Problems On Matrices

Problems
in
Matrix Calculus
by
Willi-Hans Steeb
International School for Scientic Computing
at
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Yorick Hardy
Department of Mathematical Sciences
at
University of South Africa
Preface
The purpose of this book is to supply a collection of problems in matrix
calculus.
Prescribed books for problems.
1) Matrix Calculus and Kronecker Product:
A Pratcial Approach to Linear and Multilinear Algebra, 2nd edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb and Yorick Hardy
World Scientic Publishing, Singapore 2011
ISBN 978 981 4335 31 7
http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/8030.html
2) Problems and Solutions in Introductory and Advanced Matrix Calculus
by Willi-Hans Steeb
ISBN 981 256 916 2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/6202.html
3) Continous Symmetries, Lie Algebras, Dierential Equations and Com-
puter Algebra, second edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb
ISBN 981-256-916-2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6515.html
4) Problems and Solutions in Quantum Computing and Quantum Informa-
tion, second edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb and Yorick Hardy
World Scientic, Singapore, 2006
ISBN 981-256-916-2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6077.html
v
The International School for Scientic Computing (ISSC) provides certi-
cate courses for this subject. Please contact the author if you want to do
this course or other courses of the ISSC.
e-mail addresses of the author:
steebwilli@gmail.com
steeb_wh@yahoo.com
Home page of the author:
http://issc.uj.ac.za
vi
vii
Contents
Preface v
Notation xi
1 Basic Operations 1
2 Linear Equations 16
3 Traces, Determinants and Hyperdeterminants 23
4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 44
5 Commutators and Anticommutators 81
6 Decomposition of Matrices 90
7 Functions of Matrices 94
8 Linear Dierential Equations 117
9 Norms and Scalar Products 121
10 Graphs and Matrices 128
11 Hadamard Product 130
12 Unitary Matrices 134
13 Numerical Methods 144
14 Binary Matrices 148
15 Groups, Lie Groups and Lie Algebras 151
viii
16 Inequalities 166
17 Braid Group 168
18 vec Operator 173
19 Star Product 175
20 Nonnormal Matrices 180
21 Miscellaneous 182
Bibliography 209
ix
xi
Notation
:= is dened as
belongs to (a set)
/ does not belong to (a set)
intersection of sets
union of sets
empty set
N set of natural numbers
Z set of integers
Q set of rational numbers
R set of real numbers
R
+
set of nonnegative real numbers
C set of complex numbers
R
n
n-dimensional Euclidean space
space of column vectors with n real components
C
n
n-dimensional complex linear space
space of column vectors with n complex components
H Hilbert space
i
1
'z real part of the complex number z
z imaginary part of the complex number z
[z[ modulus of complex number z
[x +iy[ = (x
2
+y
2
)
1/2
, x, y R
T S subset T of set S
S T the intersection of the sets S and T
S T the union of the sets S and T
f(S) image of set S under mapping f
f g composition of two mappings (f g)(x) = f(g(x))
x column vector in C
n
x
T
transpose of x (row vector)
0 zero (column) vector
| . | norm
x y x
y scalar product (inner product) in C

n
x y vector product in R
3
A, B, C mn matrices
det(A) determinant of a square matrix A
tr(A) trace of a square matrix A
rank(A) rank of matrix A
A
T
transpose of matrix A
xii
A conjugate of matrix A
A
conjugate transpose of matrix A

A
conjugate transpose of matrix A

(notation used in physics)
A
1
inverse of square matrix A (if it exists)
I
n
n n unit matrix
I unit operator
0
n
n n zero matrix
AB matrix product of mn matrix A
and n p matrix B
A B Hadamard product (entry-wise product)
of mn matrices A and B
[A, B] := AB BA commutator for square matrices A and B
[A, B]
+
:= AB +BA anticommutator for square matrices A and B
AB Kronecker product of matrices A and B
AB Direct sum of matrices A and B
jk
Kronecker delta with
jk
= 1 for j = k
and
jk
= 0 for j ,= k
eigenvalue
real parameter
t time variable
H Hamilton operator
The Pauli spin matrices are used extensively in the book. They are given
by
x
:=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
y
:=
_
0 i
i 0
_
,
z
:=
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
In some cases we will also use
1
,
2
and
3
to denote
x
,
y
and
z
.
Chapter 1
Basic Operations
Problem 1. Let a, b, c R
3
. Show that
a (b c) b (c a) c (a b)
where denotes the scalar product and the vector product.
Problem 2. Consider the three linear independent normalized column
vectors in R
3
a
1
=
1
2
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
, a
2
=
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, a
3
=
1
2
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
.
(i) Find the volume
V
a
:= a
T
1
(a
2
a
3
) .
(ii) From the three vectors a
1
, a
2
, a
3
we form the matrix
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
1/
2 0 1/
2
_
_
.
Find the determinant. Discuss.
(iii) Find the vectors
b
1
=
1
V
a
a
2
a
3
, b
2
=
1
V
a
a
3
a
1
, b
3
=
1
V
a
a
1
a
2
1
2 Problems and Solutions
where denotes the vector product. Are the vectors linearly independent?
Problem 3. Consider the normalized vector v
0
= ( 1 0 0 )
T
in R
3
.
Find three normalized vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
such that
3
j=0
v
j
= 0, v
T
j
v
k
=
1
3
(j ,= k) .
Problem 4. Let x R
3
.
(i) Find all solutions of
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
.
(ii) Find all solutions of
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1/
2
0
1/
2
_
_
.
Problem 5. (i) Find four normalized vectors a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
in R
3
such
that
a
T
j
a
k
=
4
3
jk

1
3
=
_
1 for j = k
1/3 for j ,= k
.
(ii) Calculate the vector and the matrix
4
j=1
a
j
,
3
4
4
j=1
a
j
a
T
j
.
Discuss.
Problem 6. Find the set of all four (column) vectors u
1
, u
2
, v
1
, v
2
in
R
2
such that the following conditions are satised
v
T
1
u
2
= 0, v
T
2
u
1
= 0, v
T
1
u
1
= 1, v
T
2
u
2
= 1 .
Problem 7. Let e
1
, e
2
, e
3
be the standard basis in R
3
e
1
=
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, e
2
=
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, e
3
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
.
Basic Operations 3
(i) Consider the normalized vectors
a =
1
3
(e
1
+e
2
+e
3
), b =
1
3
(e
1
e
2
+e
3
),
c =
1
3
(e
1
+e
2
e
3
), d =
1
3
(e
1
e
2
e
3
) .
These vectors are the unit vectors giving the direction of the four bonds
of an atom in the diamond lattice. Show that the four vectors are linearly
dependent.
(ii) Find the scalar products a
T
b, b
T
c, c
T
d, d
T
a.
Problem 8. Let u, v be (column) vectors in R
n
. What does
A =
_
[(u
T
u)(v
T
v) (u
T
v)
2
[
calculate?
Problem 9. Let
x =
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
, y =
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
be two normalized vectors in R
3
. Assume that x
T
y = 0, i.e. the vectors
are orthogonal. Is the vector x y a unit vector again? Here denotes
the vector product.
Problem 10. Consider the 2 2 matrices
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
12
a
11
_
, C =
_
0 1
1 0
_
where a
11
, a
12
R. Can the expression
A
3
+ 3AC(A+C) +C
3
be simplied for computation?
Problem 11. Let A, B be 2 2 matrices. Let AB = 0
2
and BA = 0
2
.
Can we conclude that at least one of the two matrices is the 2 2 zero
matrix? Prove or disprove.
Problem 12. Let A, C be n n matrices over R. Let x, y, b, d be
column vectors in R
n
. Write the system of equations
(A+iC)(x +iy) = (b +id)
as a 2n 2n set of real equations.
Problem 13. (i) Consider the Hilbert space M
2
(R) of the 2 2 matrices
over R. Show that the matrices
_
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
1 0
_
,
_
1 1
1 1
_
are linearly independent.
(ii) Use the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization technqiue to nd an or-
thonormal basis for M
2
(R).
Problem 14. Let A, B be symmetric matrices over R. What is the
condition on A, B such that AB is symmetric?
Problem 15. Let A, B be positive denite matrices. Is AB also positive
denite? If not, what is the condition on A, B such that AB is positive
denite.
Problem 16. Let m 1 and N 2. Assume that N > m. Let X be an
N m matrix over R such that X
X = I
m
, where I
m
is the m m unit
matrix.
(i) We dene
P := XX
.
Calculate P
2
, P
and trP.
(ii) Give an example for such a matrix X, where m = 1 and N = 2.
Problem 17. (i) Compute the matrix product
( x
1
x
2
x
3
)
_
_
4 1 2
1 0 1
2 1 0
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
.
(ii) Write the quadratic polynomial
3x
2
1
8x
1
x
2
+ 2x
2
2
+ 6x
1
x
3
3x
2
3
in matrix form.
Problem 18. Consider the 4 4 matrix
N =
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
_
_
_ .
Basic Operations 5
Calculate N
2
, N
3
, N
4
. Is the matrix nilpotent?
Problem 19. Is the product of two n n nilpotent matrices nilpotent?
Problem 20. Given the 2 2 matrix A. Find all 2 2 matrics X such
that
AX = XA.
Problem 21. Consider the matrix A and the vector b,
A =
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
_
_
_, b =
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_ .
Are the vectors b, Ab, A
2
b, A
3
b linearly independent?
Problem 22. Let A be an n n matrix over C and x C
n
. Show that
'(x
Ax)
1
2
x
(A+A
)x.
Problem 23. Let A be an n n hermitian matrix and P be an n n
projection matrix. Then PAP is again a hermitian matrix. Is this still true
if A is a normal matrix, i.e. AA
= A
A?
Problem 24. Let A, B be normal n n matrices. Assume that AB
=
B
A and BA
= A
B.
(i) Show that their sum A+B is normal.
(ii) Show that their product AB is normal.
Problem 25. An nn matrix over C is called normal if MM
= M
M.
Let a, b C. What is the condition on a, b such that the 2 2 matrix
M =
_
0 a
b 0
_
is normal?
Problem 26. An n n matrix is called nilpotent if some power of it is
th zero matrix, i.e. there is a postive integer p such that A
p
= 0
n
. Show
that every nonzero nilpotent matrix is nondiagonable.
Problem 27. Let B be an nn hermitian matrix. Is iB skew-hermitian?
Problem 28. Let A be an n n normal matrix, i.e. AA
= A
A. Show
that kerA = kerA
, where ker denotes the kernel.

Problem 29. Let A be an n n hermitian matrix. Show that A
m
is a
hermitian matrix for all m N.
Problem 30. Let A be a hermitian n n matrix and A ,= 0. Show that
A
m
,= 0 for all m N.
Problem 31. Show that if hermitian matrices S and T are positive semi-
denite and commute (ST = TS), then their product ST is also positive
semi-denite. We have to show that
(STu)
u 0
for all u C
n
.
Problem 32. An nn matrix is called normal if AA
= A
A. Obviously,
a hermitian matrix is normal. Give a 3 3 matrix which is normal but not
hermitian.
Problem 33. Let A be an n n matrix with A
2
= 0. Is the matrix
I
n
+A invertible?
3
= 0. Show that I
n
+A
has an inverse.
Problem 35. Let A, B be nn matrices and c a constant. Assume that
the inverses of (AcI
n
) and (A+B cI
n
) exist. Show that
(AcI
n
)
1
B(A+B cI
n
)
1
(AcI
n
)
1
(A+B cI
n
)
1
.
Problem 36. Represent the 3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 2 0
1 0 1
_
_
(relative to the natural basis)
relative to the orthonormal basis
_
_
_
1
2
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
,
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
,
1
2
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
.
Basic Operations 7
Problem 37. Consider the rotation matrix
R() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
Let n be a positive integer. Calculate R
n
().
Problem 38. An n n matrix K is called a Cartan matrix if it satises
the following properties
(i) K
jj
= 2 for j = 1, . . . , N.
(ii) K
jk
is a nonpositive integer if j ,= k.
(iii) K
jk
= 0 if and only if K
jk
= 0.
(iv) K is postive denite, i.e. it has rank n.
Find a 2 2 Cartan matrix.
Problem 39. Let B, C be n n matrices and 0
n
the n n zero matrix.
Consider the 2n 2n matrix
A =
_
0
n
B
C 0
n
_
.
Find A
2
.
Problem 40. Find a 2 2 matrix which is normal but not hermitian.
A =
_
1
1
_
where , R. Find the condition on , such that the inverse matrix
exists. Find the inverse in this case.
Problem 42. An n n matrix over R is orthogonal if and only if the
columns of A form an orthogonal basis in R
3
. Show that the matrix
_
_
3/3 0
6/3
3/3

2/2

6/6
3/3
2/2

6/6
_
_
is orthogonal.
Problem 43. Let
A =
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
_
_
_, B =
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_ .
Can one nd a permutation matrix such that A = PBP
T
?
Problem 44. Let A be an n n matrix. Then A can be written as
A = HU, where H is an n n positive semi-denite matrix and U a
unitary matrix. Show that H
2
U = UH
2
if A is normal, i.e. A
A = AA
.
Problem 45. Can one nd an orthogonal matrix over R such that
R
T
_
0 1
0 0
_
R =
_
0 0
1 0
_
?
Problem 46. Let 0
n
be the nn zero matrix and I
n
be the nn identity
matrix. Find an invertible 2n 2n matrix T such that
T
1
_
0
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
T =
_
0 I
n
I
n
0
_
.
Problem 47. Find all 2 2 matrices g over C such that
det g = 1, g
= g
1
where is the diagonal matrix = diag(1, 1).
Problem 48. The (n + 1) (n + 1) Hadamard matrix H(n) of any
dimension is generated recursively as follows
H(n) =
_
H(n 1) H(n 1)
H(n 1) H(n 1)
_
where n = 1, 2, . . . and
H(0) = (1) .
Find H(1), H(2), and H(3).
Problem 49. Let a, b R
3
and
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices.
We dene
a := a
1
1
+a
2
2
+a
3
3
.
What is the condition on a, b such that
(a )(b ) (a b)I
2
+i(a b) ?
Here denotes the vector product and I
2
is the 2 2 identity matrix.
Basic Operations 9
Problem 50. Let M be an 2n 2n matrix with n 1. Then M can be
written in block form
M =
_
A B
C D
_
where A, B, C, D are nn matrices. Assume that M
1
exists and that the
n n matrix D is also nonsingular. Find M
1
using this condition.
Problem 51. Let A be an m n matrix with m n. Assume that
A has rank n. Show that there exists an m n matrix B such that the
n n matrix B
A is nonsingular. The matrix B can be chosen such that

B
A = I
n
.
Problem 52. Let A be an mn matrix over R. Let
x := (1, x, x
2
, . . . , x
m1
)
T
, y := (1, y, y
2
, . . . , y
n1
)
T
.
Find the extrema of the function
p(x, y) = x
T
Ay .
Problem 53. Let A be an nn matrix over C. Let u, v C
n
considered
as column vectors. Is
v
Au = u
v ?
Problem 54. Two n n matrices A, B are called similar if there exists
an invertible n n matrix P such that
A = PBP
1
.
Show that the matrices
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, B =
_
0 0
1 0
_
are similar.
Problem 55. Let u, v be normalized (column) vectors in C
n
. Let A be
an n n positive semidenite matrix over C. Show that
(u
v)(u
Av) 0 .
Problem 56. Let [0, 1]. Show that the 2 2 matrix
=
_

2
1
_
is a projection matrix.
Problem 57. Let A R
mn
be a nonzero matrix. Let x R
n
, y R
m
be vectors such that c := y
T
Ax ,= 0. Show that the matrix
B := Ac
1
Axy
T
A
has rank exactly one less than the rank of A.
Problem 58. Let A be an arbitrary nn matrix over R. Can we conclude
that A
2
is positive semi-denite?
Problem 59. Let A, B be n n idempotent matrices. Show that A+B
are idempotent if and only if AB = BA = 0.
Problem 60. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that A+B is
invertible. Show that
(A+B)
1
A=I
n
(A+B)
1
B
A(A+B)
1
=I
n
B(A+B)
1
.
Problem 61. Let u, v R
3
. Show that
(u v) (u v) (u u)(v v) (u v)
2
.
Problem 62. Consider the vector space of 2 2 matrices over R and the
matrices
A
1
=
_
1 1
0 0
_
, A
2
=
_
0 1
0 1
_
, A
3
=
_
0 0
1 1
_
, A
4
=
_
1 0
1 0
_
.
Are these matrices linearly independent? Which of these matrices are nor-
mal matrices?
Problem 63. Let , C. What is the condition on , such that
A(, ) =
_
0
0
_
is a normal matrix?
Problem 64. Find all invertible 2 2 matrices such that
_
0 1
0 0
_
S
_
0 0
1 0
_
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
S
_
0 1
0 0
_
.
Basic Operations 11
Problem 65. (i) Consider the two-dimensional Euclidean space and let
e
1
, e
2
be the standard basis
e
1
=
_
1
0
_
, e
2
=
_
0
1
_
.
Consider the vectors
v
0
= 0, v
1
=
1
2
e
1
+
3
2
e
2
, v
2
=
1
2
e
1
3
2
e
2
.
v
3
=
1
2
e
1
+
3
2
e
2
, v
4
=
1
2
e
1
3
2
e
2
, v
5
= e
1
, v
6
= e
1
.
Find the distance between the vectors and select the vectors pairs with the
shortest distance.
Problem 66. Given four points in R
2
x
i
, x
j
, x
k
, x
(pairwise dierent).
One can dene their cross-ratio
r
ijk
:=
[x
i
x
j
[[x
k
x
[
[x
i
x
[[x
k
x
j
[
.
Show that the cross-rations are invariant under conformal transformation.
Problem 67. Consider the vector space M
2
(R) of 2 2 matrices over R.
Can one nd a basis of M
2
(R) such that all four matrices are normal and
invertible?
Problem 68. Find all 2 2 matrices A over C such that
A
2
= I
2
, A
= A.
Extend to 3 3 matrices.
Problem 69. Let a, b R and a ,= 0. Find the inverse of the transfor-
mation
_
x
1
_
=
_
a b
0 1
__
x
1
_
.
Problem 70. Let A be an n n matrix over C with A
2
= I
n
. Can we
conclude that A is normal?
A(, , ) =
_
_
_
cosh 0 0 sinh
sin sinh cos 0 sin cosh
sin cos sinh sin sin cos sin cos cosh
cos cos sinh cos sin sin cos cos cosh
_
_
_ .
(i) Is each column a normalized vector in R
4
?
(ii) Calculate the scalar product between the column vectors. Discuss.
Problem 72. Let a, b, c, d be vectors in R
3
. Show that (Lagrange
identity)
(a b) (c d) = det
_
a c b c
a d b d
_
.
Problem 73. Consider the normalized state u and the permutation ma-
trix P, respectively
u =
1
3
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
, P =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
.
Are the vectors u, Pu, P
2
u linearly independent?
Problem 74. (i) Consider the 3 3 permutation matrix
P =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
.
Find all 3 3 matrices A such that PAP
T
= A.
(ii) Consider the 4 4 permutation matrix
P =
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Find all 4 4 matrices A such that PAP
T
= A.
Problem 75. Let 0 < /4. Note that sec(x) := 1/ cos(x). Consider
the matrix
A() =
_
sec(2) i tan(2)
i tan(2) sec(2)
_
.
Basic Operations 13
Is the matrix hermitian? Is the matrix orthogonal? Is the matrix unitary?
Is the inverse of A() given by A()?
Problem 76. Are the 4 4 matrices
P =
1
2
_
_
_
1 1/
2 0 1/
2
1/
2 1 1/
2 0
0 1/
2 1 1/
2
1/
2 0 1/
2 1
_
_
_,

P = I
4
P
projection matrices? If so describe the subspaces of R
4
they project into.
Problem 77. Let A be a positive denite n n matrix over R. Let
x R
n
. Show that A+xx
T
is positive denite.
Problem 78. Let A be a positive denite n n matrix over R. Let
x R
n
. Show that A+xx
T
is positive denite.
Problem 79. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Assume that A
2
= 0
n
.
Find the inverse of I
n
+iA.
Problem 80. Write the matrix
_
1 1
0 0
_
as a linear combination of the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 2 identity
matrix.
Problem 81. (i) Let x R. Show that the matrix
A(x) =
_
_
_
cos(x) 0 sin(x) 0
0 cos(x) 0 sin(x)
sin(x) 0 cos(x) 0
0 sin(x) 0 cos(x)
_
_
_
is invertible. Find the inverse.
(ii) Let x R. Show that the matrix
B(x) =
_
_
_
cosh(x) 0 sinh(x) 0
0 cosh(x) 0 sinh(x)
sinh(x) 0 cosh(x) 0
0 sinh(x) 0 cosh(x)
_
_
_
is invertible. Find the inverse.
S =
_
r t
t r
_
, R =
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Calculate RSR
T
. Discuss.
Problem 83. The vectors u, v, w point to the vertices of a equilateral
triangle
u =
_
1/
3
0
_
, v =
_
1/(2
3)
1/2
_
, w =
_
1/(2
3)
1/2
_
.
Find the area of this triangle.
Problem 84. One can describe a tetrahedron in the vector space R
3
by
specifying vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, v
4
normal to its faces with lengths equal to
the faces area. Give an example.
A =
_
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
_ .
Find the 4-th column non-zero vector in the matrix A so that this vector
is orthogonal to each of three other column vectors of the matrix.
Problem 86. Assume that two planes in R
3
given by
kx
1
+x
2
+mx
3
+n = 0, k
x
1
+
x
2
+m
x
3
+n
= 0
be the mirror images with respect to a third plane in R
3
given by
ax
1
+bx
2
+cx
3
+d = 0 .
Show that
_
_
k
_
_
=
1
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
_
_
a
2
b
2
c
2
2ab 2ac
2ab a
2
+b
2
c
2
2bc
2ac 2bc a
2
b
2
+c
2
_
_
_
_
k
m
_
_
.
Problem 87. (i) Consider a tetrahedron dened by the triple of linearly
independent vectors v
j
R
3
, j = 1, 2, 3. Show that the normal vectors to
Basic Operations 15
the faces dened by two of these vectors, normalized to the area of the face,
is given by
n
1
=
1
2
v
2
v
3
, n
2
=
1
2
v
3
v
1
, n
3
=
1
2
v
1
v
2
.
(ii) Show that
v
1
=
2
3V
n
2
n
3
, v
2
=
2
3V
n
3
n
1
, v
3
=
2
3V
n
1
n
2
where V is the volume of the tetrahedron given by
V =
1
3!
(v
1
v
2
) v
3
=
_
2
9
(n
1
n
2
) n
3
.
Problem 88. (i) Find the area of the set
S
2
:= (x
1
, x
2
) : 1 x
1
x
2
0 .
(ii) Find the volume of the set
S
3
:= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) : 1 x
1
x
2
x
3
0 .
Extend the n-dimensions.
Problem 89. Let A be a hermitian n n matrix over C with A
2
= I
n
.
Find the matrix
(A
1
+iI
n
)
1
.
Problem 90. Find the 2 2 matrices F and F
from the two equations

_
0 0
1 0
_
=
1
2
(F +iF
),
_
0 1
0 0
_
=
1
2
(F iF
) .
Find the anticommutator of F and F
, i.e. [F, F
]
+
FF
+F
F.
Chapter 2
Linear Equations
Problem 1. (i) Find all 2 2 matrices A over R with
det(A) = a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
= 1 (1)
and
A
1
2
_
1
1
_
=
1
2
_
1
1
_
. (2)
(ii) Do these matrices form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 2. Find all solutions of the linear system
x
1
+ 2x
2
4x
3
+x
4
=3
2x
1
3x
2
+x
3
+ 5x
4
=4
7x
1
10x
3
+ 13x
4
=0 .
Problem 3. Consider the area-preserving map of the two-dimensional
torus (modulo 1)
_
x
_
= A
_
x
y
_
, A =
_
4 15
1 4
_
where det A = 1 (area-preserving). Consider a rational point on the torus
_
x
y
_
=
_
n
1
/p
n
2
/p
_
16
Linear Equations 17
where p is a prime number (except 2, 3, 5) and n
1
, n
2
are integers between 0
and p1. One nds that the orbit has the following property. It is perdioc
and its period T depends on p alone. Consider p = 7, n
1
= 2, n
2
= 3. Find
the orbit and the period T.
Problem 4. Solve the linear equation
( x
1
x
2
x
3
)
_
_
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
_
_
= ( x
1
x
2
x
3
) .
Problem 5. Gordans theorem tells us the following. Let A be an mn
matrix over R and c be an n-vector in R
n
. Then exactly one of the follow-
ing systems has a solution:
System 1: Ax < 0 for some x R
n
.
System 2: A
T
p = 0 and p 0 for some p R
m
.
Let
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
.
Find out whether system (1) or system (2) has a solution.
Problem 6. Gordans theorem tells us the following: Let A be an mn
matrix over R. Exactly one of the following systems has a solution:
System 1: Ax < 0 for some x R
n
System 2: A
T
p = 0 and p 0 for some nonzero p R
n
.
Let
A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
.
Problem 7. Farkas theorem tells us the following. Let A be an m n
matrix over R and c be an n-vector in R
n
. Then exactly one of the follow-
ing systems has a solution:
System 1: Ax 0 and c
T
x > 0 for some x R
n
.
System 2: A
T
y = c and y 0 for some y R
m
.
Let
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
, c =
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
.
Problem 8. Apply the Gauss-Seidel method to solve the linear system
_
_
_
4 1 1 0
1 4 0 1
1 0 4 1
0 1 1 4
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_
_
_ =
_
_
_
1
0
0
0
_
_
_ .
Problem 9. Let A be an n n matrix. Consider the linear equation
Ax = 0. If the matrix Ahas rank r, then there are nr linearly independent
solutions of Ax = 0. Let n = 3 and
A =
_
_
0 1 1
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
.
Find the rank of A and the linearly independent solutions.
Problem 10. Consider the curve described by the equation
2x
2
+ 4xy y
2
+ 4x 2y + 5 = 0 (1)
relative to the natural basis (standard basis e
1
= ( 1 0 )
T
, e
2
= ( 0 1 )
T
).
(i) Write the equation in matrix form.
(ii) Find an orthogonal change of basis so that the equation relative to the
new basis has no crossterms, i.e. no x
term. This change of coordinate

system does not change the origin.
_
b a
a b
_
with a, b R and positive determinant, i.e. a
2
+b
2
> 0.
(i) Solve the equation
_
b a
a b
__
x
1
y
1
_
=
_
b a
a b
__
x
0
y
0
_
Linear Equations 19
for the vector (x
1
y
1
)
T
with a given vector (x
0
y
0
)
T
.
(ii) Let
M :=
_
b a
a b
_
1
_
b a
a b
_
and
J =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Calculate M
T
JM.
Problem 12. Suppose that V is a vector space over a eld F and U V
is a subspace. We dene an equivalence relation on V by x y i
x y U. Let V/U = V/ . Dene addition and scalar multiplication on
V/U by [x] + [y] = [x] + [y], c[x] = [cx], where c F and
[x] = y V : y x .
Show that these operations do not depend on which representative x we
choose.
Problem 13. Consider the vector space V = C
2
and the subspace U =
(x
1
, x
2
) : x
1
= 2x
2
. Find V/U.
Problem 14. Find all solutions of the system of linear equations
_
_
5 2 4
2 2 2
4 2 5
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
.
Problem 15. Let b > a. Consider the system of linear equations
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 . . . 1
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
n
x
2
0
x
2
1
x
2
2
. . . x
2
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
0
x
n
1
x
n
2
. . . x
n
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
w
0
w
1
w
2
.
.
.
w
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
b a
(b
2
a
2
)/2
(b
3
a
3
)/3
.
.
.
(b
n+1
a
n+1
)/(n + 1)
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Let n = 2, a = 0, b = 1, x
0
= 0, x
1
= 1/2, x
2
= 1. Find w
0
, w
1
, w
2
.
Problem 16. Let Y, X, A, B, C, E n n matrices over R. Consider the
system of matrix equations
Y +CE +DX = 0
n
, AE +BX = 0
n
.
Assume that A has an inverse. Eliminate the matrix E and solve the system
for Y
Problem 17. Let V be a vector space over a eld F. Let W be a subspace
of V . We dene an equivalence relation on V by stating that v
1
v
2
if
v
1
v
2
W. The quotient space V/W is the set of equivalence classes [v]
where v
1
v
2
W. Thus we can say that v
1
is equivalent to v
2
modulo W
if v
1
= v
2
+w for some w W. Let
V = R
2
=
__
x
1
x
2
_
: x
1
, x
2
R
_
and
W =
__
x
1
0
_
: x
1
R
_
.
(i) Is
_
3
0
_
_
1
0
_
,
_
4
1
_
_
3
1
_
,
_
3
0
_
_
4
1
_
?
(ii) Give the quotient space.
Problem 18. For the three-body problem the following linear transfor-
mation plays a role
X(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
1
3
(x
1
+x
2
+x
3
)
x(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
1
2
(x
1
x
2
)
y(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
1
6
(x
1
+x
2
2x
3
) .
(i) Find the inverse transformation.
(ii) Introduce polar coordinates
x(r, ) = r sin, y(r, ) = r cos , r
2
=
1
3
((x
1
x
2
)
2
+(x
2
x
3
)
2
+(x
3
x
1
)
2
) .
Express (x
1
x
2
), (x
2
x
3
), (x
3
x
1
) using this coordinates.
Problem 19. Let [0, 2). Find all solutions of the linear equation
_
cos sin
sin cos
__
x
1
x
2
_
=
_
b
1
b
2
_
.
Thus x
1
and x
2
depends on .
Linear Equations 21
Problem 20. Consider the partial dierential equation (Laplace equa-
tion)
2
u
x
2
+

