CHAPTER 4: LOADS ON BRIDGES

Introduction
Bridge structures , like buildings, must be designed to resist various kinds of
loads: gravity as well as lateral.
The major components of the loads acting on highway bridges are DEAD
LOAD, LIVE LOAD, ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS.
Two major components of the bridge design process are the Design of the
superstructure and the design of the substructure.






Loads on
bridges
Superstructure
s
Gravity
loads
Longitudinal
forces
Lateral loads
Substructure
Gravity
loads
Dead load
Live load
Vehicular
loads
Truck
loading
Lane
loading
Alternate
loading
Extra legal
loads
Pedestrian &
other loads
Impact





Longitudinal forces
Longitudinal load
due to LL
Thermal load
Substructure
Gravity load
Lateral load
Miscellaneous
loads
Gravity loads
Live load
Loads from
superstructures
Loads from
substructures
Dead load
Selfweight
Lateral load
Wind
Seismic
Activity
Centrifugal
forces
Lateral loads
Longitudinal load from superstructures
Wind load
Seismic Load
Earth pressure
Stream current
Ice pressure
Thermal load


Loads on Bridge superstructures
1. Gravity loads - are caused by the deadweight of the bridge itself, the superimposed
dead load and the live load.
> Dead load consist of the weight of the superstructure plus the weight of other
items such as utility pipes, conduits and cable. The self weight of the
superstructure consist of deck, side walk, curbs, parapets, railings, supporting
stringer and the floor beam
> Live loads specified in the AASHTO standard specifications.
AASHTO highway live loads highway bridges are subjected to a variety of
nonstationary loads, such as those due to vehicles, motorcycles, bicycles, equestrians
and pedestrians. live loads refers to loads due to moving vehicles that are
dynamics.
Highway live loads classified as
1. Legal loads the weights of all vehicles are assumed to be concentrated on the wheels
and are transmitted through them to the axles. The maximum permissible weights for
wheels and axles and their sizes are as follows:
- Single axle weight total gross weight imposed on the highway by the
wheels of any single axle of a vehicle is limited to 20 kips, including any and
all weight tolerances.
- Tandem axle weight - total gross weight imposed on the highway by a tandem
axle shall not exceed to 34 kips, including any and all weight tolerances.
Miscellaneous loads
Buoyancy
Uplift
- Maximum permissible axle group weight - total gross weight imposed on the
highway by ant group of two or more consecutive axle on a vehicle or
combination.
- Maximum permissible vehicle gross weight - total gross weight imposed on
the highway by a vehicle or a combinations of vehicles with two or more
consecutives axles.
- Maximum sizes
Maximum height: 13ft 6 in
Maximum overall length of a single truck: 40ft
Maximum overall length of a single two axle or three axles bus: 40ft
Maximum overall length of a semitrailer: 53ft
2. Design loads design live loads for highways have been and continue to be subject of
considerable research.
Design vehicular live loads divided into 3 categories
1. Design truck loading referred to as standard truck loading, this originated in
the 1920s , and it has been revised periodically, basic format has remained
unchanged. Two systems of loadings are provided: H loading and heavier HS
loading ( S refers to semitrailer), there are two standard classes of loadings
(AASHTO3.7.2) which is designated (AASHTO3.7.3) as follows:
- H15-44 and H20-44
- HS15-44 and HS20-44
- 444 refers to the fact that these loadings were standardized and first
published in the 1944 AASHTO specifications. H loading consist of two
axle truck, 15 and 20 in the loading classification refer to the gross truck
weight in tons ( 1 ton= 2000lb)
2. Design lane loading lane loading was developed to better model loading on
long spans, where a string of light vehicles might be critical.
3. Alternate military ( or design tandem) loading this loading originated in
1956 as a federal highway administration requirement for bridges on the interstate
highway system, to provide load carrying capacity for certain heavy military
vehicles.
Impact defined as a suddenly applied load, whose period of application is shorter than
the fundamental period for the structure on which the load is applied.
Provision in AASHTO Specifications
= AASHTO 3.8.2 specifies that the dynamic effects of moving loads be expressed as
a fraction of the loads according to the following empirical formula:
I = 50/L + 125
Where: I = Impact factor ( maximum 30% or 0.3)
L = length in ft, portion of the span that is loaded to produce the maximum
stress in the member
Prior this time, various formulas, based primarily on the opinions of bridge engineers
or on limited and inconclusive test, were in use. The two most commonly used were.
I = L^2 / L + D & I = 300 / L + 300
Japanese Specifications for highway bridge uses an impact formula similar format
to that AASHTO
I = 20/ 50+L ( L = m)

