Chapter 1: Design of Modern Highway 1.1 Historical Background 1.1.

1 General The history of bridge building can be said to be the history of the evolution of civil engineering. Perhaps people derived the first concept in bridge building from nature. The idea of slab bridge might have developed from a tree trunk that, uprooted by winds or weakened by erosion at its roots, had fallen across a chasm or a creek. Or perhaps the idea of piers evolved from rocks that, jutting out of shallow streams, were used as stepping stones. When people realized that walking was more convenient than hopping from stepping stone to stepping stone, for individuals, tribes, and cattle, they created the slab. Slab of stone were laid across the stepping stones, and thus emerged a multiple-span bridge. These bridges, which came to be known as clapper bridges, can still be found in some undeveloped areas of the world. For longer spans, vines, where available, were used to make suspension bridges. Early suspension bridge consisted of twisted vines tied to tree trunks on either side of a gorge. Although methods of structural analysis were not known until the seventeenth century, bridges of three basic forms-beam, arch, and cantilever-were used very early in human history.

Petrified log bridge, Arizona (Edwards, 1959) The only building material known since the dawn of history are stones and timbermaterials available in nature. Manufactured materials-plain, reinforced, and prestressed concrete; cast iron; wrought iron; and steel-evolved gradually, mostly within the last two centuries. Along with these stronger and varied materials evolved different forms of bridges having increasingly longer spans. The history of the development of bridges is thus intertwined with the evolution of stronger materials.

1.1.2 The Pre-Christian and Roman Periods The earliest bridges were built from wood and had the form of a beam and cantilever, as evidenced from bridges in China and India. The cantilever bridges were primitive cantilever bridge over the Jhelum River in Srinagar, India is shown in the picture. Stone arch bridges are the earliest bridges built that still stand today as evidence of bridge-building skill in ancient times. The oldest extant stone arch bridge, known as the Caravan Bridge, is said to be over the Meles River at Smyrna, Turkey, and is believed to have been built about the ninth century B.C. Many stone arch bridges were built by engineers of the Roman empire, some of which are still in service after more than 2000 years [Gies, 1963; Heins and Firnage, 1979; Richardson, 1972]. Romans excelled in building stone arches since stone was abundantly available; timber was rather scarce and had to be used economically. The first bridge built in Rome---the famous Pons Sublicius Bridge built by Ancus Maricus over the Tiber River, was made from wood beams and was destroyed by floods in 693 A.D. Legend has it that the bridge was made wholly in timber so as to be less offensive to Father Tiber, the river god, than a permanent stone bridge would be. The first known stone arch bridge in Rome is the Pons Solarus across the Teverone in the seventh century B.C. and this bridge has completely disappeared and little known about its origin. One of the most magnificent examples of the powerful skill of the early Roman engineers is the Pont du Gard Aqueduct in France built about 19 B.C. This structure is part bridge and part aqueduct, built to carry water over the Gard River to the city of Nimes in southern Gaul. Other famous contemporary arches are Pons Augustus at Rimini, Italy, the Trajan Bridge over the Danube, and the Puente Alcantara and the Segovia Aqueduct in Spain.