2
u
y
2
= 0 on [0, 1] [0, 1]
with the boundary conditions
u(x, 0) = 1, u(x, 1) = 2, u(0, y) = 1, u(1, y) = 2 .
Apply the central dierence scheme
_
2
u
x
2
_
j,k
u
j1,k
2u
j,k
+u
j+1,k
(x)
2
,
_
2
u
y
2
_
j,k
u
j,k1
2u
j,k
+u
j,k+1
(y)
2
and then solve the linear equation. Consider the cases x = y = 1/3 and
x = y = 1/4.
Problem 21. Let n and p be vectors in R
n
with n ,= 0. The set of all
vectors x in R
n
which satisfy the equation
n (x p) = 0
is called a hyperplane through the point p R. We call n a normal vector
for the hyperplane and call n (x p) = 0 a normal equation for the
hyperplane. Find n and p in R
4
such that we obtain the hyperplane given
by
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
=
7
2
.
Note that any hyperplane of the Euclidean space R
n
has exactly two unit
normal vectors.
Problem 22. (i) The equation of a line in the Euclidean space R
2
passing
through the points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) is given by
(y y
1
)(x
2
x
1
) = (y
2
y
1
)(x x
1
) .
Apply this equation to the points in R
2
given by (x
1
, y
1
) = (1, 1/2), (x
2
, y
2
) =
(1/2, 1). Consider the unit square with the corner points (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0),
(1, 1) and the map
(0, 0) 0, (0, 1) 0, (1, 0 0, (1, 1) 1 .
We can consider this as a 2 input AND-gate. Show that the line constructed
above classies this map.
(ii) The equation of a plane in R
3
passing through the points (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
),
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
), (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) in R
3
is given by
det
_
_
x x
1
y y
1
z z
1
x
2
x
1
y
2
y
1
z
2
z
1
x
3
x
1
y
3
y
1
z
3
z
1
_
_
= 0 .
Apply this equations to the points
(1, 1, 1/2), (1, 1/2, 1), (1/2, 1, 1) .
Consider the unit cube in R
3
with the corner points (vertices)
(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)
(1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)
and the map where all corner points are mapped to 0 except for (1, 1, 1)
which is mapped to 1. We can consider this as a 3 input AND-gate. Show
that the plane constructed in (i) separates these solutions.
Problem 23. Find the system of linear equations for a and b given by
x + 15
(x + 3)(x 1)
=
a
x + 3
+
b
x 1
.
Solve the system of linear equations.
Problem 24. Consider the linear equation written in matrix form
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 2
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
.
First show that the determinant of the 3 3 matrix is nonzero. Apply two
dierent methods (Gauss elimination and the Leverriers method) to nd
the solution. Compare the two methods and discuss.
Problem 25. Let A be a given 3 3 matrix over R with det(A) ,= 0. Is
the transformation
x
(x, y) =
a
11
x +a
12
y +a
13
a
31
x +a
32
y +a
33
y
(x, y) =
a
21
x +a
22
y +a
23
a
31
x +a
32
y +a
33
invertible? If so nd the inverse.
Chapter 3
Traces, Determinants and
Hyperdeterminants
Problem 1. Find all 2 2 matrices over C that satify the conditions
trA = 0, A = A
, A
2
= I
2
.
Problem 2. Find all 2 2 matrices A such that
A
2
= tr(A)A.
Calculate det(A) and det(A
2
) of such a matrix.
Problem 3. Let
x
,
y
,
z
be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate the
trace of
x
,
y
,
z
,
x
y
,
x
z
,
y
z
,
x
z
.
2
= I
n
. Let B be a matrix
with AB = BA, i.e. [A, B]
+
= 0
n
.
(i) Show that tr(B) = 0.
(ii) Find tr(AB).
Problem 5. (i) Consider the two 2 2 matrices
A =
_
a
11
1
a
21
0
_
, B =
_
a
11
0
a
21
1
_
.
23
The rst column of the matrices A and B agree, but the second column of
the two matrices dier. Is
det(A+B) = 2(det(A) + det(B))?
Problem 6. Let A, B be 2 2 matrices. Assume that det(A) = 0 and
det(B) = 0. Can we conclude that det(A+B) = 0?
Problem 7. Let u, v, w be column vectors in R
3
. We form the 3 3
matrix
M = ( u v w) .
Show that det(M) = (u v) w, where denotes the vector product and
the scalar product.
Problem 8. The oriented volume of an n-simplex in n-dimensional Eu-
clidean space with vertices v
0
, v
1
, . . . , v
n
is given by
1
n!
det(S)
where S is the n n matrix
S := (v
1
v
0
v
2
v
0
. . . v
n1
v
0
v
n
v
0
) .
Thus each column of the nn matrix is the dierence between the vectors
representing two vertices.
(i) Let
v
0
=
_
0
0
_
, v
1
=
_
1
1
_
, v
2
=
_
1/2
1
_
.
Find the oriented volume.
(ii) Let
v
0
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
, v
1
=
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, v
2
=
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, v
3
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
.
Find the oriented volume.
Problem 9. The area A of a triangle given by the coordinates of its
vertices
(x
0
, y
0
), (x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
)
Traces, Determinants and Hyperdeterminants 25
is
A =
1
2
det
_
_
x
0
y
0
1
x
1
y
1
1
x
2
y
2
1
_
_
.
(i) Let (x
0
, y
0
) = (0, 0), (x
1
, y
1
) = (1, 0), (x
2
, y
2
) = (0, 1). Find A.
(ii) A tetrahedron is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, three of
which meet at each vertex. A tetrahedron can be dened by the coordinates
of the vertices
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
), (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
), (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) .
The volume V of the tetrahedron is given by
V =
1
6
det
_
_
_
x
0
y
0
z
0
1
x
1
y
1
z
1
1
x
2
y
2
z
2
1
x
3
y
3
z
3
1
_
_
_ .
Let
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = (0, 0, 0), (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) = (0, 0, 1),
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) = (0, 1, 0), (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) = (1, 0, 0) .
Find the volume V .
(iii) Let
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = (+1, +1, +1), (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) = (1, 1, +1),
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) = (1, +1, 1), (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) = (+1, 1, 1) .
Find the volume V .
Problem 10. Let A, B be n n matrices. Assume that [A, B] = A.
What can be said about the trace of A?
Problem 11. Find all linearly independent diagonal 3 3 matrices over
R with trace zero.
Problem 12. Let A be a 2 2 matrix over C. Assume that A
2
= I
2
and
thus tr(A
2
) = 2. What can be said about the trace of A?
Problem 13. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that
tr(AB) = 0 .
(i) Can we conclude that tr(AB
) = 0?
(ii) Consider the case that B is skew-hermitian.
Problem 14. Let
A = (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n1
, u), B = (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n1
, v)
be nn matrices, where the rst n1 columns a
1
, . . . , a
n1
are the same
and for the last column u ,= v. Show that
det(A+B) = 2
n1
(det(A) + det(B)) .
Problem 15. An n n tridiagonal matrix (n 3) has nonzero elements
only in the main diagonal, the rst diagonal below this, and the rst di-
agonal above the main diagonal. The determiant of an n n tridiagonal
matrix can be calculated by the recursive formula
det(A) = a
n,n
det[A]
{1,...,n1}
a
n,n1
a
n1,n
det[A]
{1,...,n2
where det[A]
{1,...,k}
denotes the k-th principal minor, that is, [A]
{1,...,k}
is
the submatrix by the rst k rows and columns of A. The cost of computing
the determinant of a tridiagonal matrix using this recursion is linear in n,
while the cost is cubic for a general matrix. Apply this recursion relation
to calculate the determinant of the 4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 1 2 0
0 2 2 3
0 0 3 3
_
_
_ .
Problem 16. (i) Let A be a 2 2 matrix over R. Assume that
tr(A) = tr(A
2
) = tr(A
3
) = tr(A
4
) = 0 .
Can we conclude that A is the 2 2 zero matrix?
(ii) Assume that A is a normal matrix and satises these conditions. Can
we conclude that A is the 2 2 zero matrix?
Problem 17. Consider the symmetric n n band matrix (n 3)
M
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 0 . . . 0 0
1 1 1 . . . 0 0
0 1 1 . . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1 1
0 0 0 . . . 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
with the elements in the eld F
2
. Show that
det(M
n
) = det(M
n1
) det(M
n2
)
with the initial conditions det M
3
= det M
4
= 1. Show that the solution is
det(M
n
) =
2
3
3
cos
_
n
3

6
_
(mod2) .
Problem 18. Let H be the 8 8 matrix
H =
_
0
0 I
4
_
, =
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Let A, D, X, Y be 4 4 matrices over C and
M =
_
A X
Y D
_
.
Find the conditions on the matrix M such that
HM +M
H = 0
8
and trAtrD = 0.
Problem 19. Consider the symmetric 3 3 matrix
A() =
_
_
1 1
1 1
1 1
_
_
, R.
(i) Find the maxima and minima of the function
f() = det(A()) .
(ii) For which values of is the matrix noninvertible?
Problem 20. Let A, B be n n hermitian positive denite matrices.
Show that
tr(AB) > 0 .
Problem 21. Let A, B be n n matrices over R. Assume that A is
invertible. Let t be a nonzero real number. Show that
det(A+tB) = t
n
det(A) det(A
1
B +t
1
I
n
) .
Problem 22. Let A be an nn invertible matrix over R. Show that A
T
is also invertible. Is (A
T
)
1
= (A
1
)
T
?
Problem 23. Let A be an 2 2 matrix over R. Let I
2
be the 2 2 unit
matrix and R. Find the determinant of the 4 4 matrix
_
I
2
A
A
T
I
2
_
.
Problem 24. Let A be an 2 2 matrix over R. Calculate
r = tr(A
2
) (tr(A))
2
.
What are the conditions on a
jk
such that r = 0?
Problem 25. Let A be a 2 2 symmetric matrix
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
12
a
22
_
over R. We dene
a
12
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Show that
a
12
trA
2
= tr
_

a
12
A
2
_
= tr
_
2A
A
a
12
_
.
Problem 26. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Is
tr(A
B) = tr(AB
) ?
Problem 27. Let A, B be 2 2 matrices. Show that
[A, B]
+
AB +BA = (tr(AB) tr(A)tr(B))I
2
+ tr(A)B + tr(B)A.
Can this identity be extended to 3 3 matrices?
Problem 28. Find all nonzero 2 2 matrices A and B such that
BA
= tr(AA
)A.
Problem 29. Consider the Hilbert space M
4
(C) of all 44 matrices over
C with the scalar product A, B) := tr(AB
), where A, B M
4
(C). The
-matrices are given by
1
=
_
_
_
0 0 0 i
0 0 i 0
0 i 0 0
i 0 0 0
_
_
_,
2
=
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_
3
=
_
_
_
0 0 i 0
0 0 0 i
i 0 0 0
0 i 0 0
_
_
_,
4
=
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
and
5
=
1
4
=
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_ .
We dene the 4 4 matrices
jk
:=
i
2
[
j
,
k
], j < k
where j = 1, 2, 3, k = 2, 3, 4 and [ , ] denotes the commutator.
(i) Calculate
12
,
13
,
14
,
23
,
24
,
34
.
(ii) Do the 16 matrices
I
4
,
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
,
5
,
5
1
,
5
2
,
5
3
,
5
4
,
12
,
13
,
14
,
23
,
24
,
34
form a basis in the Hilbert space M
4
(C)? If so is the basis orthogonal?
Problem 30. Let n 2. An invertible integer matrix, A GL(n, Z),
generates a toral automorphism f : T
n
T
n
via the formula
f = A, : R
n
T
n
:= R
n
/Z
n
.
The set of xed points of f is given by
Fix(f) := x
T
n
: f(x
) = x
.
Let Fix(f) be the number of xed points of f. Now we have: if det(I
n

A) ,= 0, then
Fix(f) = [ det(I
n
A)[ .
Let n = 2 and
A =
_
2 1
1 1
_
.
Show that det(I
2
A) ,= 0 and nd Fix(f).
Problem 31. Calculate the determinant of the 4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_
using the exterior product. This means calculate
_
_
_
1
0
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0
0
1
_
_
_ .
Problem 32. (i) Let R. Find the determinant of the matrices
A() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, B() =
_
cos i sin
i sin cos
_
,
(ii) Let R. Find the determinant of the matrices
A() =
_
cosh sinh
sinh cosh
_
, B() =
_
cosh i sinh
i sinh cosh
_
,
Problem 33. The 3 3 diagonal matrices over R with trace equal to 0
form a vector space. Provide a basis for this vector space. Using the scalar
product tr(AB
T
) for n n matrices A, B over R the elements of the basis
should be orthogonal to each other.
Problem 34. Let A be a n n matrix with det A = 1. Find det(A
1
).
Problem 35. The Hilbert-Schmidt norm of an n n matrix over C is
given by
|A|
2
=
_
tr(A
A) .
Another norm is the trace norm given by
|A|
1
= tr
_
(A
A) .
Calculate the two norms for the matrix
A =
_
0 2i
i 0
_
.
Problem 36. The nn permutation matrices form a group under matrix
multiplications. Show that
det(I
n
P) = 0
for any n n permutation matrices.
Problem 37. Let A be a 3 3 matrix over R. Consider the permutation
matrix
P =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Assume that AP = A. Is A invertible?
Problem 38. Let A = (a
ij
) be a 2n 2n skew-symmetric matrix. The
Pfaan is dened as
Pf(A) :=
1
2
n
n!
S2n
sgn()
n
j=1
a
(2j1),(2j)
where S
2n
is the symmetric group and sgn() is the signature of permuta-
tion . Consider the case with n = 2, i.e.
A =
_
_
_
0 a
12
a
13
a
14
a
12
0 a
23
a
24
a
13
a
23
0 a
34
a
14
a
24
a
34
0
_
_
_ .
Calculate Pf(A).
Problem 39. Let A be a skew-symmetric 2n2n matrix. For the Pfaan
we have the properties
(Pf(A))
2
= det(A), Pf(BAB
T
) = det(B)Pf(A)
Pf(A) =
n
Pf(A), Pf(A
T
) = (1)
n
Pf(A) .
where B is an arbitrary 2n2n matrix. Let J be a 2n2n skew-symmetric
matrix with Pf(J) ,= 0. Let B be a 2n 2n matrix such that B
T
JB = J.
Show that det(B) = 1.
Problem 40. Consider the Legendre polynomials P
j
, where
p
0
(x) = 1, p
1
(x) = x, p
2
(x) =
1
2
(3x
2
1)
p
3
(x) =
1
2
(5x
3
3x), p
4
(x) =
1
8
(35x
4
30x
2
+ 3) .
Show that
det
_
_
p
0
(x) p
1
(x) p
2
(x)
p
1
(x) p
2
(x) p
3
(x)
p
2
(x) p
3
(x) p
4
(x)
_
_
= (1 x
2
)
3
_
_
p
0
(0) 0 p
2
(0)
0 p
2
(0) 0
p
2
(0) 0 p
4
(0)
_
_
.
Problem 41. Let n 2. Consider the n n matrix
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 2 3 . . . n 1 n
2 3 4 . . . n 1
3 4 5 . . . 1 2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
n 1 2 . . . n 2 n 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Show that
det(A) = (1)
n(n1)/2
1
2
(n + 1)n
n1
.
Problem 42. Let n 2. Consider the n n matrix
A(x) =
_
_
_
_
_
_
c
1
x x . . . x x
x c
2
x . . . x x
x x c
3
. . . x x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x x x . . . x c
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Show that
det(A) = (1)
n
(P(n) xP
(x))
where
P(x) = (x c
1
)(x c
2
) (x c
n
) .
Problem 43. Let V
1
be a hermitian n n matrix. Let V
2
be a positive
semidenite n n matrix. Let k be a positive integer. Show that
tr((V
2
V
1
)
k
)
can be written as tr(V
k
), where V := V
1/2
2
V
1
V
1/2
2
.
M =
_
cosh(r) sinh(r) cos(2) sinh(r) sin(2)
sinh(r) sin(2) cosh(r) + sinh(r) cos(2)
_
.
Find the determinant of M. Thus show that the inverse of M exists. Find
the inverse of M.
Problem 45. Let A, B be nn matrices over C. Is tr(AB
) = tr(A
B)?
Problem 46. Let A be an n n matrix. Assume that the inverse of A
exists, i.e. det(A) ,= 0. Then the inverse B = A
1
can be calculated as
a
jk
ln(det(A)) = b
kj
.
Apply this formula to the 2 2 matrix A
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
with det(A) = a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
,= 0.
Problem 47. Show that the determinant of the matrix
A =
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
_
_
is nonzero. Find the inverse of the matrix.
Problem 48. Consider the 2 2 matrix over C
C =
_
c
11
c
12
c
21
c
22
_
.
Calculate det(CC
) and show that det(CC
) 0.
Problem 49. Let : R
n
R
n
R be an analytic function, where
(x, y) = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
n
) R
n
R
n
. The Monge-Ampere determi-
nant M() is dened by
M() := det
_
_
_
_
/x
1
. . . /x
n
/y
1

2
/x
1
y
1
. . .
2
/x
n
y
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
/y
n

2
/x
1
y
n
. . .
2
/x
n
y
n
_
_
_
_
.
Let n = 2 and
(x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
) = x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ (x
1
y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
y
2
)
2
+y
2
1
+y
2
2
.
Find the Monge-Ampere determinant and the conditions on x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
such that M() = 0.
Problem 50. (i) Let z C. Find the determinant of
A =
_
1 z
z z z
_
.
Is the matrix
P
2
= I
2
1
1 +z z
A
a projection matrix?
(ii) Let z
1
, z
2
C. Find the determinant of
B =
_
_
1 z
1
z
2
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
2
z
1
z
2
z
1
z
2
z
2
z
2
_
_
.
Is the matrix
P
3
= I
3
1
1 +z
1
z
1
+z
2
z
2
B
a projection matrix?
Problem 51. Let T be the 2 2 matrix
T =
1
3
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Calculate ln(det(I
2
T)) using the right-hand side of the identity
ln(det(I
2
T)) =
k=1
1
k
tr(T
k
) .
Problem 52. Let A be an n n matrix. Assume that
tr(A
j
) = 0, for j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Can we conclude that det(A) = 0?
Problem 53. Consider the golden mean number = (
5 1)/2 and the

matrix
F =
_

_
.
Find tr(F) and det(F). Since det(F) ,= 0 we have an inverse. Find F
1
.
Problem 54. Let A be an n n matrix and B be an invertible n n
matrix. Show that
det(I
n
+A) = det(I
n
+BAB
1
) .
Problem 55. Let A be an 2 2 matrix. Show that
det(I
2
+A) = 1 + tr(A) + det(A) .
Can the result extended to det(I
3
+A)?
Problem 56. Let A, B be n n matrices over R. Assume that A =
A
T
(symmetric) and B = B
T
(skew-symmetric). Show that [A, B] is
symmetric.
Problem 57. Let A be a 2 2 matrix over C. Let
t
1
= tr(A), t
2
= tr(A
2
), t
3
= tr(A
3
), t
4
= tr(A
4
) .
Can we reconstruct A from t
1
, t
2
, t
3
, t
4
?
Problem 58. The Levi-Civita symbol (also called completely antisym-
metric constant tensor) is dened by
j1,j2,...,jn
:=
_
_
_
+1 if j
1
, j
2
, . . . , j
n
is an even permutation of 12 n
1 if j
1
, j
2
, . . . , j
n
is an odd permutation of 12 n
0 otherwise
Let
jk
be the Kronecker delta. Show that
j1,j2,...,jn
k1,k2,...,kn
= det
_
_
_
_
j1k1

j2k1
. . .
jnk1
j1k2

j2k2
. . .
jnk2
.
.
.
.
.
.
j1kn

j2kn
. . .
jnkn
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 59. Let x, R. Find the determinant of the symmetric nn
matrix
A =
_
_
_
_
x + x x
x x + x
.
.
.
.
.
.
x x x +
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 60. Let R. Let A() be an invertible nn matrix. Assume
that the entries a
jk
are analytic functions of . Show that
tr
_
A
1
()
d
d
A()
_
=
1
det(A())
d
d
det(A()) .
Problem 61. Let e
j
be the three orthonormal vectors in Z
3
e
1
=
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, e
2
=
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, e
3
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
.
We consider the face-centered cubic lattice as a sublattice of Z
3
generated
by the three primitive vectors
e
1
+e
2
, e
1
+e
3
, e
2
+e
3
.
Form the 3 3 matrix
(e
1
+e
2
e
1
+e
3
e
2
+e
3
) .
Show that this matrix has an inverse and nd the inverse.
Problem 62. Let A, B, C be n n matrices. Show that
tr([A, B]C) = tr(A[B, C]) .
Problem 63. (i) Let M be a 22 matrix over R. Assume that tr(M) = 0.
Show that
M
2
= det(M)I
2
.
(ii) Show that
e
M
= cos(
M)I
2
+
sin(
_
det(M))
_
det(M)
M .
If det(M) = 0 then sin(0)/0 = 1. Both cos) and sin()/ are even
functions of and thus exp(M) is independent of the choice of the square
root of det(M).
Problem 64. Consider the m m matrix F(x) = (f
jk
(x)) (j, k =
1, 2, . . . , m), where f
jk
: R
n
R are analytic functions. Assume that F(x)
is invertible for all x R
n
. Then we have the identities (j = 1, 2, . . . , m)
(det(F(x)))
x
j
det(F(x))tr
_
F
1
(x)
F(x)
x
j
_
and
F
1
(x)
x
j
F
1
(x)
F(x)
x
j
F
1
(x) .
The dierentiation is understood entrywise. Apply the identities to the
matrix (m = 2, n = 1)
F(x) =
_
cos(x) sin(x)
sin(x) cos(x)
_
.
Problem 65. Let f
1
, f
2
, f
3
: R
3
R be continuously dierentiable
functions. Find the determinant of the 3 3 matrix A = (a
jk
)
a
jk
:=
f
j
x
k
f
k
x
j
.
Problem 66. Consider the 3 3 permutation matrix
P =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Can we nd a 3 3 matrix A such that [P, A] is invertible?
Problem 67. Let n 2. Consider the n n symmetric tridiagonal
matrix over R
A
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
c 1 0 0 0
1 c 1 0 0
0 1 c 1 0

0 0 0 1 c 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 c 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 c
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
where c R. Find the determinant of A
n
.
Problem 68. An n n matrix A is called idempotent if A
2
= A. Show
that
rank(A) = tr(A) .
Problem 69. Let A, B, C be n n matrices over C. Let a
j
, b
j
, c
j
(j = 1, 2, . . . , n) be the j-th column of A, B, C, respectively. Show that if
for some k 1, 2, . . . , n
c
k
= a
k
+b
k
and
c
j
= a
j
= b
j
, j = 1, . . . , k 1, k + 1, . . . , n
then
det(C) = det(A) + det(B) .
Problem 70. Let R be an nonsingular n n matrix over C. Let A be
an n n matrix over C of rank one.
(i) Show that the matrix R +A is nonsingular if and only if
tr(R
1
A) ,= 1 .
(ii) Show that in this case we have
(R +A)
1
= R
1
(1 + tr(R
1
A))
1
R
1
AR
1
.
(iii) Simplify to the case that R = I
n
.
Problem 71. Let A be an n n diagonal matrix over C. Let B be an
nn matrix over C with b
jj
= 0 for all j = 1, . . . , n. Can we conclude that
all diagonal elements of the commutator [A, B] are 0?
Problem 72. (i) Find a nonzero 2 2 matrix V such that
V
2
= tr(V )V .
(ii) Can such a matrix be invertible?
Problem 73. Consider the (n + 1) (n + 1) matrix over C
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 . . . . . . 0 z
1
0 1 0 . . . . . . 0 z
2
0 0 1 . . . . . . 0 z
3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . . . . 1 z
n
z
1
z
2
z
3
. . . . . . z
n
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Find the determinant. What is the condition on the z
j
s such that A is
invertible?
Problem 74. Let R. Consider the unitary matrix
U() =
_
_
e
i
0 0
0 1 0
0 0 e
i
_
_
.
Find the minima and maxima of the function tr(U()).
Problem 75. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that B is
invertible. Find
det(I
n
+BAB
1
) .
Problem 76. Let z
k
= x
k
+iy
k
, where x
k
, y
k
R and k = 1, . . . , n. Find
the 2n 2n matrix A such that
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
z
1
.
.
.
z
n
z
1
.
.
.
z
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= A
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
y
1
.
.
.
y
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Find the determinant of the matrix A.
Problem 77. Let A, B be nn matrices over C. We dene the product
A B :=
1
2
(AB +BA)
1
n
tr(AB)I
n
.
(i) Find the trace of A B.
(ii) Is the product commutative? Is the product associative?
Problem 78. Let A, B be n n matrices over R with det(A) = 1 and
det(B) = 1. This means A, B are elements of the Lie group SL(n, R). Can
we conclude that
tr(AB) + tr(AB
1
) = tr(A)tr(B) .
Problem 79. Let A, B be two 2 2 matrices. We dene the product
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
(i) Find the determinant and trace of AB. Express the result using tr(A),
tr(B), det(A), det(B).
(ii) Assume that the inverse of A and B exists. Is
(A B)
1
= A
1
B
1
?
Problem 80. Let A be an nn invertible matrix over C. Let x, y C
n
.
Then we have the identity
det(A+xy
) det(A)(1 +y
A
1
x) .
Can we conclude that A+xy
is also invertible?
Problem 81. Consider a triangle embedded in R
3
. Let v
j
= (x
j
, y
j
, z
j
)
(j = 1, 2, 3) be the coordinates of the vertices. Then the area A of the
triangle is given by
A =
1
2
|(v
2
v
1
) (v
1
v
3
)| =
1
2
|(v
3
v
1
) (v
3
v
2
)|
where denotes the vector product and |.| denotes the Euclidean norm.
The area of the triangle can also be found via
A =
1
2
_
_
_
det
_
_
x
1
y
1
1
x
2
y
2
1
x
3
y
3
1
_
_
_
_
2
+
_
_
det
_
_
y
1
z
1
1
y
2
z
2
1
y
3
z
3
1
_
_
_
_
2
+
_
_
det
_
_
z
1
x
1
1
z
2
x
2
1
z
3
x
3
1
_
_
_
_
2
.
Consider
v
1
= (1, 0, 0), v
2
= (0, 1, 0), v
3
= (0, 0, 1) .
Find the area of the triangle using both expressions. Discuss. The triangle
could be one of the faces of a tetrahedron.
Problem 82. A tetrahedron has four triangular faces. Given the coordi-
nates of the four vertices
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
), (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
), (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
)
the volume of the tretrahedron is given by
V =
1
3!
det
_
_
_
x
0
y
0
z
0
1
x
1
y
1
z
1
1
x
2
y
2
z
2
1
x
3
y
3
z
3
1
_
_
_
(i) Given the four vertices (1, 0,
2), (2, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0), (1,
2, 0) nd the
volume.
(ii) Derive an equation for surface area of a tretrahedron given by coordi-
nates. Apply it to the vertices given in (i).
Problem 83. Let v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
be vectors in R
n
. Show that the
parallelepiped determined by those vectors has m-dimensional area
_
det(V
T
U)
where V is the n m matrix with v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
as its columns.
Problem 84. Let H be a hermitian n n matrix. Show that det(H +
iI
n
) ,= 0.
Problem 85. The hyperdeterminant Det(A) of the three-dimensional
array A = (a
ijk
) R
222
can be calculated as follows
Det(A) =
1
4
_
det
__
a
000
a
010
a
001
a
011
_
+
_
a
100
a
110
a
101
a
111
__
det
__
a
000
a
010
a
001
a
011
_
_
a
100
a
110
a
101
a
111
___
2
4 det
_
a
000
a
010
a
001
a
011
_
det
_
a
100
a
110
a
101
a
111
_
.
Assume that only one of the coecients a
ijk
is nonzero. Calculate the
hyperdeterminant.
Problem 86. Let
00
=
11
= 0,
01
= 1,
10
= 1, i.e. we consider the
2 2 matrix
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Then the determinant of a 2 2 matrix A
2
= (a
ij
) with i, j = 0, 1 can be
dened as
det A
2
:=
1
2
1
i=0
1
j=0
1
=0
1
m=0
ij
m
a
i
a
jm
.
Thus
det A
2
= a
00
a
11
a
01
a
10
.
In analogy the hyperdeterminant of the 2 2 2 array A
3
= (a
ijk
) with
i, j, k = 0, 1 is dened as
DetA
3
:=
1
2
1
ii
=0
1
jj
=0
1
kk
=0
1
mm
=0
1
nn
=0
1
pp
=0
ii

jj

kk

mm

nn

pp
a
ijk
a
i
m
a
npk
a
n
m
.
Calculate DetA
3
.
Problem 87. Given a 2 2 2 hypermatrix
A = (a
jk
), j, k, = 0, 1
and the 2 2 matrix
S =
_
s
00
s
01
s
10
s
11
_
.
The multiplication AS which is again a 2 2 hypermatrix is dened by
(AS)
jk
:=
1
r=0
a
jkr
s
r
.
Assume that det(S) = 1, i.e. S SL(2, C). Show that Det(AS) = Det(A).
This is a typical problem to apply computer algebra. Write a SymbolicC++
program or Maxima program that solves the problem.
Problem 88. Let a
j
R with j = 1, 2, 3. Consider the 4 4 matrices
A =
1
2
_
_
_
0 a
1
0 0
a
1
0 a
2
0
0 a
2
0 a
3
0 0 a
3
0
_
_
_, B =
1
2i
_
_
_
0 a
1
0 0
a
1
0 a
2
0
0 a
2
0 a
3
0 0 a
3
0
_
_
_ .
Find the spectrum of A and B. Find the spectrum of [A, B].
Problem 89. (i) Let A be a 2 2 matrix over C. Given
t
1
= tr(A), t
2
= tr(A
2
), t
3
= tr(A
3
), t
4
= tr(A
4
) .
Can we reconstruct A from t
1
, t
2
, t
3
, t
4
. Does it depend on whether the
matrix A is normal?
(ii) Let A be a 2 2 matrix over C. Given
d
1
= det(A), d
2
= det(A
2
), d
3
= det(A
3
), d
4
= det(A
4
) .
Can we reconstruct A from d
1
, d
2
, d
3
, d
4
. Does it depend on whether the
matrix A is normal?
Problem 90. Let A = (a
jk
) be an n n skew-symmetric matrix over R,
i.e. j, k = 1, . . . , n. Let B = (b
jk
) be an n n symmetric matrix over R
dened by b
jk
= b
j
b
k
, i.e. j, k = 1, . . . , n. Let n be even. Show that
det(A+B) = det(A) .
Problem 91. Consider the 3 3 matrix M with entries
(M)
jk
= x
j1
k
, j, k = 1, 2, 3
Find the determinant of this matrix.
Problem 92. Let
S =
_
s
11
s
12
s
21
s
22
_
be an invertible matrix over R. Thus
S
1
=
1
det(S)
_
s
22
s
12
s
21
s
11
_
with det(S) = s
11
s
22
s
12
s
21
. Find the condition on the entries s
jk
such
that
S
_
0 1
1 0
_
S
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Assume that det(S) = 1.
Chapter 4
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Problem 1. (i) Let A, B be 2 2 matrices over R and vectors x, y in
R
2
such that
Ax = y, By = x
x
T
y = 0 and x
T
x = 1, y
T
y = 1. Show that AB and BA have an eigenvalue
+1.
(ii) Find all 2 2 matrices A, B which satisfy the conditions given in (i).
Use
x =
_
cos
sin
_
, y =
_
sin
cos
_
.
Problem 2. Find all the eigenvalues of the 4 4 matrix.
A =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_ .
Problem 3. Let A be an arbitrary 2 2 matrix. Show that
A
2
AtrA+I
2
det A = 0
44
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 45
and therefore
(trA)
2
= trA
2
+ 2 det A.
Hint. Apply the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
Problem 4. Let A be an n n matrix. The matrix A is called nilpotent
if there is a positive integer r such that A
r
= 0
n
.
(i) Show that the smallest integer r such that A
r
= 0
n
is smaller or equal
to n.
(ii) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.
Problem 5. Find all 2 2 matrices over R that admit only one eigen-
vector.
Problem 6. Let x be a nonzero column vector in R
n
and n 2. Consider
the n n matrix xx
T
. Find one nonzero eigenvalue and the corresponding
eigenvector of this matrix.
A(a) =
_
1 0
a 1
_
, a R.
Can one nd a condition on the parameter a so that A has only one eigen-
vector?
Problem 8. If A
j
m
j=1
is a commuting family of matrices that is to
say A
j
A
k
= A
k
A
j
for every pair from the set, then there exists a unitary
matrix V such that for all A
j
in the set the matrix
A
j
= V
A
j
V
is upper triangular. Apply this to the matrices
A
1
=
_
1 1
1 1
_
, A
2
=
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
A =
_
1/4 1/2
1/2 1/4
_
.
Let (spectral radius)
(A) := max
1j2
[
j
[
where
j
are the eigenvalues of A.
(i) Check that (A) < 1.
(ii) If (A) < 1, then
(I
2
A)
1
= I
2
+A+A
2
+
Calculate (I
2
A)
1
.
(iii) Calculate
(I
2
A)(I
2
+A+A
2
+ +A
k
) .
Problem 10. Consider a symmetric 2 2 matrix A over R with a
11
> 0,
a
22
> 0, a
12
< 0 and a
jj
> [a
12
[ for j = 1, 2. Is the matrix A positive
denite?
Problem 11. Let A be a positive denite n n matrix. Show that A
1
exists and is also positive denite.
Problem 12. Let c
j
R. Find the eigenvalues of the matrices
_
0 1
c
1
c
2
_
,
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
,
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
c
1
c
2
c
3
c
4
_
_
_ .
Generalize to the n n case.
Problem 13. Let n be a positive integer. Consider the 33 matrix with
rows of elements summing to unity
M =
1
n
_
_
n a b a b
a n 2a c a +c
c a n a c
_
_
where the values of a, b, c are such that, 0 a, 0 b, a+b n, 2a+c n.
Thus the matrix is a stochastic matrix. Find the eigenvalues of M.
Problem 14. (i) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the
3 3 matrix
M =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
.
(ii) Use the normalized eigenvectors to construct a 33 matrix R such that
RMR
1
is a diagonal matrix.
(iii) Can M be written as
M =
3
j=1
j
v
j
v
T
j
where
1
,
2
,
3
are the eigenvalues and v
1
, v
2
, v
3
are the (column) nor-
malized eigenvectors of M. Prove or disprove.
Problem 15. (i) Find the eigenvalues of the symmetric matrices
A
3
=
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
, A
4
=
_
_
_
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
_
_
_, A
5
=
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
.
(ii) Extend the results from (i) to nd the largest eigenvalue of the sym-
metric n n matrix
A
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1 0 1
1 0 0 . . . 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 16. Find the eigenvalues of the 4 4 symmetric matrix
_
_
_
1 0 0
1/2 0
0 1/2
0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Discuss the eigenvalues
j
() as functions of . Can the eigenvalues cross
as function of ?
Problem 17. Consider the n n cyclic matrix
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
14
. . . a
1n1
a
1n
a
1n
a
11
a
12
a
13
. . . a
1n2
a
1n1
a
1n1
a
1n
a
11
a
12
. . . a
n3
a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
15
. . . a
1n
a
11
_
_
_
_
_
_
where a
jk
R. Show that
1
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
2k
4k
.
.
.
2(n1)k
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
, e
i/n
, 1 k n.
is a normalized eigenvector of A. Find the eigenvalues.
Problem 18. Let a, b R. Find on inspection two eigenvectors and the
corresponding eigenvalues of the 4 4 matrix
_
_
_
a 0 0 b
0 a 0 b
0 0 a b
b b b 0
_
_
_ .
Problem 19. Let a, b R. Find on inspection two eigenvectors and the
corresponding eigenvalues of the 4 4 matrix
_
_
_
a 0 0 b
0 a 0 b
0 0 a b
b b b 0
_
_
_ .
Problem 20. Let z C. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
0 z z
z 0 z
z z 0
_
_
.
Discuss the dependence of the eigenvalues on z.
Problem 21. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the
matrix ( [0, 2))
A() =
1
2
_
1 e
i
1 e
i
_
.
Is the matrix invertible? Make the decision by looking at the eigenvalues.
If so nd the inverse matrix.
Problem 22. Consider the two permutation matrices
S =
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_, T =
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_ .
Show that the two matrices have the same (normalized) eigenvectors. Find
the commutator [S, T].
Problem 23. Consider the following 3 3 matrix A and vector v in R
3
A =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, v =
_
_
sin()
sin(2)
sin(3)
_
_
where R and ,= n with n Z. Show that using this vector we can
nd the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.
Problem 24. Consider the symmetric matrix over R
A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
.
Find a invertible matrix B such that B
1
AB is a diagonal matrix.
Problem 25. Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Consider the
4 4 gamma matrices
1
=
_
0
2