Effect of Vibrations on Pedestrian in Bridges
> Pedestrian bridges are typically designed for pedestrian loads, which are
considered static loads. However, walking across pedestrian bridge can be
characterized as a moving repetitive force that may cause the bridge to vibrate.
Pedestrian Loading
> on most bridges, sidewalks and curbs are provided, and the live load imposed on
them should be given due consideration in design.

1. Sidewalk floors, stringers, and their immediate supports:85psf
2 Girder, trusses, arches and other members:
(a) span 0-25ft: 85lb/ft^2
(b) span 60-100ft: 60lb/ft^2
(c) span over 100ft :according to

P = ( 30 + 3000/L) ( 55-W / 50)

P= live load per square foot ( max. 60 lb)
L= loaded length of side walk ( ft)
W= sidewalk width (ft)

Note that the sidewalk live load is reducible for members or portions of a bridge
superstructure spanning 60 ft or more that receive load from members that directly
support the deck.
3. Pedestrian traffic: 85lb/ft^2
4. Bicycle traffic: 85lb/ft^2
There is no min. or max. sidewalk width stipulated in the specifications; widths
of 3ft to 6ft are commonly used.

Reduction in live load intensity
The reduction is limited to 40% for members receiving load from one level only
60% for others, or R as determined by the following formula ( UBC 6.2)
R = 23.1 ( 1 + D/L )
D = dead load per ft^2 of area supported by the members
L = unit live load per ft^2 of area supported by the member
R = reduction in percentage
Longitudinal Forces
It refers to the forces that act in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the
bridge, specifically, in the direction of the traffic. These forces develop as a result of the
braking effort, or the tractive effort. In both cases the vehicles inertia force is transferred
to the deck through friction between the deck and the wheels.
The magnitude of the longitudinal force can be determined using newtons
second law of motion. The force generated by a particle of mass m, in motion is given
by:
Force = mass x acceleration
F = m( dv/dt ) = (w/g) (dv / dt)
m= W/g = mass of the particle
dv/dt = tangential acceleration or deceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity= 32.2 ft sec^2
Centrifugal Force
When a particle of mass m moves along a constrained curved path with a
constant speed, there is a normal force exerted on particle by constraint.

Where m=w/g= mass of the particle
g= acceleration due to gravity
v= particle velocity
r= instantaneous radius of
Curvature of the path
Provision for the centrifugal force in AASHTO 3.10

