H P 2011 02 PDF

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Heat Recovery Steam Generators | Waste Heat Boilers | Fired Packaged Watertube Boilers | Specialty Boilers
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FEBRUARY 2011
HPIMPACT SPECIALREPORT TECHNOLOGY
CLEAN FUELS
New methods focus on
bottom-of-the-barrel
and clean fuels
Energy stocks offer
positive returns
Advances in cellulosic
biofuel production
Updates on flare
systems and design
Consider new gas
analysis techniques
XX Dewitt petrochemical-
conference out look
XX Six strategic business
technologies to watch
XX Australia making
crucial GTL decisions
XX IEA assesses energy poli-
cies of U.S.
XX Creating more value in
capital projects
HPIMPACT
Cutline for fig.
00
cutline for fig
00
cutline for fig
00
FEBRUARY 2011 VOL. 90 NO. 2
SPECIAL REPORT: CLEAN FUELS

33
HPI Viewpoint: Consumer protection is a key issue for E15
NPRA wants to be sure that adding greater amounts of ethanol to gasoline
is safe and will not cause engine damage
C. T. Drevna
37
Slurry-phase hydrocrackingpossible solution
to refining margins
Opportunity crudes require more hydrogen addition to upgrade
orphan product streams into higher-value clean products
M. Motaghi, B. Ulrich and A. Subramanian
45
Convert bottom-of-the-barrel into diesel and light olefins
Integrating residue hydrocracking operations with advanced fluid catalytic cracking
optimizes upgrading of heavy crude oils
M. Rama Rao, D. Soni, G. M. Sieli and D. Bhattacharyya
51
What are the future fungible transportation fuels?
Alternatives hold promises to decrease dependence on crude oil,
but they also uncover other challenges in distribution and engine use
M. Stockle

57
How to fabricate reactors for severe service
Many critical factors are involved in the design and welding of hydrocracking reactors
D. Quintiliani, G. Fossataro and M. De Colellis

63
Designing atmospheric crude distillation for bitumen service
Oil sands add complexity to separation units and require a new approach
M. Grande and M. Gutscher

71
Minimize carbon footprint from Claus tail-gas units
Reevaluate emissions efficiencies on sulfur-removal operations
M. P. Heisel and M. Rameshni
Cover Neste Oil started up the worlds
largest and most advanced renewable
diesel plant in Singapore in November
2010. The plant was completed
on-schedule and on budget, and it is
located at the industrial area of Tuas,
in the southwestern part of Singapore.
This facility has a production capacity
of 800,000 tons based on the Nestes
NExBTL renewable diesel process;
product is targeted for markets in
Europe and North America. Nest Oil is
constructing a similar sized renewable
NExBTL unit in Rotterdam with
start-up in the first half of 2011. Photo
courtesy of Neste Oil.
HPIMPACT
13 Energy stocks
outperformed market
indices in 2010
15 Team overcomes
obstacles to cellulosic
biofuel production
COLUMNS
9 HPIN RELIABILITY
Alignment choices
have consequences
11 HPINTEGRATION
STRATEGIES
Data historians
provide effective
decision support in
near real time
94 HPIN CONTROL
Inferential control
model input selection
GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS

79
Avoid these risks concerning combustion control
in fired heaters
Tuneable diode laser analyzers offer diagnostic benefits
R. Jenkins
PLANT SAFETY

85
Circumvent design issues when adding
new hydrotreating units
Follow these guidelines for substantial capital cost savings with existing flare systems
M. H. Marchetti
DEPARTMENTS
7 HPIN BRIEF 19 HPINNOVATIONS 25 HPIN CONSTRUCTION
31 HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
90 HPI MARKETPLACE 93 ADVERTISER INDEX
4

EDITORIAL
Editor Stephany Romanow
Process Editor Tricia Crossey
Reliability/Equipment Editor Heinz P. Bloch
News Editor Billy Thinnes
Associate Editor Helen Meche
European Editor Tim Lloyd Wright
Contributing Editor Loraine A. Huchler
Contributing Editor William M. Goble
Contributing Editor Y. Zak Friedman
Contributing Editor ARC Advisory Group
(various)
MAGAZINE PRODUCTION
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Manager Editorial Production Angela Bathe
Artist/Illustrator David Weeks
ManagerAdvertising Production
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING FEBRUARY 2011

I

7

The US does not have the infra-
structure to meet the federal man-
date for renewable fuel use with
ethanol but could meet the standard
with significant increases in cellulosic
and next-generation biofuels, accord-
ing to a Purdue University study.
The reports authors used US
Department of Energy (DOE) and
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) data to determine that the US
is at the blending wall, the satura-
tion point for ethanol use. Without
new technology or a significant
increase in infrastructure, the study
predicts that the country will not be
able to consume more ethanol than is
being currently produced.
The US federal renewable fuel
standard requires an increase of
renewable fuel production to 36 bil-
lion gallons per year by 2022. About
13 billion gallons of renewable fuel
was required for 2010, the same
amount the report predicts is the
threshold for US consumption.
The study contends that there sim-
ply are not enough flex-fuel vehicles,
which use an 85% ethanol blend,
or E85 stations to distribute more
biofuels. According to EPA estimates,
flex-fuel vehicles make up 7.3 million
of the 240 million vehicles on the
nations roads. Of those, about 3 mil-
lion of flex-fuel vehicle owners arent
even aware they can use E85 fuel.
There are only about 2,000 E85
fuel pumps in the US, and it took
more than 20 years to install them.
In order for the US infrastructure
to match the numbers in the fed-
eral mandate, the studys authors say
2,000 pumps a year would need to
be installed through the year 2022.
They also note that E85 needs to be
substantially cheaper than gasoline
to entice consumers to use it, because
E85 gets lower mileage.
The report says that advances in
the production of thermo-chemical
biofuels, which are created by using
heat to chemically alter biomass and
create fuels, would be necessary to
meet the renewable fuel standard. HP
BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
HPIN BRIEF
Marathon Oil Corp. is moving forward with plans to spin
off Marathons downstream business, creating two independent energy companies.
Marathon Petroleum Corp. (MPC), to be headquartered in Findlay, Ohio, is expected to
be the fifth largest US refiner with a downstream portfolio of strategically aligned assets
concentrated mainly in the Midwest, Gulf Coast and Southeast regions of the US. The
spin-off is expected to be tax-free and to be effective June 30, 2011. Marathon Oil Corp.
will be a global upstream company with a portfolio of assets delivering defined growth
leveraged to crude oil production and with exploration upside. It will continue to be
based in Houston, Texas.
PetroChina International is forming a partnership with INEOS for
new trading and refining joint ventures related to refining operations in Grangemouth,
Scotland, and Lavra, France. All companies will work toward the formation of the pro-
posed joint ventures by the end of June 2011. Underlying the international importance
of PetroChinas and INEOS collaboration, the official signing ceremony for the agree-
ments was witnessed by Nick Clegg, the British deputy prime minister, and Li Ke Qiang,
the Chinese vice premier. The deal will create a strategic partnership between the two
companies, and INEOS believes it will improve the long-term sustainability of its refiner-
ies, enhance security of supply for customers, and secure jobs in both the UK and France.
Axens North America has signed an agreement with Criterion
Catalysts and Technology and Shell that allows for the purchase of Criterions catalytic
reforming catalyst business. The specifics of the deal allow Axens to obtain Criterions
Willow Island, West Virginia, manufacturing plant for reforming catalyst and appropri-
ate intellectual property rights to pursue such business.
KBR and SK Innovation started up an advanced catalytic olefins
(ACO) demo plant in Ulsan, South Korea. Operations to date have met the companies
expectations for olefins production, particularly propylene, with improved economics
relative to steam cracking due to the technologys higher total olefins yields and increased
propylene/ethylene ratios approaching 1.0. The startup marks the first commercial dem-
onstration of the ACO process. The demonstration unit achieved a design feed rate as
scheduled in late October 2010. The ACO process provides an alternative to naphtha
steam crackers, and, according to KBR, not only does it offer higher olefins production,
the process also produces a lower emissions footprint than a conventional cracker.
Iraqs South Oil Co. has awarded Emerson Process Management
a contract to provide crude-oil metering systems and related technologies for the new
Al-Basra oil terminal now under construction in the Persian Gulf. The new terminal,
which includes both onshore and offshore facilities, will boost Iraqs oil-export capacity
by 2.7 million bpd. The added capacity will give Iraq increased access to global markets
as it expands production from its southern oil fields. Emersons metering systems will
measure the amount of oil as custody is transferred from producers to shippers through
the Al-Basra terminal. The systems combine ultrasonic measurement technology with
diagnostic software that can detect potential problems before they affect accuracy.
Gushan Environmental Energy, a producer of biodiesel in China,
is in the process of assessing the effect of a recently issued notice on consumption tax
from the Chinese Ministry of Finance and the Chinese State Administration of Taxation.
The notice regarding the exemption from consumption tax on pure biodiesel made from
waste animal fats or vegetable oils was issued on December 24, 2010, and became effec-
tive immediately. It clarifies that pure biodiesel made from waste animal fats or vegetable
oils is exempted from consumption tax in China, and that such exemption will be imple-
mented retroactive to January 1, 2009. HP
Ethanol
infrastructure
lacking
I have someone retiring after 33 years on the job.
I have someone taking 33 years of experience with him.
And now someone with just
3 years has to do that job.
The Emerson logo is a trademark and a service mark of Emerson Electric Co. 2011 Emerson Electric Co.
With new Human Centered Design technologies from Emerson, its like the experience
never left. Using our deep insights into how your people perform their roles and tasks, Emerson
is designing all of our new products based on the science of Human Centered Design. This lets us
embed the same experience and understanding thats walking through your plant into our control
and monitoring technologies making them the easiest and most intuitive to use. Tasks are
accomplished in fewer steps, and with greater confidence, even when relying on less expertise
and specialization. Its the certainty that jobs are done right, no matter whos doing them. Find the
experience youve been missing at EmersonProcess.com/Experience
HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
HPIN RELIABILITY
HB@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

I

9
Optimists tell us about steady industry trends toward reli-
ability-imparting procedures and work processes, while realists
continually make us aware of pressures to reduce expenditures.
As outside observers, we affirm that striving to reduce monetary
outlay is quite commendable, but only as long as these aims dont
run counter to the professed longer-term reliability improvement
objectives. Conflicting issues are often alluded to in queries that
we receive from readers. For instance, we were asked if we knew
of literature that quantifies the merits of precision alignment for
pumps, and if its really appropriate to shun old-style methods.
Modern vs. old school. With modern alignment methods
taking no more time than tinkering with old-style methods, com-
mon sense should point toward using precise methods. Inad-
equate alignment still causes major calamities (Fig. 1); whereas,
the results of sound alignment approaches typically show up as
improved mean time between repairs (MTBR) and a reduction
in maintenance outlay. The November 2006 HPIn Reliability
column shed additional light on this topic.
A likely consensus among reasonable people holds that preci-
sion alignment typically lowers vibration to half of the value of
conventional alignment. Fig. 2 represents an estimate of bear-
ing operating life extension due to reduced vibration velocity for
typical process pumps. Fig. 3 gives an indication of how a major
bearing manufacturer rates the effects of misaligned bearings.
Most rolling element bearings fit somewhere between the two
curve boundaries and at tangents below 0.001; bearing life is
thought to exceed a relative rating of 1.
2
On average, there is then reason to believe that precision align-
ment alone would result in a pump MTBR multiplier of somewhere
between 1.4 and 1.7. The problem is that best-of-class performers
inevitably implement additional upgrades and they will seldom con-
fine their work to just better alignment. That is why Ref. 1 puts the
pump MTBR of a very marginal performer at 1.6 years, while best
performers often get 9 years or more between pump failures. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P. and A. Budris, Pump Users Handbook: Life Extension, Third
Edition, 2010, Fairmont Press, Lilburn, GA 30047; (ISBN 0-88173-627-9).
2
Leibensperger, R. L.; Look beyond catalog ratings, Machine Design,
April 3, 1975.
Alignment choices have consequences
The author is Hydrocarbon Processings Reliability/Equipment Editor. A
practicing consulting engineer with almost 50 years of applicable experience, he
advises process plants worldwide on failure analysis, reliability improvement and
maintenance. He has authored or co-authored 18 textbooks and close to 500
papers or articles dealing with related subjects.
Process pump failure that started with misalignment, high
vibration and bearing distress. Source: Murray & Garig Tool
Works, Baytown, Texas.
FIG. 1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Vibration, ips
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.2
0.4
0.6
L
i
f
e
,

o
f

L
1
0
a

%
0.8
1.0
1.2
Bearing housing vibration velocity vs. bearing life for
process pumps.
1
FIG. 2
0.000
0.00
0.50
0.00
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
0.001 0.002 0.003
Tangent of misalignment angle
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

b
e
a
r
i
n
g

l
i
f
e
0.004 0.005 0.006
How tangent of misalignment angle affects bearing life. FIG. 3
of tomorrow
today
Growing
the green fuels
Our partnership is designed to help reners realize
the potential of processing biomass into green fuels.
Our green is growing.
Visit us on the web at www.fwc.com/green and www.petroalgae.com
ALLEN AVERY, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
HPINTEGRATION STRATEGIES
AAvery@Arcweb.com