1
1
0
2
_
,
2
=
_
0
2

2
2
0
2
_
,
3
=
_
0
2

3
3
0
2
_
and
0
=
_
I
2
0
2
0
2
I
2
_
.
Find
1
0
and tr(
1
0
).
Problem 26. Let c R and consider the symmetric 3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
c 1 0
1 c 1
0 1 c
_
_
.
(i) Show that c is an eigenvalue of A and nd the corresponding eigenvector.
(ii) Find the two other eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Problem 27. Let c R. Consider the symmetric 4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
1 c 0 0
c 2 2c 0
0 2c 3 c
0 0 c 4
_
_
_ .
(i) Find the characteristic equation.
(ii) Show that
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
=10
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+
2
3
+
2
4
+
3
4
=35 6c
2
3
+
1
4
+
1
4
+
2
4
=50 30c
2
4
=24 30c
2
+c
4
where
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
denote the eigenvalues.
Problem 28. Consider the matrix
A =
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
.
(i) Find the rank of the matrix. Explain.
(ii) Find the determinant and trace of the matrix.
(iii) Find all eigenvalues of the matrix.
(iv) Find one eigenvector.
(v) Is the matrix positive semidenite?
Problem 29. Find the eigenvalues of the 3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
using the trace and the determinant of the matrix and the information that
two eigenvalues are the same.
Problem 30. Let B be a 2 2 matrix with eigenvalues
1
and
2
. Find
the eigenvalues of the 4 4 matrix
X =
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
b
11
b
12
0 0
b
21
b
22
0 0
_
_
_ .
Let v be an eigenvector of B with eigenvalue . What can be said about
an eigenvector of the 4 4 matrix X given by eigenvector v and eigenvalue
of B.
Problem 31. Consider the 2 2 identity matrix I
2
and the 2 2 matrix
N =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Find the eigenvalues
1
,
2
and the corresponding normalized eigenvectors
u
1
and u
2
of I
2
. Then nd the eigenvalues
1
,
2
and the corresponding
normalized eigenvectors v
1
and v
2
of N. Using the normalized eigenvectors
u
1
, u
2
and v
1
, v
2
form the 2 2 matrix
H =
_
u
1
v
1
u
1
v
2
u
2
v
1
u
2
v
2
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of H. Discuss.
Problem 32. Let A, B be two n n matrices over C. The set of all
matrices of the form A B with C is said to be a pencil. The
eigenvalues of the pencil are elements of the set (A, B) dened by
(A, B) := z C : det(AzB) = 0 .
If (A, B) and
Ax = Bx, x ,= 0
then x is referred to as an eigenvector of A B. Note that may be
nite, empty or innite.
Let
A =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_, B =
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Find the eigenvalue of the pencil.
Problem 33. Let a, b R. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
4 4 matrix
M =
_
_
_
a 0 0 b
0 a b 0
0 b a 0
b 0 0 a
_
_
_ .
Problem 34. Let R. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
matrix
A() =
_
_
1 0
0
0 1
_
_
.
Discuss the dependence of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of .
Problem 35. Let u, v be nonzero column vectors in R
n
and u ,= v.
Consider the n n matrix A over R
A = uu
T
+uv
T
vu
T
vv
T
.
Find the nonzero eigenvalues of A and the corresponding eigenvector.
Problem 36. Let A be an n n matrix with eigenvalues
1
,. . . ,
n
. Let
c C 0. What are the eigenvalues of cA?
Problem 37. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Let
1
, . . . ,
n
be the
eigenvalues. What can be said about the eigenvalues of the 2n2n matrix
_
0
n
A
A
T
0
n
_
where 0
n
is the n n zero matrix?
Problem 38. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Let , C. Assume
that A
2
= I
n
and B
2
= I
n
and AB+BA = 0. What can be said about the
eigenvalues of A+B?
Problem 39. Let A be an n n normal matrix, i.e. AA
= A
A. Let u
be an eigenvector of A, i.e. Au = u. Show that u is also an eigenvector
of A
with eigenvalue , i.e.

A
u = u.
Problem 40. Show that eigenvectors of a normal matrix A corresponding
to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Problem 41. Let A, B be square matrices. Show that AB and BA have
the same eigenvalues.
Problem 42. Show that if A is an n m matrix and if B is an m n
matrix, then ,= 0 is an eigenvalue of the n n matrix AB if and only if
is an eigenvalue of the mm matrix BA. Show that if m = n then the
conclusion is true even for = 0.
Problem 43. Let A
T
= (1/2 , 1/2)
T
. Find the eigenvalues of AA
T
and
A
T
A.
Problem 44. We know that a hermitian matrix has only real eigenvalues.
Can we conclude that a matrix with only real eigenvalues is hermitian?
Problem 45. Let A be an nn matrix over C. Show that the eigenvalues
of A
A are nonnegative.
Problem 46. Let 0 x < 1. Consider the N N matrix C (correlation
matrix) with the entries
C
jk
:= x
|jk|
, j, k = 1, . . . , N .
Find the eigenvalues of C. Show that if N the distribution of its
eigenvalues becomes a continuous function of [0, 2]
() =
1 x
2
1 2xcos +x
2
.
Problem 47. Let n be a positive integer. Consider the 2 2 matrix
T
n
=
_
2n 4n
2
1
1 2n
_
.
Show that the eigenvalues of T
n
are real and not of absolute value 1.
Problem 48. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Show that A is normal
if and only if there exists an nn unitary matrix U and an nn diagonal
matrix D such that D = U
1
AU. Note that U
1
= U
.
Problem 49. Let A be a normal n n matrix over C.
(i) Show that A has a set of n orthonormal eigenvectors.
(ii) Show that if A has a set of n orthonormal eigenvectors, then A is normal.
Problem 50. The Leverriers method nds the characteristic polynomial
of an n n matrix. Find the characteristic polynomial for
AB, A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B =
_
1 1
1 1
_
using this method. How are the coecients c
i
of the polynomial related to
the eigenvalues?
Problem 51. Consider the symmetric matrix
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
12
a
22
a
23
a
13
a
23
a
33
_
_
over R. Write down the characteristic polynomial det(I
3
A) and express
it using the trace and determinant of A.
Problem 52. Let L
n
be the n n matrix
L
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
n 1 1 1 1
1 n 1 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 1
.
.
. 1
1 1 1 n 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues.
Problem 53. The Pascal matrix of order n is dened as
P
n
:=
_
(i +j 2)!
(i 1)!(j 1)!
_
, i, j = 1, . . . , n.
Thus
P
2
=
_
1 1
1 2
_
, P
3
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 2 3
1 3 6
_
_
, P
4
=
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
1 3 6 10
1 4 10 20
_
_
_ .
(i) Find the determinant of P
2
, P
3
, P
4
. Find the inverse of P
2
, P
3
, P
4
.
(ii) Find the determinant for P
n
. Is P
n
an element of the group SL(n, R)?
Problem 54. Let A be an mn matrix (m < n) over R.
(i) Show that at least one eigenvalue of the n n matrix A
T
A is equal to
0.
(ii) Show that the eigenvalues of the mm matrix AA
T
are also eigenvalues
of A
T
A.
Problem 55. Find the determinant and eigenvalues of the matrices
A
2
=
_
0 a
12
1 a
22
_
, A
3
=
_
_
0 0 a
13
1 0 a
23
0 1 a
33
_
_
, A
4
=
_
_
_
0 0 0 a
14
1 0 0 a
24
0 1 0 a
34
0 0 1 a
44
_
_
_ .
Extend to the n-dimensional case.
Problem 56. Let A be a hermitian n n matrix. Assume that all the
eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
are pairwise dierent. Then the normalized eigen-
vectors u
j
(j = 1, . . . , n) satisfy u
j
u
k
= 0 for j ,= k and u
j
u
j
= 1. We
have (spectral theorem)
A =
n
j=1
j
u
j
u
j
.
Let e
k
(k = 1, . . . , n) be the standard basis in C
n
. Calculate U
AU, where
U =
n
k=1
u
k
e
k
.
Problem 57. Let A be a positive denite n n matrix. Thus all the
eigenvalues are real and positive. Assume that all the eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
are pairwise dierent. Then the normalized eigenvectors u
j
(j = 1, . . . , n)
satisfy u
j
u
k
= 0 for j ,= k and u
j
u
j
= 1. We have (spectral theorem)
A =
n
j=1
j
u
j
u
j
.
Let e
k
(k = 1, . . . , n) be the standard basis in C
n
. Calculate
ln(A) .
Note that the unitary matrix
U =
n
k=1
u
k
e
k
transforms A into a diagonal matrix, i.e.

A = U
AU is a diagonal matrix.
Problem 58. Let j = 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . . . and R. Consider the (2j +
1) (2j + 1) matrices
H =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
.
.
.
1
e
i
0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
D = diag(1, ,
2
, . . . ,
2j
)
where := exp(i2/(2j + 1). Is H unitary? Find DH HD.
Problem 59. (i) Find the eigenvalues of the 3 3 matrix
A() =
_
_
e
1 1
1 e
1
1 1 e
_
_
.
For which values of is the matrix A() not invertible.
(ii) Extend (i) to the n n matrix
B() =
_
_
_
_
e
1 1
1 e
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 e
_
_
_
_
.
This matrix plays a role for the Potts model.
Problem 60. Let A be an 2 2 matrix over R. Let
tr(A) = c
1
, tr(A
2
) = c
2
.
Can det(A) be calculated from c
1
, c
2
?
Problem 61. Let A be an n n matrix with entries a
jk
0 and with
positive spectral radius . Then there is a (column) vector x with x
j
0
and a (column) vector y such that the following conditions hold:
Ax = x, y
T
A = y, y
T
x = 1 .
Consider the 2 2 matrix
B =
_
2 1
1 2
_
.
Show that B has a positive spectral radius. Find the vectors x and y.
Problem 62. Let A be an n n matrix over C. If is not an eigenvalue
of A, then the matrix (AI
n
) has an inverse, namely the resolvent
R
= (AI
n
)
1
.
Let
j
be the eigenvalues of A. For [[ a, where a is any positive constant
greater than all the [
j
[ the resolvent can be expanded as
R
=
1
_
I
n
+
1
A+
1
2
A
2
+
_
.
Calculate
1
2i
_
||=a
m
R
d, m = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Problem 63. Show that the resolvent satises the so-called resolvent
equation
R
= ( )R
.
Problem 64. Let = (1 +

5)/2 be the golden ratio. Consider the
modular matrix
M =
_
1 1
1 0
_
.
Find the eigenvalues
1
,
2
and the corresponding normalized eigenvec-
tors u
1
, u
2
. Find the projection matrices
1
and
2
onto the associated
eigendirections.
Problem 65. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Assume that A
2
= I
n
.
What can be said about the eigenvalues of A?
Problem 66. An n n unitary matrix U is dened by
UU
= I
n
or U
= U
1
.
What can be concluded about the eigenvalues of U if U
= U
T
?
Problem 67. Let R. Consider the symmetric matrix
A =
1
2
_
_
_
1 + 0 1 0
0 1 + 0 1
1 0 1 + 0
0 1 0 1 +
_
_
_ .
Find an inertible matrix B such that
A = B
1
DB
where D is a diagonal matrix and thus nd the eigenvalues of A.
Problem 68. The additive inverse eigenvalue problem is as follows: Let
A be an n n symmetric matrix over R with a
jj
= 0 for j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Find a real diagonal n n matrix D such that the matrix A + D has the
prescribed eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
. The number of solutions for the real
matrix D varies from 0 to n!. Consider the 2 2 matrix
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
and the prescribed eigenvalues
1
= 2,
2
= 3. Can one nd a D?
Problem 69. The spectral theorem for n n normal matrices over C is
as follows: A matrix A is normal if and only if there exists an nn unitary
matrix U and a diagonal matrix D such that D = U
AU. Use this theorem

to prove that the matrix
A =
_
_
0 1 1
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
is not normal.
Problem 70. Let A be an nn matrix over A. Assume that A is normal.
Show that A has a set of n orthonormal eigenvectors.
Problem 71. Let R. Consider the n n matrix
H =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1
0 1
0 1
.
.
.
1
e
i
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
(i) Show that the matrix is unitary.
(ii) Find the eigenvalues of H.
(iii) Consider the n n diagonal matrix
G = diag(1, ,
2
,
n1
)
where := exp(i2/n. Find GH HG.
Problem 72. Consider the symmetric 6 6 matrix over R
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
This matrix plays a role in the construction of the icosahedron which is a
regular polyhedron with 20 identical equilateral triangular faces, 30 edges
and 12 vertices.
(i) Find the eigenvalues of this matrix.
(ii) Consider the matrix A+
5I
6
. Find the eigenvalues.
(iii) The matrix A +
5I
6
induces an Euclidean structure on the quotient
space R
6
/ker(A+
5I
6
). Find the dimension of ker(A+
5I
6
).
Problem 73. Let R. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
A() =
1
1 +
2
_
1
1
_
.
For which is A() not invertible?
matrices
_
0 1
0
_
,
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0
_
_
,
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Extend to the n n case.
Problem 75. Let A, B be two n n matrices over C.
(i) Show that every eigenvalue of AB is also an eigenvalue of BA.
(ii) Can we conclude that every eigenvector of AB is also an eigenvector of
BA?
Problem 76. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the orthogonal
matrices
R =
_
_
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
_
_
, S =
_
_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of RS.
2 2 matrix
_
cos e
i
sin
e
i
sin cos
_
.
Problem 78. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrices
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
.
Extend to the general case n odd.
Problem 79. (i) Consider the matrices
A =
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
_
, B =
_
_
a
1
0 a
2
0 0 0
a
3
0 a
4
_
_
.
How are the eigenvalues of A and B related?
(ii) Let
=
_
11

12
21

22
_
be a density matrix. Is
=
_
_
11
0
12
0 0 0
21
0
22
_
_
a density matrix?
Problem 80. Let a, b, c R. Find the eigenvalues of the 4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
0 a b c
a 0 ic ib
b ic 0 ia
c ib ia 0
_
_
_ .
Problem 81. Find all 2 2 matrices over the real numbers with only
one 1-dimensional eigenspace, i.e. all eigenvectors are linearly dependent.
Problem 82. Let A be an nn matrix over C
n
. Let be an eigenvalue of
A. A generalized eigenvector x C
n
of A corresponding to the eigenvalue
is a nontrivial solution of
(AI
n
)
j
x = 0
n
for some j 1, 2, . . ., where I
n
is the n n identity matrix and 0
n
is the
n-dimensional zero vector. For j = 1 we nd the eigenvectors. It follows
that x is a generalized eigenvector of A corresponding to if and only if
(AI
n
)
n
x = 0
n
.
Find the eigenvectors and generalized eigenvectors of
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
.
Problem 83. Find all 2 2 matrices over R which commute with
_
0 1
0 0
_
.
What is the relation between the eigenvectors of these matrices?
Problem 84. Let n be odd and n 3. Consider the matrices
A
3
=
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
1/
2 0 1/
2
_
_
, A
5
=
_
_
_
_
_
1/
2 0 0 0 1/
2
0 1/
2 0 1/
2 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1/
2 0 1/
2 0
1/
2 0 0 0 1/
2
_
_
_
_
_
and generally
A
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1/
2 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . . 0 1/
2
0 1/
2 . . . 0 0 0 . . . 1/
2 0
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 1/
2 0 1/
2 . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . 0 1 0 . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . 1/
2 0 1/
2 . . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 1/
2 . . . 0 0 0 . . . 1/
2 0
1/
2 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . . 0 1/
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A
3
, A
5
. The solve the general
case.
Problem 85. Assume we know the eigenvalues
1
,
2
of the 22 matrix
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
over C. What can be said about the eigenvalues of the 3 3 matrix
B =
_
_
a
11
0 a
12
0 c 0
a
21
0 a
22
_
_
where c C.
matrices
_
1
1 1
_
,
_
_
1 0
1 1 0
1 1 1
_
_
,
_
_
_
1 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
_
_
_ .
Extend to n n matrices.
Problem 87. Let A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H be 2 2 matrices over C. We
dene the product
_
A B
C D
_
_
E F
G H
_
:=
_
_
_
A O
2
O
2
B
0
2
E F 0
2
0
2
G H 0
2
C 0
2
0
2
D
_
_
_ .
Thus the right-hand side is an 88 matrix. Assume we know the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors of the two 4 4 matrices on the left-hand side. What can
be said about the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 8 8 matrix of the
right-hand side.
Problem 88. The symmetric 3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
plays a role for the chemical compounds ZnS and NaCl. Find the eigen-
values and eigenvectors of A. Then nd the inverse of A. Find all x such
that Ax = x.
Problem 89. Let
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
be a normal matrix over C with eigenvalues
1
,
2
and corresponding eigen-
vectors u
1
, u
2
, respectively. What can be said about the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of the 3 3 matrices
B
1
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 a
11
a
12
0 a
21
a
22
_
_
, B
2
=
_
_
a
11
0 a
12
0 1 0
a
21
0 a
22
_
_
, B
3
=
_
_
a
11
a
12
0
a
21
a
22
0
0 0 1
_
_
?
Problem 90. Let I
n
be the n n identity matrix and
J :=
_
0
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
R
2n2n
.
A matrix S R
2n2n
is called a symplectic matrix if
S
T
JS = J .
(i) Show that symplectic matrices are nonsingular.
(ii) Show that the product of two symplectic matrices S
1
and S
2
is also
symplectic.
(iii) Show that if S is symplectic S
1
and S
T
are also symplectic.
(iv) Let S be a symplectic matrix. Show that if (S), then
1
(S),
where (S) denotes the spectrum of S.
Problem 91. Let A, B be nn matrices over C and u a nonzero vector
in C
n
. Assume that [A, B] = A and Au = u. Find (AB)u.
Problem 92. Consider the Hilbert space C
n
. Let A, B, C be n n
matrices acting in C
n
. We consider the nonlinear eigenvalue problem
Au = Bu +
2
Cu
where u C
n
and u ,= 0.
(i) Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the solutions of the
nonlinear eigenvalue problem
1
u =
2
u +
2
3
u
where u C
2
and u ,= 0.
(ii) Consider the basis of the simple Lie algebra s(2, R)
H =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, E =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, F =
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
Solve the nonlinear eigenvalue problem
Hu = Eu +
2
Fu
where u C
2
and u ,= 0.
(iii) Consider the basis of the simple Lie algebra so(3, R)
A =
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
, C =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
.
Solve the nonlinear eigenvalue problem.
Problem 93. (i) Let A, B be n n matrices over c C with [A, B] = 0,
where [A, B] denotes the commutator of A and B. Calculate [A+cI
n
, B +
cI
n
], where c C and I
n
is the n n identity matrix.
(ii) Let x be an eigenvector of the nn matrix A with eigenvalue . Show
that x is also an eigenvector of A+cI
n
, where c C.
Problem 94. Consider the n n tridiagonal matrix
H =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
1 . .
1
2
1 .
1
3
1 .
.
.
.
. 1
1
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
It is used to describe an electron on a linear chain of length n. Find the
eigenvalues. Find the eigenvectors. Make the ansatz
_
_
_
_
c
1
c
2
.
.
.
c
n
_
_
_
_
for the eigenvectors and nd a recursion relation for c
j
/c
j+1
.
Problem 95. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Hamilton
operator
H = E
0
I
2
B
1
1
B
2
2
B
3
3
.
Problem 96. Let R. Find the eigenvalues of
A() =
_
_
0 0
0
0 0
_
_
.
Do the eigenvalues cross as a function of ?
Problem 97. Let [0, 1]. Consider the 2 2 matrix
A() =
1
1 +
2
_
1
1
_
.
For = 0 we have the Pauli spin matrix
z
and for = 1 we have the
Hadamad matrix. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A().
Problem 98. (i) Consider the matrix
A =
_
0 i
i 0
_
.
Find the function (characteristic polynomial)
p() = det(AI
2
) .
Find the eigenvalues of A by solving p() = 0. Find the minima of the
function
f() = [p()[ .
Discuss.
(ii) Consider the matrix
A =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Find the function (characteristic polynomial)
p() = det(AI
3
) .
Find the eigenvalues of A by solving p() = 0. Find the minima of the
function
f() = [p()[ .
Discuss.
Problem 99. Let A be an nn normal matrix with eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
and pairwise orthogonal eigenvectors u
j
(j = 1, 2, . . . , n). Then
A =
n
j=1
j
u
j
u
j
.
Find exp(A) and sin(A).
Problem 100. Consider the normalized vector in C
3
n =
_
_
sin() cos()
sin() sin()
cos()
_
_
.
(i) Calculate the 2 2 matrix
U(, ) = n n
1
1
+n
2
2
+n
3
3
where
1
,
2
,
3
are the Pauli spin matrices.
(ii) Is the matrix U(, ) unitary? Find the trace and the determinant. Is
the matrix U(, ) hermitian?
(iii) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of U(, ).
Problem 101. Consider the normal matrix
A =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of A and thus the spectral
decomposition. Thus this result to calculate exp(zA), where z C.
Problem 102. Let A be an n n normal matrix. Assume that
j
(j = 1, . . . , n) are the eigenvalues of A. Calculate
n
k=1
(1 +
k
)
without using the eigenvalues.
Problem 103. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Then any eigenvalue
of A satises the inequality
[[ max
1jn
n
k=1
[a
jk
[ .
Write a C++ program that calculates the right-hand side of the inequality
for a given matrix. Apply the complex class of STL. Apply it to the matrix
A =
_
_
_
i 0 0 i
0 2i 2i 0
0 3i 3i 0
4i 0 0 4i
_
_
_ .
Problem 104. (i) Find the eigenvalues of the matrices
A
2
=
_
1 1
2 2
_
, A
3
=
_
_
1 0 1
0 2 0
3 0 3
_
_
, A
4
=
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 2 2 0
0 3 3 0
4 0 0 4
_
_
_ .
(ii) Find the eigenvalues of the matrices
B
2
=
_
1 1
1/2 1/2
_
, B
3
=
_
_
1 0 1
0 1/2 0
1/3 0 1/3
_
_
, B
4
=
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1/2 1/2 0
0 1/3 1/3 0
1/4 0 0 1/4
_
_
_ .
Problem 105. The 2n 2n symplectic matrix is dened by
S =
_
0
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
where I
n
is the n n identity matrix. The matrix S is unitary and skew-
hermitian. Find the eigenvalues of S from this information.
Problem 106. Find the condition on a
11
, a
12
, b
11
, b
12
such that
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
12
b
11
0
a
12
0 0 a
11
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_ =
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_
i.e. we have an eigenvalue equation.
A =
_
_
_
0 0 0 a
14
1 0 0 a
24
0 1 0 a
34
0 0 1 a
44
_
_
_ .
Problem 108. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
0 a
12
a
13
a
14
a
12
0 a
23
a
24
a
13
a
23
0 a
34
a
14
a
24
a
34
0
_
_
_ .
Problem 109. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
0 a
12
a
13
a
14
a
12
0 a
23
a
24
a
13
a
23
0 a
34
a
14
a
24
a
34
0
_
_
_ .
Problem 110. (i) Find the spectral decomposition of the normal matrix
A =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
.
(ii) Find the spectral decomposition of exp(A).
Problem 111. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
x
z
.
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
14
0 0 a
17
0 a
22
a
23
0 a
25
a
26
0
0 a
32
a
33
0 a
35
a
36
0
a
41
0 0 a
44
0 0 a
47
0 a
52
a
53
0 a
55
a
56
0
0 a
62
a
63
0 a
65
a
66
0
a
71
0 0 a
74
0 0 a
77
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 113. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
z
+i
x
=
_
1 i
i 1
_
.
(ii) Is this matrix normal?
Problem 114. Let A be an n n matrix over C, which satises
A
2
AA = cA
where c C is a constant. Obviously the equation is satised by the
zero matrix with c = 0. Assume that A ,= 0
n
. Then we have a type of
eigenvalue equation.
(i) Is c an eigenvalue of A.
(ii) Take the determinant of both sides of the equation. Discuss. Study the
cases that A is invertible and non-invertible.
(iii) Study the case
A(z) =
_
e
z
1
1 e
z
_
, z C.
(iv) Study
(AA)
2
= c(AA) .
(v) Let A be a 2 2 matrix and
A A :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 a
11
a
12
0
0 a
21
a
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
Study the case (A A)
2
= c(A A).
(vi) Study the case that A
3
= cA.
Problem 115. (i) Consider the Pauli spin matrices for describing a spin-
1
2
system
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
2
=
_
0 i
i 0
_
,
3
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Consider the matrix
3
+i
1
.
Is the matrix normal? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix.
Discuss. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
3
3
+i
1
1
.
(ii) Consider the Pauli spin matrices for describing a spin-1 system
s
1
=
1
2
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, s
2
=
1
2
_
_
0 i 0
i 0 i
0 i 0
_
_
, s
3
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Consider the matrix
s
3
+is
1
.
Is the matrix normal? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix.
Discuss. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of s
3
s
3
+is
1
s
1
.
Problem 116. Let s
x
, s
y
, s
z
be the (2s +1) (2s +1) spin matrices for
spin s = 1/2, s = 1, s = 3/2, s = 2, . . ..
(i) For s = 1/2 we have the 2 2 matrices
s
x
=
1
2
_
0 1
1 0
_
, s
y
=
1
2
_
0 i
i 0
_
, s
z
=
1
2
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Let n R
3
and |n| = 1. Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
n
1
s
x
+n
2
s
y
+n
3
s
z
.
(ii) For s = 1 we have the 3 3 matrices
s
x
=
1
2
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 0 1
_
_
, s
y
=
1
2
_
_
0 i 0
i 0 0
0 i 0
_
_
, s
z
=
1
2
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Let n R
3
and |n| = 1. Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
n
1
s
x
+n
2
s
y
+n
3
s
z
.
_
_
0 0 a
13
1 0 a
23
0 1 a
33
_
_
,
_
_
_
0 0 0 a
14
1 0 0 a
24
0 1 0 a
34
0 0 1 a
44
_
_
_ .
Problem 118. Let K be an n n skew-hermitian matrix with eigenval-
ues
1
, . . . ,
n
(counted according to multiplicty) and the corresponding
normalized eigenvectors u
1
, . . . , u
n
, where u
j
u
k
= 0 for k ,= j. Then K
can be written as
K =
n
j=1
j
u
j
u
j
and u
j
u
j
u
k
u
k
= 0 for k ,= j and j, k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Note that the matrices
u
j
u
j
are projection matrices and
n
j=1
u
j
u
j
= I
n
.
(i) Calculate exp(K).
(ii) Every n n unitary matrix can be written as U = exp(K), where K is
a skew-hermitian matrix. Find U from a given K.
(iii) Use the result from (ii) to nd for a given U a possible K.
(iv) Apply the result from (ii) and (iii) to the unitary 2 2 matrix
U() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
(v) Apply the result from (ii) and (iii) to the 2 2 unitary matrix
V (, ) =
_
cos e
i
sin
e
i
sin cos
_
.
(vi) Every hermitian matrix H can be written as H = iK, where K is a
skew-hermitian matrix. Find H for the examples given above.
Problem 119. Consider a symmetric matrix over R. We impose the
following conditions. The diagonal elements are all zero. The non-diagonal
elements can only be +1 or 1. Show that such a matrix can only have
integer values as eigenvalues. An example would be
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_
with eigenvalues 3 and 1 (three times).
Problem 120. Let A be an nn normal matrix over C. How would one
apply genetic algorithms to nd the eigenvalues of A. This means we have
to construct a tness function f with the minima as the eigenvalues. The
eigenvalue equation is given by Ax = zx (z C and x C
n
with x ,= 0).
The characteristic equation is
p(z) det(AzI
n
) = 0 .
What would be a tness function? Apply it to the matrices
B =
_
0 i
i 0
_
, C =
_
0 i
i 0
_
, D =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Problem 121. Let A, B be hermitian matrices over C and eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
and
1
, . . . ,
n
, respectively. Assume that tr(AB) = 0 (scalar
product). What can be said about the eigenvalues of A+B?
Problem 122. Consider the skew-symmetric matrix over R
A =
_
_
0 a
3
a
2
a
3
0 a
1
a
2
a
1
0
_
_
where a
1
, a
2
, a
3
R. Find the eigenvalues. Let 0
3
be the 3 3 zero
matrix. Let A
1
, A
2
, A
3
be skew-symmetric 33 matrices over R. Find the
eigenvalues of the 9 9 matrix
B =
_
_
0
3
A
3
A
2
A
3
0
3
A
1
A
2
A
1
0
3
_
_
.
Problem 123. Consider the 4 4 Haar matrix
K =
1
2
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 0 0
0 0

2
2
_
_
_ .
Find all 4 4 hermitian matrices H such that KHK
T
= H.
Problem 124. Consider the reverse-diagonal n n matrix
A(
1
, . . . ,
n
) =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 . . . 0 e
i1
0 0 . . . e
i2
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 e
in1
. . . 0 0
e
in
0 . . . 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
where
j
R (j = 1, . . . , n). Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Is the
matrix unitary?
Problem 125. Let a
11
, a
22
R and a
12
C. Consider the hermitian
matrix
H =
_
a
11
a
12
a
12
a
22
_
with the real eigenvalues
1
and
2
. What conditions are impost on the
matrix elements of H if
1
=
2
?
Problem 126. (i) Consider the spin matrices for describing a spin-
1
2
system
s
1
=
1
2
_
0 1
1 0
_
, s
2
=
1
2
_
0 i
i 0
_
, s
3
=
1
2
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
and the spin matrices for describing a spin-1 system
p
1
=
1
2
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, p
2
=
1
2
_
_
0 i 0
i 0 i
0 i 0
_
_
, p
3
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Find the spectrum (eigenvalues and eigenvector) of the hermitian matrix
K =

