MetaNarratives

Incriticaltheory,andparticularlypostmodernism,ametanarrative(frommeta narrative,sometimesalsoknownasamasterorgrandnarrative)isanabstractidea thatisthoughttobeacomprehensiveexplanationofhistoricalexperienceor knowledge.AccordingtoJohnStephensit"isaglobalortotalizingculturalnarrative schemawhichordersandexplainsknowledgeandexperience".[1]Theprefixmeta means"beyond"andishereusedtomean"about",andanarrativeisastory. Therefore,ametanarrativeisastoryaboutastory,encompassingandexplaining other'littlestories'withintotalizingschemes. TheconceptwascriticizedbyJeanFranoisLyotardinhiswork,ThePostmodern Condition:AReportonKnowledge(1979).Inthistext,Lyotardreferstowhathe describesasthepostmoderncondition,whichhecharacterizedasincreasing skepticismtowardthetotalizingnatureof"metanarratives"(or"grandnarratives," typicallycharacterisedbysomeformof'transcendentanduniversaltruth').

ExamplesofMetanarratives

ManyChristiansbelievethathumannature,sincetheFall(Genesis3),is characteristicallysinful,buthasthepossibilityofredemptionand experiencingeternallifeinheaventhusrepresentingabeliefinauniversal ruleandatelosforhumankind.SeealsoUniversalHistory. TheEnlightenmenttheoristsbelievedthatrationalthought,alliedto scientificreasoning,wouldleadinevitablytowardmoral,socialandethical progress. Muslimsviewhumanhistoryasthestoryofdivinecontactthroughprophets likeDavid,Abraham,orJesusdemonstratingrationallyimpossiblefeatsfor humanbeings(miracles)asproofofauthenticityandsenttoeverypeople overtimetoteachpurityofheartsothatpeoplemayreceivetheguidanceof theonetruecreatororGod.Theseprophetsortheirmessagesareresisted whenintroduced,anddistortedorcorruptedovertimenecessitatingnew prophets,thefinalonebeingMuhammadandtheuncorruptedQuran;victory ultimatelybeingforthosewhohavepurifiedtheirheartsandacceptedthe divinenatureoftheworld. TheMarxistLeninistsbelievethatinordertobeemancipated,societymust undergoarevolution.Justasthebourgeoisie(whoselivingdependsonthe controlofcapitalortechnology)tookpowerfromthenobleclass(whose wealthwasbasedoncontroloverland),theybelievethatthepresentsystem ofcapitalismwillfallandtheproletariat(wholivebysellingtheirlabor)will takeover.Thischangewillbedrivenbytheunstableandcyclicalnatureof capitalism,andbythealienationfeltbythelabourerswhokeepthesystem working.

Freudiantheoryholdsthathumanhistoryisanarrativeoftherepressionof libidinaldesires. Categoricalanddefinitiveperiodizationsofhistory,suchastheFallofthe RomanEmpire,theDarkAgesandRenaissance. Manyfeministsholdthatthepatriarchyhassystematicallyoppressedand subjugatedwomenthroughouthistory.

IntroductiontoThePostmodernCondition:AReporton KnowledgebyJeanFrancoisLyotard

Theobjectofthisstudyistheconditionofknowledgeinthemosthighlydeveloped societies.Ihavedecidedtousethewordpostmoderntodescribethatcondition.The wordisincurrentuseontheAmericancontinentamongsociologistsandcritics;it designatesthestateofourculturefollowingthetransformationswhich,sincethe endofthenineteenthcentury,havealteredthegamerulesforscience,literature, andthearts.Thepresentstudywillplacethesetransformationsinthecontextofthe crisisofnarratives. Sciencehasalwaysbeeninconflictwithnarratives.Judgedbytheyardstickof science,themajorityofthemprovetobefables.Buttotheextentthatsciencedoes notrestrictitselftostatingusefulregularitiesandseeksthetruth,itisobligedto legitimatetherulesofitsowngame.Itthenproducesadiscourseoflegitimation withrespecttoitsownstatus,adiscoursecalledphilosophy.Iwillusetheterm moderntodesignateanysciencethatlegitimatesitselfwithreferencetoa metadiscourseofthiskindmakinganexplicitappealtosomegrandnarrative,such asthedialecticsofSpirit,thehermeneuticsofmeaning,theemancipationofthe rationalorworkingsubject,orthecreationofwealth.Forexample,theruleof consensusbetweenthesenderandaddresseeofastatementwithtruthvalueis deemedacceptableifitiscastintermsofapossibleunanimitybetweenrational minds:thisistheEnlightenmentnarrative,inwhichtheheroofknowledgeworks towardagoodethicopoliticalenduniversalpeace.Ascanbeseenfromthis example,ifametanarrativeimplyingaphilosophyofhistoryisusedtolegitimate knowledge,questionsareraisedconcerningthevalidityoftheinstitutions governingthesocialbond:thesemustbelegitimatedaswell.Thusjusticeis consignedtothegrandnarrativeinthesamewayastruth. Simplifyingtotheextreme,Idefinepostmodernasincredulitytoward metanarratives.Thisincredulityisundoubtedlyaproductofprogressinthe sciences:butthatprogressinturnpresupposesit.Totheobsolescenceofthe metanarrativeapparatusoflegitimationcorresponds,mostnotably,thecrisisof metaphysicalphilosophyandoftheuniversityinstitutionwhichinthepastreliedon it.Thenarrativefunctionislosingitsfunctors,itsgreathero,itsgreatdangers,its greatvoyages,itsgreatgoal.Itisbeingdispersedincloudsofnarrativelanguage elementsnarrative,butalsodenotative,prescriptive,descriptive,andsoon.