I

11
Plant data historians are moving beyond their traditional role
as a tool for collecting and archiving data to better understand
past plant performance, to becoming a powerful tool that can
be used to improve real-time operations. With increased data
throughput and higher data resolutions, historians have also
become a foundation for plant asset management initiatives,
thanks to new visibility and trending tools that can also be used
to support energy management programs. Todays historians also
support techniques, such as complex event processing, which can
analyze multiple streams of plant data in real time to identify and
diagnose emerging problems before they disrupt the production
process in the plant, or negatively affect smart grids or other
distributed assets.
Plant historians get enhanced functionality. Recent
product advances increase historian data throughput, solution
scalability, compatibility and connectivity with plant systems
and third-party solutions. They provide powerful visualization
and analytical tools. These allow users to access and leverage
huge volumes of plant data in near real time. Historians can
collect and display real-time data and events, giving users a
more comprehensive view of what is happening in a plant or
distributed assets. Powerful processing capabilities, coupled with
advanced software algorithms, have changed how historians are
used. Historians are transitioning from their traditional role, as
plant record-keepers and planners, to tools that can have a posi-
tive impact on plant operations in real time.
With recent advances in computing technology, includ-
ing 64-bit processing architectures, historians can collect and
store large amounts of plant and process information. Many
can archive up to several exabytes of data. Many can simul-
taneously store and retrieve plant data, giving users an up-to-
the-minute view of plant performance. Todays historians can
handle hundreds of thousands of discrete events per second, so
real-time plant data is available almost immediately for analysis.
Modern computing power has enhanced historians to such a
degree that, rather than just being used to look back on plant
performance, they can be used to predict and positively impact
future performance.
The use of de facto standards and environments, such as OPC
and Microsoft .NET, allows easier interfacing between systems
and different historians. This helps users leverage existing his-
torian data, even if they choose a new solution from a different
vendor. OPC compatibility also enables easy access to, and use
of, data from HMI, DCS, CMMS and other plant-level appli-
cations. Since suppliers are also beginning to offer OPC-UA
compliant products, historian data is now also readily available to
applications running on non-Microsoft platforms. In addition to
plant-level equipment, historians also interface well with EAM,
ERP and advanced optimization applications.
Historian suppliers have worked to offer improved data
access and visibility tools with their solutions. Many offer web-
based, thin-client access to historians, and most offer access to
historian data via mobile devices. Powerful trending and graph-
ics tools allow users to generate custom reports and charts to
visualize plant data. Suppliers have also emphasized ease of use
and configuration in their product development. Users can easily
create custom interfaces and role-based dashboards to view and
manipulate historian data.
Due to their high data capture rates, todays historians can
act as a foundation for plant asset management programs.
The ability to store, access and analyze plant data in near real
time can help users identify any anomalies or troubling perfor-
mance trends that could indicate a problem with production
equipment. Historical data can be used to develop models or
profiles that help users determine how a given asset should
behave under normal conditions, and to set alarms or formulate
maintenance strategies to balance production needs with asset
viability, remotely and in real time. We expect historians to
play a role in energy-management initiatives as well, by help-
ing to develop energy-consumption models that can be used
to identify under-performing and inefficient plant equipment,
or to make real-time adjustments to production to minimize
energy costs.
Coming soon: Complex event processing. Though in
its infancy, complex-event processing is another technology that
can harness the capabilities of plant historians. Historians can be
used to complement and augment complex event processing, a
technology that can analyze multiple incoming streams of data
in near real time. When viewed individually, these streams might
mean little. But when viewed simultaneously and in context,
they could help identify process or plant equipment problems
using advanced data filtering and algorithms.
ARC analysts are following recent trends in data historians
closely. These include the evolution of many plant historians
from large-capacity historical data repositories, to real-time
decision-support and business intelligence platforms, andulti-
matelyto platforms that enable real-time operations centers
functionality for a single plant or even a set of plants. HP read-
ers should stay tuned to this column, or visit www.arcweb.com
for details on future reports on this important topic. HP
Allen Avery is an analyst at ARC Advisory Group. His focus areas include field
systems (flow, level, pressure, temperature and gas detection) and wireless networks.
In addition, he covers plant asset management, energy management issues, and
SCADA systems. He recently completed an extensive end-user study on energy
management practices, and is the author of the report SCADA Systems Oil & Gas
Industry Worldwide Outlook.
Data historians provide effective decision support
in near real time
SD-CHEMIE
patricia.hesse@sud-chemie.com
www.dening-the-future.com
Industry executives, technical experts and analysts will be discussing the latest innovations and breakthroughs in catalysis, process
engineering, battery materials and water treatment technologies applied in these elds at the Dening the Future V Conference.
Through open exchange and in-depth discussion, it is our goal to offer valuable insight into opportunities and challenges the industries
are facing, and to support the formulation of strategies that can be developed to address them. This conference will be comprised of
parallel sessions on:
Rening Industries
Chemical Industries
Petrochemical Industries & Polyolen Plants
Coal-To-Chemicals (Methanol & Derivatives)
Environmental Technologies
Battery Materials
Water Treatment Technologies
Please mark your calendar and join us in Beijing!
Sd-Chemie Dening the Future V Conference
May 23-25, 2011 Beijing, China

I

13
HPIMPACT
Energy stocks
outperformed market
indices in 2010
Despite a poor start, 2010 finished as
a wonderful year for energy investors,
with more than 65% of oil and gas stocks
delivering positive returns last year, accord-
ing to a report from IHS Herold. Driven by
economic growth, crude prices, which hit
bottom in late May 2010 at around $65
per barrel, rose steadily and consistently
through the second half of the year, and
took oil company shares with them.
The median gain for the 503 stocks cov-
ered in the report was 21%, which, while
it did not match the record-setting 59%
gain posted in the 2009 IHS report, did
outperform the market indices of nearly
all Organization for Economic Coopera-
tion and Development (OECD) countries.
Total capitalization jumped by more than
$300 billion, further reducing the severe
losses the sector incurred in 2008 the report
said, but did not extinguish them.
Sometime in the first quarter of 2009,
equity markets began to move upward in
response to the economic growth that was
becoming apparent in OECD countries,
said Robert Gillon, senior vice president
and co-director of energy equity research
at IHS. It seemed as though every statistic
that confirmed expansion was under way
was reflected in a rise in the price of crude,
which boded well for oil stocks. That pat-
tern continued throughout the year, with
oil prices and oil shares at a recovery high
at the closing bell of 2010. In particular,
North American oil stocks delivered the
most returns to their investors.
Group returns. After finishing second-
to-last as a peer group in 2009, US royalty
trusts earned redemption by taking top
honors in 2010 as the best-performing
peer group reviewed, posting a gain of more
than 44%. MV Oil Trust led the group by
posting a return of 111%.
Companies in the E&P limited income
partnerships group followed closely with
gains of nearly 43%. According to the IHS
report, these survey-leading returns were
in response to monetary stimuli by numer-
ous central banks, where open-market
interest rates fell to the lowest levels seen
in decades, which forced yield-conscious
investors to take on more risk in order to
maintain their desired level of income.
The vast amount of liquidity being
injected into the economic system, par-
ticularly in the US, has resulted in a strong
correlation between equity prices and oil
prices, Mr. Gillon said. By contrast,
for many years prior to 2009, there was
a reverse relationship, with higher crude
prices perceived to cause a reduction in dis-
posable income, lower consumer spending,
and declining domestic product and stock
prices. To our mind, this is the normal state
of affairs, but to predict we will be back to
normal in short order would be unwise.
As a group, master limited partnerships
(mostly pipeline and storage companies)
enjoyed a hearty gain of nearly 35%, while
the peer group of integrated oil stocks with
US downstream returned 22%, which was
marginally above the survey average. Cana-
dian integrated oil stocks and integrated oil
stocks without US downstream operations
gained less than half that amount, at 10%
and 9%, respectively. Returns from the lat-
ter group, the report said, were dragged
down by the generally poor performance
of European markets. On the other hand,
shares in the refining and marketing cat-
egory offered a healthy median gain of 38%
and did well globally as demand for distil-
lates rose with increasing economic activity.
Among the largest integrated and diver-
sified oils group, top-ranked Ecopetrols
84% gain reflected rapidly growing oil pro-
duction, and it also got an updraft from
the soaring Bogot market. Sunoco Inc.
and Valero Energy, last years bottom two
performers in this grouping, moved into
the top 10 due to a dramatic turnaround in
refining margins. BHP Billiton is the only
member of the 2009 crop to repeat in the
top 10 this year.
Natural gas. While oil stocks carried the
sector in 2010, continued weakness in the
North American natural gas market did not
prevent the large producers from generating
solid shareholder returns, with the median
performance of the group nearly matching
that of the entire survey. However, a high
concentration of North American natural
gas in the production mix detracted from
returns, since US natural gas spot prices,
which began the year at what now seems
like the lofty price of $6/MMBtu, ended the
year at a nine-year low for the date, which
was about 30% below where they began.
Natural gas inventories were well
above average, and US domestic produc-
tion showed no signs of topping out, Mr.
Gillon said. Fortunately for everyone but
the Europeans, it has been ferociously cold
in Europe, so gas is being shipped to the
higher-priced markets. The world is well
supplied with gas, and the modest upward
slope to the current futures curve is testi-
mony to the glut in supply.
Alternative energy. Stocks in the alter-
native energy group held the basement
position as worst in class, posting losses of
more than 24% after gaining 26% in 2009.
Were not sure what to say about alter-
native energy, except perhaps a requiem. In
the five years we have shown this segment in
the survey, it has been the worst performing
group twice, second worst twice, and soared
to fourth from the bottom on one happy
occasion, Mr. Gillon said. They suffer
when natural gas prices go down, when gov-
ernment subsidies are cut, when the wind
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The vast amount of liquidity being injected into the
economic system, particularly in the US, has resulted in a
strong correlation between equity prices and oil prices,
Mr. Gillon said. By contrast, for many years prior to 2009,
there was a reverse relationship, with higher crude prices
perceived to cause a reduction in disposable income
and lower consumer spending.
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HPIMPACT

15
doesnt blow, when it blows too much, and
when the sun doesnt shine. There may be
other problems, as well, which we will prob-
ably find out about in 2011.
Team overcomes
obstacles to cellulosic
biofuel production
A newly engineered yeast strain can
simultaneously consume two types of sugar
from plants to produce ethanol, researchers
report. The sugars are glucose, a six-carbon
sugar that is relatively easy to ferment; and
xylose, a five-carbon sugar that has been
much more difficult to utilize in ethanol
production. The new strain, made by com-
bining, optimizing and adding to earlier
advances, reduces or eliminates several
major inefficiencies associated with cur-
rent biofuel production methods.
The findings, from a collaborative led
by researchers at the University of Illinois,
the Lawrence Berkeley National Labora-
tory, the University of California and BP,
are described in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences. The Energy
Biosciences Institute, a BP-funded initia-
tive, supported the research.
Yeast strains. Yeasts feed on sugar and
produce various waste products, some of
which are useful to humans. One type of
yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been
used for centuries in baking and brewing
because it efficiently ferments sugars and,
in the process, produces ethanol and carbon
dioxide. The biofuel industry uses this yeast
to convert plant sugars to bioethanol. And
while S. cerevisiae is very good at utilizing
glucose, a building block of cellulose and
the primary sugar in plants, it cannot use
xylose, a secondarybut significantcom-
ponent of the lignocellulose that makes up
plant stems and leaves. Most yeast strains
that are engineered to metabolize xylose do
so very slowly.
Xylose is a wood sugar, a five-carbon
sugar that is very abundant in lignocellu-
losic biomass but not in our food, said
Yong-Su Jin, a professor of food science and
human nutrition at Illinois and a principal
investigator on the study. Most yeast can-
not ferment xylose.
A big part of the problem with yeasts
altered to take up xylose is that they will
suck up all the glucose in a mixture before
they will touch the xylose, Dr. Jin said. A
glucose transporter on the surface of the
yeast prefers to bind to glucose.
Its like giving meat and broccoli to my
kids, he said. They usually eat the meat
first and the broccoli later.
The yeasts extremely slow metabolism
of xylose also adds significantly to the cost
of biofuels production.
Dr. Jin and his colleagues wanted to
induce the yeast to quickly and efficiently
consume both types of sugar at once, a pro-
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Maintaining an optimum level in the catalyst bed
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t Measures through vessel walls and obstructions
t Multiple density gauges measure across the
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MODERNIZING
Continuous Density
Illinois University food science
and human nutrition professor
Yong-Su Jin, center, and his
colleagues engineered a yeast
that outperforms the industry
standard.
FIG. 1
HPIMPACT
16