H
= s
1
p
1
s
1
+s
2
p
2
s
2
+s
3
p
3
s
3
.
Thus

K is a 12 12 matrix with tr(

K) = 0.
Problem 127. s(3, R) is the rank 2 Lie algebra with Cartan matrix
C =
_
2 1
1 2
_
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of C.
4 4 matrix
A =
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
1 0
a
21
a
22
0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_ .
Problem 129. Let
k
R. Consider the matrices
A(
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
) =
_
_
_
0 e
i1
0 0
e
i2
0 0 0
0 0 0 e
i3
0 0 e
i4
0
_
_
_,
B(
5
,
6
,
7
,
8
) =
_
_
_
0 0 e
i5
0
0 0 0 e
i6
e
i7
0 0 0
0 e
i8
0 0
_
_
_
and A(
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
)B(
5
,
6
,
7
,
8
). Find the eigenvalues of these matri-
ces.
Problem 130. Let U be an nn unitary matrix, i.e. UU
= I
n
. Assume
that U = U
T
. What can be said about the eigenvalues of such a matrix?
Problem 131. Let I
n
be the nn identity matrix. Find the eigenvalues
of the 2n 2n matrix
R =
1
2
_
I
n
I
n
I
n
I
n
_
.
Problem 132. Consider the unitary matrix
U =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_ =
_
0 1
1 0
_
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Find the skew-hermitian matrix K such that U = exp(K).
Problem 133. Given the matrix
A =
_
_
_
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16
_
_
_ .
Prove or disprove that exactly two eigenvalues are 0.
Problem 134. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Show that the eigen-
vectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are linearly independent.
Problem 135. We know that any nn unitary matrix has only eigenval-
ues with [[ = 1. Assume that a given n n matrix has only eigenvalues
with [[ = 1. Can we conclude that the matrix is unitary?
Problem 136. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
A =
_
_
_
0 a
12
a
13
a
14
a
12
0 0 0
a
13
0 0 0
a
14
0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Problem 137. (i) Let t
j
R for j = 1, 2, 3, 4. Find the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of
H =
_
_
_
0 t
1
0 t
4
e
i
t
1
0 t
2
0
0 t
2
0 t
3
t
4
e
i
0 t
3
0
_
_
_ .
(ii) Let t
j
R for j = 1, . . . , 5. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
H =
_
_
_
_
_
0 t
1
0 0 t
5
e
i
t
1
0 t
2
0 0
0 t
2
0 t
3
0
0 0 t
3
0 t
4
t
5
e
i
0 0 t
4
0
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 138. Let v be a nonzero column vector in R
n
. Matrix multi-
plication is associative. Then we have
(vv
T
)v = v(v
T
v) .
Discuss.
Problem 139. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
A =
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 0
a
21
a
22
0 0
0 a
32
a
33
0
0 0 a
43
a
44
_
_
_ .
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
0 0 0 0 0
b
21
b
22
0 0 0 0
0 b
32
b
33
0 0 0
0 0 b
43
b
44
0 0
0 0 0 b
54
b
55
0
0 0 0 0 b
65
b
66
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
These matrices are the so-called staircase matrices. Extend the results to
the n n case.
Problem 140. (i) Let A be an invertible n n matrix over C. Assume
we know the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A. What can be said about
the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A+A
1
?
(ii) Apply the result from (i) to the permutation matrix
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 141. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 4 4
matrix
A =
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
14
0 a
22
0 0
0 0 a
33
0
a
41
0 0 a
44
_
_
_ .
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 6 6 matrix
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
0 0 0 0 a
16
0 b
22
0 0 0 0
0 0 b
33
0 0 0
0 0 0 b
44
0 0
0 0 0 0 b
55
0
b
61
0 0 0 0 b
66
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
_
1 1/2
1/2 1/3
_
,
_
_
1 1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3 1/4
1/3 1/4 1/5
_
_
.
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6
1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7
1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8
1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9
1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10
1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 144. (i) Let R. Consider the matrices
A() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, B() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
Find the trace and determinant of these matrices. Show that for the matrix
A() the eigenvalues depend on but the eigenvectors do not. Show that
for the matrix B() the eigenvalues do not depend on but the eigenvectors
do.
(ii) Let R. Consider the matrices
C() =
_
cosh sinh
sinh cosh
_
, D() =
_
cosh sinh
sinh cosh
_
.
Find the trace and determinant of these matrices. Show that for the matrix
C() the eigenvalues depend on but the eigenvectors do not. Show that
for the matrix D() the eigenvalues do not depend on but the eigenvectors
do.
Problem 145. Find the lowest eigenvalue of the 4 4 symmetric matrix
(x R)
_
_
_
0 x
5 0 0
x
5 4 2x 2x
0 2x 4 2x x
0 2x x 8 2x
_
_
_ .
Problem 146. Let m > 0 and R. Consider the three 3 3 matrices
M
1
= m
_
_
0 sin 0
sin 0 cos
0 cos 0
_
_
, M
2
= m
_
_
0 0 sin
0 0 cos
sin cos 0
_
_
,
M
3
= m
_
_
0 sin cos
sin 0 0
cos 0 0
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrices. These matrices play
a role for the Majorana neutrino.
Problem 147. Let A, B be real symmetric and block tridiagonal 4 4
matrices
A =
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
0 0
a
12
a
22
a
23
0
0 a
23
a
33
a
34
0 0 a
34
a
44
_
_
_, B =
_
_
_
b
11
b
12
0 0
b
12
b
22
b
23
0
0 b
23
b
33
b
34
0 0 b
34
b
44
_
_
_ .
Assume that B is positive denite. Solve the eigenvalue problem
Av = Bv .
Problem 148. (i) Find the eigenvalues, normalized eigenvectors and
spectral decomposition of the permutation matrices
P
1
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
, P
2
=
_
_
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
.
(ii) Use the spectral decomposition to nd the matrices A
1
and A
2
such
that P
1
= exp(A
1
), P
2
= exp(A
2
).
Problem 149. Let A be an n n matrix over C. What is the condition
on A such that all eigenvalues are 0 and A admits only one eigenvector.
Problem 150. Let A be a 2 2 matrix. Assume that det(A) = 0 and
tr(A) = 0. What can be said about the eigenvalues of A. Is such a matrix
normal?
Problem 151. Let a, b, c R. Consider the symmetric matrix
_
_
0 a b
a 0 c
b c 0
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Problem 152. Let I
n
be the n n unit matrix and I
2
the 2 2 unit
matrix. Consider the n matrix
J
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Hence an arbitrary Jordan block is given by zI
n
+ J
n
, where z C. Find
the eigenvalues of
_
a b
b a
_
I
n
+I
2
J
n
.
Problem 153. (i) Let I
2
be the 22 identity matrix and
3
be the Pauli
spin matrix. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the 4 4
matrix
A(t) =
_
cosh(2t)I
2
sinh(2t)
3
sinh(2t)
3
cosh(2t)I
2
_
.
(ii) Let I
2
be the 2 2 identity matrix, 0
2
be the 2 2 zero matrix and
3
be the Pauli spin matrix. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors
of the 6 6 matrix
B(t) =
_
_
cosh(2t)I
2
0
2
sinh(2t)
3
0
2
I
2
0
2
sinh(2t)
3
0
2
cosh(2t)I
2
_
_
.
Can the results from (i) be utilized here?
_
_
1
2
I
2
0
2
1
2
I
2
0
2
I
2
0
2
1
2
I
2
0
2

1
2
I
2
_
_
.
Problem 155. Find all 2 2 matrices A over C which admit the nor-
malized eigenvectors
v
1
=
1
2
_
1
1
_
, v
2
=
1
2
_
1
1
_
with the corresponding eigenvalues
1
and
2
.
Problem 156. Consider the quadratic form
7x
2
1
+ 6x
2
2
+ 5x
2
3
4x
1
x
2
4x
2
x
3
+ 14x
1
8x
2
+ 10x
3
+ 6 = 0 .
Write this equation in matrix form and nd the eigenvalues and normalized
eigenvectors of the 3 3 matrix.
Problem 157. Let M be an nn invertible matrix with eigenvalues
1
,
. . .,
n
(counting degeneracy). Find the eigenvalues of
M
+
=
1
2
(M +M
1
) and M
=
1
2
(M M
1
) .
Problem 158. (i) Let x
1
, x
2
, x
3
R. What is the condition such that
the 3 3 matrix
A(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
_
_
0 x
1
0
0 0 x
2
x
3
0 0
_
_
.
is normal?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of A.
Problem 159. Let a, b, c, d R. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of the matrices
M
1
=
_
_
0 a 0
a 0 b
0 b 0
_
_
, M
2
=
_
_
_
0 a 0 0
a 0 b 0
0 b 0 c
0 0 c 0
_
_
_
M
3
=
_
_
_
_
_
0 a 0 0 0
a 0 b 0 0
0 b 0 c 0
0 0 c 0 d
0 0 0 d 0
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 160. (i) Study the eigenvalue problem for the symmetric ma-
trices over R
A
3
=
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
, A
4
=
_
_
_
2 1 0 1
1 2 1 0
0 1 2 1
1 0 1 2
_
_
_ .
Extend the n dimensions
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2 1 0 . . . 0 1
1 2 1 . . . 0 0
0 1 2 . . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 2 1
1 0 0 . . . 1 2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 161. Study the eigenvalue problem for 3 3, 4 4, 5 5
matrices where the entries on the diagonal are 0 and the entries on the
counter-diagonal are 0, i.e.
A =
_
_
0 a
12
0
a
21
0 a
23
0 a
32
0
_
_
, B =
_
_
_
0 b
12
b
13
0
b
21
0 0 b
24
b
31
0 0 b
34
0 b
42
b
43
0
_
_
_
C =
_
_
_
_
_
0 c
12
c
13
c
14
0
c
21
0 c
23
0 c
25
c
31
c
32
0 c
34
c
35
c
41
0 c
43
0 c
45
0 c
52
c
53
c
54
0
_
_
_
_
_
.
Extend to arbitrary n. Consider the case n odd and n even separatly.
Chapter 5
Commutators and
Anticommutators
Problem 1. Let A, B be 2 2 symmetric matrices over R. Assume that
AA
T
= I
2
and BB
T
= I
2
. Is
[A, B] = 0
2
?
Prove or disprove.
Problem 2. Let A, B, X, Y be n n matrices over C. Assume that
AX XB = Y .
(i) Let z C. Show that
(AzI
n
)X X(B zI
n
) = Y .
(ii) Assume that AzI
n
and B zI
n
are invertible. Show that
X(B zI
n
)
1
(AzI
n
)
1
X = (AzI
n
)
1
Y (B zI
n
)
1
.
Problem 3. Let A, B be nn matrices over C. Assume that [A, B] = 0
n
.
Let U be a unitary matrix. Calculate [U
AU, U
BU].
Problem 4. Can we nd nonzero symmetric 22 matrices H and A over
R such that
[H, A] = A
81
where R and ,= 0?
Problem 5. Let A, B be nn hermitian matrices. Is i[A, B] hermitian?
Problem 6. A truncated Bose annihilation operator is dened as the
n n (n 2) matrix
B
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0

1 0 0 0 . . . 0
0 0

2 0 0 . . . 0
0 0 0

3 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 0 . . . 0

n 1
0 0 0 0 . . . 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
(i) Calculate B
n
B
n
.
(ii) Calculate the commutator [B
n
, B
n
].
Problem 7. Find nonzero 22 matrices A, B such that [A, B] ,= 0
2
, but
[A, [A, B]] = 0
2
, [B, [A, B]] = 0
2
.
Problem 8. Let A, B be symmetric n n matrices over R. Show that
[A, B] is skew-symmetric over R.
Problem 9. Let A, B be n n matrices. Show that
AB
1
2
([A, B] + [A, B]
+
) .
Problem 10. Let A, B be n n matrices. Suppose that
[A, B] = 0
n
, [A, B]
+
= 0
n
and that A is invertible. Show that B must be the zero matrix.
Problem 11. Let
C =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Find all 2 2 matrices A such that [A, C] = 0
2
, where 0
2
is the 2 2 zero
matrix.
Problem 12. Let A, B, C be n n matrices. Show that
tr([A, B]C) tr(A[B, C]) .
Commutators and Anticommutators 83
Problem 13. Find all nonzero 2 2 matrices A, B such that
[A, B] = A+B.
Problem 14. Find all nonzero 2 2 matrices J
+
, J
, J
z
such that
[J
z
, J
+
] = J
+
, [J
z
, J
] = J
, [J
+
, J
] = 2J
z
where (J
+
)
= J
.
Problem 15. Find all nonzero 2 2 matrices K
+
, K
, K
z
such that
[K
z
, K
+
] = K
+
, [K
z
, K
] = K
, [K
+
, K
] = 2K
z
where (K
+
)
= K
.
Problem 16. Find all nonzero 2 2 matrices A
1
, A
2
, A
3
such that
[A
1
, A
2
] = 0, [A
1
, A
3
] = A
1
, [A
2
, A
3
] = A
2
.
Problem 17. Let H be a nonzero n n hermitian matrix. Let E be a
nonzero n n matrix. Assume that
[H, E] = aE
where a R and a ,= 0. Show that E cannot be hermitian.
Problem 18. Let A and B be positive semi-denite matrices. Can we
conclude that [A, B]
+
AB +BA is positive semi-denite.
Problem 19. Let A, B be n n matrices. Given the expression
A
2
B +AB
2
+B
2
A+BA
2
2ABA2BAB.
Write the expression in a more compact form using commutators.
Problem 20. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that A
2
= I
n
and B
2
= I
n
.
(i) Find the commutators [AB +BA, A], [AB +BA, B].
(ii) Give an example of such matrices for n = 2 and A ,= B.
A() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, B() =
_
cosh sinh
sinh cosh
_
where , R. Calculate the commutator [A(), B()]. What is the
condition on , such that [A(), B()] = 0
2
?
Problem 22. Let A
1
, A
2
, A
3
be n n matrices over C. The ternary
commutator [A
1
, A
2
, A
3
] (also called the ternutator) is dened as
[A
1
, A
2
, A
3
] :=
S3
sgnA
(1)
A
(2)
A
(3)
A
1
A
2
A
3
+A
2
A
3
A
1
+A
3
A
1
A
2
A
1
A
3
A
2
A
2
A
1
A
3
A
3
A
2
A
1
.
(i) Let n = 2 and consider the Pauli spin matrices
x
,
y
,
z
. Calculate
the ternutator
[
x
,
y
,
z
] .
(ii) Calculate
A
1
A
2
A
3
+A
2
A
3
A
1
+A
3
A
1
A
2
A
1
A
3
A
2
A
2
A
1
A
3
A
3
A
2
A
1
.
Problem 23. Let A, B, C be 2 2 matrices. Find the conditions such
that [A, B, C] = 0.
Problem 24. Let A, B, H be n n matrices such that
[H, A] = 0, [H, B] = 0 .
Show that
[H I
n
+I
n
H, AB] = 0
where denotes the direct sum.
Problem 25. Show that any two 22 matrices which commute with the
matrix
_
0 1
1 0
_
commute with each other.
Problem 26. Let A
1
, A
2
be mm matrices over C. Let B
1
, B
2
be nn
matrices over C. Show that
[A
1
B
1
, A
2
B
2
] = ([A
1
, A
2
]) ([B
1
, B
2
])
Problem 27. Let A, B be an nn matrix over C. Let u C
n
considered
as column vector. Is
[u
A, u
B] = u
[A, B] ?
Here [ , ] denotes the commutator and
=
_
_
_
/x
1
.
.
.
/x
n
_
_
_ .
Problem 28. Let c R and A be an 2 2 matrix over R. Find the
commutator of the 3 3 matrices
c A, Ac
A =
_
_
a
1
0 0
0 a
2
0
0 0 a
3
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 0 b
1
0 b
2
0
b
3
0 0
_
_
.
Can we nd a
j
, b
j
(j = 1, 2, 3) such that the commutator [A, B] is invert-
ible?
Problem 30. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Can we conclude that
|[A, B]| |A| |B| ?
Problem 31. Consider (m+n) (m+n) matrices of the form
_
mm mn
n m n n
_
.
Let
B =
_
B
1
0
0 B
2
_
,

B =
_

B
1
0
0

B
2
_
and
F =
_
0 F
1
F
2
0
_
,

F =
_
0

F
1
F
2
0
_
.
Find the commutators [B.
B], [B, F] and the anticommutator [F,

F]
+
.
Problem 32. Can one nd non-invertible 2 2 matrices A and B such
the commutator [A, B] is invertible?
Problem 33. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that B is
invertible. Show that
[A, B
1
] B
1
[A, B]B
1
.
AB
1
2
[A, B] +
1
2
[A, B]
+
.
Problem 35. (i) Let A, B be 2 2 skew-symetric matrices over R. Find
the commtutor [A, B].
(ii) Let A, B be 3 3 skew-symetric matrices over R. Find the commtutor
[A, B].
Problem 36. Find two linearly independent 2 2 matrices A, B such
that
A = [B, [B, A]], B = [A, [A, B]] .
Problem 37. Let A be an nn matrix and 0
n
be the nn zero matrix.
Find the commutator
__
0
n
A
A 0
n
_
,
_
0
n
A
A 0
n
__
and the anticommutator
Problem 38. Find all 2 2 matrices over C such that the commutator
is an invertible diagonal matrix D, i.e. d
11
,= 0 and d
22
,= 0.
Problem 39. Let A, B be invertible nn matrices over C. Assume that
[A, B] = 0
n
. Can we conclude that [A
1
, B
1
] = 0
n
?
Problem 40. Consider the 3 3 matrices over C
A =
_
_
a
11
0 0
0 a
22
0
0 0 a
33
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 b
12
b
13
b
21
0 b
23
b
31
b
32
0
_
_
.
(i) Calculate the commutator [A, B] and det([A, B]).
(ii) Set a
11
= e
i1
, a
22
= e
i2
, a
33
= e
i3
. Find the condition on
1
,
2
,
3
, b
12
, b
13
, b
21
, b
23
, b
31
, b
32
such that [A, B] is unitary.
Problem 41. Let A, B be nn matrices and T a (xed) invertible nn
matrix. We dene the bracket
[A, B]
T
:= ATB BTA.
Let
T =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, X =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, Y =
_
0 0
1 0
_
, H =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Find [X, Y ]
T
, [X, H]
T
, [Y, H]
T
.
Problem 42. Can one nd a 2 2 matrix A over R such that
[A
T
, A] =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 43. Consider the set of 3 3 matrices
A
1
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
, A
2
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
, A
3
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
A
12
=
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
, A
23
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, A
13
=
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Calculate the anticommutator and thus show that we have a basis of a
Jordan algebra.
Problem 44. Consider the invertible matrices
A =
_
_
1 0 0
0 e
2i/3
0
0 0 e
2i/3
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
.
Is the matrix [A, B] invertible?
Problem 45. A classical 3 3 matrix representation of the algebra
iso(1, 1) is given by
K =
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 2
0 2 0
_
_
, P
+
=
_
_
0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
, P
=
_
_
0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Find the commutators and anticommuators.
Problem 46. Find the conditions on the two 2 2 hermitian matrices
A, B such that
[AB, P] = 0
where P is the permutation matrix
P =
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Problem 47. Let A be an arbitrary nn matrix over C with tr(A) = 0.
Show that A can be written as commutator, i.e. there are n n matrices
X and Y such that
A = XY Y X .
Problem 48. Let A be an arbitrary n n matrix over C with trA = 0.
Show that A can be written as commutator, i.e., there are n n matrices
X and Y such that A = [X, Y ].
Problem 49. Let A be an arbitrary n n matrix over C with trA = 0.
Show that A can be written as commutator, i.e., there are n n matrices
X and Y such that A = [X, Y ].
Problem 50. Let A, B be hermitian matrices, i.e. A
= A and B
= B.
Then in general A+iB is non-normal. What are the conditions on A and
B such that A+iB is normal?
Problem 51. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Show that if A and B
commute and if A is normal, then A
and B commute.
Problem 52. Let
j
(j = 0, 1, 2, 3) be the Pauli spin matrices, where
0
is the 2 2 identity matrix. Form the four 4 4 matrices
k
=
_
0
2

k
k
0
2
_
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3
where 0
2
is the 2 2 identity matrix.
(i) Are the matrices
k
linearly independent?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
k
s.
(iii) Are the matrices
k
invertible. Use the result from (ii). If so, nd the
inverse.
(iv) Find the commutators [
k
,
] for k, = 0, 1, 2, 3. Find the anticommu-

tators [
k
,
]
+
for k, = 0, 1, 2, 3.
(v) Can the matrices
k
be written as the Kronecker product of two 2 2
matrices?
Problem 53. Let A be an n n matrix over C. It can be written as
A = HU, where H is a non-negative denite hermitian matrix and U is
unitary. Show that the matrices H and A commutute if and only if A is
normal.
Problem 54. Let A, B be n n matrices over C such that A
2
= I
n
,
B
2
= I
n
, where I
n
is the n n unit matrix. Now assume that
[A, B]
+
AB +BA = 0
n
i.e. the anticommutator of A and B vanishes. Show that there is no solution
for A and B if n is odd.
Problem 55. Let T be an invertible matrix. Show that
T
1
AT A+T
1
[A, T] .
Chapter 6
Decomposition of
Matrices
Problem 1. We consider 3 3 matrices over R. An orthogonal matrix
Q such that det Q = 1 is called a rotation matrix. Let 1 p < r 3 and
be a real number. An orthogonal 3 3 matrix Q
pr
() = (q
ij
)
1i,j3
given
by
q
pp
=q
rr
= cos
q
ii
=1 if i ,= p, r
q
pr
=q
rp
= sin
q
ip
=q
pi
= q
ir
= q
ri
= 0 i ,= p, r
q
ij
=0 if i ,= p, r and j ,= p, r
will be called a plane rotation through in the plane span (e
p
, e
r
). Let
Q = (q
ij
)
1i,j3
be a rotation matrix. Show that there exist angles
[0, ), , (, ] called the Euler angles of Q such that
Q = Q
12
()Q
23
()Q
12
() . (1)
Problem 2. For any n n matrix A over C, there exists a positive
semi-denite matrix H and a unitary matrix such that A = HU (polar
decomposition). If A is nonsingular, then H is positive denite and U and
90
Decomposition of Matrices 91
H are unique. Find the polar decomposition for
A =
_
_
1 0 4
0 5 4
4 4 3
_
_
.
Problem 3. If A R
nn
, then there exists an orthogonal Q R
nn
such that
Q
T
AQ =
_
_
_
_
R
11
R
12
. . . R
1m
0 R
22
. . . R
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . R
mn
_
_
_
_
where each R
ii
is either a 1 1 matrix or a 2 2 matrix having complex
conjugate eigenvalues. Find Q for the matrix
A =
_
_
0 1 0
2 0 3
0 4 0
_
_
.
Then calculate Q
T
AQ.
Problem 4. Let n 2 and n = 2k. Let A be an n k matrix and
A
A = I
k
where I
k
is the k k unit matrix. Find the n n matrix AA
using the
singular value decomposition. Calculate tr(AA
).
Problem 5. Let n 2 and n = 2k. Let A be an n k matrix and
A
A = I
k
where I
k
is the k k unit matrix. Let S be a positive denite nn matrix.
Show that
1
tr(A
S
2
A)
tr((A
SA)
2
)
.
A =
_
_
2 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 2
_
_
and the orthogonal matrix
O =
_
_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Calculate

A = O
1
AO. Can we nd an angle such that a
12
= a
21
= 0?
Problem 7. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Assume that A
1
exits.
Given the singular value decomposition of A, i.e. A = UWV
T
. Find the
singular value decomposition for A
1
.
Problem 8. Find the cosine-sine decomposition of the 4 4 unitary
matrix
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Problem 9. Find a cosine-sine decomposition of the Hadamard matrix
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Problem 10. (i) Consider the 4 4 matrices
=
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
_
_
_,

=
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_ .
Can one nd 4 4 permutation matrices P, Q such that
= P
Q?
(ii) Consider the 2n 2n matrices
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0 0 0
1 0 1 . . . 0 0
0 1 0 . . . 0 0 0
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1 0 1
0 0 0 . . . 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Decomposition of Matrices 93
and
=
_
0
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
where 0
n
is the nn zero matrix and I
n
is the nn identity matrix. Can
one nd 2n 2n permutation matrices P, Q such that = P
Q?
Problem 11. Let A be an mm matrix. Let B be an nn matrix. Let
X be an mn matrix such that
AX = XB. (1)
We can nd non-singular matrices V and W such that
V
1
AV = J
A
, W
1
BW = J
B
where J
A
, J
B
are the Jordan canonical form of A and B, respectively. Show
that from (1) it follows that
J
A
Y = Y J
B
where Y := V
1
XW.
Chapter 7
Functions of Matrices
Problem 1. Consider the matrix ( R)
S() =
_
_
_
cosh 0 0 sinh
0 cosh sinh 0
0 sinh cosh 0
sinh 0 0 cosh
_
_
_ .
(i) Show that the matrix is invertible, i.e. nd the determinant.
(ii) Calculate the inverse of S().
(iii) Calculate
A :=
d
d
S()
=0
and then calculate exp(A).
Problem 2. Let A be an n n positive denite matrix over R. Let q
and J be column vectors in R
n
. Calculate
Z(J) =
_

dq
1
dq
n
exp
_
1
2
q
T
Aq +J
T
q
_
.
Note that
_

dqe
(aq
2
+bq+c)
=
_
a
e
(b
2
4ac)/(4a)
. (1)
94
Functions of Matrices 95
Problem 3. Let A be an n n positive denite matrix over R, i.e.
x
T
Ax > 0 for all x R
n
. Calculate
_
R
n
exp(x
T
Ax)dx.
A =
_
3 4
1 1
_
.
Calculate A
n
, where n N.
Problem 5. Let A be an n n matrix over C. The n n matrix B over
C is a square root of A i B
2
= A. The number of square roots of a given
matrix A may be zero, nite or innite. Does the matrix
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
admit a square root?
Problem 6. Let A be an n n matrix. Let
c(z) := det(zI
n
A) = z
n
n1
k=0
c
k
z
k
be the characteristic polynomial of A. Apply the Cayley-Hamilton theorem
c(A) = 0 to calculate exp(A).
Problem 7. (i) Let A be an nn matrix with A
3
= I
n
. Calculate exp(A)
using
exp(A) =
j=0
A
j
/(j!) .
(ii) Let
B =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
with B
3
= I
3
. Calculate exp(B) using the result from (i). Calculate exp(B)
applying the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
Problem 8. Show that for any Pauli spin matrix
1
,
2
,
3
we have
sin(
j
) = sin()
j
.
Problem 9. Let M be an n n matrix with m
jk
= 1 for all j, k =
1, 2, . . . , n. Let s C. Find exp(sM). Then consider the special case
sn = i
Problem 10. Let X, Y be n n matrices. Show that
[e
X
, Y ] =
k=1
[X
k
, Y ]
k!
.
e
A+B
e
A
_
1
0
e
(1t)A
Be
t(A+B)
dt .
Problem 12. Let A be an n n matrix. Then exp(A) can also be
calculated as
e
A
= lim
m
_
I
n
+
A
m
_
m
.
Use this denition to show that
det(e
A
) e
tr(A)
.
Problem 13. Let A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
p
be n n matrices over C. The general-
ized Trotter formula is given by
exp
_
_
n
j=1
A
j
_
_
= lim
n
f
n
( A
j
) (1)
where the n-th approximant f
n
( A
j
) is dened by
f
n
( A
j
) :=
_
exp
_
1
n
A
1
_
exp
_
1
n
A
2
_
exp
_
1
n
A
p
__
n
.
Let p = 2 and
A
1
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
, A
2
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Calculate the left and right-hand side of (1).
Problem 14. Let , R. Calculate
exp
_

0 0
_
.
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Let t R. Find exp(tA).
Problem 16. Let A, B be n n matrices over C and C. The
Baker-Campbell-Hausdor formula states that
e
A
Be
A
= B +[A, B] +

2
2!
[A, [A, B]] + =
j=0
j
j!
A
j
, B =

B()
where [A, B] := AB BA and
A
j
, B := [A, A
j1
, B]
is the repeated commutator.
(i) Extend the formula to
e
A
B
k
e
A
where k 1.
(ii) Extend the formula to
e
A
e
B
e
A
.
Problem 17. Consider the n n matrix (n 2)
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1
0 0 0 . . . 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Let f : R R be an analytic function. Calculate
f(0)I
n
+
f
(0)
1!
A+
f
(0)
2!
A
2
+ +
f
n1
(n 1)!
A
n1
where

denotes dierentiation. Discuss.
cos(A+B) = cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B)
if AB = BA.
A() =
_
_
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
_
_
, R.
Find exp(A).
Problem 20. Let A, B be n n matrices with A
2
= I
n
and B
2
= I
n
.
Assume that the anticommutator of A and B vanishes, i.e.
[A, B]
+
= AB +BA = 0
n
.
Let a, b C. Calculate
e
aA+bB
.
Problem 21. Let A, B be n n matrices with A
2
= I
n
and B
2
= I
n
.
Assume that the commutator of A and B vanishes, i.e.
[A, B] = AB BA = 0
n
.
Let a, b C. Calculate
e
aA+bB
.
A =
_
a
11
a
12
0 a
22
_
.
Find exp(tA).
Problem 23. Can one nd n n matrices A such that ( R)
exp(iA) = I
n
+ (cos() 1)A
2
+i sin()A?
Problem 24. Let , C. Let
M(, ) =
_

0
_
.
(i) Calculate exp(M(, )).
(ii) For which values of , C is the matrix nonnormal? Simplify the
result for = i and arbitrary. Is the matrix M( = i, ) nonnormal?
Is the matrix exp(M( = i, ) nonnormal?
Problem 25. Consider the two-dimensional rotation matrix
R =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
with 0 . Find R
1/2
.
Problem 26. Let f : R R be an analytic function. Let R, n a
normalized vector in R
3
and
1
,
2
,
3
the Pauli spin matrices. We dene
n := n
1
1
+n
2
2
+n
3
3
.
Then
f(n )
1
2
(f() +f())I
2
+
1
2
(f() f())(n ) .
Apply this identity to f(x) = sin(x).
Problem 27. Let a, b R and
M =
_
a b
b a
_
.
Calculate exp(M).
Problem 28. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Assume that all eigen-
values
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
are pairwise distinct. Then e
tA
follows (Lagrange interpolation)
e
tA
=
n
j=1
e
jt
n
k=1
k=j
(A
k
I
n
)
(
j

k
)
.
Let
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Calculate e
tA
using this method.
Problem 29. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Assume that all eigen-
values
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
are pairwise distinct. Then e
tA
follows (Newton interpolation)
e
tA
= e
1t
I
n
+
n
j=2
[
1
, . . . ,
j
]
j1
k=1
(A
k
I
n
) .
The divided dierences [
1
, . . . ,
j
] depend on t and are dened recursively
by
[
1
,
2
] :=
e
1t
e
2t
2
[
1
, . . . ,
k+1
] :=
[
1
, . . . ,
k
] [
2
, . . . ,
k+1
]
k+1
, k 2 .
Let
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Calculate e
tA
using this method.
Problem 30. Apply the Cayley-Hamilton theorem to the 3 3 matrix A
and express the result using the trace and determinant of A.
Problem 31. Let A, B, C be n n matrices over C such that A
2
= I
n
,
B
2
= I
n
and C
2
= I
n
. Furthermore assume that
[A, B]
+
AB+BA = 0
n
, [B, C]
+
BC+CB = 0
n
, [C, A]
+
CA+AC = 0
n
i.e. the anticommutators vanish. Let , , C. Calculate e
A+B+C
using
e
A+B+C
=
j=0
(A+B +C)
j
j!
.
Problem 32. Let A, B be n n matrices. Then we have the identity
det(e
A
e
B
e
A
e
B
) exp(tr([A, B]))
where [A, B] := AB BA denes the commutator. Show that
det(e
A
e
B
e
A
e
B
) = 1 .
Problem 33. Let
e =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, f =
_
0 0
1 0
_
, h =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
(i) Show that
exp(e) =
_
1 1
0 1
_
, exp(f) =
_
1 0
1 1
_
.
(ii) Show that
exp(e) exp(f) exp(e) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 34. Let A be an n n matrix. The characteristic polynomial
det(I
n
A) =
n
+a
1
n1
+ +a
n
= p()
is closely related the the resolvent (I
n
A)
1
trough the formula
(I
n
A)
1
=
N
1
n1
+N
2
n2
+ +N
n
n
+a
1
n1
+ +a
n
=
N()
p()
where the adjugate matrix N() is a polynomial in of degree n 1 with
constant n n coecient matrices N
1
, . . . , N
n
. The Laplace transform of
the matrix exponential is the resolvent
L(e
tA
) = (I
n
A)
1
.
The N
k
matrices and a
k
coecients may be computed recursively as follows
N
1
=I
n
, a
1
=
1
1
tr(AN
1
)
N
2
=AN
1
+a
1
I
n
, a
2
=
1
2
tr(AN
2
)
.
.
.
N
n
=AN
n1
+a
n1
I
n
, a
n
=
1
n
tr(AN
n
)
0 =AN
n
+a
n
I
n
.
Let
A =
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Find the N
k
matrices and the coecients a
k
and thus calculate the resol-
vent.
det(I
n
A) =
n
+a
1
n1
+ +a
n
= p()
n
A)
1
trough the formula
(I
n
A)
1
=
N
1
n1
+N
2
n2
+ +N
n
n
+a
1
n1
+ +a
n
=
N()
p()
constant n n coecient matrices N
1
, . . . , N
n
. The Laplace transform of
the matrix exponential is the resolvent
L(e
tA
) = (I
n
A)
1
.
The N
k
matrices and a
k
N
1
=I
n
, a
1
=
1
1
tr(AN
1
)
N
2
=AN
1
+a
1
I
n
, a
2
=
1
2
tr(AN
2
)
.
.
.
N
n
=AN
n1
+a
n1
I
n
, a
n
=
1
n
tr(AN
n
)
0 =AN
n
+a
n
I
n
.
Show that
tr(L(e
t
A)) =
p
()
p()
where p
() = dp()/d.
all the eigenvalues, which are real, are positive. We also have A
T
= A.
Consider the analytic function f : R
n
R
f(x) = exp
_
1
2
x
T
A
1
x
_
.
Calculate the Fourier transform of f. The Fourier transform is dened by
f(k) :=
_
R
n
f(x)e
ikx
dx
where k x k
T
x k
1
x
1
+ + k
n
x
n
and dx = dx
1
. . . dx
n
. The inverse
Fourier transform is given by
f(x) =
1
(2)
n
_
R
n
f(k)e
ikx
dk
where dk = dk
1
. . . dk
n
. Note that we have with a > 0
_
R
e
(ax
2
+bx+c)
dx =
_
a
e
(b
2
4ac)/(4a)
.
Problem 37. Let A be an nn matrix. Suppose f is an analytic function
inside on a closed contour which encircles (A), where (A) denotes the
eigenvalues of A. We dene f(A) to be the n n matrix
f(A) =
1
2i
_
f(z)(zI
n
A)
1
dz .
This is a matrix version of the Cauchy integral theorem. The integral is
dened on an element-by-element basis f(A) = (f
jk
), where
f
jk
=
1
2i
_
f(z)e
T
j
(zI
n
A)
1
e
k
dz
where e
j
(j = 1, 2, . . . , n) is the standard basis in C
n
. Let f(z) = z
2
and
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Calculate f(A).
Problem 38. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Calculate
e
A
Be
A
.
Set f() = e
A
Be
A
, where is a real parameter. Then dierentiate with
respect to . For = 1 we have e
A
Be
A
.
Problem 39. Let A, B be positive denite matrices. Then we have the
integral representation (x 0)
ln(A+xB) lnA
_

