made either by sand casting or by die casting, the latter an accurate process that greatly reduces both materials use and machining and finishing costs. While the material and the processing setup is more expensive than the use of iron this is one of the most straightforward ways to reduce weight in a vehicle, important as a contributor to both fuel economy and acceleration performance. Starting in the early 1980s, some castings such as automotive engine blocks have been made using a sand casting technique conceptually similar to the lost wax process, known as the lost foam process. In this process, the pattern is made of polystyrene foam, which the sand is packed around, leaving the foam in place. When the metal is poured into the mold, the heat of the metal vaporizes the foam a short distance away from the surface of the metal, leaving the molding cavity into which the metal flows. The lost-foam process supports the sand much better than conventional sand casting, allowing greater flexibility in the design of the cast parts, with less need for machining to finish the casting. This technique was developed for the clay mould casting of abstract art pieces and was first adopted for large quantity commercial production by the Saturn company. Unfortunately, this process burns plastic in an uncontrolled way, producing a great deal of smoke.

Plaster Moulding
Plaster casting is similar to sand moulding except that plaster is substituted for sand. Plaster compound is actually composed of 70-80% gypsum and 20-30% strengthener and water. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production rate of 1-10 units/hr-mould is achieved with a capability to pour items as massive as 45 kg and as small as 30g with very high surface resolution* and fine tolerances. Once used and cracked away, normal plaster cannot easily be recast. Plaster casting is normally used for nonferrous metals such as aluminium-, zinc-, or copper-based alloys. It cannot be used to cast ferrous material because sulphur in gypsum slowly reacts with iron. Prior to mould preparation the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting compound to prevent the mould from sticking to the pattern. The unit is shaken so plaster fills the small cavities around the pattern. The form is removed after the plaster sets. The plaster mould casting process is a specialised process used for the production of non-ferrous alloy castings with smoother surfaces, more finely reproduced detail and greater dimensional accuracy than can be obtained from sand moulds, including shell moulds, or gravity dies (permanent moulds). Although there are plaster-based investment materials, which are used with expendable patterns, they are best considered as a variation on the investment casting process. The true plaster mould casting process is based on the use of a permanent pattern. In the commercial production of castings three variants of the process are used:

The Conventional Plaster Mould Casting Process The Foamed Plaster Process The Antioch Process

In the conventional process, plaster of Paris is mixed with water to produce a slurry which is poured over a permanent pattern contained within a moulding box. Upon setting a rigid mould is produced which, after pattern stripping, is dried at an elevated temperature to remove free and chemically combined water before the metal is cast into the mould. This method produces a strong, dense, but inherently impermeable mould. Hence, metal casting must be conducted using vacuum and/or pressure assistance to ensure complete filling of the mould by the metal. The insulating nature of the plaster improves the fluid life of the metal that aids mould filling and thin section production. The foamed plaster variant produces permeable moulds through the incorporation of air into the slurry at the mixing stage. It is possible to produce a mould in which 50% of the volume consists of air bubbles. This has the desired effect of increasing permeability from 1 or 2 units to between 15 and 30 units, as measured by the AFS permeability test. It also provides a more economical use of the plaster. However, the inherent strength of the mould is reduced and if complex shapes are to be produced then flexible patterns traditionally rubber may be required. The Antioch process has, as its special feature, the requirement to process the moulds in a steam autoclave. This produces a unique granular structure, which provides mould permeability. The moulds produced by the Antioch process are denser than foamed plaster moulds and weaker than conventional

plaster moulds. However, this lower strength does not manifest itself until after mould production, which enables permanent patterns to be used. The advantages and disadvantages of the plaster mould casting process are summarised below. Advantages

The ability to produce complex shapes The ability to produce thin section castings The excellent replication of pattern detail The ability to produce castings which are dimensionally accurate The ability to produce castings with good surface finish The minimisation of residual stresses and distortion in castings

Disadvantages

Poor productivity due to lengthy processing problems The need for multiple patterns to improve moulding productivity The requirement for close control of the production process The need for special procedures to overcome the problems of poor mould permeability The possibility of impaired mechanical properties arising as a result of slow cooling of the casting The mould materials are not reclaimable