cess called co-fermentation. The research
effort involved researchers from Illinois, the
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
the University of California at Berkeley,
Seoul National University and BP.
Adjustments. In a painstaking process
of adjustments to the original yeast, Dr. Jin
and his colleagues converted it to one that
will consume both types of sugar faster and
more efficiently than any strain currently in
use in the biofuel industry. In fact, the new
yeast strain simultaneously converts cel-
lobiose (a precursor of glucose) and xylose
to ethanol just as quickly as it can ferment
either sugar alone.
If you do the fermentation by using
only cellobiose or xylose, it takes 48
hours, said post-doctoral researcher and
lead author Suk-Jin Ha. But if you do the
co-fermentation with the cellobiose and
xylose, double the amount of sugar is con-
sumed in the same amount of time and
produces more than double the amount
of ethanol. Its a huge synergistic effect of
co-fermentation.
The new yeast strain is at least 20%
more efficient at converting xylose to etha-
nol than other strains, making it the best
xylose-fermenting strain reported in any
study, Dr. Jin said.
Critical changes. The team achieved
these outcomes by making several critical
changes to the organism. First, they gave
the yeast a cellobiose transporter. Cellobi-
ose, a part of plant cell walls, consists of two
glucose sugars linked together. Cellobiose is
traditionally converted to glucose outside
the yeast cell before entering the cell through
glucose transporters for conversion to etha-
nol. Having a cellobiose transporter means
that the engineered yeast can bring cellobiose
directly into the cell. Only after the cellobi-
ose is inside the cell is it converted to glucose.
This approach eliminates the costly step
of adding a cellobiose-degrading enzyme to
the lignocellulose mixture before the yeast
consumes it.
It has the added advantage of circum-
venting the yeasts own preference for glu-
cose. Because the glucose can now sneak
into the yeast in the form of cellobiose, the
glucose transporters can focus on drawing
xylose into the cell instead.
Bottleneck solutions. The team then
tackled the problems associated with xylose
metabolism. The researchers inserted three
genes into S. cerevisiae from a xylose-con-
suming yeast, Picchia stipitis. The team
identified the bottleneck in this metabolic
pathway. By adjusting the relative produc-
tion of these enzymes, the researchers elimi-
nated the bottleneck and boosted the speed
of xylose metabolism in the new strain.
They also engineered an artificial iso-
enzyme that balanced the proportion of
two important co-factors so that the accu-
mulation of xylitol, a byproduct in the
xylose assimilitary pathway, could be mini-
mized. Finally, the team used evolutionary
engineering to optimize the new strains
ability to utilize xylose. The cost benefits
of this advance in co-fermentation are very
significant, Dr. Jin said.
We dont have to do two separate fer-
mentations, he said. We can do it all in
one pot. And the yield is even higher than
the industry standard. We are pretty sure
that this research can be commercialized
very soon. HP
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Background
The EPAs New Source Performance Standards (40 C.F.R.
60.100-1-0, subpart Ja) regulates renery particulate emissions,
including the discharge of catalyst nes from the FCCU ue gas
scrubber stack.
Because reners have traditionally correlated particulate matter
(PM) emissions with FCCU cokeburn, high ue gas stack PM can
result in reducing severity or throughput in the FCCU at a potentially
huge economic cost. The proper selection of mass transfer internals
in the scrubber can contribute to its performance in controlling PM
emissions, and can improve the renerys bottom line.
A unit turnaround is a prime opportunity for the rener to address
such issues as de-entrainment section fouling, chimney tray plug-
ging, and overall poor performance contributing to stack PM.
Removing Solids with a Flue Gas Scrubber
Flue gas scrubbing is one method to control particulate and SO
2
in
FCCU ue gas vents. In scrubbers with external venturis, the ue
gas is mixed with water and caustic to neutralize SO
X
. The com-
bined stream enters a disengaging drum through large venturis,
where centrifugal force is used to separate the liquid from the ue
gas. The ue gas then travels upward toward the stack. A bed of
structured grid packing is used to eliminate entrained droplets that
contain particles of catalyst or salt. The condensate is collected
in a chimney tray and drained to the bottom of the disengaging
drum. The scrubbed and de-entrained vapor is allowed to exit the
scrubber stack.
Design of the Chimney Tray
A Sulzer chimney tray design for ue gas scrubbing service fea-
tures a sloping oor to prevent solids accumulation and multiple
small chimneys. The open area is sized to minimize pressure drop,
while the riser arrangement allows for the best distribution into the
packed bed.
Selection of Packing
Grid-type structured packing is used in direct-contact heat trans-
fer, scrubbing, and de-entraining services such as the FCC ue gas
scrubber. Due to its high open area, grid has a very low pressure
drop and high capacity. Grids have low wetting rates compared with
structured packing, and can therefore achieve low turndowns.
An excellent option for de-entrainment in the ue gas stack is Sulzer
Mellagrid
TM
, which has a smooth surface to provide the maximum
Sulzer Chemtech
Tower Technical Bulletin
Proper Design of Mass Transfer Internals in the FCC Flue Gas Scrubber Can Help
Reduce PM Emissions
fouling resistance and is designed to be self-draining to avoid any
solids trap-out problem. The Mellagrid smooth angles and transi-
tions minimize shearing of liquid droplets, aiding in droplet settling.
The Sulzer F-Grid
TM
or Nutter Grid
TM
can be utilized as drop-in
replacements for an existing ue gas scrubber de-entrainment bed
during a turnaround, or Sulzer can customize the grid design for
optimum capacity, pressure drop, efciency, and fouling resistance
with a combination bed.
Design of the Grid Wash Sprays
Scrubber packing is subject to plugging from the residual salts and
catalyst nes that are removed from the ue gas. A set of wash sprays
is positioned above the bed for a periodic solids removal water wash.
High stack velocities can entrain the spraying wash water overhead,
not allowing adequate washing of the grid. Sulzer takes this into
consideration in our design of the spray header, with the selection
of nozzle type and nozzle pressure drop keeping the droplet sizes
large and preventing re-entrainment. The sprays would be designed
to fully cover the cross sectional grid area with sufcient overlap to
account for some droplet carry-up.
Sulzer F-Grid
TM
and Sulzer Mellagrid
TM
Grid Packing
The Sulzer Renery Applications Group
Sulzer Chemtech has over 50 years of operating and design experi-
ence in renery applications. We understand your process and your
economic drivers. Sulzer has the know-how and the technology to
provide a scrubber internals design with reliable, high performance.
Sulzer Chemtech, USA, Inc.
8505 E. North Belt Drive | Humble, TX 77396
Phone: (281) 604-4100 | Fax: (281) 540-2777
TowerTech.CTUS@sulzer.com
www.sulzerchemtech.com
Legal Notice: The information contained in this publication is believed to be accurate and reliable, but is not to be construed as implying any warranty or guarantee of performance. Sulzer Chemtech
waives any liability and indemnity for effects resulting from its application.
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HPINNOVATIONS

I

19
SELECTED BY HYDROCARBON PROCESSING EDITORS
editorial@gulfpub.com
Siemens expands anaerobic-
digestion product offering
Siemens Water Technol ogies has
acquired the JetMix hydraulic mixing sys-
tem from Liquid Dynamics Corp. This
proprietary system agitates sludge within
the anaerobic digestion process, optimizing
digestion and methane production. The
latter can be captured and used as energy
within a wastewater treatment facility.
Compared to similar mixing systems, the
JetMix system allows operators to schedule
mixing timesreducing power usage by
60%80% without decreasing gas produc-
tion or negatively affecting volatile solids
reduction. Suitable for use in new instal-
lations, as well as for retrofits or upgrades
for a variety of municipal and industrial
applications, the JetMix system comple-
ments Siemens existing line of equipment
and solutions for anaerobic digestion.
The JetMix system creates an effective
mixing volume rating of 95% or more,
even with internal piping and roof support
columns. The system uses powerful jets
to maintain or resuspend solids. Nozzles
mounted inside the tank can be rotated
360 to create a flow pattern that virtually
eliminates solids settling, reduces energy
requirements, and makes dead spots obso-
lete. A top nozzle effectively controls scum
and grease as well as foam and other floata-
bles. The modular design of the JetMix sys-
tem allows for various pumps and nozzles
to be used in combination to meet a wide
range of application requirements and load
fluctuations. Viscosity, particle size, density,
settling rate and tank geometry are all con-
sidered when designing the mixing system.
The mixing system can be paired with
thermophilic and mesophilic digesters, and
can be coupled with heat exchangers. The
system can be used in channels as well as
in circular, square and rectangular tanks.
Suitable applications include tanks with
gas holders, or fixed and membrane roofs,
with the tanks located either above or
below ground.
Accurate field calibrator
measures differential pressure
Crystal Engineering is releasing a sig-
nificant addition to their nVision Refer-
ence Recorder. This most recent (and free)
quarterly update enables the intrinsically
safe, hand-held field calibrator to graph and
record average and differential pressure data.
Now, the nVision (Fig. 1) can display,
record and graph differential pressure to a
remarkable accuracy of 0.025% of the dif-
ferential reading up to 300 psi static, 0.05%
up to 3,000 psi static, and 0.1% up to
10,000 psi static pressure. The nVision can
also record 500,000 data points from each
of its two modular sensors, simultaneously.
It takes these measurements as frequently as
every 0.1 sec, without any change in accu-
racy between 20C and 50C.
The nVision delivers this accuracy while
maintaining excellent field capability, and
without risking sensor damage. Other dif-
ferential calibrators sustain damage easily,
when an improper connection or opera-
tion of valves exposes their single sensor
to full static pressure. Because the nVision
Reference Recorder uses two independent
pressure modules, operators cannot damage
either sensorproviding they have selected
the appropriate pressure modules for the
anticipated static pressure.
Our customers needed a reliable,
safe, and portable device for differential
measurements at high static pressure. The
nVision was already recording from two
sensors with extraordinary accuracy across
a broad range of temperatures and pres-
sures. Measuring the difference between
the two was a logical step for us. However,
accurate differential pressure measurement
with two sensors was only possible because
of the arrow-straight linearity inherent in
our technology. At no additional cost, this
new capability puts tremendous value in
the hands of our users. said Tom Halacz-
kiewicz, president of Crystal Engineering.
Next-generation technology
removes high acidic impurities
Merichem Company, introduced NAP-
FINING HiTAN, a next-generation tech-
nology that removes high levels of naph-
thenic acid compounds in kerosine, jet
fuel and diesel. NAPFINING HiTAN is
based on Merichems popular, cost-effective
NAPFINING platform, and it employs
Merichems highly reliable and efficient
proprietary FIBER FILM technology and
caustic to remove acidic impurities during
refining. Reducing high TAN (> 0.1 mg
KOH/g) feed levels allows production of
higher-quality and more-profitable prod-
ucts from lower-grade and less-expensive
crudes. Other advantages of the NAPFIN-
ING HiTAN and FIBER FILM technolo-
gies are lower capital costs and a smaller
plant footprint.
NAPFINING HiTAN is another
practical example of the innovation that
is driving a transformed Merichem in ser-
vice to an evolving refining industry, said
As HP editors, we hear about
new products, patents, software,
processes, services, etc., that are true
industry innovationsa cut above
the typical product offerings. This
section enables us to highlight these
significant developments. For more
information from these companies,
please go to our website at
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/rs
and select the reader service number.
nVision differential pressure
recorder.
FIG. 1
20