0
(A+uI
n
)
1
xB(A+xB +uI
n
)
1
du.
Let
A =
_
2 1
1 1
_
, B =
_
1 1
1 2
_
.
Calculate the left and right-hand side of the integral representation.
Problem 40. Let R. Calculate
f() = e
y
z
e
y
.
Hint. Dierentiate the matrix-valued function f with respect to and solve
the initial value problem of the resulting ordinary dierential equation.
Problem 41. Find the square root of the matrix
A =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
i.e. nd the matrices X such that X
2
= A.
Problem 42. Let A be an arbitrary nn matrix. Can we conclude that
exp(A
) = (exp(A))
?
Problem 43. Let A be an invertible n n matrix over R. Consider the
functions
E
j
=
1
2
(Ac
j
e
j
)
T
(Ac
j
e
j
)
where j = 1, . . . , n, c
j
is the j-th column of the inverse matrix of A, e
j
is
the j-th column of the n n identity matrix. This means e
1
, . . . , e
n
is
the standard basis (as column vectors) in R
n
. The c
j
are determined by
minimizing the E
j
with respect to the c
j
. Apply this method to nd the
inverse of the 3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
.
Problem 44. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Assume that A is
hermitian, i.e. A
= A. Thus A has only real eigenvalues. Assume that

A
5
+A
3
+A = 3I
n
.
Show that A = I
n
.
Problem 45. Let f be a function from U, an open subset of R
m
, to R
n
.
Assume that the component function f
j
(j = 1, . . . , n) possess rst order
partial derivatives. Then we can associate the n m matrix
_
f
j
x
k
p
_
, j = 1, . . . , n k = 1, . . . , m
where p U. The matrix is is called the Jacobian matrix of f at the
point p. When m = n the determinant of the square matrix f is called the
Jacobian of f . Let
A = r R : r > 0 , B = R : 0 < 2
and f : A B R
2
with f
1
(r, ) = r cos , f
2
(r, ) = r sin. Find the
Jacobian matrix and the Jacobian.
Problem 46. Let
J =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Find all nonzero 2 2 matrices A such that
AJ = JA.
Problem 47. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Let T be a nilpotent
matrix over C satisfying
T
A+AT = 0 .
Show that
(e
T
)
Ae
T
= A.
Problem 48. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Let , R. Show
that
exp((A+B)) exp(A)
_
I
n
+
_

0
de
A
Be
(A+B)
_
.
A =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
.
Let R. Find exp(A).
Problem 50. Let R. Let
I
n
A
be a positive denite matrix. Calculate
exp(tr(ln(I
n
A))
using the identity det e
M
exp(tr(M)).
Problem 51. Consider the Pauli spin matrices
x
,
y
and
z
. Can one
nd an R such that
exp(i
z
)
x
exp(i
z
) =
y
?
Problem 52. (i) Let a, b R. Let
K =
_
a b
b a
_
.
Find exp(iK).
(ii) Use the result to nd a, b such that
exp(iK) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 53. Let P be an nn projection matrix. Let R. Calculate
exp(P) .
Problem 54. (i) Let P
1
, P
2
, . . . , P
n
be an n n projection matrices.
Assume that P
j
P
k
= 0 (j ,= k) for all j, k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Let
j
R with
j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Calculate
exp(
1
P
1
+
2
P
2
+ +
n
P
n
) .
(ii) Assume additionally that
P
1
+P
2
+ +P
n
= I
n
.
Simplify the result from (i) using this condition.
Problem 55. Let A, B be n n hermitian matrices. There exists n n
unitary matrices U and V (depending on A and B) such that
exp(iA) exp(iB) = exp(iUAU
1
+iV BV
1
) .
Consider n = 2 and
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B =
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Find U and V . Note that A and B are also unitary and represend the
NOT-gate and Hadamard gate, respectively. Furthermore
[A, B] =

2
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 56. Let a, b C and
M(a, b) =
_
a b
0 a
_
.
Calculate exp(M(a, b)).
Problem 57. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that A and B
commute with the commutator [A, B]. Then
exp(A+B) = exp(A) exp(B) exp
_
1
2
[A, B]
_
.
Can this formula be applied to the matrices
C =
_
1 0
0 0
_
, D =
_
0 1
0 0
_
.
Problem 58. Let R. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Expand
e
A
e
B
e
A
e
B
up to second order in .
Problem 59. Let , R. Consider the 2 2 matrix
B =
_
i
i
_
.
Find exp(tB), where t R and thus solve the initial value problem of the
matrix dierential equation
dA
dt
= BA(t) .
Problem 60. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Assume that for all
eigenvalues we have '() < 0. Let B be an arbitrary n n matrix over
C. Let
R :=
_

0
e
tA
Be
tA
.
Show that the matrix R satises the matrix equation
RA+A
R = B.
Problem 61. Let A, B be n n matrices over C such that [A, B] = A.
What can be said about the commutator
[e
A
, e
B
]
Problem 62. Consider the positive semidenite matrix
A =
_
2 1
1 2
_
.
Use the right-hand side of the identity
det(A) exp(tr(ln(A)))
to calculate det(A).
Problem 63. Let A, B be n n matrices over C and A
2
= I
n
, B
2
= I
n
.
Calculate
exp(z
1
A+z
2
B)
where z
1
, z
2
C.
Problem 64. The Cayley-Hamilton theorem can also be used to calculate
exp(A) and other entire functions for an n n matrix. Let A be an n n
matrix over C. Let f be an entire function, i.e., an analytic function on the
whole complex plane, for example exp(z), sin(z), cos(z). An innite series
expansion for f(A) is not generally useful for computing f(A). Using the
Cayley-Hamilton theorem we can write
f(A) = a
n1
A
n1
+a
n2
A
n2
+ +a
2
A
2
+a
1
A+a
0
I
n
(1)
where the complex numbers a
0
, a
1
, . . . , a
n1
are determined as follows:
Let
r() := a
n1
n1
+a
n2
n2
+ +a
2
2
+a
1
+a
0
which is the right-hand side of (1) with A
j
replaced by
j
, where j =
0, 1, . . . , n 1. or each distinct eigenvalue
j
of the matrix A, we consider
the equation
f(
j
) = r(
j
) . (2)
If
j
is an eigenvalue of multiplicity k, for k > 1, then we consider also the
following equations
f
()[
=j
= r
()[
=j
f
()[
=j
= r
()[
=j
=
f
(k1)
()
=j
= r
(k1)
()
=j
.
(i) Apply this technique to nd exp(A) with
A =
_
c c
c c
_
, c R, c ,= 0 .
(ii) Use the method given above to calculate exp(iK), where the hermitian
2 2 matrix K is given by
K =
_
a b
b c
_
, a, c R, b C.
Problem 65. Let z C. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. We say
that B is invariant with respect to A if
e
zA
Be
zA
= B.
Obviously e
zA
is the inverse of e
zA
. Show that, if this condition is satised,
one has [A, B] = 0
n
, where 0
n
is the n n zero matrix. If e
zA
would be
unitary we have UBU
= B.
Problem 66. Let z C and
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B =
_
b
11
b
12
b
12
b
11
_
.
(i) Calculate exp(zA), exp(zA) and exp(zA)Bexp(zA).
(ii) Calculate the commutator [A, B].
A =
_
0 i
i 0
_
, B =
_
b
11
b
12
b
12
b
11
_
.
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, B =
_
b
11
b
12
0 b
11
_
.
Problem 69. Consider the Pauli spin matrices
x
,
y
,
z
. Find the
skew-hermitian matrices
x
,
y
,
z
such that
x
= exp(
x
),
y
= exp(
y
),
z
= exp(
z
) .
Find the commutators [
x
,
y
], [
y
,
z
], [
z
,
x
] and compare with the
commutators [
x
,
y
], [
y
,
z
], [
z
,
x
].
Problem 70. Let R. Consider the matrix
A() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
(i) Show that the matrix is orthogonal.
(ii) Find the determinant of A(). Is the matrix an element of SO(2, R)?
(iii) Do these matrices form a group under matrix multiplication?
(iv) Calculate
X =
d
d
A()
=0
.
Calculate exp(X) and compare this matrix with A(). Discuss.
(v) Let R and
B() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
Is the matrix A() B() orthogonal? Find the determinant of A()
B(). Is this matrix an element of SO(4, R)?
Problem 71. We know that for any n n matrix A over C the matrix
exp(A) is invertible with the inverse exp(A). What about cos(A) and
cosh(A)?
Problem 72. (i) Let R. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Find
lim
0
sinh(2A)
sinh()
.
(ii) Assume that A
2
= I
n
. Calculate
sinh(2A)
sinh()
.
(iii) Assume that A
2
= 0
n
. Calculate
sinh(2A)
sinh()
.
Problem 73. Let A be an n n normal matrix over C with eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
and corresponding pairwise orthonormal eigenvectors u
j
(j =
1, . . . , n). Then the matrix A can be written as (spectral decomposition)
A =
n
j=1
j
u
j
u
j

n
j=1
j
[u
j
)u
j
[ .
(i) Let z C. Use this spectral decomposition to calculate exp(zA).
(ii) Apply it to A =
x
.
Problem 74. Consider the matrices
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, B =
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
Is sin(A) invertible? Is cos(A) invertible? Is sin(B) invertible? Is cos(B)
invertible?
Problem 75. Is cos(A) invertible for all n n matrices A over C?
Problem 76. Let A be a nilpotent matrix. Is the matrix cos(A) invert-
ible?
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, B =
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
Find cosh(A), sinh(A), cosh(B), sinh(B). Which of these matrices are
invertible?
Problem 78. (i) Consider the permutation matrix
P =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors and thus the spectral
decomposition of P.
(ii) Find the matrix X such that exp(X) = P.
Problem 79. (i) Consider the permutation matrix
P =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of P and thus the spectral
decomposition of P.
(ii) Find the matrix X such that exp(X) = P.
Problem 80. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Find
lim
0
sinh(A)
sinh()
.
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
.
Write the matrix A in the form
A = I
3
+B, B =
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
and calculate e
A
using e
A
= e
I3
e
B
.
A =
_
_
0 i 0
0 0 i
0 i 0
_
_
.
Calculate exp(iA), where R.
det(I
n
A) =
n
+a
1
n1
+ +a
n
= p()
n
A)
1
trough the formula
(I
n
A)
1
=
N
1
n1
+N
2
n2
+ +N
n
n
+a
1
n1
+ +a
n
=
N()
p()
constant n n matrices N
1
, . . . , N
n
. The Laplace transform of the matrix
exponential is the resolvent
L(e
tA
) = (I
n
A)
1
.
The N
k
matrices and a
k
N
1
=I
n
, a
1
=
1
1
tr(AN
1
)
N
2
=AN
1
+a
1
I
n
, a
2
=
1
2
tr(AN
2
)
.
.
.
N
n
=AN
n1
+a
n1
I
n
, a
n
=
1
n
tr(AN
n
)
0 =AN
n
+a
n
I
n
.
Let
A =
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Find the N
k
matrices and the coecients a
k
and thus calculate the resol-
vent.
Problem 84. Let A be a normal matrix with eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
and
corresponding normalized pairwise orthogonal eigenvectors u
1
, . . . , u
n
. Let
w, v C
n
(column vectors). Find
w
e
A
v
by expanding w and v with respect to the basis u
j
(j = 1, . . . , n).
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, B =
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
Find cos(A) and the inverse of this matrix. Find cos(B) and the inverse of
this matrix. Find the commutators [A, B] and [cos(A), cos(B)]. Discuss.
Problem 86. Let V be the 2 2 matrix
V = v
0
I
2
+v
1
1
+v
2
2
+v
3
3
where v
0
, v
1
, v
2
, v
3
R. Consider the equation
exp(iV ) = (I
2
iW)(I
2
+iW)
1
where is real. Find W as a function of V .
Problem 87. Consider the rotation matrix
R(t) =
_
cos(t) sin(t)
sin(t) cos(t)
_
where is the xed frequency. Find the matrix
H(t) = i
dR(t)
dt
R
T
(t)
and show it is hermitian.
Problem 88. (i) Let
1
be the Pauli matrix
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Calculate
exp
_
1
2
i(
1
I
2
)
_
.
(ii) Find all 2 2 matrices A and c C such that
exp(c(AI
2
)) = A.
Problem 89. Let B be an n n matrix with B
2
= I
n
. Show that
exp
_
1
2
i(B I
n
)
_
B.
Problem 90. Let A, B be n n matrices over C and
exp(A) exp(B) = exp(C) .
Then the matrix C can be given as an innite series of commutators of A
and B. Let z C. We write
exp(zA) exp(zB) = exp(C(zA, zB))
where
C(zA, zB) =
j=1
c
j
(A, B)z
j
.
Show that the expansion up to fourth order is given by
c
1
(A, B) =A+B
c
2
(A, B) =
1
2
[A, B]
c
3
(A, B) =
1
12
[A, [A, B]]
1
12
[B, [A, B]
c
4
(A, B) =
1
24
[A, [B, [A, B] .
Problem 91. The 2 2 matrices
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, B =
_
0 0
1 0
_
are nonnormal, i.e. AA
,= A
A and BB
,= B
B. Note that A
= B. Are
the matrices
exp(A), exp(B)
normal? Are the matrices sin(A), sin(B), cos(A), cos(B) normal?
Problem 92. Let a, b C. Find
exp
_
a b
0 a
_
.
Problem 93. Find the unitary matrix
U(t) = e
isin(t)x
with the Pauli spin matrix
x
.
Problem 94. Let N be a nilpotent n n matrix with N
j
= 0
n
with
j 1. Is
ln(I
n
N) =
_
N +
1
2
N + +
1
j 1
N
j1
_
and exp(ln(I
n
N) = I
n
N.
Problem 95. Let H = H
1
+H
2
+H
3
and H
1
, H
2
, H
3
be nn hermitian
matrices. Show that
e
H
= e
H1/2
e
H2/2
e
H3
e
H2/2
e
H1/2
+
_
1
2
_
3
S
where
S =
1
6
([[H
2
+H
3
, H
1
], H
1
+ 2H
2
+ 2H
3
] + [[H
3
, H
2
], H
2
+ 2H
3
]) .
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
3
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Calculate the matrix
U = exp
_
i
1
2
(
1
+
3
)
_
.
Is the matrix U unitary? Prove or disprove. If so nd the group generated
by U.
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
over the complex numbers. Find exp(A).
Problem 98. Let z C. Let A be an nn matrix over C. Assume that
A
3
= zA. Find exp(A).
Problem 99. Let a
12
, a
13
, a
23
R. Consider the skew-symmetric matrix
A(a
12
, a
13
, a
23
) =
_
_
0 a
12
a
13
a
12
0 a
23
a
13
a
23
0
_
_
.
Find exp(A).
Chapter 8
Linear Dierential
Equations
Problem 1. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Consider the initial value
problem of the system of linear dierential equations
du(t)
dt
+Au(t) = g(t), u(0) = u
0
(1)
where g(t) = (g
1
(t), g
2
(t), . . . , g
n
(t))
T
. The solution of the initial value
problem is
u(t) = e
tA
u
0
+
_
t
0
e
(t)A
g()d . (2)
(i) Discretize the system with the implicit Euler method with step size h.
(ii) Compare the two solutions of the two systems for the matrix
A =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
,
initial values u
0
= (1 , 1 , 1)
T
with g(t) = (1, 0, 1)
T
and the step size
h = 0.1.
Problem 2. Let L and K be two nn matrices. Assume that the entries
depend on a parameter t and are dierentiable with repect to t. Assume
117
that K
1
(t) exists for all t. Assume that the time-evolution of L is given
by
L(t) = K(t)L(0)K
1
(t) .
(i) Show that L(t) satises the matrix dierential equation
dL
dt
= [L, B](t)
where [ , ] denotes the commutator and
B =
dK
dt
K
1
(t) .
(ii) Show that if L(t) is hermitian and K(t) is unitary, then the matrix B(t)
is skew-hermitian.
Problem 3. Consider a system of linear ordinary dierential equations
with periodic coecients
du
dt
= A(t)u, u =
_
u
2
u
2
_
where A(t) is a 2 2 matrix of periodic functions with period T. By the
classical Floquet theory, any fundamental matrix (t), which is dened as
a nonsingular matrix satisfying the matrix dierential equation
d
dt
= A(t)(t)
can be expressed as
(t) = P(t) exp(TR) .
Here P(t) is nonsingular matrix of periodic functions with the same period
T, and R, a constant matrix, whose eigenvalues
1
and
2
are called the
characteristic exponents of the periodic sytem (1). For a choice of funda-
mental matrix (t), we have
exp(TR) = (t
0
)(t
0
+T)
which does not depend on the initial time t
0
. The matrix exp(TR) is called
the monodromy matrix of the periodic system (1). Calculate
tr exp(TR) .
Problem 4. Let
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Linear Dierential Equations 119
(i) Calculate exp(tA), where t R.
(ii) Find the solution of the initial value problem of the dierential equation
_
du
1
/dt
du
2
/dt
_
= A
_
u
1
u
2
_
with the initial conditions u
1
(t = 0) = u
10
, u
2
(t = 0) = u
20
. Use the result
from (i).
Problem 5. Solve the initial value problem for the matrix dierential
equation
[B, A()] =
dA
d
where A() and B are 2 2 matrices with
B =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 6. Consider the initial problem of the matrix dierential equa-
tion
dX
dt
= A(t)X, X(0) = I
n
where A(t) is an n n matrix which depends smoothly on t and I
n
is
the n n identity matrix. It is known that the solution of this matrix
dierential equation can locally be written as
X(t) = exp((t))
where (t) is obtained as an innite series
(t) =
k=1
k
(t) .
This is the so-called Magnus expansion.
Implement this recursion in SymbolicC++ and apply it to
A(t) =
_
cos(t) sin(t)
sin(t) cos(t)
_
.
Problem 7. Let a, b R. Consider the linear matrix dierential equation
d
2
X
dt
2
+a
dX
dt
+bX = 0 .
Find the solution of the initial value problem.
Problem 8. Let A be an n n matrix over R. The autonomous system
of rst order dierential equations du/dt = Au admits the solution of the
initial value problem u(t) = exp(A)u(0). Dierentiation of the dierential
equations yields the second order system
d
2
u
dt
2
= A
du
dt
= A
2
u.
Thus we can write
du
dt
= v = Au,
dv
dt
= A
2
u = Av
or in matrix form
_
du/dt
dv/dt
_
=
_
0
n
I
n
A
2
0
n
__
u(0)
v(0)
_
where 0
n
is the nn zero matrix and I
n
is the nn identity matrix. Find
the solution of the initial value problem. Assume that A is invertible.
Chapter 9
Norms and Scalar
Products
Problem 1. Let U
1
, U
2
be unitary nn matrices. Let v be a normalized
vector in C
n
. Consider the norm of a k k matrix M
|M| = max
x=1
|Mx|
where |x| denotes the Euclidean norm. Show that if |U
1
U
2
| then
|U
1
v U
2
v| .
Problem 2. Given the 2 2 matrix
A() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
Calculate
|A()| = sup
x=1
|A()x| .
Problem 3. Let A be an n n matrix. Let (A) be the spectral radius
of A. Then we have
(A) min max
1in
n
j=1
[a
ij
[, max
1jn
n
i=1
[a
ij
[ .
121
Let
A =
_
_
0 1 2
3 4 5
6 7 8
_
_
.
Calculate (A) and the right-hand side of the inequality.
Problem 4. Consider the Hilbert space C
n
. We dene a norm of an nn
matrix A over C
|A| := sup
x=1
|Ax|
where the right-hand side denotes the Euclidean norm. Let U be an n n
unitary matrix. Show that |U| = 1.
Problem 5. Let A be an nn positive semidenite (and thus hermitian)
matrix. Is
|A
1/2
| = |A|
1/2
?
Problem 6. Let A be an n n positive semidenite matrix. Show that
[x
Ay[
Ax
_
y
Ay
for all x, y C.
Problem 7. Let t R. Consider the symmetric matrix over R
A(t) =
_
_
t 1 0
1 t 1
0 1 t
_
_
.
Find the condition on t such that (A(t)) < 1, where (A(t)) denotes the
spectral radius of A(t).
Problem 8. (i) Let A be an n n positive semidenite matrix. Show
that (I
n
+A)
1
exists.
(ii) Let B be an arbitrary nn matrix. Show that the inverse of I
n
+B
B
exists.
Problem 9. Let A be an nn matrix. One approach to calculate exp(A)
is to compute an eigenvalue decomposition A = XBX
1
and then apply
the formula e
A
= Xe
B
X
1
. We have using the Schur decomposition
U
AU = diag(
1
, . . . ,
n
) +N
Norms and Scalar Products 123
where U is unitary, the matrix N = (n
jk
) is a strictly upper triangular
(n
jk
= 0, j k) and (A) =
1
, . . . ,
n
is the spectrum of A. Using the
Pade approximation to calculate e
A
we have
R
pq
= (D
pq
(A))
1
N
pq
(A)
where
N
pq
(A) :=
p
j=0
(p +q j)!p!
(p +q)!j!(p j)!
A
j
D
pq
(A) :=
q
j=0
(p +q j)!q!
(p +q)!j!(q j)!
(A)
j
.
Let
A =
_
_
_
0 6 0 0
0 0 6 0
0 0 0 6
0 0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Calculate |R
11
e
A
|, where | | denotes the 2-norm.
Problem 10. Let A be an n n matrix with |A| < 1. Then ln(I
n
+A)
exists. Show that
| ln(I
n
+A)|
|A|
1 |A|
.
Problem 11. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Show that
|[A, B]| 2|A| |B|
where [ , ] denotes the commutator.
Problem 12. Let A be an n n matrix. Let
B =
_
_
A I
n
0
n
I
n
A I
n
0
n
I
n
A
_
_
where 0
n
is the n n zero matrix. Calculate B
2
and B
3
.
Problem 13. Denote by | |
HS
the Hilbert-Schmidt norm and by | |
O
the operator norm, i.e.
|A|
HS
:=
_
tr(AA
), |A|
O
:= sup
x=1
|Ax| = sup
C, x=1
(A
A)x=x

where A is an mn matrix over C, x C
n
and |x| is the Euclidean norm.
(i) Calculate
_
_
_
_
_
1
2
0
1
2
1
2
0
1
2
__
_
_
_
HS
and
_
_
_
_
_
1
2
0
1
2
1
2
0
1
2
__
_
_
_
O
.
(ii) Let A be an mn matrix over C. Find the conditions on A such that
|A|
HS
= |A|
O
.
Problem 14. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Then
|[A, B]| |AB| +|BA| 2|A| |B|
where | | denotes the norm. Let
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B =
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Calculate |[A, B]|, |AB|, |BA|, |A|, |B| and thus verify the inequality
for these matrices. The norm is given by |C| =
_
tr(CC
).
Problem 15. Let A be an nn matrix. The logarithmic norm is dened
by
[A] := lim
h0
+
|I
n
+hA| 1
h
.
Let
|A| := sup
x=1
[Ax| .
Let A be the n n identity matrix I
n
. Find [I
n
].
Problem 16. Find a 2 2 unitary matrix U such that
U
_
0 1
0 0
_
U =
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
Problem 17. Consider the Hilbert space R
n
. The scalar product x, y)
x, y R
n
is given by
x, y) := x
T
y =
n
j=1
x
j
y
j
.
Thus the norm is given by |x| =
_
x, x). Show that
[x
T
y[ |x| |y| .
Problem 18. Let v
1
, . . . , v
m
be a linearly independent set of vectors
in the normed space R
n
with m n.
(i) Show that there is a number c > 0 such that for every choice of real
numbers c
1
, . . . , c
m
we have
|c
1
v
1
+ +c
m
v
m
| c ([c
1
[ + +[c
m
[) . (1)
(ii) Consider R
2
and
v
1
=
_
1
0
_
, v
2
=
_
1
1
_
.
Find a c for this case.
Problem 19. Let A be an n n hermitian matrix. Let u, v C
n
and
C. Consider the equation
Au u = v .
(i) Show that for nonreal (i.e. it has an imaginary part) the vector v
cannot vanish unless u vanishes.
(ii) Show that for nonreal we have
|(AI
n
)
1
v|
1
[[
|v| .
Problem 20. (i) Let A and C be invertible n n matrices over R. Let
B be an n n matrix over R. Assume that
|A| |B| |C| .
Is B invertible?
(ii) Let A, B, C be invertible n n matrices over R with
|A| |B| |C| .
Is
|A
1
| |B
1
| |C
1
| ?
Problem 21. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Assume that |A| < 1,
where
|A| := sup
x=1
|Ax| .
Show that the matrix B = I
n
+A is invertible, i.e. B GL(n.R). To show
that the expansion
I
n
A+A
2
A
3
+
converges apply
|A
m
A
m+1
+A
m+2
A
m+k1
| |A
m
| |1 +|A| + +|A|
k1
|
=|A|
m
1 |A|
k
1 |A|
.
Then calculate (I
n
+A)(I
n
A+A
2
A
3
+ ).
Problem 22. Let A be an nn matrix over C. Let |.| be a subordinate
matrix norm for which |I
n
| = 1. Assume that |A| < 1.
(i) Show that (I
n
A) is nonsingular.
(ii) Show that
|(I
n
A)
1
| (1 |A|)
1
.
Problem 23. Let A be an n n matrix. Assume that |A| < 1. Show
that
|(I
n
A)
1
I
n
|
|A|
1 |A|
.
Problem 24. Let A be an n n nonsingular matrix and B an n n
matrix. Assume that |A
1
B| < 1.
(i) Show that AB is nonsingular.
(ii) Show that
|A
1
(AB)
1
|
|A
1
|

|A
1
B|
1 |A
1
B|
.
Problem 25. Let M be an m n matrix over C. The Frobenius norm
of M is given by
|M|
F
:=
_
tr(M
M) =
_
tr(MM
).
Let U
m
be mm unitary matrix and U
n
be an nn unitary matrix. Show
that
|U
m
M|
F
= |MU
n
|
F
= |M|.
Show that |M|
F
is the square root of the sum of the squares of the singular
values of M.
Problem 26. Let M be an mn matrix over C. Find the rank-1 mn
matrix A over C which minimizes
|M A|
F
.
Hint: Find the singular value decomposition of M = UV
and nd A
with rank 1 which minimizes

| A
|
F
.
Apply the method to
M =
_
_
0 1
1 0
0 1
_
_
.
Problem 27. Let A be an n n nonsingular matrix and B an n n
matrix. Assume that |A
1
B| < 1.
(i) Show that AB is nonsingular.
(ii) Show that
|A
1
(AB)
1
|
|A
1
|

|A
1
B|
1 |A
1
B|
.
Problem 28. Let A be an n n matrix over C. The spectral radius of
the matrix A is the non-negative number (A) dened by
(A) := max [
j
(A)[ : 1 j n
where
j
(A) (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) are the eigenvalues of A. We dene the norm
of A as
|A| := sup
x=1
|Ax|
where |Ax| denotes the Euclidean norm. Is (A) |A|? Prove or dis-
prove.
Chapter 10
Graphs and Matrices
Problem 1. A graph G(V, E) is a set of nodes V (points, vertices) con-
nected by a set of links E (edges, lines). We assume that there are n nodes.
The adjancy (n n) matrix A = A(G) takes the form with 1 in row i,
column j if i is connected to j, and 0 otherwise. Thus A is a symmetric
matrix. Associated with A is the degree distribution, a diagonal matrix
with row-sums of A along the diagonal, and 0s elsewhere. We assume that
d
ii
> 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n. We dene the Laplacian as L := D A. Let
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
(i) Give an interpretation of A, A
2
, A
3
.
(ii) Find D and L.
(iii) Show that L admits the eigenvalue
0
= 0 (lowest eigenvalue) with
eigenvector x = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1)
T
.
Problem 2. A graph G(V, E) is a set of nodes V (points, vertices) con-
nected by a set of links E (edges, lines). We assume that there are n nodes.
The adjacency (n n) matrix A = A(G) takes the form with 1 in row i,
column j if i is connected to j, and 0 otherwise. Thus A is a symmetric
128
Graphs and Matrices 129
matrix. Associated with A is the degree distribution D, a diagonal matrix
with row-sums of A along the diagonal, and 0s elsewhere. D describes how
many connections each node has. We dene the Laplacian as L := D A.
Let A = (a
ij
), i.e. a
ij
are the entries of adjacency matrix. Find the mimi-
mum of the weighted sum
S =
1
2
n
i,j=1
(x
i
x
j
)
2
a
ij
with the constraint x
T
x = 1, where x
T
= (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
). Use the La-
grange multiplier method. The sum is over all pairs of squared distances
between nodes which are connected, and so the solution should result in
nodes with large numbers of inter-connections being clustered together.
Chapter 11
Hadamard Product
Problem 1. Suppose A = (a
ij
) and B = (b
ij
) are two n m matrices
with entries in some elds. Then the Hadamard product is the entrywise
product of A and B, that is, the mn matrix A B whose (i, j) entry is
a
ij
b
ij
. We have the properties. Suppose A, B, C are matrices of the same
size and is a scalar. Then
A B =B A
A (B +C) =A B +A C
A (B) =(A B) .
If A, B be n n diagonal matrices, then A B = AB. If A, B are n n
positive denite matrices and (a
jj
) are the diagonal entries of A, then
det(A B) det B
n
j=1
a
jj
(1)
with equality if and only if A is a diagonal matrix. Let
A =
_
5 1
1 1
_
, B =
_
13 4
4 4
_
.
First show that A and B are positive denite and then calculate the left
and right-hand side of (1).
130
Hadamard Product 131
A =
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_, B =
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Calculate the Hadamard product A B. Show that
|A B| |A
A| |B
B|
where the norm is given by the Hilbert-Schmidt norm.
Problem 3. Let A, B, C and D
T
be n n matrices over R. The
Hadamard product is dened by (A B)
ij
:= a
ij
b
ij
. Show that
tr((A B)(C
T
D) = tr((A B C)D) .
Problem 4. If V and W are matrices of the same order, then their Schur
product V W is dened by (entrywise multiplication)
(V W)
j,k
:= V
j,k
W
j,k
.
If all entries of V are nonzero, then we say that X is Schur invertible and
dene its Schur inverse, V
()
, by V
()
V = J, where J is the matrix with
all 1s.
The vector space M
n
(F) of n n matrices acts on itself in three distinct
ways: if C M
n
(F) we can dene endomorphisms X
C
,
C
and Y
C
by
X
C
M := CM,
C
M := C M, Y
C
:= MC
T
.
Let A, B be n n matrices. Assume that X
A
is invertible and
B
is
invertible in the sense of Schur. Note that X
A
is invertible if and only if A
is, and
B
is invertible if and only if the Schur inverse B
()
is dened. We
say that (A, B) is a one-sided Jones pair if
X
A
B
X
A
=
B
X
A
B
.
We call this the braid relation. Give an example for a one-sided Jones pair.
Problem 5. Let A, B be nn matrices. Let e
1
, . . . , e
n
be the standard
basis vectors in C
n
. We form the n
2
column vectors
(Ae
j
) (Be
k
), j, k = 1, . . . , n.
If A is invertible and B is Schur invertible, then for any j
(Ae
1
) (Be
j
), (Ae
2
) (Be
j
), . . . (Ae
n
) (Be
j
)
is a basis of the vector space C
n
. Let
A =
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
, B =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
.
Find these bases for these matrices.
Problem 6. Let U be an n n unitary matrix. Can we conclude that
U U
is a unitary matrix?
Problem 7. Let B = (b
jk
) be a diagonalizable n n matrix with eigen-
values
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
. Thus, there is nonsingular n n matrix A such
that
B = A(diag(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
))A
1
.
Show that
_
_
_
_
b
11
b
22
.
.
.
b
nn
_
_
_
_
= (A (A
1
)
T
)
_
_
_
_
2
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
where is the Hadamard product (Schur product, entrywise product). Thus
the vector of eigenvalues of B is transformed to the vector of its diagonal
entries by the ceocient matrix A (A
1
)
T
.
Problem 8. Let A, B, C, D be n n matrices over R. Let
s
T
= ( 1 1 . . . 1 )
be a row vector in R
n
. Show that
s
T
(A B)(C
T
D)s = tr(CD)
where = (
ij
) is a diagonal matrix with
jj
=