r
v
g
W
r
mv
F
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
F
S
D S C
2
2
68 . 6 ) ( 00117 . 0
Where C= centrifugal force in percent of the live load, without impact.
S= design speed in miles per hour
D= the degree of the curve=5729.65/R
R= the radius of the curve in feet
F= mv/r
AASHTO-LRFD (AASHTO,1994a)
Where v= highway design speed (ft/sec)
g= gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec
r= radius of curvature of the traffic lane
Curb Loading
AASHTO 3.14.2 stipulates a lateral force not less than 500 pounds per linear foot
of curb, applied At the top of the curb, or At an elevation 10 in. above the floor if the
curb is higher than 10 in. In AASHTO 2.5.4 stipulates the minimum width of curb to be
18 in.
Railing Loading
Depends on the purpose for which the railing is provided ( e.g., vehicular,
bicycle, or pedestrian railing ) , the geometry and type of parapet provided on the deck.
Requirements for designing will covered by AASHTO 2.7
Wind loads
Bridges are frequently built on exposed sites and are subject to wind exposure.
Wind loads on bridge superstructures depend on the type of bridge, e.g., slab stringer,
truss, arch, cable-stayed, or suspension. Other parameters affect wind loads on bridge are
wind velocity, angle attack, the size and shape of the bridge, the terrain, and the gust
characteristics.
Wind effects on bridge structures may be threefold:
1. Static wind pressures
2. Dynamic ( oscillatory ) wind movements
3. Buffeting between adjacent structures.
Static wind pressures are those that cause a bridge to deflect or deform. Dynamic
wind movements affect longspan flexible bridges. Oscillate in a number of different
moves at low frequencies. Buffeting is defined as the randomly forced vibration of a
structure due to velocity fluctuation Slender towers Deck of suspended-span bridges that
exhibit aero elastic effects. Static wind pressure the main wind force acting on a bridge
structures, develop as a result of a steady wind exerts a fairly constant pressure in the
general direction of the wind.
Bernoullis theorem:

Where p= wind pressure
p= the mass density of air (0.00233 slug/ft sea level 15c
V= wind velocity in ft/sec
C= coefficient of proportionally, shape factor,
Aerodynamic instability means the effect of a steady wind, acting on a flexible
structure of conventional cross section, to produce a fluctuating force automatically
synchronizing in timing and direction with the harmonic motion of those structures so as
to cause a progressive amplification of these motions to dangerous destructive
amplitudes. Wind uplift or the vertical component of wind, known in aeronautics as lift.
Variation of wind speed with height and terrain roughness
Characteristically , the velocity of wind increases from zero at ground surface to
a certain maximum at height of approximately 0.5 to 1.0 km above the ground
Retard wind flow
Boundary layer of atmosphere
free atmosphere
Gradient height
Gradient velocity
Aerodynamics Considerations
The literature is replete with the discussion of aerodynamics of an aircraft
structures, specifically for the airfoil.
The interaction between the wind and the bridge deck and a great deal of research
is in progress
Airfoil cross section of an airplanes wing
2
2
1
V C =