I

FEBRUARY 2011 HydrocarbonProcessing.com
HPINNOVATIONS
Kenneth F. Currie, Merichem chairman
and CEO.
NAPFINING HiTAN and NAPFIN-
ING technologies employ the FIBER FILM
contactor as a mass-transfer device and
caustic as the treating reagent to remove
naphthenic acid compounds mainly from
jet fuel, kerosine and diesel, condensate and
crude oil streams.
NAPFINING HiTAN and FIBER
FILM are non-dispersive and extremely
reliable when compared with commercially
available treating alternatives. The smaller
footprint and smaller capital expenditure
are attractive as well, said Tom Varadi, vice
president and general manager of Meri-
chem Process Technologies. The onstream
factor between routine turnarounds is
100%, whereas electrostatic precipitators
are much less reliable and incapable of pro-
cessing high TAN feeds.
Additives reduce
flare SO
x
emissions
Baker Hughes has developed additives
specially designed to reduce sulfur oxide
(SO
x
) emissions from refinery flaring oper-
ations. Baker Petrolite SULFIX additives
reduce SO
x
air pollution that is created
when hazardous hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S)
is burned; helping US refiners meet the
Environmental Protection Agencys New
Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for
petroleum refineries.
Refineries produce SO
x
emissions when
H
2
S-laden gases are flared. This combus-
tion process converts H
2
S to SO
x
. Now
refineries can quickly reduce SO
x
emissions
by treating the flare gas with Baker Petrolite
SULFIX additives to reduce the amount of
H
2
S it contains and avoid noncompliance
issues without major capital investment.
Baker Hughes provides comprehensive
services for effective control of flare gas
H
2
S levels to help refiners select suitable
additives, use the correct injection system
equipment and design, and implement an
appropriate monitoring program.
Baker Hughes has successfully applied
SULFIX additives and helped refinery cus-
tomers reduce SO
x
emissions to comply
with environmental regulations, notes Jerry
Basconi, vice president and general man-
ager of industrial services of Baker Hughes.
SULFIX products for flare gas reduce air
pollution from SO
x
and H
2
S, improving
air quality and environmental compliance.
Automation module
improves tank farm logistics
Building on years of experience and
technology in terminal and tank farm logis-
tics operations, Emerson has added a move-
ment logistics management module to its
Syncade Smart Operation Management
Suite. The new application complements
Emersons established base of instrumenta-
tion, control and custody transfer systems
for tank farm and terminal product move-
ments. Initial installations include termi-
nals and tank farms in North America,
Europe and Asia.
Combining the power of the DeltaV
automation system with the Syncade
suites operations management capabili-
ties, the new movement logistics manager
application supports marine, rail, truck
and pipeline site operations. Key compo-
nents include order management, logis-
tics planning and scheduling, inventory
management, and production accounting.
It connects and interacts with every level
Make confdence
part of your process
Get Aggrekos dependable temporary
utilities, and expect success in all of
your operations.
From turnaround projects to emergency outages,
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delivers the industry standard of quality every time.
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Inpro/Seal VBXX Bearing
Isolators at both ends assure
protection from contamination
Two-part epoxy primer
inside and out, plus
epoxy finish coat to
prevent corrosion
Super-E
windings meet or exceed NEMA

Premium
efficiency standards
High strength cast iron frame, endplates,
conduit box and fan cover are designed
to reduce vibration and assure accurate
mounting dimensions
All joints gasketed and sealed for added
protection against contaminant entry
Foot flatness within 0.005 inches for
precision alignment to driven equipment
All internal rotor, stator
and shaft surfaces
are epoxy coated to
prevent corrosion
Oversize bearings on each end
for long life
Exclusive PLS
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Insulation system meets
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2010 Baldor Electric Company
HPINNOVATIONS

23
of the operation, from enterprise resource
planning (ERP) systems to the devices that
load the ships and trucks and open the gate
at the terminal. The system manages tasks
such as custody transfer of products, print-
ing shipping documents and reporting
final accounting results back to the ERP
for invoicing.
Todays pressures on safety, security,
cash flow and cost reduction require termi-
nal operations and tank farms in produc-
tion facilities to be more reliable, repeat-
able, secure and safe, said Jim Nyquist,
president of Emersons PlantWeb solutions
group. These needs expand beyond phys-
ically controlling material movement to
managing the business information associ-
ated with them. Thats why Im proud that
Emerson can now offer our customers this
powerful, comprehensive solution.
Automation can dramatically improve
tank farm and terminal efficiency, with
fewer people handling more activities and
doing it more reliably in less time. Adding
integrated order management and sched-
uling can help to increase the number of
trucks and ships handled by the facility.
Embedding the knowledge behind a paper-
driven process into an electronic system
also means the operation can do more with
less-experienced employees.
Flue gas compressor
successfully commissioned
On December 10, 2010 Burckhardt
Compression successfully completed the
mechanical test run of the Laby-GI com-
pressor. DNV certified the test run and
issued the survey report. The Laby-GI was
commissioned by Golar LNG Limited and
Burckhardt Compression on the floating
storage and regasification unit (FSRU)
Golar Freeze, which is now permanently
moored at the Jebel Ali port in Dubai. The
Laby-GI Compressor is used as a boil-off
gas (BOG)/minimum send-out compres-
sor and has been successfully in operation
at full capacity.
The Laby-GI compressor is fully bal-
anced, eliminating unbalanced forces and
moments guaranteeing a smooth operation
for all offshore applications. The unique
design combines two well established seal-
ing technologies in a single crankgear for
lubricated or non-lubricated compression.
Therefore, the Laby-GI compressor easily
manages the compression of LNG BOG at
suction temperatures to -250F (-170C)
without pre-heating the gas or pre-cooling
the compressor. The gastight compressor
housing eliminates gas emission and losses
to the environment.
The Golar Freeze was converted
from an LNG carrier to an FSRU and is
capable of storing ~125,000 m
3
of LNG
and delivering up to 480 million cubic
feet per day (MMf
3
/d) of regasified LNG
to Dubai Supply Authority (DUSUP) for
further distribution into the Dubai natural
gas network. Shell, as DUSUPs appointed
adviser for the project has worked closely
with Golar LNG Limited on the develop-
ment of this project.
Laby-GI compressors are used for liquid
gas carriers, LNG/LPG FPSOs, FSRUs,
LNG RVs and production platforms. They
are extremely reliable with unexcelled
availability, combining best performance
with unmatched operational flexibility and
long lifetime.
peopIe and your I\KNL[
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25
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
HELEN MECHE, ASSOCIATE EDITOR
HM@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
North America
The Dow Chemical Co. plans to
increase ethane-cracking capabilities on the
US Gulf Coast over the next two to three
years, and improve these capabilities by
20%30% in this timeframe. In addition,
Dow is also reviewing joint-venture options
for building a natural gas liquids (NGL)
fractionator to secure this ethane supply.
Both actions are intended to capitalize
on the favorable supply dynamics in North
America, and further bolster the competi-
tive advantage of Dows plastics franchise,
as well as its high-margin, downstream per-
formance businesses.
Alfa Laval has received an order for its
Packinox heat exchangers to be used in
what is said to be the worlds first full-scale
integrated-gasification combined-cycle
(IGCC) process for power generation with
carbon capture, which will be placed in the
US. The order value is about SEK 80 mil-
lion and delivery is scheduled for 2012.
The heat exchangers will be used in a
gas-treatment process of an IGCC power-
generation plant. The project has received
funding from the US Department of
Energy and will, when finalized, include
a state-of-the-art gasification facility with
a capacity of more than 500 MW and an
integrated carbon-capture facility.
Medicine Bow Fuel & Power LLC
has awarded Aker Solutions the front-
end engineering and design (FEED) pack-
age for its industrial gasification and liq-
uefaction plant located near the town of
Medicine Bow, Wyoming. Aker Solutions
successfully completed a pre-FEED study
for the project in July 2010. Since then,
Aker Solutions has worked under a letter of
intent to provide services relating to design
review and licensor support, as well as addi-
tional pre-EPC engineering and design.
The facility will produce liquid transport
fuels and is due to come online in 2015.
When complete, the plant will convert coal
into up to 21,000 bpd of gasoline and liq-
uefied petroleum gas (LPG) liquid fuels.
The Dow Chemical Co. has announced
that Dow and Mitsui & Co., Ltd., of
Tokyo, Japan, have completed the forma-
tion of a previously announced 50/50 man-
ufacturing joint venture to construct, own
and operate a new membrane chlor-alkali
facility located at Dows Freeport, Texas,
integrated manufacturing complex.
The new chlor-alkali facility is expected
to begin operations in mid-2013, and will
have a capacity of approximately 800 kilo-
tons/yr. The new plant will create approxi-
mately 50 long-term jobs at the Freeport
location, along with approximately 500
construction jobs.
South America
Foster Wheeler AGs Global Engineer-
ing and Construction Group has been
awarded a basic engineering design and
front-end engineering design (FEED) con-
tract for two grassroots refineries in Brazil
for Petrobras. The Premium I Refinery
will be a dual-train, 600,000-bpsd facil-
ity in Maranhao State, and the Premium
II Refinery will be a single-train 300,000-
bpsd facility in Ceara State. Foster Wheeler
will be the prime subcontractor to Honey-
wells UOP, the managing process-technol-
ogy licensor. The value of the contract was
not disclosed.
The contract includes basic design and
FEED for the main process units and aux-
iliary units.
Petrobras has selected Emerson Pro-
cess Management to provide process auto-
mation technologies and services for the
Petrochemical Complex of Rio de Janeiro
(Comperj) in Brazil. As the main automa-
tion contractor for Comperj, Emerson will
deliver engineering services and technolo-
gies for integration of the refining units pro-
cess automation and systems, and selected
project utilities and offsite operations.
Built on an area of 45 million m
2
, the
Comperj complex will be able to process
165,000 bpd of heavy crude when its first
refining unit begins operations in 2013,
and the same amount in a second unit is
expected five years later. In addition to sys-
tems for process control, safety, fire and
gas detection, machinery monitoring, and
management of process and maintenance
information, Emerson will also supply
measurement instruments, control valves,
pressure regulators, and other related prod-
ucts and services. Engineering work has
already begun, with hardware delivery to
begin in 2011.
Europe
Technip has been awarded an engi-
neering, procurement services and con-
struction-management contract by Total
to increase hydrocracker capacity at the
Normandy refinery located in Gonfreville,
France. This project, which is part of a
larger investment plan for the refinery, is
valued at more than 100 million (of which
Technips share is 20%).
Technips scope includes debottle-
necking of the hydrocracking plant and
debottlenecking of the hydrogen unit
needed to operate the hydrocracker. This
extension will increase hydroconversion
capacity to 10,000 tpd from the current
8,000 tons, thereby enabling production of
more diesel fuel and kerosine.
BASF plans to expand its existing super-
absorbent polymer-production capaci-
ties at its sites in Antwerp and Belgium,
and at its Freeport, Texas, site. Gradual
debottlenecking and technical expansion
measures are to raise annual capacity by
70,000 tons to a total of 470,000 tons by
2012, with each site contributing an addi-
tional 35,000 tons
A subsidiary of Foster Wheeler AGs
Global Engineering and Construction
Trend analysis forecasting
Hydrocarbon Processing maintains an
extensive database of historical HPI proj-
ect information. The Boxscore Database is a
35-year compilation of projects by type, oper-
ating company, licensor, engineering/construc-
tor, location, etc. Many companies use the his-
torical data for trending or sales forecasting.
The historical information is available in
comma-delimited or Excel
and can be custom

sorted to suit your needs. The cost depends on
the size and complexity of the sort requested.
You can focus on a narrow request, such as
the history of a particular type of project, or
you can obtain the entire 35-year Boxscore
database or portions thereof. Simply send
a clear description of the data needed and
receive a prompt cost quotation.
Contact: Drew Combs
P.O. Box 2608, Houston, Texas, 77252-2608
713-520-4409 Drew.Combs@GulfPub.com
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
26

Group has been awarded a contract by
Kuwait Petroleum International Lubri-
cants to provide detailed engineering ser-
vices for a brown-field lube-oil blending
plant to be built at Kuwait Petroleums
facility in Antwerp, Belgium.
The lube-oil blending plant will sub-
stantially enhance the Antwerp facilitys
ability to operate at European scale by
increasing production capacity from 125
million lpy to 250 million lpy. The detailed
engineering activities will be completed by
mid-2011.
The State Oil Co. of the Azerbaijan
Republic (SOCAR) and TURCAS Rafi-
neri A.S. (STRAS), the joint venture
of SOCAR and TURCAS Petrol A.S.
(TRCAS), have awarded Fluor Corp. a
project-management consultant (PMC)
contract for a new refinery to be built in
Aliaga, Turkey. The new planned refin-
ery will be integrated at the Petkim pet-
rochemicals site on the Aegean coast.
As PMC for the SOCAR and TURCAS
Aegean Refinery (STAR) project, Fluor will
assist STRAS in selecting and managing the
engineering, procurement and construction
(EPC) contractor(s) and provide overall
project and construction management.
Project work is underway, with the
start of site preparation. EPC work is esti-
mated to be in mid-2011, and construction
startup is scheduled to begin in the first
quarter of 2012.
Africa
Technip has been awarded a contract
by Sonatrach, the Algerian national oil
company, for refurbishment and revamp-
ing of the Algiers refinery. This lump-sum
turnkey contract, worth approximately
$908 million, will last 38 months and
cover the execution of the complete scope
of works, including the design, supply of
equipment and bulk material, construction
and startup.
The revamp of the existing installations
will enable refining capacity to be increased
from 2.7 million tpy to 3.6 million tpy.
The new units will allow the refinery to
produce gasoline at specifications similar to
those in force in Europe. This project will
be carried out by Technips operating center
in Paris, France.
Middle East
Petroleum Development Oman
(PDO) has awarded a seven-year engi-
neering and maintenance services contract
(EMC) to Wood GroupCCC, a joint
venture set up to provide operations and
maintenance services for the oil and gas
and petrochemical industries in Oman,
Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
UAE and Yemen. The contract, which
has a three-year extension option, will
include integrated engineering, construc-
tion, maintenance and support services for
existing PDO facilities onshore in South-
ern Oman.
Shell Global Solutions International
B.V. has signed three license agreements
with the state-owned North Refineries
Co. of Iraq, in Kirkuk, Northern Iraq.
Shell Global Solutions will provide a pro-
cess license and basic-engineering pack-
age for a kerosine hydrotreater, a diesel
hydrotreater and a vacuum gasoil (VGO)
hydrocracker unit as part of the agree-
ment. Each agreement includes the grant
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HPIN CONSTRUCTION
28