n
i=1
a
ij
b
ij
with j =
1, 2, . . . , n.
Problem 9. Given two matrices A and B of the same size. We use AB
to denote the Schur product. If all entries of A are nonzero, then we say
that A is Schur invertible and dene its Schur inverse, A
()
by
A
()
ij
:=
1
A
ij
.
Hadamard Product 133
Equivalently, we have A
()
A = J, where J is the matrix with all ones.
An n n matrix W is a type-II matrix if
WW
()
T
= nI
n
where I
n
is the n n identity matrix. Find such a matrix for n = 2.
Problem 10. Let A be an invertible nn matrix. Can we conclude that
A A
1
is invertible?
Problem 11. The (n + 1) (n + 1) Hadamard matrix H(n) of any
dimension is generated recursively as follows
H(n) =
_
H(n 1) H(n 1)
H(n 1) H(n 1)
_
where n = 1, 2, . . . and
H(0) = (1) .
Find H(1), H(2) and H(3).
Problem 12. Show that
tr(A(B C)) (vec(A
T
B))
T
vec(C) .
Problem 13. Let be the Hadamard product. Let A be a positive
semidenite n n matrix. Let B be an n n matrix with |B| 1, where
| . | denotes the spectral norm. Show that
max |A B| : |B| 1 = max a
jj
where | | denotes the spectral norm.
Chapter 12
Unitary Matrices
Problem 1. (i) Let A, B be n n matrices over R. Show that one can
nd a 2n 2n unitary matrix U such that
U
_
A B
B A
_
U
=
_
A+iB 0
n
0
n
AiB
_
.
Here 0
n
denotes the n n zero matrix.
(ii) Use the result from (i) to show that
det
_
A B
B A
_
= det(A+iB)det(A+iB) 0 .
Problem 2. Let u be a column vector in C
n
with u
u = 1, i.e. the vector

is normalized. Consider the matrix
U = I
n
2uu
.
(i) Show that U is hermitian.
(ii) Show that U is unitary.
Problem 3. Can one nd a 2 2 unitary matrix such that
U
_
1 0
0 1
_
U
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
134
Unitary Matrices 135
Problem 4. Let
x
,
y
,
z
be the Pauli spin matrices and
U
H
=
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
be the Hadamard matrix. Find
U
H
x
U
H
, U
H
y
U
H
, U
H
z
U
H
.
Problem 5. Find all 2 2 hermitian and unitary matrices A, B such
that
AB = e
i
BA.
Problem 6. Find all (n + 1) (n + 1) matrices A such that
A
UA = U
where U is the unitary matrix
U =
_
_
0 0 i
0 I
n1
0
i 0 0
_
_
and det(A) = 1. Consider rst the case n = 2.
Problem 7. Consider the 2 2 hermitian matrices A and B with A ,= B
with the eigenvalues
1
,
2
;
1
,
2
; and the corresponding normalized eigen-
vectors u
1
, u
2
; v
1
, v
2
, respectively. Form from the normalized eigenvectors
the 2 2 matrix
_
u
1
v
1
u
1
v
2
u
2
v
1
u
2
v
2
_
.
Is this matrix unitary? Find the eigenvalues of this matrix and the corre-
sponding normalized eigenvectors of the 2 2 matrix. How are the eigen-
values and eigenvectors are linked to the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A
and B?
Problem 8. Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Let a
j
R with
j = 0, 1, 2, 3 and
a
2
0
+a
2
1
+a
2
2
+a
2
3
= 1 .
Show that
U = e
i
(a
0
I
2
+a
1
i
1
+a
2
i
2
+a
3
i
3
)
is a unitary matrix, where R.
Problem 9. Let I
n
be the n n unit matrix. Is the 2n 2n matrix
=
1
2
_
I
n
iI
n
I
n
iI
n
_
unitary?
Problem 10. Consider the two 2 2 unitary matrices
U
1
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
, U
2
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Can one nd a unitary 2 2 matrix V such that
U
1
= V U
2
V
?
Problem 11. Let U be an n n unitary matrix.
(i) Is U +U
invertible?
(ii) Is U +U
hermitian?
(iii) Calculate exp((U +U
)), where R
Problem 12. Let U be an n n unitary matrix. Then U + U
is a
hermitian matrix. Can any hermitian matrix represented in this form?
Problem 13. (i) Find the condition on the n n matrix A over C such
that I
n
+A is a unitary matrix.
(ii) Let B be an 2 2 matrix over C. Find all solutions of the equation
B +B
+BB
= 0
2
.
Problem 14. Find all 2 2 invertible matrices A such that
A+A
1
= I
2
.
Problem 15. Let z
1
, z
2
, w
1
, w
2
C. Consider the 2 2 matrices
U =
_
0 z
1
z
2
0
_
, V =
_
0 w
1
w
2
0
_
where z
1
z
1
= 1, z
2
z
2
= 1, w
1
w
1
= 1, w
2
w
2
= 1. This means the matrices
U, V are unitary. Find the condition on z
1
, z
2
, w
1
, w
2
such that the
commutator [U, V ] is again a unitary matrix.
Problem 16. Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Let
1
,
2
,
3

C. Find the conditions on
1
,
2
,
3
such that
U =
1
1
+
2
2
+
3
3
is a unitary matrix.
Problem 17. Consider n n unitary matrices. A scalar product of two
n n matrices U, V can be dened as
U, V ) :=
1
n
tr(UV
) .
Find two 2 2 unitary matrices U, V such that
U, V ) =
1
2
.
Problem 18. Let
[a
0
), [a
1
), . . . .[a
n1
)
be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C
n
. The discrete Fourier
transform
[b
j
) =
1
n
n1
k=0
jk
[a
k
), j = 0, 1, . . . , n
where := exp(2i/n) is the primitive n-th root of unity.
(i) Apply the discrete Fourier transform to the standard basis in C
4
_
_
_
1
0
0
0
_
_
_,
_
_
_
0
1
0
0
_
_
_,
_
_
_
0
0
1
0
_
_
_,
_
_
_
0
0
0
1
_
_
_ .
(ii) Apply the discrete Fourier transform to the Bell basis in C
4
1
2
_
_
_
1
0
0
1
_
_
_,
1
2
_
_
_
1
0
0
1
_
_
_,
1
2
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
_
_
_,
1
2
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
_
_
_ .
Problem 19. (i) Consider the Pauli spin matrices
0
= I
2
,
1
,
2
,
3
.
The matrices are unitary and hermitian. Is the 4 4 matrix
1
2
_
0

1
2

3
_
unitary?
(ii) Is the 4 4 matrix
1
2
_

0

1
i
2

3
_
unitary?
Problem 20. Let U be an 2 2 unitary matrix. Is the 4 4 matrix
V =
_
0 0
0 1
_
U +
_
e
i
0
0 0
_
I
2
unitary?
Problem 21. The Pauli spin matrices
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
2
=
_
0 i
i 0
_
,
3
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
are hermitian and unitary. Together with the 2 2 identity matrix
0
= I
2
they form an orthogonal basis in Hilbert space of the 2 2 matrices over
C with the scalar product tr(AB
). Let X be an n n hermitian matrix.

Then (X +iI
n
)
1
exists and
U = (X iI
n
)(X +iI
n
)
1
is unitary. This is the so-called Cayley transform of X. Find the Cayley
transform of the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 2 identiy matrix. Show
that these matrices also form an orthogonal basis in the Hilbert space.
Problem 22. Consider the unitary matrix with determinant +1
U(r, ) =
_
cosh(r) e
i
sinh(r)
e
i
sinh(r) cosh(r)
_
.
where r, R. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors. Con-
struct another unitary matrix using these normalized eigenvectors as columns
of this matrix.
Problem 23. Show that the two matrices
A =
_
e
i
0
0 e
i
_
, B =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
are conjugate in the Lie group SU(2).
Problem 24. A wave-scattering problem can be described by its scat-
tering matrix U. In a stationary problem, U relates the outgoing-wave to
the ingoing-wave amplitudes. The condition of ux conservation implies
unitary of U, i.e.
UU
= I
where I is the identity operator. If, additionally, the scattering problem is
invariant under the operatiom of time reversal, we also have U = U
T
, i.e.
U is symmetric. Find all 2 2 unitary matrices that also satisfy U = U
T
.
Do these matrices form a subgroup of the Lie group U(2)?
Problem 25. Let U be an n n unitary matrix. Let V be an n n
unitary matrix such that V
1
UV = D is a diagonal matrix D. Is V
1
U
V
a diagonal matrix?
Problem 26. Let U be an n n unitary matrix. Is U +U
invertible?
Problem 27. Let U, V be two n n unitary matrices. Then we can
dene a scalar product via
U, V ) :=
1
n
tr(UV
) .
Find 2 2 unitary matrices U, V such that U, V ) = 1/2.
Problem 28. Let := exp(2i/4). Consider the 3 3 unitary matrices
=
_
_
0 0
0
2
0
0 0
3
_
_
, C =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
, =
_
_
i/2 (1 +i)/2 1/2
(1 +i)/2 0 (1 i)/2
1/2 (1 i)/2 i/2
_
_
.
Do the matrices of the set
:=
j
C
k
: 0 j 3, 0 k 1, 0 2
form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 29. Let := exp(2i/4). Consider the 4 4 unitary matrices
=
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
2
0
0 0 0
3
_
_
_, =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
_
_
_ .
Let c > 0. The four-state Potts quantum chain is dened by the Hamilton
operator
H =
1
c
N
j=1
_
(
j
+
2
j
+
3
j
) +c(
j
3
j+1
+
2
j
2
j+1
+
3
j
j+1
)
_
where N is the number of sites and one imposes cyclic boundary conditions
N + 1 1. Let N = 2. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

H.
Problem 30. Let U be an nn unitary matrix and A an arbitrary nn
matrix. Then we know that
Ue
A
U
1
= e
UAU
1
.
Calculate Ue
A
U with U ,= U
1
.
Problem 31. Consider the Bell matrix
B =
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_
which is a unitary matrix. Each column vector of the matrix is a fully en-
tangled state. Are the normalized eigenvectors of B are also fully entangled
states?
U(
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
) =
1
2
_
e
i11
e
i12
e
i21
e
i22
_
.
Calculate the proudct U(
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
)U(
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
) and nd the
conditions on
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
and
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
such that we have
again a matrix of this form.
Problem 33. Consider the Hamilton operator

H =

H
0
+

H
1
, where
H
0
=
z
,

H
1
=
x
.
Let U and U
0
be the unitary matrices
U = exp(i

Ht/), U
0
= exp(i

H
0
t/) .
Let n be a positive integer. The Moller wave operators
:= lim
n
U
n
U
n
0
.
Owing to their intertwining property the Moller wave operators transform
the eigenvectors of the free dynamics U
0
= exp(i

H
0
t/) into eigenvectors
of the interacting dynamics U = exp(i

Ht/). Find
.
Problem 34. Consider the unitary matrices
U
1
(
1
,
2
,
3
) =
_
_
e
i1
0 0
0 e
i2
0
0 0 e
i3
_
_
, U
2
(
4
,
5
,
6
) =
_
_
0 0 e
i4
0 e
i5
0
e
i6
0 0
_
_
.
What is the condition on
1
, . . . ,
6
such that [U
1
, U
2
] = 0
3
?
U =
_
_
e
i
cos e
i
sin 0
e
i
sin e
i
0
0 0 e
i
_
_
, N =
_
_
0 0 1/
2
0 0 1/
2
1 1 0
_
_
.
Find the commutator [U, N].
Problem 36. Let n 2 and even. Let U be a unitary antisymmetric
n n matrix. Show that there exists a unitary matrix V such that
V
T
UV =
_
0 1
1 0
_

_
0 1
1 0
_
Problem 37. Let U be a unitary and symmetric matrix. Show that there
exists a unitary and symmetric matrix V such that U = V
2
.
Problem 38. Is the matrix
U =
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 exp(i2/3) exp(i4/3)
1 exp(i4/3) exp(i2/3)
_
_
unitary? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of U.
Problem 39. (i) Let = (
5 1)/2 be the golden mean number.

Consider the 2 2 matrices
B
1
=
_
e
i7/10
0
0 e
i3/10
_
, B
2
=
_
e
i/10
i
e
i/10
_
.
The matrices are invertible. Are the matrices unitary? Is B
1
B
2
B
1
=
B
2
B
1
B
2
?
(ii) Show that using computer algebra
B
2
2
B
4
1
B
1
2
B
1
B
1
2
B
1
B
2
B
2
1
B
2
B
1
1
B
5
2
B
1
B
1
2

_
0 i
i 0
_
.
Problem 40. Let U be an nn unitary matrix. Show that [ det(U)[ = 1.
Problem 41. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Show that if is an
eigenvalue of A, then

is also an eigenvalue of A. Give an example for a
2 2 matrix, where the eigenvalues are complex.
Problem 42. Let V be an n n normal matrix over C. Assume that all
its eigenvalues have absolute value of 1, i.e. they are of the form e
i
. Show
that V is unitary.
Problem 43. (i) What are the conditions on
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
R such
that
U(
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
) =
1
2
_
e
i11
e
i12
e
i21
e
i22
_
is a unitary matrix?
(ii) What are the condition on
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
R such that U(
11
,
12
,
21
,
22
)
is an element of SU(2)?
Problem 44. Let , R. Are the 4 4 matrices
U =
_
_
_
e
i
cosh 0 0 sinh
0 e
i
cosh sinh 0
0 sinh e
i
cosh 0
sinh 0 0 e
i
cosh
_
_
_
V =
_
_
_
0 e
i
cosh e
i
sinh 0
e
i
cosh 0 0 e
i
sinh
e
i
sinh 0 0 e
i
cosh
0 e
i
sinh e
i
cosh 0
_
_
_,
unitary?
U =
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
i/
2 0 i/
2
0 1 0
_
_
unitary?
Problem 46. (i) The electronic scattering matrix has the form
S(
1
,
2
,
3
, ) = e
i10
e
i23
e
i2
e
i33
where
1
,
2
,
3
[0, 2), [0, /2). Find S(
1
,
2
,
3
, ).
(ii) Find
T(
1
,
2
,
3
, ) = e
i10
e
i23
e
i2
e
i33
.
Problem 47. Let I
n
be the n n idenity matrix. Is the 2n 2n matrix
V =
1
2
_
I
n
I
n
iI
n
iI
n
_
unitary? Find the eigenvalues of V .
U =
1
2
(I
2
I
2
+i
1
2
) =
1
2
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1
0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
.
Calculate
U(
1
I
2
)U
1
, U(
2
I
2
)U
1
, U(
3
I
2
)U
1
,
U(
1
1
)U
1
, U(
2
2
)U
1
, U(
3
3
)U
1
.
Discuss.
Chapter 13
Numerical Methods
Problem 1. Let A be an invertible n n matrix over R. Consider the
system of linear equation Ax = b or
n
j=1
a
ij
x
j
= b
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Let A = C R. This is called a splitting of the matrix A and R is the
defect matrix of the splitting. Consider the iteration
Cx
(k+1)
= Rx
(k)
+b, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Let
A =
_
_
4 1 0
1 4 1
0 2 4
_
_
, C =
_
_
4 0 0
0 4 0
0 0 4
_
_
and
b =
_
_
3
2
2
_
_
, x
(0)
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
.
The iteration converges if (C
1
R) < 1, where (C
1
R) denotes the spec-
tral radius of C
1
R. Show that (C
1
R) < 1. Perform the iteration.
Problem 2. Let A be an n n matrix over R and let b R
n
. Consider
the linear equation Ax = b. Assume that a
jj
,= 0 for j = 1, 2, . . . , n. We
144
Numerical Methods 145
dene the diagonal matrix D = diag(a
jj
). Then the linear equation Ax = b
can be written as
x = Bx +c
with B := D
1
(A D), c := D
1
b. The Jacobi method for the solution
of the linear equation Ax = b is given by
x
(k+1)
= Bx
(k)
+c, k = 0, 1, . . .
where x
(0)
is any initial vector in R
n
. The sequence converges if
(B) := max
j=1,...,n
[
j
(B)[ < 1
where (B) is the spectral radius of B. Let
A =
_
_
2 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 2
_
_
.
(i) Show that the Jacobi method can applied for this matrix.
(ii) Find the solution of the linear equation with b = (1 1 1)
T
.
Problem 3. Let A be an n n matrix over R. The (p, q) Pade approxi-
mation to exp(A) is dened by
R
pq
(A) := (D
pq
(A))
1
N
pq
(A)
where
N
pq
(A) =
p
j=0
(p +q j)!p!
(p +q)!j!(p j)!
A
j
D
pq
(A) =
q
j=0
(p +q j)!q!
(p +q)!j!(q j)!
(A)
j
.
Nonsingularity of D
pq
(A) is assured if p and q are large enough or if the
eigenvalues of A are negative. Find the Pade approximation for the matrix
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
and p = q = 2. Compare with the exact solution.
Problem 4. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Then we have the Taylor
expansion
sin(A) :=
k=0
(1)
k
(2k + 1)!
A
2k+1
, cos(A) :=
k=0
(1)
k
(2k)!
A
2k
.
To calculate sin(A) and cos(A) from a truncated Taylor series approxima-
tion is only worthwhile near the origin. We can use the repeated application
of the double angle formula
cos(2A) 2 cos
2
(A) I
n
, sin(2A) 2 sin(A) cos(A) .
We can nd sin(A) and cos(A) of a matrix A from a suitably truncated
Taylor series approximates as follows
S
0
= Taylor approximate to sin(A/2
k
)
C
0
= Taylor approximate to cos(A/2
k
)
and the recursion
S
j
= 2S
j1
C
j1
, C
j
= 2C
2
j1
I
n
where j = 1, 2, . . .. Here k is a positive integer chosen so that, say |A|

2
k
. Apply this recursion to calculate sine and cosine of the 2 2 matrix
A =
_
2 1
1 2
_
.
Use k = 2.
Problem 5. Let A be an nn matrix. We dene the j k approximant
of exp(A) by
f
j,k
(A) :=
_
k
=0
1
!
_
A
j
_
_
j
. (1)
We have the inequality
|e
A
f
j,k
(A)|
1
j
k
(k + 1)!
|A|
k+1
e
A
(2)
and f
j,k
(A) converges to e
A
, i.e.
lim
j
f
j,k
(A) = lim
k
f
j,k
(A) = e
A
.
Let
A =
_
0 1
0 0
_
.
Find f
2,2
(A) and e
A
. Calculate the right-hand side of the inequality (2).
Numerical Methods 147
Problem 6. The power method is the simplest algorithm for computing
eigenvectors and eigenvalues Consider the vector space R
n
with the Eu-
clidean norm |x| of a vector x R. The iteration is as follows: Given a
nonsingular n n matrix M and a vector x
0
with |x
0
| = 1. One denes
x
t+1
=
Mx
t
|Mx
t
|
, t = 0, 1, . . .
This denes a dynamical system on the sphere S
n1
. Since M is invertible
we have
x
t
=
M
1
x
t+1
|M
1
x
t+1
|
, t = 0, 1, . . .
(i) Apply the power method to the nonnormal matrix
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
and x
0
=
_
1
0
_
.
(ii) Apply the power method to the Bell matrix
B =
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_ and x
0
=
_
_
_
1
0
0
0
_
_
_ .
Chapter 14
Binary Matrices
Problem 1. For a 2 2 binary matrix
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
, a
jk
0, 1
we dene the determinant as
det A = (a
11
a
22
) (a
12
a
21
)
where is the AND-operation and is the XOR-operation.
(i) Find the determinant for the following 2 2 matrices
_
1 0
0 1
_
,
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
_
1 1
0 1
_
,
_
0 1
1 1
_
,
_
1 0
1 1
_
,
_
1 1
1 0
_
.
(ii) Find the determinant for the following 2 2 matrices
_
0 0
0 0
_
,
_
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
0 1
0 0
_
,
_
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
0 0
0 1
_
_
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
1 0
1 0
_
,
_
0 0
1 1
_
,
_
0 1
0 1
_
,
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Problem 2. The determinant of a 3 3 matrix
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_
_
148
Binary Matrices 149
is given by
det A=a
11
a
22
a
33
+a
12
a
23
a
31
+a
13
a
21
a
32
a
13
a
22
a
31
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
12
a
21
a
33
.
For a binary matrix B we replace this expression by
det B =(b
11
b
22
b
33
) (b
12
b
23
b
31
) (b
13
b
21
b
32
)
(b
13
b
22
b
31
) (b
11
b
23
b
32
) (b
12
b
21
b
33
) .
(i) Calculate the determinant for the binary matrices
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
.
(ii) Calculate the determinant for the binary matrices
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
.
Problem 3. The nite eld GF(2) consists of the elements 0 and 1 (bits)
which satises the following addition (XOR-operation) and multiplication
(AND-operation) tables
0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0
0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
Find the determinant of the binary matrices
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
, B =
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
.
Problem 4. A boolean function f : 0, 1
n
0, 1 can be transformed
from the domain 0, 1 into the spectral domain by a linear transformation
Ty = s
where T is a 2
n
2
n
orthogonal matrix, y = (y
0
, y
1
, . . . , y
2
n
1
)
T
, is the
two valued (+1, 1 with 0 1, 1 1) truth table vector of the
boolean function and s
j
(j = 0, 1, . . . , 7) are the spectral coecients (s =
(s
0
, s
1
, . . . , s
2
n
1
)
T
). Since T is invertible we have
T
1
s = y .
For T we select the Hadamard matrix. The 2
n
2
n
Hadamard matrix H(n)
is recursively dened as
H(n) =
_
H(n 1) H(n 1)
H(n 1) H(n 1)
_
, n = 1, 2, . . .
with H(0) = (1) (1 1 matrix). The inverse of H(n) is given by
H
1
(n) =
1
2
n
H(n) .
Now any boolean function can be expanded as the arithmetical polynomial
f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) =
1
2
n+1
_
2
n
s
0
s
1
(1)
xn
s
2
(1)
xn1
s
2
n
1
(1)
x1x2xn
_
where denotes the modulo-2 addition.
Consider the boolean function f : 0, 1
3
0, 1 given by
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
1
x
2
x
3
+ x
1
x
2
x
3
+x
1
x
2
x
3
.
Find the truth table, the vector y and then calculate, using H(3), the
spectral coecients s
j
, (j = 0, 1, . . . , 7).
Problem 5. Consider the binary matrices
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B =
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Calculate the Hadamard product A B.
Problem 6. Consider the two permutation matrices (NOT-gate and
XOR-gate)
N =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_, X =
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
_
_
_ .
Can we generate all other permutation matrices from these two permutation
matrices?
Chapter 15
Groups, Lie Groups and
Lie Algebras
Problem 1. The Pauli matrix
x
is not only hermitian, unitary and his
own inverse, but also a permutation matrix. Find all 2 2 matrices A such
that
1
x
A
x
= A.
Problem 2. Let z C and z ,= 0.
(i) Do the 2 2 matrices
_
z 0
0 z
1
_
,
_
0 z
z
1
0
_
(ii) Do the 3 3 matrices
_
_
z 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 z
1
_
_
,
_
_
0 0 z
0 1 0
z
1
0 0
_
_
Problem 3. Find all 3 3 permutation matrices P such that
P
1
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
1/
2 0 1/
2
_
_
P =
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
1/
2 0 1/
2
_
_
.
151
Show that these matrices form a group, i.e. a subgroup of the 3 3 per-
mutation matrices.
Problem 4. The generators of the braid group B
3
are given by
1
=
_
1 0
1 1
_
,
2
=
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Thus
1
and
2
are elements of the Lie group SL(2, R).
(i) Find
1
1
and
1
2
. Find
1
2
and
1
1

2
.
(ii) Is
1
1
=
2
2
?
Problem 5. Let R. Consider the hermitian matrix which is an
element of the noncompact Lie group SO(1, 1)
A() =
_
cosh() sinh()
sinh() cosh()
_
.
Find the Cayley transform
B = (AiI
2
)(A+iI
2
)
1
.
Note that B is a unitary matrix and therefore an element of the compact
Lie group U(n). Find B( ).
Problem 6. Let L be a nite dimensional Lie algebra and Z(L) the
center of L. Show that ad : L g(L) is a homomorphisim of the Lie
algebra L with kernel Z(L).
Problem 7. Consider the Lie algebra s(2, R) with the basis
e =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, f =
_
0 0
1 0
_
, h =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Show that the Lie algebra s(2, R) has no proper nontrivial ideals.
Problem 8. For the vector space of the n n matrices over R we can
introduce a scalar product via
A, B) := tr(AB
T
) .
Consider the Lie group SL(2, R) of the 2 2 matrices with determinant 1.
Find X, Y SL(2, R) such that
X, Y ) = 0
Groups, Lie Groups and Lie Algebras 153
where neither X nor Y can be 2 2 identity matrix.
Problem 9. The isomorphism of the Lie algebras s(2, C) and so(3, C)
has the form
_
a b
c a
_
_
_
0 b c i(b +c)
c b 0 2ia
i(b +c) 2ia 0
_
_
.
Let z C. Find
exp
_
z
_
a b
c a
__
, exp
_
_
z
_
_
0 b c i(b +c)
c b 0 2ia
i(b +c) 2ia 0
_
_
_
_
.
Problem 10. If A SL(2, R), then it can be uniquely be written in the
form
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
exp
_
a b
b a
_
.
Find this decomposition for the matrix
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Problem 11. The unit sphere
S
3
:= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) R
4
:
4
j=1
x
2
j
= 1
we identitify with the Lie group SU(2)
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
_
x
1
+ix
2
x
3
+ix
4
x
3
+ix
4
x
1
ix
2
_
.
(i) Map the standard basis of R
4
into SU(2) and express these matrices
using the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 2 identity matrix.
(ii) Map the Bell basis
1
2
_
_
_
1
0
0
1
_
_
_,
1
2
_
_
_
1
0
0
1
_
_
_,
1
2
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
_
_
_,
1
2
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
_
_
_
into SU(2) and express these matrices using the Pauli spin matrices and
the 2 2 identity matrix.
Problem 12. In the decomposition of the simple Lie algebra s(3, R) one
nds the 3 3 matrices
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
0
a
21
a
22
0
0 0 a
11
a
22
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 0 b
13
0 0 b
23
b
31
b
32
0
_
_
.
Find the commutators [A, A
], [B, B
] and [A, B]. Discuss.