Bridge building in China is said to have started about 2300 B.C., during the reign of the Emperor Yao. Early Chinese bridge were often of the pontoon type, made out of boats called sampans, moored a few feet apart parallel to the stream current. Considered development in stone arch bridges took place in China, although little is known about its chronology. The stone arch probably first appeared in the Far East in the center of the Han power, near Chengtu. A magnificent example was the Ten Thousand Li Bridge outside the South Gate of Chengtu; it consisted of sixty-eight arches across the wide, shallow Wei River. Interestingly, unlike the Romans, the Chinese did not use mortar; they possessed nothing compared to Roman pozzolana. Instead, they used iron keys to clamp the arches together. A resurgence of bridge building occurred in China during the Sung Dynasty, Marco Polo, who is reported to have travelled to China in the later part of the thirteen century, vividly described Chinese engineering, which some say had surpassed that of Europeans in the centuries after Romes fall. Although the Romans were great builders of arches, they were nevertheless empiricist builders, not scientist or engineers, who lacked understanding of structural mechanics of arches. However, even these empirical methods were forgotten in the Middle Ages when few or no bridges were constructed in Europe. No Roman bridges were built after the fourth century. Engineering practically vanished from Europe for several hundred years. Consequently, during the Renaissance, when the improved economy in Europe led to renewed road and bridge construction, the lost art of building arches had to be relearned and, again, the proportions of these arches were determined empirically is credited with defining arch theory in 1670 and with inventing the famous Hookes Law. Later, the arch theory was expounded upon by Thomas Young, who, 130 years later, defined the modulus of elasticity, E. Lahire (1640-1718), a French mathematician, was the first to apply statics to analyse the arch problem. It is not known exactly when the first cantilever bridge was built, but evidence suggests that it was in China from where it is said to have travelled to India. The Chinese cantilever bridge was characterized by stone piers and timber spans. In the valley of Kashmir, India, elaborate cantilever bridges were built from deodar logs piled criss-cross and were lined with shops and houses. Today, suspension bridges are built to span the longest distance. But the idea of the suspension bridge is many centuries old, although its origin is uncertain, according to the writings of famous travellers and explorers, it is evident that, in their primitive forms, suspension bridges existed in many distant parts of the world; these are considered to be the forerunners of the modern suspension bridge. Several of these primitive bridges have been found in North India, Burma, and Peru --- some were hundreds of feet long.

Steinman ad Watson (1957) classify bridges into four types: 1. The Regular Roadway Type, with the roadway resting directly on the cables;

2. The Hammock, or Tubular Type, with four cables, in pairs of two each, all woven together into a web.

3. The Basket, or Transporter, bridge on one cable.

4. The Suspended Roadway, the forerunner of the modern suspension type

1.1.3 The Renaissance and Post-Renaissance Periods The Renaissance period, from the 4th through the 16th centuries, is known as the age of reason and of the birth of modern science. Several renowned scientists lived during this period, including such geniuses as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Copernicus (14731543), and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Leonardo da Vinci developed new ideas in the realms of mechanics and military bridges, and he invented many statement of lever, to introduce the concept of the moment of a force. He also virtually wrote the principle that is known as Newtons third law of motion. It was Galileo, considered to be the founder of the science of structural mechanics, who explained scientific theories that changed the methods of construction. It was his work Two New Sciences (1638), the first book ever written on the theory of structural mechanics, that revolutionized structural engineering and marked the beginning of the science of strength of materials. The post-renaissance period was also an important period in the history of bridge building; for during this period lived the engineer-builder Andrea Palladio (1518-1580) and scientist such as Robert Hooke (1635-1703) and Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Other great mathematicians and scientists, such as James Bernoulli (1654-1705), his brother Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748), Johanns son Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), and Daniels friend and colleague Leonardo Euler (1707-1783) also lived during this period. The most significant contribution of the Renaissance to construction technology was the development of the truss as a structural principle. The truss filled the need to span longer lengths that could not be spanned with timbers, which were available in the lengths of only 50 ft or so. With trusses, shorter lengths could be used to build longer bridges. The first to professionally build bridges in the United States, and the pioneers of the day, were Timothy Palmer (1751-1821) of the Newburyport, Massachusettes, Louis Wernwag (1770-1843), a German immigrant, and Theodore Burr (1771-1822) of Torrington, Connecticut. They built some of the most famous bridges of the times. Wernwag built the 340-foot-span arch Colossus Bridge over the Schuylkill River at Fairmount, Pennsylvania. Palmer built the Permanent Bridge at Philadelphia over the Schuylkill, a three-span (150, 185, and 150 ft) wood trussed structure. Burr, the most famous of the three pioneers, completed in 1815 a