of a license to Shell proprietary technology
and the provision of engineering services.
Agreements for the supply of catalysts
and reactor internals are expected to be
signed in the future as part of the deal.
Based on Shells experience as both an
owner and an operator, these licensed
technologies are likely to provide North
Refineries Co. with an integrated solution
that will help optimize the new refinerys
operations.
Asia-Pacific
CB&I has announced that Lummus
Technology has been awarded a contract
by Liaoning Tongyi Petrochemical Co.,
Ltd., for the license and engineering design
of grassroots olefins-conversion technology
(OCT) units and CATOFIN dehydroge-
nation units at several of its sites in the
Peoples Republic of China. The units will
produce 684,000 metric tpy of isobutylene
and 950,000 metric tpy of propylene.
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. has
received a contract from CPC Corp.,
Taiwan, to design and license Jacobs pro-
prietary EUROCLAUS technology for a
desulfurization unit as part of the Ta-Lin
refinery expansion project in Kaoshiung,
Taiwan.
This project is said to be the first to
combine Jacobs EUROCLAUS technol-
ogy with DynaWave technology, which
is engineered and licensed by US-based
MECS, Inc. The combination of these
two unique technologies reportedly
makes it possible to achieve very-low-
sulfur emissions at low-investment cost
compared to existing technologies. The
new desulfurization unit will be inte-
gral to CPCs refinery operations. CPC
will design and build the Ta-Lin refinery
expansion. The new facility, scheduled
to be operational in 2013, will produce
clean-fuel products for the local Taiwan-
ese market.
The Shaw Group Inc. has been
selected by GAIL (India) Ltd. to provide
its proprietary technology and basic engi-
neering for a new 450,000-tpy ethylene
plant. Shaw will also provide support dur-
ing detailed engineering, procurement
and construction, and commissioning and
startup of the plant, which will be part of
GAILs petrochemical complex in Pata,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
The undisclosed value of the contract
was included in Shaws Energy & Chemi-
cals segments backlog of unfilled orders in
the first quarter of fiscal year 2011.
Stamicarbon, the licensing and intel-
lectual property center of Maire Tecni-
mont S.p.A., has signed a license agree-
ment with Inner Mongolia Bodashidi
Co., Ltd., in the Peoples Republic of
China (PRC) for a urea plant with a capac-
ity of 2,860 metric tpd. The plant will be
built in the Industrial Zone of Nalinriver,
Wushen, Inner Mongolia, PRC. The urea
plant will use the Stamicarbon Urea2000P-
lus pool condenser technology.
Stamicarbon will deliver the process
design package (PDP) and associated ser-
vices. The plant will be built by Wuhuan
Engineering Corp. of China as the sub-
contractor of China Chemical Engi-
neering Second Construction Group.
Wuhuan has been chosen by the customer
as the designated EPC contractor. Startup
is planned in 2013. HP
Email: ron.jackson@mustangeng.com
www.mustangeng.com
Energy conservation and optimization are key issues for process plant
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of energy losses can help bring significant cost savings and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
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Evaluate opportunities for energy savings
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Contact us today for information on how Mustang can help reduce the
energy stranglehold on your facility.
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See HOW we can help you meet mission-critical goals.
Click rening.kbr.com/HP
REFI NI NG
2011 KBR
All Rights Reserved
K11003 2/11

I

31
HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
Company City Plant Site Project Capacity Unit Cost Status Yr Cmpl Licensor Engineering Constructor
AFRICA
Algeria Naftec Spa Skikda Skikda BTX RE None U 2012 GTC, Inc GTC, Inc
Libya Harouge Oil Operation Ras Lanuf Ras Lanuf Storage, Oil None 63 U 2012 Punj Lloyd Ltd Punj Lloyd Ltd Punj Lloyd Ltd
Morocco OCP Jorf Lasfar Jorf Lasfar DAP (4) EX None P 2013 Jacobs Engineering SA Jacobs Engineering SA Jacobs Engineering SA
ASIA/PACIFIC
China CNOOC Dongfang Dongfang Refinery None 12 U 2013
India Rashtriya Chemicals Thal Vaishet Thal Vaishet Ammonia RE bbl U 2011 Haldor Topse PDIL
South Korea Hyundai Petrochem Co Ltd Daesan Daesan Aromatics Extraction Mtpy E 2011 HRI KBR|HEC HEC
Taiwan Chinese Petroleum Corp Kaohsiung Kaohsiung Diesel, HDS (2) 50 Mbpd 34.6 A 2010 Axens Fu-Tai Engr Fu-Tai Engr
Thailand Map Ta Phut Olefins Map Ta Phut Map Ta Phut Aromatics Complex TO 600 Mtpy C 2010 GTC, Inc
EUROPE
Greece Hellenic Petroleum SA Thessaloniki Thessaloniki Naphta 2600 bpsd 184 U 2011
Italy Montedipe SpA Porto Marghera Porto Marghera Aromatics Extraction 400 Mtpy U 2012 Montedipe Tecnimont Tecnimont
Kazakhstan AGIP KCO Kashagan Kashagan Field FPSO 150 kbpd 30000 E 2012 KBR
Romania Petrochemical Holding AG Onesti Onesti Paraxylene 400 Mm-tpy P 2012 GTC, Inc
Russian
Federation Lukoil Perm Perm Aromatics Complex RE 320 Mtpy E 2011 GTC, Inc
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia Ecopetrol Barrancabermeja Barrancabermeja FCC Gasoline RE bbl 30 P UOP AltairStrickland
Cuba PDVSA Matanzas Matanzas Refinery, Heavy Ends 150 bpd 4300 P 2015
Ecuador Refineria del Pacifico-CEM El Aromo El Aromo Refinery 300 bpd 12500 P 2013 PGN
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Cangrejera Cangrejera Styrene EX 100 Mtpy H
MIDDLE EAST
Iran Esfahan Oil Refinery Co Esfahan Esfahan Isomerization 27 Mbpsd 187 E 2011 UOP Namvaran|HEC Dorriz
Qatar Qatar Shell GTL Ltd Ras Laffan Ras Laffan MEG 1.5 m-tpy P
Saudi Arabia SAMREF Yanbu Yanbu Clean Fuels None 200 F 2013
UNITED STATES
California Valero Refining Co Benicia Benicia FCC Gasoline RE bbl 5 U 2011 AltairStrickland
Georgia CARBO Toomsboro Toomsboro Proppant resin None P
Montana ExxonMobil Billings Billings FCC Gasoline RE bbl 8 P AltairStrickland
Ohio Marathon Oil Canton Canton FCC Gasoline RE bbl P AltairStrickland
Oklahoma ConocoPhillips Ardmore Billings Coker, Delayed RE bbl 8 P AltairStrickland
Texas LyondellBasell Industries Houston Houston Coker, Delayed RE bbl 12 P 2013 FW FW AltairStrickland
Utah Holly Corp Woods Cross Woods Cross Benzene Reduction None E 2011 GTC, Inc
Wyoming Medicine Bow Fuel Medicine Bow Medicine Bow Gasification and Liquefaction 21000 bpd F 2015 Aker Solutions
See http://www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/bxsymbols for licensor, engineering and construction companies abbreviations,
along with the complete update of the HPI Construction Boxscore.
THE GLOBAL SOURCE
FOR TRACKING HPI
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY
BOXSCORE DATABASE ONLINE
For more than 50 years, Hydrocarbon Processing
magazine remains the only source that collects and
maintains data specically for the HPI community,
publishing up-to-the-minute construction projects
from around the globe with our online product,
Boxscore Database. Updated weekly, our database
helps engineers, contractors and marketing personnel
identify active HPI construction projects around the
world to:
Generate leads
Market research
Track trend analysis
And, decide future budget planning.
Now, weve made our best product even better!
Enhancements include:
Exporting your search results to Excel so you can
compile your research
Delivering the latest updated projects directly to
your inbox each week
Designing customized construction reports for your
company using our 50 years of archived projects.
For a Free 2 -Week Trial, contact Lee Nichols at
+1 (713) 525-4626, Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com,
or visit www.ConstructionBoxscore.com
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The petroleum refning landscape is constantly evolving through changing crude slates, shifts in
refned product demands, and the necessity to produce more from existing assets. In the face
of these challenges, BASF offers innovative solutions. If you are looking for a catalyst supplier
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Catalysts

Co-Catalysts

Additives

Services and Solutions
HPI VIEWPOINT

I

33

Consumer protection is a key issue for E15
Americans have long counted on our nations petroleum refin-
eries to provide them with safe, affordable, efficient and reliable
gasoline and diesel fuel for their vehicles and outdoor power
equipment.
Unfortunately, a decision last October by the US Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) to authorize the sale of gasoline
containing 15% ethanol (E15) for late-model vehiclesup from
the current limit of 10% ethanol (E10)could reduce the safety
of the gasoline Americans rely on.
Concern about the potential safety threat of a 50% increase in
the amount of ethanol in gasoline motivated many refiners and
the National Petrochemical & Refiners Association (NPRA), to
call on the EPA to conduct thorough and objective scientific tests
on the impact of E15 on gasoline engines before authorizing use
of the fuel.
Unfortunately, the EPA rejected our call and decided to rush to
judgment, under pressure from the ethanol industry. As a result,
we believe the EPA decision approving E15 for limited use was a
disservice to the American consumer.
NPRA is not anti-ethanolour members blend it with gasoline
every day to manufacture the E10 fuel that safely powers most US
vehicles. We simply want to be sure that adding greater amounts
of ethanol to gasoline is safe and will not cause engine damage.
Following the old proverb to look before you leap, we believe
that learning more about E15 before approving its use is just
common sense.
Because of our concern with consumer protection, NPRA has
filed a lawsuit asking a US appeals court to overturn what we believe
was the EPAs premature and unwise decision to approve the use
of E15 in cars and light trucks for the 2007 and later model years.
Misfueling. Based on experience with leaded and unleaded
gasoline years ago, we know that millions of consumers would no
doubt use the wrong fuel for the wrong vehiclea problem called
misfuelingif E15 becomes widely available.
No matter what warning signs the EPA requires gasoline retail-
ers to post at their pumps, many consumers would undoubtedly
pump E15 into older cars and trucks and use it in outdoor power
equipment, motorcycles, boats and snowmobiles.
Some of this misfueling would be unintentionalconsum-
ers not paying attention to warning labels on pumps when they
drive up in their older vehicles, or filling gasoline cans to run their
lawnmowers and chain saws after they fill up their cars without
going to a different pump.
Some misfueling would be deliberate because E15 may be
slightly cheaper than E10 gasoline at times, due to variability in
the price of oil. Many consumers would not realize that ethanol
packs less energy than gasoline and, hence, gives them lower mile-
age, canceling out the value of a slightly lower price.
The EPAs decision threatens consumer safety in numerous
ways, even if we assumeand we do notthat testing has proven
conclusively that E15 is safe for cars and light trucks from 2007
and later model years.
Misfueling could cause costly damages to all sorts of gasoline
engines. Snowmobile engines could conk out in the middle of the
frozen wilderness, and boat engines could fail in the middle of the
oceanstranding people in life-threatening conditions. Chain
saws could overheat and run when their operators wanted to turn
them off, endangering operator safety.
NPRA members dont want the gasoline they manufacture to
cause these kinds of problems for consumers. Like any manufac-
turer, refiners know the truth of the Ford Motor Co. slogan of the
1990squality is job one. And no element of quality is more
important than safety.
Refiners are concerned that if E15 causes engine problems
particularly those that lead to injuries or worse for consumersa
wave of class-action liability lawsuits could follow, seeking billions
of dollars in damages.
Charles T. Drevna is the president of the
National Petrochemical & Refiners Associa-
tion (NPRA), a national trade association with
more than 450 members, including those
who own or operate virtually all US refining
capacity and most all petrochemical manu-
facturers in the US. Prior to his election as
president in 2007, Mr. Drevna served as
NPRAs executive vice president and director
of policy and planning. Mr. Drevna has an extensive background in
energy, environmental and natural resource matters, with more than
36 years of broad energy industry experience in legislative, regulatory,
public policy and marketplace issues. Prior to joining NPRA, Mr. Drevna
served as director of state and federal government relations for Tosco,
Inc., the nations largest independent petroleum refiner, where he was
responsible for liaison with Congress, federal regulatory agencies and
state governments. Mr. Drevna also served as director of government
and regulatory affairs for the Oxygenated Fuels Association, where
he held similar responsibilities, and as vice president at Jefferson
Waterman International, a Washington, DC-based consulting group
where he specialized in domestic and international energy issues. Mr.
Drevna also served as vice president of public affairs at the Sun Coal
Co., a Knoxville, Tennessee-based unit of Sun Co., Inc. (Sunoco), and
with the parent company as manager of public policy at its corporate
headquarters in Philadelphia. Mr. Drevna has a significant background
in environmental management that includes service as director of
environmental affairs for the National Coal Association in Washing-
ton, DC, and as supervisor of environmental quality control for the
Consolidation Coal Co. in Pittsburgh. He received his BA in chemistry
from Washington and Jefferson College and performed graduate
work at Carnegie-Mellon University.
NPRA wants to be sure that adding greater amounts of ethanol to gasoline
is safe and will not cause engine damage
HPI VIEWPOINT
34