Resin Shell Moulding

The shell moulding process is a precision sand casting process capable of producing castings with a superior surface finish and better dimensional accuracy than conventional sand castings. These qualities of precision can be obtained in a wider range of alloys and with greater flexibility in design than die-casting and at a lower cost than investment casting. The process was developed and patented by Croning in Germany during World War II and is sometimes referred to as the Croning shell process. The fundamental feature of the process is the use of fine-grained, high purity sand that contributes the attributes of a smooth surface and dimensional accuracy to moulds, cores and castings alike. In conventional sand moulding the use of such fine sand is precluded because it would dramatically reduce mould permeability. This has the effect of retarding the escape of air and mould gases, causing short-run castings or castings containing gas defects. However, the distinguishing feature of the shell moulding process is that the mould is literally a shell, being in the region of only 10mm thick. It was the ability to produce such a thin shell mould, which made the process a revolutionary development in metal founding. The coincident development of plastics, like Bakelite, which were based on thermosetting resins such as phenol formaldehyde, provided the basis for shell moulding. In shell moulding the fine sand is coated with a thermosetting resin which provides the relatively high strength required enabling a thin section, or shell, mould to be produced. The requirement that the mould should accurately replicate the pattern detail and dimensions if a precision casting is to be produced is also met by the shell moulding process. This is achieved because the resin bond is developed whilst the mould is in contact with a heated pattern plate. Furthermore, the mould is separated from the pattern without the need to enlarge the cavity, as is the case in green sand

moulding. These features apply equally to the production of cores by the process. A further improvement in casting accuracy can be obtained if zircon sand is used instead of silica sand. That arises because the expansion of zircon sand, caused by the heat of the cast metal, is both lower and more predictable than that of silica sand. Foundry production of castings by the process is comparatively straightforward and the process lends itself readily to close control, with the advantage of consistency in the castings produced. The advantages and disadvantages of the process are summarised below (18, 19): Advantages

Lower capital plant costs, when compared with mechanised green sand moulding Capital outlay on sand preparation plant is not essential Good utilisation of space Low sand to metal ratio Mould coatings are unnecessary Lightweight moulds are produced which are readily handled and have good storage characteristics Skilled labour is not required Shells have excellent breakdown at the knockout stage Lower cleaning and fettling costs Castings have a superior surface finish and dimensional accuracy, when compared with green sand moulded castings

Disadvantages

The raw materials are relatively expensive The size and weight range of castings is limited The process generates noxious fumes which must be effectively extracted

Shell moulding is similar to sand moulding except that a mixture of sand and 3-6% resin holds the grains together. Set-up and production of shell mould patterns takes weeks, after which an output of 550 pieces/hr-mould is attainable. Aluminium and magnesium products average about 13.5 kg as a normal limit, but it is possible to cast items in the 45-90 kg range. Shell mould walling varies from 310 mm thick, depending on the forming time of the resin. There are a dozen different stages in shell mould processing that include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. initially preparing a metal-matched plate mixing resin and sand heating pattern, usually to between 505-550 K inverting the pattern (the sand is at one end of a box and the pattern at the other, and the box is inverted for a time determined by the desired thickness of the mill) curing shell and baking it removing investment inserting cores repeating for other half

9. assembling mould 10. pouring mould 11. removing casting 12. cleaning and trimming. The sand-resin mix can be recycled by burning off the resin at high temperatures.

Lost Foam
The process is suitable for series production of aluminium castings up to about 20kg; iron (Grey, ductile and malleable) to about 50kg and copper based alloy castings. Because of the possibility of carbon pickup, the process is unsuitable for most low and medium carbon steel castings but austenitic manganese steel and other high carbon steel castings can be made satisfactorily. Brief description Pre-forms of the parts to be cast are moulded in expanded polystyrene (or other expandable polymers) using aluminium tooling. Gluing EPS mouldings together can form complex shapes. The pre-forms are assembled into a cluster around a sprue then coated with a refractory paint. The cluster is invested in dry sand in a simple moulding box and the sand compacted by vibration. Metal is poured, vaporising the EPS pre-form and replacing it to form the casting. Special characteristics of lost foam casting

High production rates are possible High dimensional accuracy is achieved No cores are needed Complex shapes can be cast Machining can be eliminated Minimum shot blast and grinding is needed All sand is re-usable Environmentally good Expensive tooling restricts the process to long run castings Specialised casting equipment is needed but the capital cost if lower than for other high volume processes such as green sand New technology must be learned Long lead times are needed to develop new castings

Critical assessment The strong patents that covered the process and the need for users to take licences from the patent holder handicapped the early development of Lost Foam Casting. Only when the patents expired around 1980 was free development possible. Several major foundry groups, mainly large automotive companies, invested large resources in the process. They were looking for a way of escaping from the limitations of split-mould casting technology and of avoiding the ever-increasing capital investment needed for modern automatic green sand moulding or gravity die techniques.