360-ft arch truss bridge over the Susquehanna River at McCalls Ferry, Pennsylvania. Each of these builders left an indelible mark on the American landscape in the form of timber bridges. Most of these structures were indeterminate, combining arch and truss system. The purpose of the arch was to add rigidity to the truss, a system developed by Burr that came to be known as the , it became for a time the most popular of all timber-bridge forms, repeated hundreds of times, especially throughout the north-eastern United States. 1.1.4 Industrial Revolution Heralded by the invention of the steam engine, the industrial revolution brought about a revolutionary change of this practice of bridge building in the nineteeth century. Iron was not a new discovery of this period --- it had been known ever since the period of the pyramids, and the Persian kings are said to have obtained iron from India as early as 1500 B.C. But iron had not been developed into a structural material until now because people lacked the technology to produce it in sufficient bulk. With developed iron came many changes. Most importantly, new machines were made that aided in bridge building, and a new mode of transportation evolved---the railroad with the locomotive. The railroad demanded a revolution in bridge building; longer and stronger bridges were needed. With the advent of iron as a structural material, the history of highway and railroad bridges became intertwined. The worlds first cast-iron bridge was built in 1777-1779 by Darbys grandson, Abraham Darby III (1750-1791), in Coalbrookdale, England, over Severn River. It was designed by the young Darby himself. The first iron arch in the United States was built in 1836, spanning 80 ft. over Dunlaps Creek at Brownsville, Pennsylvania. It was built by Captain Richard Dalefield (17981873) of the U.S. Engineer Corps to replace one of James Finleys suspension bridges, which had collapsed in 1820 under a combined load of heavy snow and a large road wagon. Two earlier attempts to build cast-iron bridges had failed. The first attempt was made in 1755 by a French ironmaster in Lyons. The second attempt was made by Thomas Paine, who wanted to build a single span, 400 ft iron arch over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. The second successful iron bridge, an arch spanning 130 ft, was built only three miles upstream

of the first iron bridge, Coalbrookdale by Thomas Telford (1757-1834), who was later came to be known as the father of suspension bridges. The first all-metal trusses were built in the U.S. in 1840. The first all-iron bridge, designed and patented by Earl Trumbull, is the Erie Canal Bridge at Frankford, New York. The second all-iron bridge built in the U.S. was a 72-ft bowstring truss bridge over Erie Canal at Utica, New York, built by Squire Whipple in the same year. In addition to the use of iron as a new material for bridge building, advances were also made in the mechanics of bridge engineering. Soon the limitations of cast iron---strong in compression and weak in tension----were recognized. It was also known that when iron was remelted and cooled in the mould, it became hard and brittle cast iron. When most of the impurities were removed in the liquid state, it gained considerably in tensile strength and became wrought iron. Upon further remelting and introducing some of the removed carbon, a much stronger metal---steel----resulted. This latter part of the process was very difficult, and consequently, steel was rare and costly. 1.1.5 Modern Period During the mid-nineteenth century, with the widespread growth of the railroads in the United, the failure of cast-iron bridges occurred at an alarming rate. Then the test revealed the poor tensile strength of cast iron. As a result, after 1850, the use of cast iron was abandoned in favor of wrought iron. By the end of nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron in bridges was in turn replaced by steel. It was James Eads, a businessman in St, Louis, who first used steel for bridge construction--in spite of its unproven performance, lack of research data, and uncertainty about its availability in sufficient bulk. Eads himself was not an engineer and had never before built a bridge. But as one of the great calculated risks of engineering history, he masterminded and built the triple-arch double decked Eads Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis. Completed in 1874, the Eads Bridge is still in service, carrying two railroad tracks on the lower deck and highway traffic on the upper deck. One of the greatest developments in the construction industry in the nineteenth century is the Pneumatic caissons which are used for building underwater foundations. Beginning from the mid-nineteenth century, some of the worlds greatest bridges are built: cantilever bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges, and cable-stayed bridges. The development and increasing use of railroads as the main transportation mode led to some new service performance problems. It was the discovery of the phenomenon of