Significantly, the ethanol industry has refused to accept liability
for engine damage that could be caused by E15. Ethanol produc-
ers are happy to profit from E15, but leave it to refiners, retailers
and others to remain liable for any damages that E15 might cause.
The good news for consumers is that the EPAs decision does
not require refiners or retailers to blend or sell E15 and does not
require consumers to buy the fuel. Based on initial opposition to
E15not just from refiners and retailers, but also from the auto,
boat, snowmobile and outdoor power equipment industriesit
is not likely that E15 will become widely available anytime soon.
Nevertheless, NPRA is concerned about harm that E15 could
cause to American consumers should it come into widespread use
without adequate testing.
We are also concerned about procedural irregularities that the
EPA engaged in to cut corners to approve the use of E15 before
its use has been justified by scientific testing.
For example:
The Clean Air Act clearly requires that any group petitioning
the EPA for a waiver to change the blend of ethanol in gasoline
provide all the information necessary to approve the waiver. But
Growth Energythe ethanol industry group seeking the E15
waiverfailed to do this, since substantial additional testing by
the EPA and the US Department of Energy (DOE) was required.
We believe yet more testing and evaluation of data is needed.
The EPA based its E15 partial-waiver decision on studies
submitted to the public rulemaking docket on the day before the
EPA announced the partial waiver, providing no time for stake-
holder review or meaningful public comment on crucial informa-
tion used to justify the approval of E15. The EPAs partial-waiver
decision was based almost entirely on data submitted to the record
after the public comment period closed in 2009. We believe this
is a violation of the Administrative Procedures Act.
These irregularities are importantnot just minor technicalities.
If the EPA or any federal agency is allowed to operate outside
the constraints of the law, a dangerous precedent would be set,
usurping the power of our elected representatives in Congress to
pass laws limiting the powers of the executive branch of govern-
ment. This would open up a Pandoras box of problems in the
future, no matter who is president and no matter what political
party is in power at any given time.
We believe testing of E15 should continue and be broadened
to determine which enginesif anycan safely use the higher
ethanol blend.
In early January, NPRA filed suit along
with the International Liquid Terminals
Association and the Western States
Petroleum Association, asking a federal
appeals court to overturn the EPAs deci-
sion to approve the use of E15 for late-
model vehicles. US automakers and engine
manufacturers have filed similar lawsuits.
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Things not tested for. DOE testing of E15 simply looked
at the ability of the pollution control equipment of some cars to
stand up to E15. The DOE did not conduct needed testing to
determine the impact of E15 on:
Engine durability
Tolerance of the check-engine light
Durability of other components, such as the fuel pump and
the fuel level sensor
Evaporative emissions from fuel leaks and permeation, such
as vapors leaking out of an idle car with the engine off and parked
outside on a hot and sunny day.
Extensive testing in all of these areas is well underwaywith
the knowledge of both the EPA and DOEby the privately
funded Coordinating Research Council. However, those tests
require more time for completion.
Many issues of public policy are remote and dont directly affect
the majority of Americans. The fate of E15 is not one of these.
The US Department of Transportation estimates there are
about 255 million cars and passenger trucks on the road in the
US. Millions of Americans own boats, motorcycles, snowmobiles,
lawnmowers, chain saws, and other products that run on gasoline.
So the safety of E15 is an issue that directly affects just about every
American family.
The EPA is being sued by a broad range of organizations that
object to its E15 decision on a number of grounds. These include
claims by the food industry that using more ethanol in gasoline
would drive up corn prices and thus raise the price of many food
items, and claims by environmentalists that expanded ethanol
production and use would harm the environment.
We trust the courts will give the issue of E15 the serious con-
sideration it deserves.
NPRA believes that, right now, there are just too many unan-
swered questions about E15 to allow approval of its use. Instead
of asking the American people to pump first and ask questions
later, the EPA should get more answers first to the many questions
remaining about the safety of E15. HP
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CLEAN FUELS SPECIALREPORT

I

37
Slurry-phase hydrocracking
possible solution to refining margins
Opportunity crudes require more hydrogen addition to upgrade
orphan product streams into higher-value clean products
M. MOTAGHI, B. ULRICH and A. SUBRAMANIAN, KBR Technology, Houston, Texas
R
efinery margins are complex topic; margins are subject to
substantial uncertainties and are impacted by global fluc-
tuations in regional feed and product pricing structures.
A conscientious analysis of historical data will indicate that for
every one good year, on average, refiners are subject to seven years
of depressed margins. New globalization trends, which include a
changing transport-fuel supply/demand balance, geographic shift
in consumption, soaring crude-oil prices, depressed natural-gas
prices and impending regulations, all pose interesting challenges
to the very survival of many small- and medium-sized refineries.
Definitions of profitability. A simple analysis of refin-
ery economics will reveal that margins are largely impacted by
three basic factors; crude cost, type of products produced and
disposition of low-value, stranded streams. While the first two
factors are simple to understand, the relationship between the
refiners ability to handle these orphaned streams and margins
is more complex.
Crude price. The cost of crude is the single most important fac-
tor in setting refinery margins. This is the primary reason for the
recent surge in refinery upgrades targeted at processing opportu-
nity crudes. While the definition of opportunity crudes is nimble
and can vary from refinery to refinery, for the purpose of this
article, it makes sense to simply define these crudes as the cheap-
est possible crude basket available to any given refinery on any
given day. This basket may consist of heavy or extra heavy crudes,
bitumen-derived crudes, high-acid/high-metals naphthenic crudes
or high metals-containing, paraffinic, heavy inland crudes.
Most refiners are limited in their ability to handle this wide
range of opportunity crudes; more often than not, they are con-
strained by the residues derived from these crudes. In recent
years, the surge in interest over resid upgraders was catalyzed by
the growing light-heavy differentials. This, in turn, forced refin-
ers to evaluate their bottoms processing technologies, as margins
dictated a higher percentage of heavy oils in their crude diet.
Although the large light-heavy differentials have since diminished,
this phenomenon is likely to be temporary. The renewed inter-
est in monetizing heavy-oil reserves and the influx of substantial
heavy crude volumes to the marketplace suggests that in the long
run, refinery margins are likely to return, in large part influenced
by the restoration of the light-heavy differentials. Central to this
theory is that light-oil fields are on the decline and almost all new
crudes entering the market place are substantially heavier than
the current crude basket. This is evident by the decreasing API
as shown in Fig. 1, of the composite worldwide crude blend and
increasing volumes of extra-heavy crudes such as Canadian and
Latin American bitumens.
As the worlds supply of crude oil becomes heavier and con-
tains higher sulfur levels, the challenge to the refiners will be
compounded by the need to meet the growing demand for light,
high-quality, ultra-low-sulfur transportation fuels. This leads to
the next major determining factor that sets refinery margins, i.e.,
quality of products.
Product quality. Global trends show a growing diesel demand
and stable-to-declining gasoline demand (Fig 2). As the world
emerges from the global recession and as the growth margin in
40% of the worlds population continues at a rapid pace, this
trend can only be expected to amplify. With the majority of exist-
ing refinery configurations slanted towards gasoline production,
the price differential between diesel and gasoline will widen over
the long haul, validating the market tilt towards dieselization.
In addition, regulatory demands will only accelerate the shift
towards lower density, higher-cetane index, ultra-low-sulfur die-
Global petroleum outlook
32
33
34
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
1.1
1.2
1.3
A
P
I

g
r
a
v
i
t
y
S
u
l
f
u
r
,

%
Crude API trends, 19902025. FIG. 1
38

I

sel production, as the regional outlets for lower quality transport
fuels diminish.
This combination of lower cost opportunity crudes and the
need to produce high-quality distillate-selective products is an
important consideration for refiners, when making long-term,
high-dollar investment decisions.
Choices. The least understood variable in determining refin-
ery margins is the disposition of stranded streams. Refineries
are littered with low-value streams that are blended off, often
downgrading higher-value products for the sole purpose of
finding positive outlets for less saleable streams. While the abil-
ity to upgrade these streams is a major factor that sets refinery
complexity, the solutions for these streams often rests in under-
standing its potential applications and value within and outside
the refining industry.
The single largest stranded stream for most refineries is the
vacuum residue (VR). The bulk of the operating refineries around
the world have little or no residuum processing capability and
produce large volumes of high-sulfur fuel oil and bunker fuel. A
small volume is used to produce road asphalt. The future of VR
is, therefore, intrinsically tied to the future of these three outlets.
The large growth market for residues may appear to be the
bunker fuel market predominantly influenced by globalization
trends and consequential incremental trade and shipping traffic.
However, the use of VR as the major blending component in
bunker fuel will come under serious scrutiny as new maritime
regulations come in to effect starting in 2015 (Fig. 3). This will
significantly inhibit VR demands, and the eventual solution may
come from either the shipping or the refining industry.
While one of the solutions under debate involves using
onboard flue gas scrubbers, this issue is more complex. There are
several reasons to underscore the reluctance of the shipping indus-
try to take on the burden of these operating facilities. Regulatory
trends are almost always unidirectional, and the shipping industry
can only expect the sulfur oxide (SO
x
) regulations to extend to
nitrogen oxide (NO
x
), particulates, volatiles and other controls,
not to mention the added capital investment, operating cost,
monitoring and reporting requirements. Conversely, the refining
industry is unlikely to invest in expensive VR hydroprocessing
with the sole purpose of producing specification bunker fuels.
Regulation directs actions. The global trends show a sharp
decline in high-sulfur fuel oil demand (Fig. 4), driven mainly by
environmental regulations. While the sharp decline in fuel oil
prices seen through the mid part of this decade has been tempo-
rarily arrested by the installation of many cokers, a reversal can be
expected as regulatory pressures extend to the rest of the world. As is
evident from the crack margins, producing large volumes of fuel oil
will result in negative refinery economics and cannot be sustained.
Road asphalt is a relatively small market (Fig. 5), and envi-
ronmental pressures are also likely to force refiners to produce
specification-grade bitumens without resorting to air blowing.
While this may lead to investment in alternate technologies such
as solvent de-asphalting, the overall impact on the volume of
stranded VR or its pricing, will be minimal.
All of these factors lead to one obvious conclusion. Going
forward, high refining margins will depend upon the ability to
capitalize on opportunity crudes, while consistently producing
high-quality distillate-selective products from refinery residues.
Selecting the appropriate residue upgrading technology, therefore,
is a critical part of this puzzle that will define the future of refining
and refinery margins.
Selecting residue upgrading technologies. To better
understand the technology options, one must recognize that VR,
in essence, is defined by what is not VR. The quality and quan-
tity of VR is a function of crude selection and the lowest boiling
impurity contained within the resid fraction that shows up as the
limiting factor in the vacuum gasoil (VGO) fraction that is fed to
a catalytic hydrotreater, hydrocracker or fluid catalytic cracking
(FCC) process. The choice of resid conversion technology must
be set by project economics, preferred reaction chemistry and
mechanism of conversion aimed at reliably achieving the overall
processing objectives.
We present seven questions that one would expect refiners to
ponder as they investigate the appropriateness of available tech-
nology options. The direct relevance of these questions is premised
on projected market trends and is intended to address the desire
to achieve and sustain high refinery margins:
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1990
P
r
i
c
e