Baytown bridge (482, 1250, and 482 ft )
Houston ship channel Texas 100 year old design wind speed calculated as 110 mph at 30
ft elevation, 160 mph Deck elevation 176 ft above water level in the channel195 mph at
tower tops (266 ft above the deck15 % additional gust load
Vortex theory
Bridge deck is essentially bluff (i.e., a non- streamlined object), as an compared
with and airfoil. Wake - When a steady wind blows perpendicularly across the width of
such an object, a zero turbulent flow. Whose number depends on the Reynolds number,
Created leeward side past or past the railing edge of the air-foil, On Karman vortex trail-
vortices trail behind the cylinder in two rows. Mackinac suspension bridge
Flutter theory
Flutter refers to an oscillating motion in which two or more modes of oscillation,
usually bending and torsion, are usually combined. As wind velocity increases, a critical
value is reached, which triggers the flutter motion. It is characterized by rapid build-up
of amplitude with little or no further increase in wind speed.
Aeroelastic stability considerations
1. Geometry of bridge deck over-all cross section shape of the bridge structure
2. Frequency of vibration of the bridge superstructure profiles may be torsionally soft
or torsionally stiff.
Mechanical damping of the bridge aeroelastic stability of the bridge can be
enhanced by increasing the mechanical damping ration of the bridge
Vibration Effects
Wind induce vibration is much more pronounced on flexible bridges, such as
suspension, short-span rigid and slab stringer bridges. Note that dangerous bridge
vibration can be generated due to loads other than vehicular impact and wind.
Rhythmical human body motions lasting up to 20 seconds or more lead to almost
periodic dynamic forces. Normal walking rate varies up to 2.3 paces per second or 2.3
Hz (about 4 mph).Note that bridge vibrations within a certain range of frequencies also
tend to affect humans (pedestrians) adversely, both physiologically and psychologically.
Provision in the AASHTO Specifications for wind loads
AASHTO 3.15, basic wind velocity 100 mph and elevation at 90 longitudinal
axis.
Wind load on the structure (superstructure and substructure )
Wind load on the moving load (vehicles on the bridge.
Wind load on superstructure.
Group II and V loadings:
Trusses and arches - 75 psf > 300 500 lbs./ linear foot in the plane leeward and
windward chords, respectively.
Girders and beams 50 psf, > 300 lbs. / linear foot.
Group III and VI loadings:
Reduced 70 % load of 100 lbs/ linear foot applied at right angles to the
longitudinal axis of the bridge, applied 6 ft above the deck as wind load on the
moving live load.
Wind Load on Substructure (AASHTO 3.15.2)
Forces transferred from the superstructure these forces depend on the type of
superstructure, the skew angle (angle between the assumed wind direction and the
normal to the longitudinal axis of the bridge), and the load group combinations. For
usual girders and slab bridges of spans not exceeding 125 ft, which constitute most short-
span bridges?
AASHTO 3.15.2.1.3
On the substructure: 50 psf traverse and 12 psf longitudinal
On the live load: 100 lbs/ linear foot traverse and 40 lbs./ linear foot.
Forces applied directly to the substructure.
On assumed wind pressure of 40 psf, based on the basic wind speed of 100 mph.
in the case of skewed wind loading, the analysis can be performed by resolving
the applied load into components perpendicular to the end and the front
elevations of the substructure.
Overturning wind loads in AASHTO 3.15.3
20 psf of the deck and sidewalk plan area for group II and V loading
combinations
6 psf of the deck and side walk plan area for group III and VI loading
combinations
3.10.7 Investigation of Aerodynamic Structural Response by Wind Tunnels Test
3.10.7.1 Application of wind tunnel test
The response of structures to wind-induced forces depends on the characteristic
of the coming wind loads and on the geometry and mechanical properties of structures.
Wind tunnels test are conducted extensively for aircraft structures. To determine the
effects of snow drifts, test power plant, chemical plants, and factories.
Types of Wind Tunnels
According to ASCE (1987) classified into four basic categories:
1. Long tunnels
2. Short tunnels
3. Tunnels with passive devices
4. Tunnels with active devices
Wind tunnels can be classified as open or closed circuit
Tunnels used for civil engineering purpose have cross section that rarely exceed 3
m x 3 m. notable exception is the 9 m x 9 m tunnel of the national research Council of
Ottawa, Canada.
Types of Wind Tunnels
Model test of the full bridge
1. It represents the proper interaction of the bridge deck, piers, abutments, towers,
and cables.
2. It can represent the proper flow distortions on all parts of the bridge if the
surrounding topography is modeled as well as the bridge itself
3. In certain cases, the model scale permits the proper turbulent structure of the
wind to be modeled as well.
Taut Strip Model Test
It was developed to study the behavior of suspension bridges at a larger scale
than that which is possible with full models.
Section Models Test
Sections model test are quite useful for making initial assessment, based on
simple test, of the extent to which a bridge deck shape is aero elastically stable. They can
built to scales on the order of 1:50 to 1:25 Advantage of the allowing the measurement of
the fundamental aerodynamic characteristics of the bridge deck. It consist of
representative span wise of the deck built to scale, spring supported at the ends to permit
both vertical and torsional motion.
Temperature Induced Forces
1. Traditionally the longitudinal movements induced by maximum expected
temperature variations, typically + 20c or - 20c.
2. Thermal response of the bridge deck is a complex transient phenomenon
influenced by many factors
3. Time-dependent solar radiation
4. Ambient temperature
5. Wind speed fluctuations
6. Material properties, heat transfer coefficient for reinforced and prestressed
concrete and steel
7. Variation in ambient temperature between the maximum and the minimum
during 24 hrs period
8. Type of span-simple or continuous
9. Deck configuration, T-beams, single or multicell reinforced or prestressed
concrete girders, concrete deck-steel girder composite, orthotropic bridge
10. Geometrical configuration of the deck, overhang-to-web depth ratio
11. Surface characteristics of the deck
Current AASHTO 3.16 provisions specifies the following ranges of temperature
Metal structures:
Moderate climate 0-120F
Cold climate 30-120F
Concrete structures:
Moderate climate 30F rise 40F fall
Cold climate 35F rise 45F fall
Forces on Pier
- Stream Current
- Floating Ice