For the right application, the process offers significant advantages over all other casting methods, and its use is steadily growing as the most suitable applicants are found. However, it seems unlikely to achieve more than a specialist position, not unlike shell moulding, in the range of casting processes available. The best applicants are those where the precision of the process enables machining to be eliminated, such as valve parts and pipe fittings, or where complex shapes not possible by other casting processes can be made using the ability to glue preforms together.

Investment Casting
Investment casting (lost-wax process) yields a finely detailed and accurate product, with excellent metallurgical properties. Polystrene foam is also used in investment castingsee lost-foam casting. After a variable lead time, usually weeks, 11000 pieces/hour-mould can be produced in the mass range 2.32.7 kg. Items up to 45 kg and as light as 30 g are possible for unit production. The process starts by creating an injection die to the desired specifications. This die will be used to inject wax to create the patterns needed for investment casting. The patterns are attached to a central wax sprue, creating an assembly, or mould. The sprue contains the fill cup where the molten metal will be poured into the assembly. The wax assembly is now dipped multiple times in a ceramic slurry, depending on the shell thickness desired. A layer of fine sand (usually zircon) is added on top of each ceramic layer. This process will be repeated until the desired shell is created. The covering of the wax assembly with a refractory is known as investing - hence the modern name of the process. After the shell is created to the specifications desired, the wax must be removed; this is normally achieved using an autoclave. This is where the name "lost-wax process" comes from. This leaves an impression of the desired castings, which will be filled with metal. Before being cast, however, the shells must be heated in a furnace so they do not break during the casting process. Next, the desired metal is poured into the hot ceramic shell. The metal fills each part on the assembly, and the central sprue cavity and fill cup. The individual parts will be removed after the mould cools and the shell is removed. The shell is removed by impact, vibration, grit blasting, high pressure water blasting or chemical dissolution leaving the castings, which are still attached to the sprue assembly. The individual parts are removed by cold-break (dipping in liquid nitrogen and breaking the parts off with hammer and chisel) or with large cutoff saws. The last step is finishing. First the gate, or the place where the part was connected to the sprue, must be removed. The gate is ground off to part specifications. Parts are also inspected to make sure they were cast properly, and if not are either fixed or scrapped. Depending on the investment casting facility and specifications, more finishing work can be done on-site, sub-contracted, or not done at all. Investment casting yields exceedingly fine quality products made of all types of metals. It has special applications in fabricating very high-temperature metals such as alloy steels or stainless steels,

especially those which cannot be cast in metal or plaster moulds and those which are difficult to machine or work. Parts made with the investment casting process typically require some post machining to remove runners that attach the part to the tree. Compared to other casting processes such as sand or die casting, investment casting is an expensive process, but it has versatility approached by few other metals forming processes. Intricate or re-entrant contours can be incorporated so that great freedom of design is possible. Special characteristics

High production rates, particularly for small components High dimensional accuracy and consistency High integrity castings Extremely good surface finish obtained Complex shapes can be cast Long or short runs can be accommodated Machining can be eliminated Minimum shot blast and grinding needed Almost any alloy can be cast Environmentally good Specialised equipment needed New technology must be learned and great attention to detail is required The process is expensive because costly refractories and binders are used and many operations are needed to make a mould Because of the exceptional surface finish possible and expected, minute defects can cause rejection of castings and scrap rates can be high.

Shaw Process
The Shaw process is a precision casting process capable of the production of accurate moulds with excellent surface finish and metallurgical integrity. Moulds are produced using highly refractory aggregates bonded with silica provided by a liquid ethyl silicate binder. A high temperature firing treatment is a feature of the production sequence and this produces an inert mould into which the majority of commercial ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be cast with confidence. The process has been used commercially for many years; it was known before the Second World War that silicon esters could be used as refractory aggregate binders. As with most processes there has been a continuous development, in particular with respect to the binder system and the methods of mould production. Process outline The mould material is prepared by blending refractory powders, containing a high proportion of fine material, with a liquid ethyl silicate binder and a gelling agent. The blended, mobile slurry is poured into the moulding box and around the pattern. Within a short period of time, controlled by the amount of gelling agent, the mould material gels to a rubbery consistency and the pattern can be separated from the mould. On removal of the pattern the mould is torched immediately to remove evolved alcohol. Torching also produces a very fine network of surface and internal cracks, which do not

permit metal penetration but may improve permeability and subsequent mould breakdown. After torching, the moulds are fired in a furnace to ensure that there are no combustible materials in the mould and that a strong, rigid, inert, accurate and stable mould is produced. The advantages claimed for moulds manufactured by the Shaw process include The following:

Good pattern stripping characteristics: the rubbery nature of the gelled mould provides flexibility, which enables the pattern and mould to be separated without damage to the mould when intricate detail, or even straight draws, are required Dimensional stability: the excellent reproduction of pattern detail and dimensions is retained by the mould to a great extent after firing and during casting, thus enabling accurate dimensional allowances to be made Mould strength: this is sufficient to allow moulds to be cast without the need for moulding boxes Collapsibility and resistance to tears: the characteristic internal structure of the mould material improves its breakdown properties and there is less constraint on the casting during contraction Resistance to thermal shock: the characteristic internal structure permits expansion of the mould material to occur readily, as a result moulds can safely be poured cold Resistance to spalling and washing: the nature of the silica bond prevents the generation of inclusions during mould filling Permeability and inertness: as the mould is inert after firing, the only gas to be displaced is that occupying the mould cavity. The characteristic structure provides sufficient permeability to enable the metal to displace the gas readily through the mould.

Nonexpendable mould casting

Nonexpendable mould casting differs from expendable processes in that the mould need not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting.
Permanent Mould Casting

Permanent mould casting (typically for non-ferrous metals) requires a set-up time on the order of weeks to prepare a steel tool, after which production rates of 5-50 pieces/hr-mould are achieved with an upper mass limit of 9 kg per iron alloy item (up to 135 kg for many nonferrous metal parts) and a lower limit of about 0.1 kg. Steel cavities are coated with refractory wash of acetylene soot before processing to allow easy removal of the workpiece and promote longer tool life. Permanent moulds have a life which varies depending on maintenance of after which they require refinishing or replacement. Cast parts from a permanent mould generally show 20% increase in tensile strength and 30% increase in elongation as compared to the products of sand casting.The only necessary input is the coating applied regularly. Typically, permanent mould casting is used in forming iron-, aluminium-, magnesium-, and copper-based alloys. The process is highly automated.

Die casting
Die Casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into the cavities of steel moulds. The moulds are called dies. Dies range in complexity to produce any non-ferrous metal parts (that need not be as strong, hard or heat-resistant as steel) from sink faucets to engine blocks

(including hardware, component parts of machinery, toy cars, etc). In fact, the process lends itself to making any any metal part that: 1. must be precise (dimensions plus or minus as little as .002 inches-over short distances), 2. must have a very smooth surface that can be bright plated without prior polishing and buffing, 3. have very thin sections (like sheet metal--as little as .050 inches), 4. must be produced much more economically than parts primarily machined (multicavity die casting molds operating at high speed are much more productive than machine tools or even stamping presses), 5. must be very flexible in design; a single die casting may have all the features of a complex assembly. If several machining operations would be required or assembly of several parts would be required (to make a finished part), die casting is probably far more economical. This level of versatility has placed die castings among the highest volume products made in the metalworking industry. Common metals used in die casting include zinc and aluminum. These are usually not pure metals; rather are alloys which have better physical characteristics. In recent years, injection-molded plastic parts have replaced some die castings because they are usually cheaper (and lighter--important especially for automotive parts since the fuel-economy standards). Plastic parts are practical (particularly now that plating of plastics has become possible) if hardness is not required and if parts can be redesigned to have the necessary strength. There are four major steps in the die casting process. First, the mould is sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. Molten metal is then injected into the die under high pressure. The high pressure assures a casting as precise and as smooth as the mold. Typically it is around 100 megapascals. Once the cavity is filled then the pressure is maintained until the casting has become solid (though this period is usually made short as possible by water cooling the mould). Finally, the die is opened and the casting is ejected. Equally important as high-pressure injection is high-speed injection--required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities (spoiling the finish and even weakening the casting) are avoided even if the design requires difficult-to-fill very thin sections. Before the cycle can be started the die must be installed in the die casting machine (set up) and brought to operating temperature. This set-up requires 1-2 hours after which a cycle can take anywhere between a few seconds to a few minutes depending on the size of the casting. Maximum mass limits for magnesium, zinc, and aluminium parts are roughly 4.5 kg, 18 kg, and 45 kg, respectively. A typical die set will last 500,000 shots during its lifetime with lifetime being heavily influenced by the melting temperature of the metal or alloy being used. Aluminum and its alloys typically shorten die life due to the high temperature of the liquid metal resulting in deterioration of the steel mould cavities. Moulds for die casting zinc last almost indefinitely due to the lower temperature of the zinc. Moulds for die casting brass are the shortest-lived of all. This is despite, in all cases, making the mold cavities out of the finest "hot work"alloy steel available. A shot occurs every time the die is filled with metal. Shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot. Also the shot consists not only of the individual castings but also the "scrap" (which, unlike in the case of scrap from machining, is not sold cheaply; it is remelted) that consists of the metal that has hardened in the channels leading into and out of the cavities. This includes, for example, the sprue, runners and overflows. Also there is usually some unplanned-for thin scrap called flash, the result of moulds not fitting together tightly. The die must fulfill four primary purposes. First, it must hold molten metal in the shape of the final casting. The die must also provide a path for the molten metal to reach the casting cavity. Third, the