Conveyedwithineachcloudarepragmaticvalenciesspecifictoitskind.Eachofus livesattheintersectionofmanyofthese.However,wedonotnecessarilyestablish stablelanguagecombinations,andthepropertiesoftheoneswedoestablisharenot necessarilycommunicable. ThusthesocietyofthefuturefallslesswithintheprovinceofaNewtonian anthropology(suchasstructuralismorsystemstheory)thanapragmaticsof languageparticles.Therearemanydifferentlanguagegamesaheterogeneityof elements.Theyonlygiverisetoinstitutionsinpatcheslocaldeterminism. Thedecisionmakers,however,attempttomanagethesecloudsofsociality accordingtoinput/outputmatrices,followingalogicwhichimpliesthattheir elementsarecommensurableandthatthewholeisdeterminable.Theyallocateour livesforthegrowthofpower.Inmattersofsocialjusticeandofscientifictruthalike, thelegitimationofthatpowerisbasedonitsoptimizingthesystem'sperformance efficiency.Theapplicationofthiscriteriontoallofourgamesnecessarilyentailsa certainlevelofterror,whethersoftorhard:beoperational(thatis,commensurable) ordisappear. Thelogicofmaximumperformanceisnodoubtinconsistentinmanyways, particularlywithrespecttocontradictioninthesocioeconomicfield:itdemands bothlesswork(tolowerproductioncosts)andmore(tolessenthesocialburdenof theidlepopulation).Butourincredulityisnowsuchthatwenolongerexpect salvationtorisefromtheseinconsistencies,asdidMarx. Still,thepostmodernconditionisasmuchastrangertodisenchantmentasitisto theblindpositivistofdelegitimation.Where,afterthemetanarratives,can legitimacyreside?Theoperativitycriterionistechnological;ithasnorelevancefor judgingwhatistrueorjust.Islegitimacytobefoundinconsensusobtainedthrough discussion,asJurgenHabermasthinks?Suchconsensusdoesviolencetothe heterogeneityoflanguagegames.Andinventionisalwaysbornofdissension. Postmodernknowledgeisnotsimplyatooloftheauthorities;itrefinesour sensitivitytodifferencesandreinforcesourabilitytotoleratetheincommensurable. Itsprincipleisnottheexpert'shomology,buttheinventor'sparalogy. Hereisthequestion:isalegitimationofthesocialbond,ajustsociety,feasiblein termsofaparadoxanalogoustothatofscientificactivity?Whatwouldsucha paradoxbe? Thetextthatfollowsisanoccasionalone.Itisareportonknowledgeinthemost highlydevelopedsocietiesandwaspresentedtotheConseildesUniversitiesofthe governmentofQuebecattherequestofitspresident.Iwouldliketothankhimfor hiskindnessinallowingitspublication. Itremainstoberaidthattheauthorofthereportisaphilosopher,notanexpert. Thelatterknowswhatheknowsandwhathedoesnotknow:theformerdoesnot.

Oneconcludes,theotherquestionstwoverydifferentlanguagegames.Icombine themherewiththeresultthatneitherquitesucceeds. Thephilosopheratleastcanconsolehimselfwiththethoughtthattheformaland pragmaticanalysisofcertainphilosophicalandethicopoliticaldiscoursesof legitimation,whichunderliesthereport,willsubsequentlyseethelightofday.The reportwillhaveservedtointroducethatanalysisfromasomewhatsociologizing slant,onethattruncatesbutatthesametimesituatesit. Suchasitis,IdedicatethisreporttotheInstitutPolytechniquedePhilosophieofthe UniversitedeParisVIII(Vincennes)atthisverypostmodernmomentthatfindsthe Universitynearingwhatmaybeitsend,whiletheInstitutemayjustbebeginning.