Pier - The main support for a bridge, upon which the bridge superstructure rests;

Stream current on piers:

While designing bridges if any portion of the structure is submerged in flowing
water then it is to be also designed to safely resist the horizontal force due to the water
current. Importantly bridge substructures constructed in a region of flowing water should
be designed to withstand water pressure which could cause the pier to slide or overturn.
Scour around the bottom of the piers is of great concern in the bridge design. The design
for every bridge over a stream should involve a careful study of possible stream
velocities. Past flow records are helpful to determine velocities. If this information is
lacking, the design engineer should make the best estimate possible with the available
data.

Intensity of pressure should be calculated from

P = KV
2
(from AASHTO 3.18.1)

P = Intensity of pressure in kg/m^2 due to the water current.
K = a coefficient whose value depends upon the different shapes the piers
V = the velocity of the current in meters/sec
Shape of Piers , K value
- Square ended piers, 1.50
- Circular piers or piers with semi circular ends, 0.66
- Piers with triangular cut and case waters, the angle included
between the faces being 30degrees or less, 0.50

Ice on Piers:

In snow bound areas floating ice generally causes high forces to work against
piers. In some cases bridges have been completely demolished by the pressure of floating
ice.
The interaction between ice and bridges can result to static ice pressure and
dynamic ice pressure. Static ice pressure is due to thermal movements of continuous
stationary ice sheets or ice jams while the dynamic ice pressure results from moving ice
sheets carried by stream flow, wind or current.

The horizontal force resulting from the pressure of moving ice depends on the
effective ice strength (usually 100 to 400 psi), the thickness of the contact ice sheet, and
the inclination of the pier nose to the vertical. The actual value of the horizontal ice
pressure to be used will depend on the condition of the ice at that time of movement,
including the temperature, the size of the moving ice sheets and floes, and the velocity at
contact. Since the last two conditions cannot be determined with a reasonable certainty, it
is recommended that a conservative approach be used in estimating the ice conditions.

From AASHTO 3.18.2.2, the recommended formula is used for calculating
horizontal forces due to ice pressure:

F = C
n
Ptw
F = horizontal force due to ice pressure, lb
C
n
= coefficient for nose angle
P = effective ice strength, psi
t = thickness of ice in contact with pier
w = width or diameter of pier at the level of ice action, in

Earth Pressure on Bridges:

Abutments and wing walls are portions of substructure that retain earth or the
backfill. Consequently, both are subjected to lateral loads due to earth pressure.

There are three kinds of earth pressure.
- Active earth pressures - are considered to ensure that the abutment is
stable.
- At rest earth pressures - are considered to ensure that the structural
elements are adequate.
- Passive earth pressures - are only considered for integral abutments or
where shear keys are provided.