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Gasoline
Diesel
Demand for gasoline and diesel, 19902010. FIG. 2
0
1
2
3
4
5
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Global
ECA
Possible delay until 2025
S
u
l
f
u
r

m
a
x
i
u
m

c
o
n
t
e
n
t
,

%
Expected timeline for IMO regulation enactment. FIG. 3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Western hemisphere
Eastern hemisphere
Source: Purvin & Gertz
F
u
e
l

o
i
l

d
e
m
a
n
d
,

m
i
l
l
i
o
n

b
p
d
Declining oil demand trend, 19902015. FIG. 4

I

39
1. Has the technology been demonstrated in one or more
large scale units?
2. Can the technology handle residues irrespective of the feed
quality?
3. Can the technology achieve near complete conversion on
a once-through basis?
4. Can the technology produce finished diesel-selective products?
5. Does the technology database demonstrate the ability to
handle a whole range of crudes?
6. Can the technology do all of this with high reliability?
7. Can the technology achieve all of this at an attractive net
present value (NPV)?
Aided by low crude oil prices and high natural gas prices, the
delayed coker has, thus far, been the technology of choice for resid
upgrading. When tested against the seven questions above, and
weighed against the prevalent market conditions of the past, the
conclusions are obvious.
However, going forward, with projected high crude oil prices,
low natural gas prices and diminishing outlets for low-grade
petroleum coke, the need for hydrogen addition is now here. In
the rest of this article, we will examine the landscape of the avail-
able resid upgrading hydrogen addition technologies against this
backdrop. As shown in Fig. 6, the technology choice for resid
Source: Purvin & Gertz
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Western Hemisphere
Eastern Hemisphere
D
e
m
a
n
d

f
o
r

a
s
p
h
a
l
t
,

m
i
l
l
i
o
n

b
p
d
Demand for asphalt for road and roofing applications,
19902025.
FIG. 5
Resid FCC
Metals content, Ni + V ppm
10,000 1,000 100 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1
C
o
n
r
a
d
s
o
n

c
a
r
b
o
n
,

%
Ebullated bed or slurry-phase
Thermal processing or slurry phase
Fixed-bed hydrocracker
Resid upgrading technology options as directed by CCR %. FIG. 6
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40

hydroprocessing is inherently determined by the metals and Con-
radson Carbon Residue (CCR) content in the residuum.
Fixed-bed resid hydrocrackers. Fixed-bed technologies
have been used to hydrotreat residues containing low concentra-
tions of metals and CCR. In most cases, the operation of these
units is severely inhibited by the rapid deactivation of the catalyst
system. The resultant combination of high operating pressure, low
conversion, poor quality products and low catalyst cycle length
make the process capital intensive with lim-
ited overall benefits.
To improve the economics of fixed-
bed resid hydrocrackers, the unit must
be protected from feed impurities. A feed
cleanup unit such as a solvent deasphalter
(SDA) may be installed upstream of the
hydrocracker to reject the heaviest CCR and
metals containing fraction as a pitch stream.
The SDA works on the principles of
solubility driven separation and is capable
of lifting light deasphalted oil (DAO) from
resid feeds. For most crudes, especially the
lower value opportunity crudes, the over-
all lift will be low, limited by the CCR
and metal specifications set by the DAO
hydrotreating catalyst.
As a result of the low DAO yield, the
reject asphaltenic stream will be large and
can range from 50 wt%80 wt% of the VR.
For refiners who lack an economic outlet for this pitch stream, the
value derived from the incremental distillate production through
hydroconversion of the DAO is negated by transportation and
handling costs associated with moving the pitch from the facility.
Thus, DAO derived from the vast majority of solvent deasphalters
operating in fuel services is directed to an FCC unit.
Fixed-bed resid hydroconversion processes will achieve mini-
mal overall resid conversion, will produce a large volume of fuel
oil, and are inherently limited by changing feed qualities. This
incompatibility is evidenced by high operating pressures, large
capital investments, low catalyst cycle length and a maintenance-
intensive operating history. The quality of the products will not
meet Euro V specifications, and the overall investment will not
be commensurate with the derived benefits. When tested against
the seven questions to ponder, it is obvious that fixed-bed resid
hydrocracking technology based schemes would need to be criti-
cally examined by the refiner on almost every issue.
Ebullated-bed hydrocrackers. Another option that has
been considered and practiced by refiners for resid conversion is
the ebullated bed technology. In this case, the same deactivation
phenomenon seen in fixed-bed technologies is inherent with
the one exception: the issue of low catalyst cycle length may be
resolved through continuous addition and removal of catalysts.
Every resid handling process is subject to asphaltene precipi-
tation as the saturates and aromatics contained in the feed that
hold the asphaltenes in solution are removed or converted. This
phenomenon is essentially driven by asphaltene-solubility chem-
istry, and the achievable conversion is a function of the saturates,
aromatics, resins and asphaltene content in the residue, which
in effect defines crude compatibility. In most cases, these units
operate at a nominal 55% to 75% conversion, and in an era of
opportunity crudes, this inherent limitation must be recognized.
While refinery economics dictate the need to operate at or near
the asphaltene-precipitation boundary limits, the operation of
these units can be fairly complex as the refiner balances the need
to operate at maximum conversion while minimizing reliability
issues associated with asphaltene-induced fouling.
With this narrow operating window, any changes in feed qual-
ity can contribute to higher maintenance costs and low onstream
factors. To achieve a relatively small overall improvement in resid
Hot
separator
Vacuum
residue
H
2
Additive
2nd stg.
reactor
Vacuum
column
Fractionator
Residue
1st stg.
reactor
Recycle gas
compressor
Makeup
compressor
Cold
separator
C
4
Naphtha
Middle
distillate
VGO
Gas
cleaning
Offgases
sulfur etc.
Typical resid hydrocracker flowsheet. FIG. 7
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43
conversion, and to improve reliability, operators often limit once-
through conversion, recycle polynuclear aromatics (PNAs) and
add other external aromatic-rich streams to help solubilize the
asphaltenes, which, in turn makes the process more capital inten-
sive and will result in higher operating costs. Although these
processes are catalytic and use metal-containing catalysts, the con-
version chemistry is a blend of catalytic cracking and deactivation-
induced thermal cracking. Along with the addition of aromatic
external feeds, the chemistry will result in lower naphtha, diesel
and gasoil qualities requiring the streams to be re-hydroprocessed
to meet Euro V product quality specifications.
This need to add two catalytic steps makes the process capital
intensive, thus challenging the economics of this option. With
declining fuel-oil prices, and tightening fuel-oil quality regula-
tions, the large volume of unconverted fuel oil will leave the
refiner with much of the same issues to deal with in the post
investment scenario, although in a smaller scale. When tested
against the seven questions to ponder, the choice of crudes,
achievable conversion, product qualities, reliability and invest-
ment threshold gain significance.
Slurry-phase hydrocrackers. With high crude price and
low natural gas prices on the horizon, slurry-phase hydrocracking
(Fig. 7) is emerging as the preferred approach for upgrading resi-
due streams via hydrogen addition. The principles of slurry-phase
hydrocracking essentially overcome the limitations of fixed-bed
and ebullated-bed technologies and provide for substantially
higher conversion of the residuum.
The primary conversion of residues can be achieved through
either catalytic or noncatalytic routes. Investigations for using
catalysts or noncatalytic additive systems for primary conversion
of the residues can be traced back to the early 1900s and span
the entire century, with several hundred patents that have been
awarded in support of these activities. Over the past few years,
substantial effort has been expended by technology providers
exploring nanocatalysts to enable the primary conversion of resi-
dues at marginally lower operating pressures. While catalyst-based
systems are technically viable, the use of a relatively expensive cata-
lyst system, catalyst deactivation, low quality of derived products
and the need for catalyst recovery, all contribute to the economic
considerations which in the authors view, is likely to make this
option less attractive.
Key performance criteria. We will focus on the non-
catalytic slurry-phase hydrocracking in the context of hydrogen
addition and examine the appropriateness of the technology to
the current market conditions. HP
Extended version avaiable online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Mitra Motaghi is a process engineer with the KBR Technology business unit with
special focus on resid hydrocracking and VCC technology. She holds an MS degree
in chemical engineering from Texas A&M Kingsville.
Bianca Ulrich is a principal process engineer with KBR Technology business unit
with special emphasis on resid hydrocracking and VCC technology. She holds a BS
degree in chemical engineering from Georgia Institute of Technology.
Anand Subramanian is Vice President for new technologies with KBR Tech-
nology business unit and is responsible for the VCC technology. He has 24 years
of industry experience and 20 years with KBR in various process and technology
management positions.
SAMSON AG x MESS- UND REGELTECHNIK
Weismllerstrae 3
60314 Frankfurt am Main x Germany
Phone: +49 69 4009-0 x Fax: +49 69 4009-1507
E-mail: samson@samson.de x www.samson.de
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I

45
Convert bottom-of-the-barrel
into diesel and light olefins
Integrating residue hydrocracking operations with advanced
fluid catalytic cracking optimizes upgrading of heavy crude oils
M. RAMA RAO, D. SONI, and G. M. SIELI, Lummus Technology, Bloomfield, New Jersey;
D. BHATTACHARYYA, Indian Oil Corp. Ltd., R&D Center, Faridabad, India
G
lobal demand for diesel is pro-
jected to grow from approxi-
mately 23 million barrels per day
(MMbpd) in 2006 to 37 MMbpd by
2030, while the demand for gasoline is
expected to increase from 22 MMbpd to
27 MMbpd over the same period.
1
This
increase in diesel demand (14 MMbpd) is
almost three times the increase in gasoline
demand (5 MMbpd).
Gasoline demand in the US and West-
ern Europe is expected to stay flat or even
decrease. These trends have led refiners to
consider various options for maximizing
diesel production from current operations
and/or adding new units targeted at meet-
ing this projected new demand for diesel
while improving margins.
Olefin demand trends. Demand for
light olefins (ethylene, propylene and
butylenes)the building blocks for the
petrochemical industryis also growing
significantly. Several announced steam-
cracker projects are expected to produce
sufficient ethylene to meet new petro-
chemical demand. While the propylene
productiona byproduct of liquid-feed
steam crackerswill also increase, it will
be insufficient to meet the growing future
demand. In looking ahead, catalytic crack-
ing is expected to continue to be the promi-
nent propylene source.
2
Adapting to market conditions.
The decline in fuel oil demand and tighter
fuel specifications, coupled with more
stringent environmental regulations, have
compressed refinery margins. There is a
growing drive to cost-effectively maxi-
mize production of high-value products
from every barrel of crude oil processed.
In addition, the considerable price dif-
ferential between light/sweet and heavy/
sour crudes is driving the market to process
larger quantities of heavier crudes. There
are many options on how to upgrade the
bottom of the barrel.
Carbon rejection. Among the carbon
rejection processes, delayed coking has been
quite popular recently. Solvent deasphalt-
ing (SDA) is used to separate residue from
deasphalted oil (DAO), which is a feed-
stock for fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) or
hydrocracking units. Although this pro-
cess maximizes DAO, the pitch (bottoms
of the SDA unit) contains very high levels
of Conradson carbon residue (CCR) and
metal contaminants, thus posing serious
concerns for disposal and/or utilization.
Visbreaking is also used to reduce residue
viscosity while maximizing distillate pro-
duction. Products from all of these pro-
cesses require a substantial degree of post
treatment to improve quality and to meet
desired fuel specifications.
Hydrogen addition. Conversely, hydro-
gen addition technologies, such as atmo-
spheric residue desulfurization (ARDS) and
vacuum residue desulfurization (VRDS),
produce better quality products. However,
because of the high investment and high
hydrogen addition requirements, these
technologies are used for only about 20%
of the global residue upgrading capacity.
New challenges. When determin-
ing which process(es) to implement, it is
necessary to broadly examine the refin-
ers many challenges, including possible
changes in product demand, quality and
pricing, and the need for the refinery
to be able to process heavy/sour crudes.
Advancements in process technologies play
a crucial role. Now, more than ever, the
ability to upgrade the bottom of the bar-
rel and to produce high-quality products
while processing a heavy crude slate are key
drivers for better margins.
Several options have the capability not
only for handling heavy crudes using vari-
ous residue upgrading technologies, but
also for tailoring schemes to maximize
high-demand products such as diesel and
light olefins. The scheme described here
involves the integration of the innova-
tive ebullated-bed hydrocracking process
and advanced fluidized catalytic cracking
(FCC) processes.
The ebullated-bed residue hydrocrack-
ing process is a highly effective hydrogen-
addition process that upgrades heavy residue
feeds to good-quality diesel and FCC feed.
The advanced FCC process is a catalytic
cracking process that maximizes light olefins
from various feedstocks such as vacuum gas-
oils (VGO), atmospheric residues, etc. This
scheme is also flexible enough to shift the
product slate to meet fluctuations in the
marketplace with respect to the required
products and/or the type of crude processed.
New hydrocracking process. The
ebullated-bed residue hydrocracking pro-
cess
a
features high distillate yields while effi-
ciently removing feed sulfur, CCR content
and metal contaminants from vacuum resi-
dues. It is safe, reliable and easy to operate.
Over the years, advances in the ebullated-
bed residue hydrocracking process have sig-
nificantly reduced capital investment and
operating costs while extending the con-
version and process capabilities, including:
Hydrogen purification systems
Low treat-gas rates
Integrated hydrotreating/
hydrocracking
46