die is designed to remove heat from the casting. Finally, a die must be able to eject the solidified casting. Because die sets open and shut along a parting line of the casting, design features such as undercuts cannot be cast without the addition of movable slides in the die set. Otherwise these features must be added (more expensively) by secondary machining operations. Die Casting machines are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical sizes range from 100 to 4,000 tons. Along with size there are two main categories that die casting machines fall into. They are hot chamber machines for zinc and lower melting-point metals. Or cold chamber machines for aluminum and higher melting-point metals. A die casting machine automatically opens and closes the mould and injects the liquid metal, all under high pressure and as rapidly as possible, in the case of zinc up to several hundred times an hour. (However the very smallest zinc machines may cycle thousands of time an hour.) Sometimes means are provided to automatically remove the shot and recycle the machine. The largest machines are as big as a car. Often there is a secondary operation to separate the castings from the scrap; this is often done using a trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. An older method is separating by hand or by sawing, which case grinding may be necessary to smooth the gate mark where molten metal entered or left the cavity. Finally, a less labour-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken. Separation must follow. Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable. Most common is tapping a hole (to receive a screw). Or the surface may be improved; for example, polishing and buffing. Or plating or painting. In a hot chamber machine the metal is pumped into the die directly from a furnace of molten metal. Cold chamber systems transfer molten metal from the furnace to a shot cylinder. The metal is then pushed through from the cylinder into the die. 1) Gravity Die The process is capable of producing castings in cast iron, copper base alloys, aluminium alloys and others including zinc. It is used for medium to long runs of castings with weight ranges typically from kg to 50kg. It can be automated to a certain extent on the closing and pouring side. Much of the production involves manual labour. Most of the output is aluminium castings. Brief description The gravity die casting process may be simply defined as follows: The production of castings from a reusable mould or die having two or more parts each located in relation to other parts. The die contains an impression of the casting together with its running, feeding and venting systems. Provision is made for the removal of the casting by some means. The die can readily be cleared of debris such as hot metal splashes and sand so that the casting's accuracy is maintained. The die is capable of a regular cycle and of (quickly) dissipating the heat of the metal poured into it. The gravity die casting process has had a long history and will continue to supply both simple and complex quality castings well into the foreseeable future. It lacks the obvious attraction of