fatigue of metals caused by a repeated cycle of stress. This phenomenon was first described in 1839 by Poncelet in his book industrial Mechanics. He stated that, under the action of alternating tension and compression, the most perfect spring may fail in fatigue. It was also discussed by W. J. M. Rankine (1820-1872), who perhaps presented the first English paper in this field. Rankines most important contribution to the theory of structures was his investigation On the Stability of Loose Earth, in which he offers a method of designing retaining walls. His theories of earth pressure now form the fundamental principles for the design of all earth retaining structures. Theoretical treatment of moving loads was another important contribution engineers in the latter part of the nineteenth century as well as the concept of influence lines which was introduce by E. Winkler in 1867. About the turn of the twentieth century, the cantilever form of construction, though not quite aesthetic, was the only possible form of construction for long span railway bridgesit gave the required stiffness to limit deflections. Recent developments, however, have made it possible to use suspension bridges to carry railroad traffic. While the cast-iron, wrought-iron and steel bridges were being built during the nineteenth century, another construction material was being developed in both England and the United States. The art of producing lime mortar, as is mentioned in Sec. 1.1.2. Natural hydraulic cement, so called because it sets, or hardens, under water, was rediscovered in England in 1796. During the nineteenth century, this new material was used extensively for bridges. In 1930, when Eugene Freyssinet of France began using high-strength wire, that another new concept in building---prestressed concrete---evolved. Prestressed concrete, although it was used widely for bridge contruction in Europe during the first half of the twentieth century, had a rather slow start in the United States. Types of Bridges Bridges are always classified in terms of the bridges superstructure, and superstructures can be classified according to the following characteristics: A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. Material of construction Span lengths Structural form Span types Load path characteristics Usage Position (for movable bridges) Deck type (for combination and double-deck bridges

A. Classification by materials 1. Steel bridges 2. Concrete bridges 3. Timber bridges 4. Aluminum bridges 5. Advaced composite materials 6. Other materials (fiberglass, plastic, paper, and inflatable fabric) B. Classification by Span Lengths 1. Short-span bridges 20 to 125 ft 2. Medium-span bridges 125 to 400 ft 3. Long-span bridges over 400 ft C. Classification by Structural Form 1. Slab-stringer bridges 2. Orthotropic bridges 3. Truss bridges 4. Rigid frame bridges 5. Arch bridges 6. Cantilever bridges 7. Cable-stayed bridges 8. Suspension bridge D. Classification by Span Types 1. Simple 2. Continous E. Classification by Load Path Characteristics 1. One dimensional system 2. Two dimensional system 3. Three dimensional system F. Utility Bridges 1. Airport runway bridges 2. Pipeline bridges 3. Conveyor bridges G. Classification by Position-Movable Bridges 1. Bascule bridge 2. Lift bridge 3. Swing bridge H. Combination and Double-Deck Bridges Most common bridges built to carry highway or railroad traffic have only one deck. Some bridges, however, have double decks, one above the other, such as the Fort Pitt and

Fort Duquesne Bridge in Pittsburg and the Shermon Minton Bridge in Louisville, Kentucky, all of which are steel arch bridges that carry highway traffic. Bridges have also been built to carry combinations of both highway and railroad traffic. A famous example of such a bridge is the Eads Bridge in St. Louis. Another example of such a bridge is the Burdekin Pratt truss spans, with three 60-ft and three 45-ft approach spans. Japans Akashi-Kaiko Bridge, the worlds longest suspension bridge, is also a doubledeck bridge, carrying both highway and railroad traffic. Design Methods A. Design methods based on elastic behaviour 1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 2. Service Load Design B. Design methods based on inelastic behaviour 1. Plastic Design 2. Strength Design 3. Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) and the limit states design C. Factor of Safety in Design 1. Inherent variability or randomness that may exist in the characteristics of the structure itself (e.g., material properties, members sizes, or geometry) or in the force and boundary conditions to which the structure is exposed (e.g., loads or support movements) 2. Estimation errors that raise from the incompleteness of the data and our inability to accurately estimate parameters of the probability models selected to described the inherent variabilities. 3. Model imperfection errors arising from the use of idealized mathematics models to described complex phenomena. These errors involve both poor understanding, or ignorance, of the phenomenon itself and the use of simplified models. 4. Human error arising out of human-involved processes, such as design, construction, and the operation phase of the structure.