Problem 13. Is the 3 3 matrix
O(, ) =
_
_
sin cos sin cos cos
sin sin cos cos sin
cos 0 sin
_
_
an element of the compact Lie group SO(3)?
Problem 14. We know that
X =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, H =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, Y =
_
0 0
1 0
_
is an ordered basis of the simple Lie algebra s(2, R) with
[X, H] = 2X, [X, Y ] = H, [Y, H] = 2Y .
Consider
X =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_,

H =
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_,

Y =
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Find the commutators
[
X,

H], [
X,
Y ], [
Y ,

H].
Problem 15. Are the matrices
A =
_
_
1 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
, B =
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
elements of SL(3, R) and SL(5, R), respectively? We have to test that
det(A) = 1 and det(B) = 1.
Problem 16. (i) Let R. Do the matrices
A() =
_
cos i sin
i sin cos
_
(i) Let R. Do the matrices
A() =
_
cosh i sinh
i sinh cosh
_
Problem 17. Do the matrices
A =
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
14
0 a
22
a
23
0
0 a
32
a
33
0
a
41
0 0 a
44
_
_
_
with det(A) ,= 0 form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 18. Consider the Lie group SL(n, C), i.e. the n n matrices
over C with determinant 1. Can we nd A, B SL(n, C) such that [A, B]
is an element of SL(n, C)?
A() =
_
1 0
1
_
, B =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Both are elements of the non-compact Lie group SL(2, C). Can one nds
C such that the commutator [A(), B] is again an element of SL(2, C)?
Problem 20. (i) Let A, B be elements of SL(n, R). Is AB an element
of SL(n
2
, R).
(ii) Let A, B be elements of SL(n, R). Is AB an element of SL(2n, R).
(iii) Let A, B be elements of SL(2, R). Is
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
an element of SL(4, R)?
Problem 21. The Lie algebra s(3, R) admits the decomposition
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
0
a
21
a
22
0
0 0 a
11
a
22
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 0 b
13
0 0 b
23
b
31
b
32
0
_
_
where a
jk
, b
jk
R. Find the commutator [A, B].
Problem 22. The simple Lie algebra s(2, R) has a basis given by the
matrices
H =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, E =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, F =
_
0 0
1 0
_
with the commutation relations
[H, E] = 2E, [H, F] = 2F, [E, F] = H .
The universal enveloping algebra U(s(2, R)) of the Lie algebra s(2, R) is
the associative algebra with generators H, E, F and the relations
HE EH = 2E, HF FH = 2F, EF FE = H .
Find a basis of the Lie algebra s(2, R) so that all matrices are invert-
ible. Find the inverse matrices of these matrices. Give the commutation
relations.
Problem 23. A Chevalley basis for the semisimple Lie algebra s(3, R)
is given by
X
1
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
, X
2
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
, X
3
=
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
Y
1
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
, Y
2
=
_
_
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
, Y
3
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
H
1
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
, H
2
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
where Y
j
= X
T
j
for j = 1, 2, 3. The Lie algebra has rank 2 owing to H
1
, H
2
and [H
1
, H
2
] = 0. Another basis could be formed by looking at the linear
combinations
U
j
= X
j
+Y
j
, V
j
= X
j
V
j
.
(i) Find the table of the commutator.
(ii) Calculate the vectors of commutators
_
[H
1
, X
1
]
[H
2
, X
1
]
_
,
_
[H
1
, X
2
]
[H
2
, X
2
]
_
,
_
[H
1
, X
3
]
[H
2
, X
3
]
_
and thus nd the roots.
Problem 24. Consider the 2 2 matrices over R
A =
_
1 0
1 0
_
, B =
_
0 1
0 1
_
.
Calculate the commutator C = [A, B] and check whether C can be written
as a linear combination of A and B. If so we have a basis of a Lie algebra.
Problem 25. Do the set of 2 2 matrices
_
e
i(+)
cosh() e
i()
sinh()
e
i()
sinh() e
i(+)
cosh()
_
form a group under matrix multiplication, where , , R?
Problem 26. Let 0 < /4. Consider the transformation
X(x, y, ) =
1
_
cos(2)
(xcos() +iy sin())
Y (x, y, ) =
1
_
cos(2)
(ixsin() +y cos()) .
(i) Show that X
2
+Y
2
= x
2
+y
2
.
(ii) Do the matrices
1
_
cos(2)
_
cos() i sin()
i sin() cos()
_
Problem 27. In the Lie group U(N) of the N N unitary matrices one
can nd two N N matrices U and V such that
UV = e
2i/N
V U .
Any N N hermitian matrix H can be written in the form
H =
N1
j=0
N1
k=0
h
jk
U
j
V
k
.
Using the expansion coecients h
jk
one can associate to the hermitian
matrix H the function
h(q, q) =
N1
j=0
N1
k=1
h
jk
e
2i(jp+kq)
where p = 0, 1, . . . , N 1 and q = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Consider the case N = 2
and
U =
_
1 0
0 e
i
_
, V =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
(i) Consider the hermitian and unitary matrix
_
0 i
i 0
_
.
Find h(p, q).
(ii) Consider the hermitian and projection matrix
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Find h(p, q).
Problem 28. Given the matrices
+
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
,
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
Consider the 4 4 matrices
_
0
2

0
2
0
2
_
,
_
0
2
0
2
+
0
2
_
,
_
+
0
2
0
2

+
_
,
_
0
2
0
2

_
.
Calculate the commutators of these matrices and extend the set so that one
nds a basis of a Lie algebra.
Problem 29. (i) The standard basis for the vector space of the 2 2
matrices is given by
E
11
=
_
1 0
0 0
_
, E
12
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
, E
21
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
, E
22
=
_
0 0
0 1
_
.
We dene the star composition of two 2 2 matrices as the 4 4 matrix
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
Show that the sixteen 4 4 matrices E
jk
E
m
(j, k, , m = 1, 2) form a
basis in the vector space of the 4 4 matrices.
(ii) The matrices
X =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, Y =
_
0 0
1 0
_
, H =
_
1 0
0 1
_
form a basis of the Lie algebra s(2, R). Do the nine 4 4 matrices
X X, X Y, X H, Y X, Y Y, Y H, H X, H Y, H H
form a basis of a Lie algebra?
Problem 30. Consider the Lie algebra of real-skew symmetric 3 3
matrices
A =
_
_
0 a
3
a
2
a
3
0 a
1
a
2
a
1
0
_
_
.
Let R be a real orthogonal 3 3 matrix, i.e. RR
T
= I
3
. Show that RAR
T
is a real-skew symmetric matrix.
Problem 31. The matrices
H =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, E =
_
0 1
0 0
_
, F =
_
0 0
1 0
_
form a basis of the simple Lie algebra s(2, R). Dene the matrices
(H) = HI
2
+I
2
H, (E) = EH
1
+HE, (F) = FH
1
+HF .
Find the commutators
[(H), (E)], [(H), (F)], [(E), (F)] .
Discuss.
Problem 32. Consider the 3 3 permutation matrix
P =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
.
(i) Find P
2
, P
3
. Do the matrices P, P
2
, P
3
form a group under matrix
multiplication?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of P. Do the eigenvalues of P
form a group under multiplication?
Problem 33. Consider the two 3 3 permutation matrices
C
1
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
, A =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Can the remaining four 3 3 matrices be generated from C
1
and A using
matrix multiplication?
Problem 34. Consider the two 4 4 permutation matrices
C
1
=
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
_
_
_, A =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Can the remaining twenty-two 4 4 matrices be generated from C
1
and A
using matrix multiplication?
Problem 35. Consider the permutation matrix
C =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
.
Find the condition on a 3 3 matrix A such that
CAC
T
= A.
Note that C
T
= C
1
.
Problem 36. Consider the permutation matrix
C =
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
_
_
_ .
Find the condition on a 4 4 matrix A such that
CAC
T
= A.
Note that C
T
= C
1
.
Problem 37. Let c, d R and c, d ,= 0. Do the matrices
_
c cos d
1
sin
d sin c
1
cos
_
Problem 38. The Lie group 0(2) is generated by a rotation R
1
and a
reection R
2
R
1
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, R
2
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
Find the trace, determinant and eigenvalues of R
1
and R
2
.
Problem 39. (i) Consider the group G of all 33 permutation matrices.
Show that
1
[G[
gG
g
is a projection matrix. Here [G[ denotes the number of elements in the
group.
(ii) Consider the subgroup given by the matrices
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Show that
1
[G[
gG
g
is a projection matrix.
Problem 40. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Show that if A
T
= A,
then e
A
O(n, C).
Problem 41. Let A be the 2 2 matrix
A =
_
a
11
e
i11
a
12
e
i12
a
21
e
i21
a
22
e
i22
_
where a
jk
R, a
jk
> 0 for j, k = 1, 2 and a
12
= a
21
. We also have
jk
R
for j, k = 1, 2 and impose
12
=
21
. What are the conditions on a
jk
and
jk
such that I
2
+iA is a unitary matrix?
Problem 42. Let , , R and , ,= 0. Consider the matrices
A(, , ) =
_
cos sin
1
sin
1
cos
_
.
Do the matrices form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 43. Show that the four 2 2 matrices
A =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, B =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, C =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, D =
_
0 1
1 0
_
from a group under matrix multiplication. Is the group abelian?
Problem 44. Let x R. Is the matrix
A(x) =
_
_
_
cos x 0 sinx 0
0 cos x 0 sinx
sinx 0 cos x 0
0 sinx 0 cos x
_
_
_
an orthogonal matrix?
Problem 45. (i) Let
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
12
a
11
_
.
where a
11
, a
12
R. Find all invertible 2 2 matrices S over R such that
SAS
1
= A.
Obviously the identity matrix I
2
would be such as matrix.
(ii) Do the matrices S form a group under matrix multiplication? Prove or
disprove.
(iii) Use the result form (i) to calculate
(S S)(AA)(S S)
1
.
Discuss.
Problem 46. Let , , R. Do the 3 3 matrices
M(, , ) =
_
_
cos() sin()
sin() cos()
0 0 1
_
_
Problem 47. Do the eight 2 2 matrices
_
1 0
0 1
_
,
_
1 0
0 1
_
,
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
_
0 1
1 0
_
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
,
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
,
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
,
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
form a group under matrix multiplication? If not add the matrices so that
one has a group.
Problem 48. The Lie group SU(2) is dened by
SU(2) := U 2 2 matrix : UU
= I
2
, det U = 1 .
Let (3-sphere)
S
3
:= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) R
4
: x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
+x
2
4
= 1 .
Show that SU(2) can be identied as a real manifold with the 3-sphere S
3
.
Problem 49. The Heisenberg group is the set of upper 3 3 matrices of
the form
H =
_
_
1 a c
0 1 b
0 0 1
_
_
where a, b, c can be taken from some (arbitrary) commutative ring.
(i) Find the inverse of H.
(ii) Given two elements x, y of a group G, we dene the commutator of x
and y, denoted by [x, y] to be the element x
1
y
1
xy. If a, b, c are integers
(in the ring Z of the integers) we obtain the discrete Heisenberg group H
3
.
It has two generators
x =
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
, y =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
.
Find
z = xyx
1
y
1
.
Show that xz = zx and yz = zy.
(iii) The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group G is the
subgroup [G, G] generated by the set of commutators of every pair of ele-
ments of G. Find [G, G] for the Heisenberg group.
(iv) Let
A =
_
_
0 a c
0 0 b
0 0 0
_
_
and a, b, c R. Find exp(A).
(v) The Heisenberg group is a simple connected Lie group whose Lie algebra
consists of matrices
L =
_
_
0 a c
0 0 b
0 0 0
_
_
.
Find the commutators [L, L
] and [L, L
], L
]], where [L, L
] := LL
L.
h
1
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
, h
2
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
, h
3
=
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
_
_
e =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
, f =
_
_
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
.
Show that the matrices form a basis of a Lie algebra.
Problem 51. Find all 2 2 matrices S over C with determinant 1 (i.e.
they are elements of SL(2, C)) such that
S
1
_
0 1
1 0
_
S =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Obviously, the 2 2 identity matrix is such an element.
Problem 52. There are six 3 3 permutation matrices which form a
group under matrix multiplication.
(i) Can the six elements be generated from the two permutation matrices
A =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
, B =
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
(ii) Does A, A
2
, A
3
provide a subgroup?
Problem 53. There are twenty-four 4 4 permutation matrices which
form a group under matrix multiplication.
(i) Can the 24 elements be generated from the two permutation matrices
A =
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
_
_
_, B =
_
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
_
(ii) Does A, A
2
, A
3
, A
4
provide a subgroup?
Problem 54. Both
A() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, B() =
_
cosh sinh
sinh cosh
_
are elements of the Lie group SL(2, R). Are
A() B(), A() B(), A() B()
elements of SL(4, R)?
Problem 55. Consider the two 2 2 matrices
A =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, B =
_
0 1
1 0
_
where A is the Pauli spin matrix
3
and B the Pauli spin matrix
1
. The
two matrices A, B are linearly independent. Let A, B be the generators of
a Lie algebra. Classify the Lie algebra generated.
Problem 56. The Lie group SU(1, 1) consists of all 22 matrices T over
the complex numbers with
TMT
= M, M =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, det(T) = 1 .
Find the conditions on
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
R such that
T =
_
0
+i
3

1
+i
2
1
i
2

0
i
3
_
is an element of SU(1, 1).
Chapter 16
Inequalities
Problem 1. Let A be an n n positive semidenite matrix. Let B be
an n n positive denite matrix. Then we have Kleins inequality
tr(A(lnAlnB)) tr(AB) .
(i) Let
A =
_
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
_
, B =
_
1/2 0
0 1/2
_
.
Calculate the left-hand side and the right-hand side of the inequality.
(ii) When is the inequality an equality?
Problem 2. Let A, B be n n hermitian matrices. Then (Golden-
Thompson-Symanzik inequality)
tre
A+B
tr(e
A
e
B
) .
Let A =
z
and B =
x
. Calculate the left and right-hand side of the
inequality.
Problem 3. Let A, B, C be positive denite nn matrices. Then (Lieb
inequality)
tr(e
ln Aln B+ln C
) tr
_

0
A(B +uI
n
)
1
C(B +uI
n
)
1
du.
166
Inequalities 167
(i) Let
A =
_
2 1
1 1
_
, B =
_
1 1
1 2
_
, C =
_
4 2
2 5
_
.
Calculate the left-hand side and right-hand side of the inequality.
(ii) Give a sucient condition such that one has an equality.
Problem 4. Let A be an n n skew-symmetric matrix over R. Show
that
det(I
n
+A) 1
with equality holding if and only if A = 0.
Problem 5. Let v be a normalized (column) vector in C
n
and let A be
an n n hermitian matrix. Is
v
e
A
v e
v
Av
for all normalized v? Prove or disprove.
Chapter 17
Braid Group
Let n 2. The braid group B
n
of n strings has n1 generators
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n1
satisfying the relations
j+1
j
=
j+1
j+1
for j = 1, 2, . . . , N 2
k
=
k
j
for [j k[ 2
1
j
=
1
j

j
= e
where e is the identity element. Thus it is generated by elements
j
(
j
interchanges elements j and j + 1). Thus actually one should write
12
,
23
, . . . ,
n1n
instead of
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n1
. The braid group B
n
is a gener-
alization of the permutation group.
The word written in terms of letters, generators from the set

1
, . . . ,
n1
,
1
1
, . . . ,
1
n1
gives a particular braid. The length of the braid is the total number of
used letters, while the minimal irreducible length (referred sometimes as
the primitive word) is the shortest non-contractible length of a particular
braid which remains after applying all the group relations given above.
168
Braid Group 169
Problem 1. Consider the braid group B
5
with the generators
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
. Simplify
1
1

1
4

1
3

2
1
3

4
1
.
3
. A faithful representation for
the generators
1
and
2
is
1
=
_
1 0
1 1
_
,
2
=
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Both are elements of SL(2, Z). Find the inverse of
1
and
2
. Do the
elements
1
,
2
,
1
1
,
1
2
and the 22 identity matrix form a group under
matrix multiplication?
Problem 3. Find all invertible 2 2 matrices A, B such that (braid-like
relation)
ABA = BAB.
Problem 4. Can one nd 2 2 matrices A and B with [A, B] ,= 0 and
satisfying the braid-like relation
ABBA = BAAB.
Problem 5. (i) Do the 2 2 unitary matrices
A =
_
e
i/4
0
0 ie
i/4
_
, B =
1
2
_
1 i
i 1
_
satisfy the braid-like relation
ABA = BAB.
(ii) Find the smallest n N such that A
n
= I
2
.
(iii) Find the smallest m N such that B
m
= I
2
.
n
. Let e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
be the
standard basis in R
n
. Then u R
n
can be written as
u =
n
k=1
c
k
e
k
.
Consider the linear operators B
j
(j = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) in R
n
(, , ,
R, , ,= 0) dened by
B
j
u := c
1
e
1
+ + (c
j+1
+)e
j
+ (c
j
+)e
j+1
+ +c
n
e
n
and the corresponding inverse operator B
1
j
B
1
j
u = c
1
e
1
+ +
1
(c
j+1
)e
j
+
1
(c
j
)e
j+1
+ +c
n
e
n
.
Show that the linear operators B
j
satisfy the braid condition
B
j
B
j+1
B
j
= B
j+1
B
j
B
j+1
if
+ = + .
Problem 7. If V and W are matrices of the same order, then their Schur
product V W is dened by (entrywise multiplication)
(V W)
j,k
:= V
j,k
W
j,k
.
If all entries of V are nonzero, then we say that X is Schur invertible and
dene its Schur inverse, V
()
, by V
()
V = J, where J is the matrix with
all 1s.
The vector space M
n
(F) of n n matrices acts on itself in three distinct
ways: if C M
n
(F) we can dene endomorphisms X
C
,
C
and Y
C
by
X
C
M := CM,
C
M := C M, Y
C
:= MC
T
.
Let A, B be n n matrices. Assume that X
A
is invertible and
B
is
invertible in the sense of Schur. Note that X
A
is invertible if and only if A
is, and
B
is invertible if and only if the Schur inverse B
()
is dened. We
say that (A, B) is a one-sided Jones pair if
X
A
B
X
A
=
B
X
A
B
.
We call this the braid relation. Give an example for a one-sided Jones pair.
Problem 8. The braid linking matrix B is a square symmetric k k
matrix dened by B = (b
ij
) with b
ii
the sum of half-twists in the i-th
branch, b
ij
the sum of the crossings between the i-th and the j-th branches
of the ribbon graph with standard insertion. Thus the i-th diagonal element
of B is the local torsion of the i-th branch. The o-diagonal elements of
B are twice the linking numbers of the ribbon graph for the i-th and j-th
branches. Consider the braid linking matrix
B =
_
_
1 0 1
0 2 1
1 1 0
_
_
.
Braid Group 171
Discuss. Draw a graph.
Problem 9. Consider the ve 4 4 matrices
B
1
=
_
_
_
i 0 0 0
0 i 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_, B
2
=
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 i 0
0 1 0 i
i 0 1 0
0 i 0 1
_
_
_,
B
3
=
_
_
_
i 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 i
_
_
_, B
4
=
1
2
_
_
_
1 i 0 0
i 1 0 0
0 0 1 i
0 0 i 1
_
_
_,
B
5
=
_
_
_
i 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 i 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Is
B
1
B
2
B
1
= B
2
B
1
B
2
, B
2
B
3
B
2
= B
3
B
2
B
3
, B
3
B
4
B
3
= B
4
B
3
B
4
, B
4
B
5
B
4
= B
5
B
4
B
5
?
Problem 10. Let n 3 and let
1
, . . . ,
n1
be the generators. The
braid group B
n
on n-strings where n 3 has a nite presentation of B
n
given by
1
, . . . ,
n1
:
i
j
=
j
i
,
i+1
i+1
=
i
i+1
i
)
where 1 i, j < n 1, [i j[ > 1 or j = n 1. Here
i
j
=
j
i
and
i+1
i
=
i+1
i+1
are called the braid relations. The second one is
also called the Yang-Baxter equation.
(i) Consider B
3
, a =
1
1
and b =
1
2
. Show that a
2
= b
3
.
(ii) Consider B
3
. The cosets [
1
] of
1
and [
2
] of
2
map to the 2 2
matrices
[
1
] R =
_
1 1
0 1
_
, [
2
] L
1
=
_
1 0
1 1
_
where L, R SL(2, Z). Thus L
1
, R
1
SL(2, Z). Show that
RL
1
R = L
1
RL
1
.
Problem 11. (i) Do the matrices
S
1
=
_
t 1
0 1
_
, S
2
=
_
1 0
t t
_
satisfy the braid-like relation S
1
S
2
S
1
= S
2
S
1
S
2
.
(ii) Do the matrices S
1
S
1
and S
2
S
2
satisfy the braid-like relation
(S
1
S
1
)(S
2
S
2
)(S
1
S
1
) = (S
2
S
2
)(S
1
S
1
)(S
2
S
2
) ?
Problem 12. Consider the ve 4 4 matrices
B
1
=
_
_
_
i 0 0 0
0 i 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_, B
2
=
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 i 0
0 1 0 i
i 0 1 0
0 i 0 1
_
_
_, B
3
=
_
_
_
i 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 i
_
_
_,
B
4
=
1
2
_
_
_
1 i 0 0
i 1 0 0
0 0 1 i
0 0 i 1
_
_
_, B
5
=
_
_
_
i 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 i 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Are the matrices unitary? Is (braid-like relation)
B
j
B
j+1
B
j
= B
j+1
B
j
B
j+1
, j = 1, 2, 3, 4
Chapter 18
vec Operator
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_
.
Let B = A
T
. Thus B is a 3 2 matrix. Find the 6 6 permutation matrix
P such that
vec(B) = Pvec(A) .
Problem 2. Let A be an mn matrix over C and B be a s t matrix
over C. Find the permutation matrix P such that
vec(AB) = P(vec(A) vec(B)).
Problem 3. Let A be an mn matrix over C. Using
vec
mn
A :=
n
j=1
e
j,n
(Ae
j,n
) = (I
n
A)
n
j=1
e
j,n
e
j,n
and
vec
1
mn
x =
m
i=1
n
j=1
_
(e
j,n
e
i,m
)
x
_
e
i,m
e
j,n
.
Show that
vec
1
mn
(vec
mn
A) = A.
173
Problem 4. Let A be an mn matrix over C and B be a s t matrix
over C. Show that
AB = vec
1
msnt
(L
A,st
(vec
st
B))
where
L
A,st
:= (I
n
I
t
AI
s
)
n
j=1
e
j,n
I
t
e
j,n
I
s
.
Problem 5. (i) Let
AX +XB = C
where C is an mn matrix over R. What are the dimensions of A, B, and
X?
(ii) Solve the equation
_
0 1
1 0
_
X +X
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
=
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
for the real valued matrix X.
Problem 6. Let A be an mn matrix over C and B be an s t matrix
over C. Dene
R(AB) := vecA(vecB)
T
.
Find an algebraic expression for R. Find
R
_
_
_
0 1
1 0
_
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
_
_
.
R is the reshaping operator.
Problem 7. Show that
tr(ABCD) (vec(D
T
))(AC
T
)vec(B
T
) .
Chapter 19
Star Product
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
, B =
_
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_
and the composition (star product)
A B :=
_
_
_
b
11
0 0 b
12
0 a
11
a
12
0
0 a
21
a
22
0
b
21
0 0 b
22
_
_
_ .
(i) What can be said about the trace of A B? What can be said about
the determinant of A B?
(ii) Let A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, A
4
be a basis in the vector space of 2 2 matrices over
C. Let B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, B
4
be a basis in the vector space of 2 2 matrices over
C. Do the 16 matrices A
j
B
k
(j, k = 1, 2, 3, 4) form a basis in the vector
space of 4 4 matrices?
(iii) Given the eigenvalues of A and B. What can be said about the eigen-
values of A B?
(iv) Can one nd 4 4 permutation matrices P and Q such that
P(A B)Q = AB?
Here denotes the direct sum
Problem 2. Consider the 2 2 matrices A, B over C
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
, B =
_
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_
.
175
We dene the following product
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
(i) Answer the following questions: Let A and B be normal matrices. Is
A B normal. Let A and B be invertible matrices. Is A B an invertible
matrix? Let A and B be unitary matrices. Is A B a unitary matrix? Let
A and B be nilpotent matrices. Is A B a nilpotent matrix? Answer these
questions also for A A.
(ii) What is the conditions on A and B such that
A B = AB?
Problem 3. Let A, B be 2 2 matrices. We dene
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
Can one nd a permutation matrix such that
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
0 0
a
21
a
22
0 0
0 0 b
11
b
12
0 0 b
21
b
22
_
_
_ = P(A B)P
T
.
Problem 4. (i) Let A, B be 2 2 matrices. We dene
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
The 2 2 matrices
E =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, N =
_
0 1
1 0
_
form a group under matrix multiplication. Do the four 44 matrices AA,
A B, B A, B B form a group under matrix multiplication?
Star Product 177
(ii) Let G be a nite group represented by 2 2 matrices. Let the order be
n with the group elements g
1
= e, g
2
, . . . , g
n
. Do the 4 4 matrices g
j
g
k
(j, k = 1, . . . , n) form a group under matrix multiplication.
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
Show that one can nd a 4 4 permutation matrix P such that
P(A B)P
T
=
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
0 0
a
21
a
22
0 0
0 0 b
11
b
12
0 0 b
21
b
22
_
_
_ .
Problem 6. Let A, B be invertible 2 2 matrices. We dene
A B :=
_
_
_
b
11
0 0 b
12
0 a
11
a
12
0
0 a
21
a
22
0
b
21
0 0 b
22
_
_
_ .
Is A B invertible?
Problem 7. (i) The 2 2 matrices
E =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, N =
_
0 1
1 0
_
form a group under matrix multiplication. Do the four 44 matrices AA,
A B, B A, B B form a group under matrix multiplication?
(ii) Let G be a nite group represented by 2 2 matrices. Let the order be
n with the group elements g
1
= e, g
2
, . . . , g
n
. Do the 4 4 matrices g
j
g
k
(j, k = 1, . . . , n) form a group under matrix multiplication.
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
Show that one can nd a 4 4 permutation matrix P such that
P(A B)P
T
=
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
0 0
a
21
a
22
0 0
0 0 b
11
b
12
0 0 b
21
b
22
_
_
_ .
Problem 9. Among others one can form a 4 4 matrix from two 2 2
matrices A and B using the direct sum AB, the Kronecker product AB
and the star product
A B :=
_
_
_
a
11
0 0 a
12
0 b
11
b
12
0
0 b
21
b
22
0
a
21
0 0 a
22
_
_
_ .
Given the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A and B. What can be said
about the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of AB, AB, A B?
Problem 10. (i) Let A, B be invertible 22 matrices. Is AB invertible?
(ii) Let U and V be elements of SU(2). Is U V an element of SU(4)?
(iii) Let X and Y be elements of SL(2, R). Is XY an element of SL(4, R)?
Problem 11. Let A, B be normal 2 2 matrices with eigenvalues
1
,
2
and
1
,
2
, respectively. What can be said about the eigenvalues of
A B B A?
Problem 12. (i) Given the eigenvalues of A and B. What can be said
about the eigenvalues of A B?
(ii) Can one nd 4 4 permutation matrices P and Q such that
P(A B)Q = AB?
Here denotes the direct sum
Problem 13. Let
A =
_
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
_
, B =
_
B
1
B
2
B
3
B
4
_
where A
j
, B
j
(j = 1, 2, 3, 4) are 2 2 matrices. We dene the product
A B :=
_
_
_
A
1
0
2
0
2
A
2
0
2
B
1
B
2
0
2
0
2
B
3
B
4
0
2
A
3
0
2
0
2
A
4
_
_
_
Star Product 179
where 0
2
is the 2 2 zero matrix. Thus A B is an 8 8 matrix.
(i) Assume that A and B are invertible. Is A B invertible?
(ii) Assume that A, B are unitary. Is A B unitary?
Problem 14. Let A, B be the 4 4 matrices
A =
_
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
_
, B =
_
B
1
B
2
B
3
B
4
_
where A
j
, B
j
(j = 1, 2, 3, 4) are 2 2 matrices. We dene the product
A B :=
_
_
_
A
1
0
2
0
2
A
2
0
2
B
1
B
2
0
2
0
2
B
3
B
4
0
2
A
3
0
2
0
2
A
4
_
_
_
where 0
2
is the 2 2 zero matrix. Thus A B is an 8 8 matrix.
(i) Assume that A and B are invertible. Is A B invertible?
(ii) Assume that A, B are unitary. Is A B unitary?
Problem 15. Let A, B be 3 3 matrices. We dene the composition
AB :=
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
0 a
12
0 a
13
0 b
11
b
12
b
13
0
a
21
b
21
a
22
b
22
b
23
a
23
0 b
31
b
32
b
33
0
a
31
0 a
32
0 a
33
_
_
_
_
_
.
Let
M =
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
1/
2 0 1/
2
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues of M and MM.
Problem 16. Let P and Q be 2 2 projection matrices. Is the 4 4
matrix P Q a projection matrix? Apply it to P P where
P =
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Chapter 20
Nonnormal Matrices
Problem 1. A square matrix M over C is called nonnormal if MM
=
M
M. Let s
j
:= 2 sin(2j/5) with j = 1, 2, . . . , 5. Consider the 5 5
matrix
M =
_
_
_
_
_
s
1
1 0 0 1
1 s
2
1 0 0
0 1 s
3
1 0
0 0 1 s
4
1
1 0 0 1 s
5
_
_
_
_
_
.
Show that the matrix is nonnormal. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Is the matrix diagonalizable?
Problem 2. Let ,= 0. Show that the matrix
A =
_
1
0 1
_
is nonnormal. Give the eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Problem 3. Let a > 0, b 0 and [0, ]. What are the conditions a,
b, such that
A(a, b, ) =
_
0 a
e
i
b 0
_
is a normal matrix?
Problem 4. Let A, B be nonnormal matrices. Is A B nonnormal? Is
AB nonnormal?
180
Nonnormal Matrices 181
Problem 5. Can we conclude that an invertible matrix is normal?
Problem 6. Show that all non-diagonalizable matrices are nonnormal.
Problem 7. Show that not all nonnormal matrices are non-diagonalizable.
Problem 8. Find all 2 2 matrices over C which are nonnormal but
diagonalizable.
Problem 9. Let A be a nonnormal invertible matrix. How do we con-
struct a matrix B such that A = exp(B). Study rst the two examples
A
1
=
_
1 1
0 1
_
, A
2
=
_
2 1
0 1/2
_
.
Both are elements of the Lie group SL(2, R).
Problem 10. Let a
11
, a
22
, R. What is the condition on a
11
, a
22
,
such that the matrix
A =
_
a
11
e
a
22
_
is normal?
Problem 11. Let A be a nonnormal matrix. Is [A, A
] a normal matrix?
Is [A, A
]
+
a nonnormal matrix?
Problem 12. Let A be a normal n n matrix and let S be an invertible
nonnormal matrix. Is SAS
1
a normal matrix? Study the case that
A =
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
, S =
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Of course the eigenvalues of A and SAS
1
are the same.
Problem 13. Consider the invertible nonnormal matrix
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
A
1
=
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Is the matrix AA
1
normal?
Chapter 21
Miscellaneous
Problem 1. (i) For n = 4 the transform matrix for the Daubechies
wavelet is given by
D
4
=
_
_
_
c
0
c
1
c
2
c
3
c
3
c
2
c
1
c
0
c
2
c
3
c
0
c
1
c
1
c
0
c
3
c
2
_
_
_,
_
_
_
c
0
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
_ =
1
4
2
_
_
_
1 +
3
3 +
3
3
3
1
3
_
_
_ .
Is D
4
orthogonal? Prove or disprove.
(ii) For n = 8 the transform matrix for the Daubechies wavelet is given by
D
8
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
c
0
c
1
c
2
c
3
0 0 0 0
c
3
c
2
c
1
c
0
0 0 0 0
0 0 c
0
c
1
c
2
c
3
0 0
0 0 c
3
c
2
c
1
c
0
0 0
0 0 0 0 c
0
c
1
c
2
c
3
0 0 0 0 c
3
c
2
c
1
c
0
c
2
c
3
0 0 0 0 c
0
c
1
c
1
c
0
0 0 0 0 c
3
c
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Is D
8
orthogonal? Prove or disprove.
Problem 2. Consider the 2n 2n matrix
J :=
_
0
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
.
182
Miscellaneous 183
We dene that the 2n2n matrix H over R is Hamiltonian if (JH)
T
= JH.
We dene that the 2n 2n matrix S over R is symplectic if S
T
JS = J.
Show that if H is Hamiltonian and S is symplectic, then the matrix S
1
HS
is Hamiltonian.
Problem 3. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Consider the 2n 2n
matrix
S =
_
I
n
I
n
A I
n
+A
_
.
Let
S =
_
A+ 2I
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
.
Can we nd an invertible 2n 2n matrix T such that
S = T
1
ST ?
Problem 4. Let
J =
_
_
_
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_, P =
1
2
_
_
_
1 i 0 0
0 0 i 1
i 1 0 0
0 0 1 i
_
_
_ .
Find P
P. Show that P
JP is a diagonal matrix.
Problem 5. Let J be the 2n 2n matrix
J :=
_
0
n
I
n
I
n
0
n
_
.
We dene symplectic G-reectors to be those 2n 2n symplectic matrices
that have a (2n 1)-dimensional xed-point subspace. It can be shown
that any symplectic G-reector can be expressed in the form
G = I
2n
+uu
T
J (1)
for some 0 ,= F, 0 ,= u F
2n
and u is considered as a column vector.
The underlying eld is F. Conversely, any G given by (1) is always a
symplectic G-reector. Show that det G = +1.
Problem 6. Consider the two polynomials
p
1
(x) = a
0
+a
1
x + +a
n
x
n
, p
2
(x) = b
0
+b
1
x + +b
m
x
m
where n = deg(p
1
) and m = deg(p
2
). Assume that n > m. Let
r(x) =
p
2
(x)
p
1
(x)
.
We expand r(x) in powers of 1/x, i.e.
r(x) =
c
1
x
+
c
2
x
2
+
From the coecients c
1
, c
2
, . . . ,c
2n1
we can form an n n Hankel matrix
H
n
=
_
_
_
_
c
1
c
2
c
n
c
2
c
3
c
n+1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
c
n
c
n+1
c
2n1
_
_
_
_
.
The determinant of this matrix is proportional to the resultant of the two
polynomials. If the resultant vanishes, then the two polynomials have a non-
trivial greatest common divisor. Apply this theorem to the polynomials
p
1
(x) = x
3
+ 6x
2
+ 11x + 6, p
2
(x) = x
2
+ 4x + 3 .
A =
_
_
1/2
3/6