sophisticated machines used by pressure die casters and to the outsider may seem archaic. The gravity process can handle heat treatment high strength aluminium alloys that pressure die-casting still cannot. The process is a viable route for castings with complex intricate coring and for castings with small volumes uneconomic for pressure casting production. The UK has traditionally produced a greater tonnage gravity die-casting than pressure castings. The combined tonnage of gravity and low-pressure die-casting is still greater than the tonnage of pressure die-castings made in the UK today. The process has had very little research funding and there are few opportunities world wide for adequately training an aspiring gravity die casting technician. Thereafter a long period of production, gravity die casting tool making and die design experience is necessary before a good (imaginative) gravity die designer is produced. There are few such people. As a result many die casting plants perform well below the achievable. The exceptions are memorably impressive. It is a class process that is rarely pushed to its limits. In spite of this, the process's flexibility plays well in a market place demanding quality castings. There is much more to gravity die casting than an impression in a block. 2) Low Pressure Die The process is capable of producing high quality castings, usually of aluminium alloys although it can also be used for magnesium and other low melting point alloys. Sand cores can be used to produce complex shapes. Castings from 2 - 150kg (aluminium) can be made but around 10kg is most common. Long casting runs are needed to justify the cost of the dies. Brief description A metal die is mounted above a sealed furnace containing molten metal. A refractory-lined tube, called a riser tube or stalk, extends from the bottom of the die into the molten metal. When air is introduced into the furnace under low pressure (15 - 100 kPa, 2- 15 psi), the molten metal rises up the tube to enter the die cavity with low turbulence. When the metal has solidified, the air pressure is released allowing the still-molten metal in the riser tube to fall back into the furnace. After a further cooling time the die is opened and the casting extracted. With correct die design, directional freezing of the casting is achieved so eliminating the need for risers, the casting being filled and fed from the bottom. Because there is usually only one ingate and no feeders, casting yield is exceptionally high, generally over 90%. Details of the process A mould or die, having a horizontal parting line, is mounted on a holding furnace and is connected to the molten metal by a feed tube or stalk. The furnace is pressurised by the introduction of air above the surface of the molten metal causing it to rise steadily in the stalk and quietly fill the mould. The air in the mould cavity is expelled through suitably positioned vents in the die and when the cavity is filled, solidification commences. Directional solidification, commencing at the extremities and terminating at the sprue, is effected by correct die design and eliminates the need for conventional feeding systems. When the metal has solidified as far back into the sprue as is required, pressure is released in the furnace and the molten metal left in the stalk returns to the holding furnace.

A further short cooling period is allowed to ensure that all sections of the casting are solid, the mould is opened and the casting removed. The molten metal is contained in a plumbago crucible heated by resistance windings or by induction. The capacity of the furnace is usually sufficient to make around 10 castings before refilling is necessary. The crucible can be topped up with molten metal as necessary via a filler port. The whole furnace is contained in a pressure vessel sealed with a gasket by a top plate. The riser tube is suspended from the top plate by a riser cap or nozzle. The riser tube is immersed into the molten metal nearly to the bottom of the crucible. The riser tube may be made of ceramic but is more commonly made of cast iron coated with a refractory wash to prevent attack by the molten aluminium. A cast iron stalk, properly coated with the correct refractory dressing at regular and frequent intervals (usually once per shift) has a life of around 6 months. The lower fixed die-half, mounted on a base plate, is fitted to the furnace top-plate. The base-plate carries 4 corner tie-bars on which slides the moving platten carrying the upper die-half. A hydraulic cylinder mounted on a fixed top platten opens and closes the die. The die itself may carry hydraulically operated core-pulls. The whole unit is designed in such a way that the top plate carrying the die and its opening mechanism can be swung away to permit easy access to the riser tube and furnace. When the holding furnace is at temperature, a little above the melting point of the alloy being used, it is filled by way of the filler port, which is then sealed. When the metal temperature has stabilised to the required value and the die has been pre-heated to its operating temperature (250-400C) and closed, the inlet valve is opened and dry compressed air is allowed to fill the sealed furnace to a controlled pressure causing the aluminium to rise in the transfer tube and fill the die. With the furnace remaining under pressure, the casting solidifies quickly, the direction of the freezing following a downward path with the sprue section being the last to solidify. When the metal in the nozzle has frozen, the pressure is released allowing the still-molten metal in the riser tube to fall back into the furnace. A further short time is allowed to ensure complete solidification of the casting, the die is then opened and the casting released into the upper die-half from which it is retrieved, usually mechanically. Once the sequence has been established, it can be controlled automatically using temperature and pressure controllers to supervise more than one die casting machine. Typical applications

Aluminium automotive parts: wheels, cylinder heads, blocks, manifolds and housings. Critical aerospace castings Electric motor housings Domestic kitchen ware such as pressure cookers

Large castings up to 150kg (A1) can be made but can only be justified in special cases because of high die costs.