Both the abutments and wing walls should be designed to withstand earth
pressure. By Rankines formula the active earth pressure can be calculated as:

P = K
a
wh

P = Rankines Active Earth Pressure, lb
Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure
= minimum of 30 lb/ft
3
(AASHTO 3.20.1)
w = unit weight of soil, lb/ft
3

h = height of backfill, ft

Seismic Loads

Historical Background

First codification of seismic forces on bridges
Japan, 1926
Due to the result of the Kanto Earthquake
In United States,
1961 edition of AASHTO
Earthquake forces were required to be applied in bridge structures in
proportion to its weight, depending on the foundation conditions, but
independent of its response characteristics
BUT. In Feb. 8, 1971
San Fernando Earthquake in California (M6.6)
42 bridges damaged, 5 collapsed

Thus, the pre-1971 AASHO was reviewed and revised

Factors that were chiefly considered:
Dynamic response characteristics of the structure
Dynamic response characteristics of the soil
Proximity of the site to known active faults
Intensity of seismic events

The AASHTO standard [1991b] treats the seismic design of bridges in two ways:

Calculation of design seismic forces
Detailing requirements based on required bridge performance in
accordance with the seismic risk associated with its location

AASHTO detailing requirements for seismic resistance of bridges are specified in the
AASHTO standard 1991b. The fundamental features of these specifications are as
follows:

Importance Classification (IC)
IC one for essential bridges
Bridges that must continue to function after an earthquake
IC two for all other bridges

Seismic Performance Categories (SPC)
SPC A to D
A =lowest level of seismic performance
D = highest level of seismic performance
Analysis and Detailing Requirements:
Analysis Procedure
Regular Bridge
No abrupt or unusual changes in mass, stiffness, or
geometry along its span and has no large differences
between adjacent supports
Irregular Bridge

Design Requirements
Design for horizontal seismic force
Design for adequate lengths at bearing seats

For Specific Performance Category A bridges:

No elastic analysis is required
Connection of superstructure to substructure should resist horizontal seismic
force equal to 20% of the dead load reaction in the restrained direction
Minimum requirement support lengths are as required by AASHTO Div. 1-A,
Seismic Design, 4.9.1
Dimension for Minimum Support Length Requirements
N = 8 + 0.02(L) + 0.08(H) , in
N = 203 + 1.67(L) + 6.66(H) , mm

For Specific Performance Category B bridges:

Elastic Seismic Forces
Load Case 1:
Design Force = absolute value of elastic seismic force in the
longitudinal direction + 0.3(absolute value of elastic
seismic force in the transverse direction)
Load Case 2:
Design Force = absolute value of elastic seismic force in the transverse
direction + 0.3(absolute value of elastic seismic force
in the longitudinal direction)
Modified Elastic Seismic Force (EQM)
EQM = DF / R
R = response modification factor (found in AASHTO, 1992)
Group Loading Combination
Group Load = 1.0(D + B + SF + E + EQM)
D = dead load
B = Buoyancy
SF = Stream Flow Pressure
E = Earth Pressure
EQM = Modified Elastic seismic Force
Each bridge component should withstand forces resulting from each
combination
Seismic Design Displacement
Should be larger than the minimum requirement support lengths are as
required by AASHTO Div. 1-A, Seismic Design, 4.9.1

For Specific Performance Category C and D bridges:

Deals with designs in the inelastic range
Seismic Design Displacement
N = 12 + 0.03(L) + 0.12(H)

Miscellaneous Loads
Construction, handling and erection Loads
Deformation Effects
Forces or displacements due to shrinkage of conventionally reinforced
concrete should be evaluated assuming a coefficient of 0.0002 (According
to AASHTO 8.5.3)

Combination of Loads for Design

| | ICE EQ T S R LF WL W SF B E CF I L D N Group
ice EQ R L WL w S B E C L D
| | | | | | | | | | | | + + + + + + + + + + + + + + = ) ( ) ( ) (


N = group number
= load factor
= coefficient
D = dead load
L = live load
I = live load (impact)
E = earth pressure
B = buoyancy
W = wind load on live load
LF = longitudinal force from live load
CF = centrifugal force
R = rib shortening
S = shrinkage
T = temperature
EQ = earthquake
SF = stream flow pressure
ICE = ice pressure