6/3
3/6 5/6
2/3
6/3
2/3 1/3
_
_
.
Show that A
T
= A
1
by showing that the column of the matrix are nor-
malized and pairwise orthonormal.
Problem 8. Let P
j
(j = 0, 1, 2, . . .) be the Legendre polynomials
P
0
(x) = 1, P
1
(x) = x, P
2
(x) =
1
2
(3x
2
1), . . . .
Calculate the innite dimensional matrix A = (A
jk
)
A
jk
=
_
+1
1
P
j
(x)
dP
k
(x)
dx
dx
where j, k = 0, 1, . . .. Consider the matrix A as a linear operator in the
Hilbert space
2
(N
0
). Is |A| < ?
Miscellaneous 185
Problem 9. Consider the vector space R
3
and the vector product . The
vector product is not associative. The associator of three vectors u, v, w
is dened by
ass(u (v w)) := (u v) wu (v w) .
The associator measures the failure of associativity.
(i) Consider the unit vectors
u =
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, v =
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, w =
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
.
Find the associator.
(ii) Consider the normalized vectors
u =
1
2
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
, v =
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, w =
1
2
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
.
Find the associator.
Problem 10. Find the Moore-Penrose pseudo inverses of
_
_
1 0
0 1
1 0
_
_
,
_
1
0
_
, ( 1 1 ) .
Problem 11. Let j be a positive integer. Let A, B be n n matrices
over R. Calculate
lim
0
1
((A+B)
j
A
j
) .
Calculate
d
d
tr(A+B)
j
=0
.
Problem 12. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Show that there exists
nonnull vectors x
1
, x
2
in R
n
such that
x
T
1
Ax
1
x
T
1
x
1
x
T
Ax
x
T
x

x
T
2
Ax
2
x
T
2
x
2
for every nonnull vector x in R
n
.
Problem 13. A generalized Kronecker delta can be be dened as follows
I,J
:=
_
_
_
1 if J = (j
1
, . . . , j
r
) is an even permutation of I = (i
1
, . . . , i
r
)
1 if J is an odd permutation of I
0 if J is not a permutation of I
Find
126,621
,
126,651
,
125,512
.
Problem 14. Let c
j
> 0 for j = 1, . . . , n. Show that the n n matrices
_
c
j
c
k
c
j
+c
k
_
,
_
1/c
j
+ 1/c
k
c
j
c
k
_
(k = 1, . . . , n) are positive denite.
Problem 15. Let R C
mm
and S C
nn
be nontrivial involutions.
This means that R = R
1
,= I
m
and S = S
1
,= I
n
. A matrix A C
mn
is called (R, S)-symmetric if RAS = A. Consider the case m = n = 2 and
the Pauli spin matrices
R =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, S =
_
0 i
i 0
_
.
Find all 2 2 matrices A over C such that RAS = A.
Problem 16. Let X R
nn
. Show that X can be written as
X = A+S +cI
n
where A is antisymmetric (A
T
= A), S is symmetric (S
T
= S) with
tr(S) = 0 and c R.
Problem 17. Find the partial dierential equation given by the condition
det
_
_
0 u/x
1
u/x
2
u/x
1

2
u/x
2
1

2
u/x
1
x
2
u/x
2

2
u/x
2
x
1

2
u/x
2
2
_
_
.
Find a nontrivial solution of the partial dierential equation.
A() =
_
f
1
() f
2
()
f
3
() f
4
()
_
Miscellaneous 187
where f
j
(j = 1, 2, 3, 4) are smooth functions and det(A()) > 0 for all .
Show that
tr((dA())A()
1
) = d(ln(det(A())))
where d is the exterior derivative.
Problem 19. Consider vectors in the vector space R
3
and the vector
product. Consider the mapping of the vectors into 3 3 skew-symmetric
matrices
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
_
_
0 c b
c 0 a
b a 0
_
_
.
Calculate
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
_
_
_
_
a
2
b
2
c
2
_
_
and [M
1
, M
2
], where
M
1
=
_
_
0 c
1
b
1
c
1
0 a
1
b
1
a
1
0
_
_
, M
2
=
_
_
0 c
2
b
2
c
2
0 a
2
b
2
a
2
0
_
_
.
Discuss.
Problem 20. Let u
1
(t), u
2
(t), u
3
(t) R
3
. Solve the initial value problem
of the nonlinear autonomous system of rst order dierential equations
du
1
dt
= u
2
u
3
,
du
2
dt
= u
3
u
1
,
du
3
dt
= u
1
u
2
where denotes the vector product.
Problem 21. Let u(t) R
3
. Solve the initial value problem for the
dierential equation
d
2
u
dt
2
= u
du
dt
where denotes the vector product.
Problem 22. Let A
n
be the n n matrices of the form
A
1
= 1, A
2
=
_
0 t
t r
_
, A
3
=
_
_
0 0 t
0 1 0
t 0 r
_
_
, A
4
=
_
_
_
0 0 0 t
0 0 t 0
0 t r 0
t 0 0 r
_
_
_
A
5
=
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0 t
0 0 0 t 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 t 0 r 0
t 0 0 0 r
_
_
_
_
_
.
Thus the even dimensional matrix A
2n
has t along the skew-diagonal and
r along the lower main diagonal. Otherwise the entries are 0. The odd
dimensional matrix A
2n+1
has t along the skew-diagonal except 1 at the
centre and r along the lower main diagonal. Otherwise the entries are 0.
Find the eigenvalues of these matrices.
Problem 23. Let
z =
_
z
1
z
2
_
, w =
_
w
1
w
2
_
be elements of C
2
. Solve the equation z
w = w
z.
Problem 24. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. We dene the quasi-
multiplication
A B :=
1
2
(AB +BA) .
Obviously A B = B A. Show that
(A
2
B) A = A
2
(B A) .
This is called the Jordan identity.
Problem 25. Let C
nN
be the vector space of all nN complex matrices.
Let Z C
nN
. Then Z

Z
T
, where
T
denotes transpose. One denes a
Gaussian measure on C
nN
by
d(Z) :=
1
nN
exp(tr(ZZ
))dZ
where dZ denotes the Lebesgue measure on C
nN
. The Fock space T(C
nN
)
consists of all entire functions on C
nN
which are square integrable with
respect to the Gaussian measure d(Z). With the scalar product
f[g) :=
_
C
nN
f(Z)g(Z)d(Z), f, g T(C
nN
)
one has a Hilbert space. Show that this Hilbert space has a reproducing
kernel K. This means a continuous function K(Z, Z
) : C
nN
C
nN
C
such that
f(Z) =
_
C
nN
K(Z, Z
)f(Z
)d(Z
)
Miscellaneous 189
for all Z C
nN
and f T(C
nN
).
Problem 26. The vector space of all nn matrices over C form a Hilbert
space with the scalar product dened by
A, B) := tr(AB
) .
This implies a norm |A|
2
= tr(AA
).
(i) Consider the Lie group U(n). Find two unitary 2 2 matrices U
1
, U
2
such that |U
1
U
2
| takes a maximum.
(ii) Are the matrices
U
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
, U
2
=
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
such a pair?
Problem 27. Let
j
(j = 0, 1, 2, 3) be the Pauli spin matrices, where
0
= I
2
. Does the set of matrices
_
j
0
2
0
2

k
_
,
_
0
2

j
k
0
2
_
, j, k = 0, 1, 2, 3
form a group under matrix multiplication. If not add the elements to nd
a group. Here 0
2
is the 2 2 zero matrix.
Problem 28. Let A be a symmetric 2 2 matrix over R
A =
_
a
00
a
01
a
10
a
11
_
.
Thus a
01
= a
10
. Assume that
a
00
a
01
= a
2
01
, a
00
a
11
= a
01
a
11
.
Find all matrices A that satisfy these conditions.
Problem 29. Let A, B be 3 3 matrices. We dene the composition
AB :=
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
0 a
12
0 a
13
0 b
11
b
12
b
13
0
a
21
b
21
a
22
b
22
b
23
a
23
0 b
31
b
32
b
33
0
a
31
0 a
32
0 a
33
_
_
_
_
_
.
Let
M =
_
_
1/
2 0 1/
2
0 1 0
1/
2 0 1/
2
_
_
.
Find the eigenvalues of M and MM.
Problem 30. Find a 3 3 matrix A over R which satises
A
2
A
T
+A
T
A
2
= 2A, AA
T
A = 2A, A
3
= 0
Thus the matrix is nilpotent.
Problem 31. Consider the skew-symmetric matrix over R
A =
_
_
0 a
3
a
2
a
3
0 a
1
a
2
a
1
0
_
_
where a
1
, a
2
, a
3
R. Find the eigenvalues. Let 0
3
be the 3 3 zero
matrix. Let A
1
, A
2
, A
3
be skew-symmetric 33 matrices over R. Find the
eigenvalues of the 9 9 matrix
B =
_
_
0
3
A
3
A
2
A
3
0
3
A
1
A
2
A
1
0
3
_
_
.
Problem 32. Consider the four 2 2 matrices
P =
1
2
_
1 1
0 0
_
, Q =
1
2
_
0 0
1 1
_
, R =
1
2
_
1 1
0 0
_
, S =
1
2
_
0 0
1 1
_
.
(i) Show that they form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space of the
2 2 matrices with the scalar product X, Y ) = tr(XY
).
(ii) Find the multiplication table.
Problem 33. Find the Cayley transform of the Hermitian matrix
H =
_
h
11
h
12
h
12
h
22
_
, h
11
, h
22
R, h
12
C.
Problem 34. Let S be an invertible n n matrix. Find the inverse of
the 2n 2n matrix
_
0
n
S
1
S 0
n
_
Miscellaneous 191
where 0
n
is the n n zero matrix.
Problem 35. Consider the n n matrices
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1
1 0 0 . . . 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
, B = diag(1
2
. . .
n1
)
where is the n-th primitive root of unity. We have A
n
= B
n
= I
n
and
n
= 1. We have
AB = BA.
Let R = AI
n
and S = BI
n
. Find RS. Let X = AA and Y = BB.
Find XY . Find the commutator [X, Y ].
Problem 36. Find all 2 2 matrices C over R such that
C
T
C +CC
T
= I
2
, C
2
= 0
2
.
Problem 37. Let
j
,
j
R with j = 1, 2, 3. Any 33 unitary symmetric
matrix U can be written in the product form
U =
_
_
e
i1
0 0
0 e
i2
0
0 0 e
i3
_
_
_
_
1

12

13
12

2

23
13

23

3
_
_
_
_
e
i1
0 0
0 e
i2
0
0 0 e
i3
_
_
where
jk
= N
jk
exp(i
jk
) with N
jk
,
jk
R. It follows that
U
jj
=
j
exp(2i
j
), U
jk
= N
jk
exp(i(
j
+
k
+
jk
)) .
The unitary condition UU
= I
3
provides
3
k=j
N
2
jk
+
j
= 1, j = 1, 2, 3
and
N
12
(
1
exp(i
12
) +
2
exp(i
12
)) = N
13
N
23
exp(i( +
23
13
))
and cyclic (1 2 3 1). Write the unitary symmetric matrix
W =
_
_
0 0 i
0 i 0
i 0 0
_
_
in this form.
Problem 38. Consider the map f : C
2
R
3
_
cos()
e
i
sin()
_
_
_
sin(2) cos()
sin(2) sin()
cos(2)
_
_
.
Consider the map for the special cases = 0, = 0 and = /4, = /4.
Problem 39. (i) Consider the hermitian 3 3 matrices to describe a
particle with spin-1
S
1
:=

2
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, S
2
:=

2
_
_
0 i 0
i 0 i
0 i 0
_
_
, S
3
:=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
With S
+
:= S
1
+iS
2
, S
:= S
1
iS
2
we nd
S
+
=

2
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
, S
=

2
_
_
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
. (3)
An example of a spin-1 particle is the photon. Let m, n be normalized
vectors in R
3
which are orthogonal, i.e. m
T
n = 0. Find the eigenvalues of
the 3 3 matrix
K = (m S)
2
(n S)
2
where m S = m
1
S
1
+m
2
S
2
+m
3
S
3
.
(ii) Show that
P
m
= I
3
(m S)
2
is a projection operator.
Problem 40. Let A, B be 2 2 matrices over R. Find A, B such that
min|[A, B] I
2
|
where [ , ] denotes the commutator and for the norm | | consider the Frobe-
nius norm and max-norm.
Problem 41. Let A be an nn matrix over R. Assume that A
1
exists.
Let u, v R
n
, where u, v are considered as column vectors. (i) Show that
if
v
T
A
1
u = 1
Miscellaneous 193
then A+uv
T
is not invertible.
(ii) Assume that v
T
A
1
u ,= 1. Show that
(A+uv
T
)
1
= A
1
A
1
uv
T
A
1
1 +v
T
A
1
u
.
Problem 42. Can we nd an invertible 2 2 matrix S over the real
numbers such that
S
_
0 1
1 0
_
S
1
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
?
Problem 43. Let A and B be n n matrices over R. Assume that
A ,= B, A
3
= B
3
and A
2
B = B
2
A. Is A
2
+B
2
invertible?
Problem 44. Let
A =
_
3 2
4 3
_
and I
2
be the 2 2 identity matrix. For j 1, let d
j
be the greatest
common divisor of the entries of A
j
I
2
. Show that
lim
j
d
j
= .
Problem 45. Let a, d R and b C. Consider the hermitian matrix
K =
_
a b
b
d
_
.
Show that the matrix can be written as linear combination of the 2 2
identity matrix and the Pauli spin matrices.
Problem 46. (i) Consider the polynomial
p(x) = x
2
sx +d, s, d C.
Find a 2 2 matrix A such that its characteristic polynomial is p.
(ii) Consider the polynomial
q(x) = x
3
+sx
2
qx +d, s, q, d C.
Find a 3 3 matrix B such that its characteristic polynomial is q.
x
T
Ax > 0 for all x R
n
. Calculate
_
R
n
exp(x
T
Ax)dx.
Problem 48. Let A, B be nn matrices over C. The matrix A is called
similar to the matrix B if there is a n n invertible matrix S such that
A = S
1
BS .
If A is similar to B, then B is also similar to A, since B = SAS
1
.
(i) Consider the two matrices
A =
_
1 0
2 1
_
, B =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Are the matrices similar?
(ii) Consider the two matrices
C =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, D =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Are the matrices similar?
(iii) Consider the two matrices
X =
_
1 0
1 0
_
, Y =
_
0 1
0 1
_
.
Are the two matrices normal? Are the matrices similar? Are the matrices
X Y and Y X similar?
Problem 49. (i) Consider the matrix
R =
_
_
1/2 1/2 1/
2
1/2 1/2 1/
2
1/
2 1/
2 0
_
_
.
Show that R
1
= R
= R. Use these properties and tr(R) to nd all the

eigenvalues of R. Find the eigenvectors.
(ii) Let
A
1
=
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
, A
2
=
_
_
0 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
.
Calculate RA
1
R
1
and RA
2
R
1
. Discuss.
Miscellaneous 195
Problem 50. (i) Are the matrices
A =
_
1 0
1 0
_
, B =
_
0 1
0 1
_
similar? Prove or disprove.
(ii) Are the matrices AB and B A similar? Prove or disprove.
Problem 51. (i) Find the conditions on the 2 2 matrices over C such
that
ABA = BAB.
Find solutions where AB ,= BA, i.e. [A, B] ,= 0
2
.
(ii) Find the conditions on the 2 2 matrices A and B such that
AB A = B AB.
Find solutions where AB ,= BA, i.e. [A, B] ,= 0
2
.
Problem 52. Is every invertible matrix normal? Prove or disprove.
Problem 53. Consider the Hilbert space M
d
(C) of d d matrices with
scalar product A, B) := tr(AB
), A, B M
d
(C). Consider an orthogonal
basis of d
2
d d hermitian matrices B
1
, B
2
, . . . , B
d
2, i.e.
B
j
, B
k
) = tr(B
j
B
k
) = d
jk
since B
k
= B
k
for a hermitian matrix. Let M be a d d hermitian matrix.
Let
m
j
= tr(B
j
M) j = 1, . . . , d
2
.
Given m
j
and B
j
(j = 1, . . . , d
2
). Find M.
Problem 54. Let A be an nn matrix over R. Assume that A
1
exists.
Let u, v R
n
, where u, v are considered as column vectors. (i) Show that
if
v
T
A
1
u = 1
then A+uv
T
is not invertible.
(ii) Assume that v
T
A
1
u ,= 1. Show that
(A+uv
T
)
1
= A
1
A
1
uv
T
A
1
1 +v
T
A
1
u
.
Problem 55. Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Let
U(, , ) = e
i3/2
e
i2/2
e
i3/2
where , , are the three Euler angles with the range 0 < 2,
0 and 0 < 2. Show that
U(, , ) =
_
e
i/2
cos(/2)e
i/2
e
i/2
sin(/2)e
i/2
e
i/2
sin(/2)e
i/2
e
i/2
cos(/2)e
i/2
_
. (1)
Problem 56. Consider the Hilbert space H of the 2 2 matrices over
the complex numbers with the scalar product
A, B) := tr(AB
), A, B H.
Show that the rescaled Pauli matrices
j
=
1
j
, j = 1, 2, 3
1
=
1
2
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
2
=
1
2
_
0 i
i 0
_
,
3
=
1
2
_
1 0
0 1
_
plus the rescaled 2 2 identity matrix
0
=
1
2
_
1 0
0 1
_
form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space H.
Problem 57. Can we nd an invertible 2 2 matrix S over the real
numbers such that
S
_
0 1
1 0
_
S
1
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
?
Problem 58. Let A and B be n n matrices over R. Assume that
A ,= B, A
3
= B
3
and A
2
B = B
2
A. Is A
2
+B
2
invertible?
Problem 59. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that A and
A+B are invertible. Show that
(A+B)
1
A
1
A
1
B(A+B)
1
.
Apply the identity to A =
x
, B =
z
.
Problem 60. Let A be an n n matrix over R and let u be an n-vector
in R
n
(column vector) with u ,= u. In numerical linear algebra we often
have to compute
_
I
n
2uu
T
u
T
u
_
(1)
Miscellaneous 197
where I
n
is the n n identity matrix. Naively we would form the matrix
(I
n
2uu
T
/u
T
u) from the vector u and then form the matrix product
explicitly with A. This would require O(m
3
) ops. Provide a faster com-
putation for expression (1).
Problem 61. Let z C. Construct all 2 2 matrices A and B over C
such that
exp(zA)Bexp(zA) = e
z
B.
Problem 62. Let f
jk
: R R be analytic functions, where j, k = 1, 2.
Find the dierential equations for f
jk
such that
_
f
11
() f
12
()
f
21
() f
22
()
_
d
d
_
f
11
() f
12
()
f
21
() f
22
()
_
=
_
d
d
_
f
11
() f
12
()
f
21
() f
22
()
___
f
11
() f
12
()
f
21
() f
22
()
_
.
A(t) =
_
cos(t) sin(t)
sin(t) cos(t)
_
, B(t) =
_
t
0
A(s)ds .
Find the commutator [A(t), B(t)]. Discuss. What is the condition such
that [A(t), B(t)] = 0
2
.
Problem 64. Find all 2 2 matrices A
1
, A
2
, A
3
such that
A
1
A
2
= A
2
A
3
, A
3
A
1
= A
2
A
3
.
Problem 65. Let A be an n n normal matrix with pairwise dierent
eigenvalues. Are the matrices
P
j
=
n
k=1,j=k
A
k
I
n
j

k
projection matrices?
Problem 66. Let n 2 and = exp(2i/n). Consider the diagonal and
permutation matrices, respectively
D =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 . . . 0
0 0 . . . 0
0 0
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . .
n1
_
_
_
_
_
_
, P =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1
1 0 0 . . . 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
(i) Show that D
n
= P
n
= I
n
.
(ii) Show that the set of matrices
D
j
P
k
: j, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1
form a basis of the vector space of n n matrices.
(iii) Show that
PD = DP, P
j
D
k
=
jk
D
k
P
j
.
(iv) Find the matrix
X = P +
1
P
1
+D +
1
D
1
and calculate the eigenvalues.
Problem 67. Let z C. Consider the 2 2 matrices
A =
_
1 z
z 1
_
, B =
_
1 z
z 1
_
, C =
_
z 1
1 z
_
, D =
_
z 1
1 z
_
.
Find the condition on z such that A, B, C, D are invertible.
Problem 68. Let : R R be an analytic functions. Consider the
matrices
A(t) =
_
e
i(t)
1
1 e
id(t)/dt
_
, B(t) =
_
1 e
i(t)
e
id(t)/dt
1
_
.
(i) Find the dierential equation for from the condition
tr(AB) = 0 .
(ii) Find the dierential equation for from the condition
det(AB) = 0 .
Problem 69. How many 33 binary matrices can one form which contain
three 1s? Write down these matrices. Which of them are invertible?
Problem 70. Let s = 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . . . be the spin. Let n = 2s + 1, i.e.
for s = 1/2 we have n = 2, for s = 1 we have n = 3 etc. Consider the nn
matrix V
s
= (V
jk
) with
V
jk
= exp(c(s j + 1)(s k + 1))
Miscellaneous 199
where j, k = 1, 2, . . . , n and c is a positive constant.
(i) Let s = 1/2, i.e. n = 2. Let
R
1/2
=
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
Find R
1
1/2
V
1/2
R
1/2
.
(ii) Let s be positive integer with n = 2s + 1 and the n n matrix
R
s
=
1
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1
.
.
. .
.
.
1 0 1
0

2 0
1 0 1
.
.
. .
.
.
1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Find R
s
V
s
R
s
.
(iii) Let s be 1/2, 3/2, . . . with n = 2s + 1 and the n n matrix
R
s
=
1
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1
.
.
. .
.
.
1 1
1 1
.
.
. .
.
.
1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Find R
s
V
s
R
s
.
Problem 71. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Consider the Taylor
series
(I
n
+A)
1/2
= I
n
+
1
2
A
1
2 4
A
2
+
1 3
2 4 6
A
3

and
(I
n
+A)
1/2
= I
n
1
2
A+
1 3
2 4
A
2
1 3 5
2 4 6
A
3
+
What is the condition (the norm) on A such that the Taylor series exist?
Can it be applied to the matrix
A =
_
1 1
1 1
_
?
Note that for n = 1 we have the condition 1 < A +1.
1
, . . . ,
n
and
pairwise orthonormal eigenvectors a
j
(column vectors), i.e. a
j
a
k
=
jk
.
Then we can write A as (spectral decomposition)
A =
n
j=1
j
a
j
a
j
.
Analogously for a normal matrix B we have
B =
n
k=1
k
b
k
b
k
.
(i) Find the condition on
j
, a
j
and
k
, b
k
such that tr(AB
) = 0, i.e. the
two matrices are orthogonal to each other.
(ii) Find the condition on
j
, a
j
and
k
, b
k
such that [A, B] = 0
n
, i.e. the
the commutator of the matrices vanishes.
1
, . . . ,
n
and
pairwise orthonormal eigenvectors a
j
(column vectors), i.e. a
j
a
k
=
jk
.
Then we can write A as (spectral decomposition)
A =
n
j=1
j
a
j
a
j
.
Analogously for a normal matrix B we have
B =
n
k=1
k
b
k
b
k
.
Let z C. Use the spectral decomposition to calculate
e
zA
Be
zA
.
Problem 74. Let U be an n n unitary matrix. Let H = U + U
.
Calculate
exp(zH) .
Problem 75. Consider the Bell matrix
B =
1
2
_
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
_ .
Miscellaneous 201
(i) Find all matrices A such that BAB
= A.
(ii) Find all matrices A such that BAB
is a diagonal matrix.
Problem 76. Consider the invertible 2 2 matrix
A() =
_
cos(x) sin(x)
sin(x) cos(x)
_
.
Show that
d(ln(det(A))) = tr(A
1
dA)
where d denotes the exterior derivative.
Problem 77. Let n 2. An invertible integer matrix, A GL
n
(Z),
generates a toral automorphism f : T
n
T
n
via the formula
f = A, : R
n
T
n
:= R
n
/Z
n
.
The set of xed points of f is given by
#Fix(f) := x
T
n
: f(x
) = x
Now we have: if det(I

n
A) ,= 0, then
#Fix(f) = [ det(I
n
A)[ .
Let n = 2 and
A =
_
2 1
1 1
_
.
Show that det(I
2
A) ,= 0 and nd #Fix(f).
Problem 78. Consider the Hamilton operator
H =
1

2
(
x
x
+
y

y
+
z

z
) .
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of

H.
A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
.
Find a invertible matrix B such that B
1
AB is a diagonal matrix.
Problem 80. Let V
1
be a hermitian n n matrix. Let V
2
be a positive
semidenite n n matrix. Let k be a positive integer. Show that
tr((V
2
V
1
)
k
)
can be written as tr(V
k
), where V := V
1/2
2
V
1
V
1/2
2
.
Problem 81. Can one nd a 2 2 unitary matrix such that
U
_
1 0
0 1
_
U
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 82. Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Consider the
4 4 gamma matrices
1
=
_
0
2

1
1
0
2
_
,
2
=
_
0
2

2
2
0
2
_
,
3
=
_
0
2

3
3
0
2
_
and
0
=
_
I
2
0
2
0
2
I
2
_
.
Find
1
0
and tr(
1
0
).
Problem 83. Let j be a positive integer. Let A, B be n n matrices
over R. Calculate
lim
0
1
((A+B)
j
A
j
) .
Calculate
d
d
tr(A+B)
j
=0
.
Problem 84. Let
1
,
2
,
3
be the Pauli spin matrices. Let A, B be two
arbitrary 2 2 matrices. Is
1
2
tr(AB)
3
j=1
_
1
2
tr(
j
A)
__
1
2
tr(
j
B)
_
?
Problem 85. In the following we count from (0, 0) to (n 1, n 1) for
n n matrices. Let := exp(2i/n). Consider the n n matrices
H =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 1
1 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
, G =
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n1
_
_
_
_
.
Miscellaneous 203
Then H
n
= G
n
= I
n
, HH
= GG
= I
n
, HG = GH. Let U be the
unitary matrix
U =
1
n
(
jk
)
where j, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Show that
UHU
1
= G.
Problem 86. The standard simplex
n
is dened by the set in R
n
n
:= (x
1
, . . . , x
n
)
T
: x
j
0,
n
j=1
x
j
= 1
Consider n anely independent points B
1
, . . . , B
n

n
. They span an
(n 1)-simplex denoted by = Con(B
1
, . . . , B
n
), that is
= Con(B
1
, . . . , B
n
) =
1
B
1
+ +
n
B
n
:
n
j=1
j
= 1,
1
, . . . ,
n
0 .
The set corresponds to an invertible nn matrix whose columns are B
1
, . . . ,
B
n
. Conversely, consider the matrix C = (b
jk
), where C
k
= (b
1k
, . . . , b
nk
)
T
(k = 1, . . . , n). If det(C) ,= 0 and the sum of the entries in each column is
1, then the matrix C corresponds to an (n1)-simplex Con(B
1
, . . . , B
n
) in
n
. Let C
1
and C
2
be n n matrices with nonegative entries and all the
columns of each matrix add up to 1. Show that C
1
C
2
and C
2
C
1
are also
such matrices. Are the n
2
n
2
matrices C
1
C
2
, C
2
C
1
such matrices?
Problem 87. (i) Consider the analytic function f : R
2
R
2
f
1
(x
1
, x
2
) = sinh(x
2
), f
2
(x
1
, x
2
) = sinh(x
1
) .
Show that this function admits the (only) xed point (0, 0). Find the
functional matrix at the xed point
_
f
1
/x
1
f
1
/x
2
f
2
/x
1
f
2
/x
2
_
(0,0)
.
(ii) Consider the analytic function g : R
2
R
2
g
1
(x
1
, x
2
) = sinh(x
1
), g
2
(x
1
, x
2
) = sinh(x
2
) .
Show that this function admits the (only) xed point (0, 0). Find the
functional matrix at the xed point
_
g
1
/x
1
g
1
/x
2
g
2
/x
1
g
2
/x
2
_
(0,0)
.
(iii) Multiply the two matrices found in (i) and (ii).
(iv) Find the composite function h : R
2
R
2
h(x) = (f g)(x) = f (g(x)) .
Show that this function also admits the xed point (0, 0). Find the func-
tional matrix at this xed point
_
h
1
/x
1
h
1
/x
2
h
2
/x
1
h
2
/x
2
_
(0,0)
.
Compare this matrix with the matrix found in (iii).
U =
1
3
(I
2
I
2
I
2
+i
1
1
+i
3
3
unitary?
A
0
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B
0
=
_
0 i
i 0
_
.
Let n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Study the sequence of matrices
A
n+1
= A
n
B
n
, B
n+1
= A
n
.
Discuss. Is the sequence of matrices periodic?
Problem 90. Let S, T be n n matrices over C with
S
2
= I
n
, (TS)
2
= I
n
.
Show that
STS
1
= T
1
, ST
1
S = T .
Problem 91. Consider the alphabet = U, V, W, axiom: = U and
the set of production rules
U UV W, V UV, W U .
(i) Apply it to U =
1
, V =
2
, W =
3
and matrix multiplication. Is the
sequence periodic?
(ii) Apply it to U =
1
, V =
2
, W =
3
and the Kronecker product.
Miscellaneous 205
Problem 92. (i) Consider the 2 2 matrix
V (t) =
_
cos(t) sin(t)
sin(t) cos(t)
_
.
Calculate dV (t)/dt and then nd the commutator [dV (t)/dt, V (t)].
(ii) Let V (t) be a 2 2 matrix where all the entries are smooth functions
of t. Calculate dV (t)/dt and then nd the conditions on the entries such
that [dV (t)/dt, V (t)] = 0
2
.
Problem 93. Let f
j
(x
1
, x
2
) (j = 1, 2, 3) be realvalued smooth functions.
Consider the matrix
N(x
1
, x
2
) = f
1
1
+f
2
2
+
3

_
f
3
if
2
+f
1
if
2
+f
1
f
3
_
.
Find dN, N
. Then calculate d(N
dN). Find the conditions of f

1
, f
2
, f
3
such that
d(N
dN) = 0
2
where 0
2
is the 2 2 zero matrix.
Problem 94. (i) Find all invertible 2 2 matrices over R such that
T
_
0 1
0 0
_
T
1
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
.
(ii) Do these matrices form a group?
Problem 95. (i) Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that the
inverse of A and A+B exists. Show that
(A+B)
1
A
1
A
1
B(A+B)
1
.
Apply the identity to
A =
1
2
_
1 0
0 1
_
, B =
1
2
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Problem 96. (i) Consider the 2 2 matrix
F() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
with det(F()) = 1. Is the determinant preserved under repeated dieren-
tiation of F() with respect to ?
(ii) Consider the 2 2 matrix
G() =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
with det(G()) = 1. Is the determinant preserved under repeated dier-
entiation of G() with respect to ?
Problem 97. Let M be an inertible n n matrix. Then we can form
M
+
=
1
2
(M +M
1
), M
=
1
2
(M M
1
) .
Let
M =
_
1 1
0 1
_
.
Find M
+
and M
. M is a nonnormal matrix. Are the matrices M

+
and
M
normal?
Problem 98. (i) Show that the matrices
A =
_
0 1
0 1
_
, B =
_
1 0
1 0
_
are similar. This means nd an invertible 22 matrix S, i.e. S GL(2, R),
such that SAS
1
= B.
(ii) Is there an invertible 2 2 matrix S such that
(S S)(AA)(S
1
S
1
) = B B.
Problem 99. Let A, B be nn matrices over C. The two nn matrices
A and B have a common eigenvector if and only if the n n matrix
n1
j,k=1
[A
j
, B
k
]
[A
j
, B
k
]
is singular, i.e. the determinant is equal to 0.
(i) Apply the theorem to the matrices
A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, B =
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
_
.
(ii) Apply the theorem to the matrices
A =
_
_
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
_
_
, B =
_
_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Miscellaneous 207
(iii) Give a computer algebra implementation of this condition for two given
matrices.
Problem 100. Let M be the Minkowski space endowed with the standard
coordinates x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
with the metric tensor eld
g = dx
0
dx
0
+dx
1
dx
1
+dx
2
dx
2
+dx
3
dx
3
and the quadratic form
q(x) = (x
0
)
2
+ (x
1
)
2
+ (x
2
)
2
+ (x
3
)
2
.
Let H(2) be the vector space of 2 2 hermitian matrices. Consider the
map : M H(2)
(x) = X =
_
x
0
+x
3
x
1
ix
2
x
1
+ix
2
x
0
x
3
_
which is an isomorphism. Find the determinant of X. Find the Cayley
transform of X, i.e.
U = (X +iI
2
)
1
(X iI
2
)
with the inverse
X = i(I
2
+U)(I
2
U)
1
.
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Problems

y scalar product (inner product) in C

conjugate transpose of matrix A

conjugate transpose of matrix A

, where ker denotes the kernel.

A is nonsingular. The matrix B can be chosen such that

from the two equations

term. This change of coordinate

) and show that det(CC

5 1)/2 and the

2), (2, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0), (1,

with eigenvalue , i.e.

AU. Use this theorem

B], [B, F] and the anticommutator [F,

] for k, = 0, 1, 2, 3. Find the anticommu-

= A. Thus A has only real eigenvalues. Assume that

124 Problems and Solutions

with rank 1 which minimizes

u = 1, i.e. the vector

). Let X be an n n hermitian matrix.

5 1)/2 be the golden mean number.

] and [A, B]. Discuss.

]], where [L, L

satisfying the relations

= R. Use these properties and tr(R) to nd all the

Now we have: if det(I

. Then calculate d(N

dN). Find the conditions of f

. M is a nonnormal matrix. Are the matrices M

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