High Pressure Die

The pressure die casting process has its origins in typecasting machines, which had reached a high level of automation and mechanical efficiency by the mid-1800's. By the end of the 19th century

variants of the typecasting machines were being used to produce components for cash registers and gramophones, and by the beginning of the current century die cast bearings were being produced for automotive applications. Although the technology of the process continued to evolve during the early part of the 20th century, it was not until the 1920's that the forerunners to the modern hot chamber and cold chamber machines were developed. These processes have been refined to the extent that tiny zinc alloy castings can be produced in a one-second cycle on fully automated hot chamber machines. The cold chamber process is used predominantly for the production of aluminium alloy components, which include complex castings weighing in the region of 15kg (30lb), for the automotive industry. For such components the cycle time would be about two minutes. 3) Hot Chamber Process A schematic diagram of a hot chamber pressure die-casting machine is shown in Fig. 2. The metal for casting is maintained at an appropriate temperature in a holding furnace adjacent to, if not part of, the machine. The injection mechanism is located within the holding furnace and a substantial part of it is therefore in constant contact with the molten metal. Pressure is transmitted to the metal by the injection piston, which forces it through the gooseneck and into the die. On the return stroke metal is drawn into the gooseneck for the next shot. In this process there is minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected, thus minimising the tendency for turbulent entrainment of air in the metal during injection. However, there is prolonged contact between the metal and parts of the injection system, which effectively restricts this process to zinc-base alloys. 4) Cold Chamber Process The essential feature of this process is the independent holding and injection units. In the cold chamber process metal is transferred by ladle, manually or automatically, to the shot sleeve. Actuation of the injection piston forces the metal into the die. This is a single-shot operation. This procedure minimises the contact time between the hot metal and the injector components, thus extending their operating life. However, the turbulence associated with high-speed injection is likely to entrain air in the metal, which can cause gas porosity in the castings. The cold chamber process is used for the production of aluminium and copper base alloys and has been extended to the production of steel castings. The advantages of the pressure die casting processes may be summarised as follows:

The ability to produce castings with close dimensional control The ability to produce castings with a good surface finish The ability to produce castings with thin walls, and therefore of reduced weight The ability to produce castings at a high rate of production

Against these advantages the following disadvantages should be weighed:

High capital plant costs High tooling costs Restrictions on the range of alloys which can be cast Restrictions on the maximum size of casting that can be cast

In a hot chamber machine the metal is pumped into the die directly from a furnace of molten metal. Cold chamber systems transfer molten metal from the furnace to a shot cylinder. The metal is then pushed through from the cylinder into the die.

Centrifugal Casting
Introduction Centrifugal casting as a category includes Centrifugal Casting, Semi-Centrifugal Casting and Centrifuging. Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force feed using a temporary sand mould held in a spinning chamber at up to 90 g (900 m/s). Lead time varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30-50 pieces/hr-mould to be produced, with a practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.3-4.5 kg. Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method developed by German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the rapid growth of the enterprise.Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and into fine details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum casting, also applied to jewelry casting. 1) Centrifugal Casting: In centrifugal casting, a permanent mould is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mould wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine grain casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes. The inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions, which can be machined away. Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process. Size limits are unto 3 m diameter and 15 m length. Wall thickness can be 2.5 mm to 125 mm. The tolerances that can be held on the OD can be as good as 2.5 mm and on the ID can be 3.8 mm. The surface finish ranges from 2.5 mm to 12.5 mm rms.

Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of aluminum, copper and nickel. Two materials can be cast by introducing a second material during the process. Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric. 2) Semi-Centrifugal Casting: The moulds used can be permanent or expendable, can be stacked as necessary. The rotational speeds are lower than those used in centrifugal casting. The centre axis of the part has inclusion defects as well as porosity and thus is suitable only for parts where this can be machined away. This process is used for making wheels, nozzles and similar parts where the axis of the part is removed by subsequent machining. 3) Centrifuging: Centrifuging is used for forcing metal from a central axis of the equipment into individual mould cavities that are placed on the circumference. This provides a means of increasing the filling pressure within each mould and allows for reproduction of intricate details. This method is often used for the pouring of investment casting pattern.

Continuous Casting
Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, watercooled copper mould, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid centre. The strand, as it is now called, is withdrawn from the mould and passed into a chamber of rollers and water sprays; the rollers support the thin skin of the strand while the sprays remove heat from the strand, gradually solidifying the strand from the outside in. After solidification, predetermined lengths of the strand are cut off by either mechanical shears or travelling oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimetres thick by about five metres wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an initial hot rolling process before being cut. Continuous casting provides better quality product as it allows finer control over the casting process, along with the obvious advantages inherent in a continuous forming process. Metals such as steel, copper and aluminium are continuously cast, with the largest tonnage poured being steel.