Inter-reactor separator/stripper
Third-generation bottoms recycle pan
Onstream catalyst addition and
withdrawal
Maintaining constant pressure drop
across the reactor
Isothermal reactor operation
Ability to process heavy, high-metals,
high-solids content feedstocks.
Integrating the ebullated-bed residue
hydrocracking unit with hydroprocessing
results in significant cost savings. The
recycle of high-temperature vacuum bot-
toms to the reactor and the use of aromatic
diluents, such as FCC slurry oil, help in
controlling coke and sediment formation,
which could otherwise lead to potential
difficulties in maintaining proper catalyst
bed ebullation. The advent of membrane
purification systems has resulted in very
high-purity recycle gas and reduced recy-
cle gas rates to the ebullated-bed residue
hydrocracking reactor. This enhances the
total reactor operation since internal liq-
uid recirculation is increased as a result of
reduced superficial gas velocity and holdup.
This also helps in better back-mixing of
liquid and catalyst bed, thereby minimizing
incidences of hot spots, catalyst-bed slump-
ing, channeling and flow maldistribution.
The ebullated-bed residue hydrocrack-
ing process has great inherent flexibility
to meet variations in feed quality and
throughput, product quality, and reaction
operating severities (temperature, space
velocity, conversion, etc).
3,4
This is a direct
result of the ebullated catalyst-bed-reactor
system. Online catalyst addition and with-
drawal capabilities facilitate in the control-
ling the catalyst consumption and activity
in response to variations in feed quality
(metals, sulfur, asphaltenes, etc.) Depend-
ing on feed quality, diesel and gasoil (FCC
feed) yields in the range of 19 vol%43
vol% and 30 vol%40 vol%, respectively,
can be produced in the ebullated-bed resi-
due hydrocracking unit. Typical operating
parameters, feed quality and product yields
can be found elsewhere.
3
New advanced FCC process. This
process combines a proprietary advanced
FCC catalyst with proprietary state-of-the-
art FCC/RFCC technology.
b
The advanced
FCC process is unique for its direct con-
version of heavy feeds, such as VGO and
residue oils, to high yields of light olefins.
It features:
A proprietary advanced FCC catalyst
formulation that is:
0 Very selective in cracking mol-
ecules of different shapes and sizes to pro-
duce high yields of light olefins
0 Highly tolerant of metals and can
operate with a high vanadium concen-
tration on the equilibrium catalyst. This
feature is very important for residue-feed
processing as it minimizes the fresh catalyst
consumption rate.
A highly selective reaction system that
involves only riser cracking without any
recycle of the spent catalyst.
Easy adjustment of operating condi-
tions and catalyst formulation to meet the
changing requirements of product demands
and feedstock quality.
The reactor regenerator section equip-
ment and hardware pieces are designed
to utilize the maximum potential of the
advanced FCC catalyst with the specific
feedstock to produce light olefins. This
FCC process utilizes higher riser reactor
temperature (530C600C), higher cata-
lyst-to-oil ratio (1220), and lower hydro-
carbon partial pressure to achieve high con-
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I

47
version and selectivity for light olefins. Since
all the cracking reactions take place in the
short-contact-time riser reactor, with very
high catalyst-to-oil ratio and all high-activ-
ity catalyst, the selectivity to light olefins
is very high. The LPG produced contains
about 45 wt%50 wt% propylene. Total
olefins in LPG can be as high as 80 wt%.
The major concerns when processing
heavier feedstocks having high CCR and
metals are: excessive coke make, high regen-
erator temperature, high dry-gas make and
high catalyst makeup rates. The advanced
FCC catalysts low selectivity to delta coke
and dry gas and its high tolerance to metals,
in conjunction with the advanced hardware
design, allow this unit to easily handle these
difficult feedstocks. Demonstrating the
full flexibility of the advanced FCC pro-
cess, it can accept feedstocks ranging from
hydrotreated VGO to heavy residue oils
and can be designed and operated to maxi-
mize propylene, or propylene plus ethylene,
or propylene plus gasoline.
5
Process integration/reconfiguration.
The refinery considered in this study plans
to improve its capability to process heavier
crudes and also maximize diesel, jet fuel
and light-olefin products. The conse-
quences of processing higher quantities of
heavy crude are:
A substantial reduction in middle
distillate yields or a higher yield of atmo-
spheric bottoms, leading to limitations in
vacuum tower capacity
Inferior product quality:
0 Requiring additional treating facili-
ties and/or
0 Resulting in secondary processing
units, such as hydrocracking and FCC units,
to utilize more hydrogen and/or catalyst.
Such a plan is likely to require a sig-
nificant level of capital investment. To
optimize the refinery configuration, an
in-house linear programming (LP) model
was used that captures the changes in crude
quality, optimizes product blend to meet
the desired product specifications and esti-
mates the incremental utilities required.
The model also features economic evalu-
ation capabilities that account for new
investments, incremental utility costs, cost
of feed/product, imports/exports, etc.
The LP model initially was configured
for a base refinery operation, and then
reconfigured to account for changes in
crude slate and associated effects on the
product yields and quality, and changes in
costs. These parameters were used in the LP
modeling study:
In both cases, refinery crude through-
put capacity is 200,000 bpsd
Base refinery is currently processing
a blend of 35 vol% heavy and 65 vol%
light crudes; the reconfigured refinery is
expected to process 80 vol% heavy crude
Capacity potential of all existing pro-
cess units is to be fully utilized
Production of diesel, jet fuel and
propylene is maximized while processing
the heavy crude slate
Fuel quality is to meet Euro-IV speci-
fications
Crude and product prices are based
on Rotterdam 2007 average spot prices.
Several configurations were investigated
to meet the objectives of the refinery in a
cost-effective manner. It was found that
incorporating an ebullated-bed residue
hydrocracking unit and revamping the
FCC unit to an advanced FCC process
would provide significant advantages,
especially if a refinery is geared to process
heavy crudes for the cost advantage. This
combination of processes provides the
refinery with greater flexibility to accept
wider variations in crude quality while
optimizing refinery margins. For a better
understanding of the proposed scheme,
several case studies are presented here.
Base Case. The Base Case represents
the base refinery configuration, which
uses a delayed coking unit for residue
upgrading as shown in Fig. 1. As indi-
cated in Table 1, the crude blend consists
of 35 vol% heavy crude (mix of Maya and
Urals) and 65 vol% light crude (Bonny
Light and Sarir).
Case 1. The refinery upgrade (Fig. 2)
involves adding a new ebullated-bed resi-
due hydrocracking unit and revamping
the existing FCC unit to an advanced
FCC design. This case is based on the
refinery processing 80 vol% heavy crude,
as listed in Table 1. The increased volume
of heavy crude results in a higher volume
of atmospheric tower bottoms (ATB) and
vacuum residues (VR). Part of the VR is
routed to the ebullated-bed hydrocracking
process to maximize diesel product and to
produce feed for the advanced FCC unit.
The LP modeling studies suggest that a
TABLE 1. Crude oil slate
comparison
Crude Base Case, Case 1,
name bpsd bpsd USD/bbl
Maya 35,000 80,000 60.39
Urals 35,000 80,000 64.48
Bonny Light 65,000 20,000 70.57
Sarir 65,000 20,000 66.74
Total 200,000 200,000
DC C
4
s
Hydro-
cracker
Distillate
hydrotreater
Naphtha
hydrotreater
C
5
/C
6
isomerization
unit
Reformer
Gasoline
pool
Jet/diesel
pool
FCC
gasoline
treater
Alkylation
Delayed
coker
FCC
+
gas
plant
SHT
Crude
unit
+
Sat gas
plant
Vacuum
unit
P
e
t
r
o
c
h
e
m
i
c
a
l
n
a
p
h
t
h
a
Crude
oil
Alkylate
LPG
Light GO
Atm GO
Kerosine
Hvy naphtha
Lt naphtha
FCC slurry oil Coke
DC C
3
s
C
4
s
HVGO
HVGO
H
C
G
O
L
V
G
O
HT Lt Nap
DC naphtha
HC Hvy Nap
HC Lt Nap
HC Dist
HT Hvy Nap
FCC
gasoline
Reformate
HT
distillates
LCGO
LCO
Atm
residue
Vac residue
H
C

B
o
t
Simplified flow diagram of the Base Case refinery. FIG. 1
48

I

blend of 80 vol% heavy and 20 vol% light
crude is optimal because it maximizes the
amount of diesel and light olefins. Even
though increasing the heavy crude por-
tion beyond 80% lowers feed cost, it poses
limits on yields and in meeting Euro-IV
diesel quality.
The delayed coker capacity is main-
tained equivalent to the Base Case by pro-
cessing a blend of virgin VR and ebullated-
bed residue hydrocracker bottoms. The
feed to the advanced FCC unit consists of
the heavy vacuum GO (HVGO) cut from
the ebullated-bed residue hydrocracking
unit and virgin VGO, which is significantly
less than the Base Case feed to the FCC
unit. To supplement the advanced FCC
unit feed, ATB is included as one of the
feed constituents. Typically, the inferior
feed quality of this stream (Table 2) would
adversely affect the FCC product yield pat-
tern and catalyst makeup rate. However,
this effect is minimized in the advanced
FCC unit as the process can efficiently
handle inferior feedstocks without a cata-
lyst cooler and huge catalyst makeup rates.
Despite the inferior feed, propylene and
butylenes production is increased from 5.1
wt% and 4.1 wt% to 17 wt% and 8.2 wt%
in the advanced FCC unit, respectively.
The propylene from the advanced
FCC unit, after treatment, can be used
as a petrochemical feedstock. A portion
of the C
4
s is used to produce alkylate for
the gasoline pool. Light cycle oil (LCO)
from the advanced FCC unit is processed
in the existing hydrotreater. Distillate from
the ebullated-bed residue hydrocracker is
processed in an integrated hydrotreater/
hydrocracker reactor arrangement, with
the hydrocracker processing incremental
virgin VGO. Slurry oil (CLO) is recycled
to the ebullated-bed residue hydrocracker
as aromatic diluent to minimize coke and
sediments formation. This scheme has the
flexibility to process a higher quantity of
heavy/opportunity (i.e., lower cost) crudes
and still produce Euro-IV quality fuels and
petrochemical feedstocks.
Table 3 summarizes the feed capacities
of all the processing units. As shown in
Table 3, the revised configuration is able to
effectively utilize the capacities of most of
the existing process units. The FCC gaso-
line hydrotreating unit and C
4
selective
hydrotreating (SHT) unit capacities are
under-utilized, as the current objective is
to reduce gasoline production. As expected,
hydrogen consumption is increased con-
DC C
4
s
Hydro-
cracker
Distillate
hydrotreater
Naphtha
hydrotreater
C
5
/C
6
isomerization
unit
Reformer
Gasoline
pool
Jet/diesel
pool
FCC
gasoline
treater
Alkylation
Delayed
coker
A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d

F
C
C
+

g
a
s

p
l
a
n
t
SHT
Crude
unit
+
Sat gas
plant
V
a
c
u
u
m
u
n
i
t
P
e
t
r
o
c
h
e
m
i
c
a
l
n
a
p
h
t
h
a
Crude
oil
Alkylate
LPG
Light GO
Atm GO
Kerosine
Hvy naphtha
Lt naphtha
FCC slurry oil
Coke
DC C
3
s
C
4
s
HVGO
VGO
H
V
G
O
H
C
G
O
L
V
G
O
HT Lt Nap
Lt Nap
DC naphtha
HC Hvy Nap
Diesel
Hvy Nap
HC Lt Nap
HC Dist
HT Hvy Nap
FCC
gasoline
Reformate
HT
distillates
LCGO
LCO
Atm
residue
Vac residue
Bottoms
Residue
hydrocracker/
HT
H
C

B
o
t
Simplified flow diagram of an upgraded refinery with ebullated-bed residue
hydrocracking process and advanced-FCC unit.
FIG. 2
TABLE 2. Comparison of FCC
feedstock quality
Base Case Case 1
Gravity,
API 22.1 18.7

Sulfur, wt% 1.12 2.0
Con. carbon content, wt% 1.35 2.5
Nickel, ppmw 0.73 6.2
Vanadium, ppmw 1.6 13.8
Total nitrogen, ppmw 1,495 2,557
TABLE 3. Comparison of process unit capacity
Case 1
Base Case Incremental
Process unit bpsd Ktpy bpsd Ktpy
Crude unit 200,000 9,450 0 340
Vacuum unit 87,554 4,591 9,430 660
Delayed coking unit 29,570 1,701 0 0
Ebullatedbed residue 20,005 1,173
hydrocracking process
FCC (advanced FCC unit) 27,325 1,401 3,080 130
Hydrocracker 44,810 2,285 6,300 335
Naphtha hydro treater 27,246 1,159 590 0
Reformer 40,651 1,710 3,160 160
Hydrogen plant, MMscfd 61 47
Amine regeneration, gpm, DEA 1,177 415
SRU + TGT, metric tpd 285 77
C
5
isomerization 5,113 195 140 1
FCC gasoline HT 15,671 669 6,680 290
Alkylation 4,365 171 115 4
C
4
SHT unit 4,335 142 520 16
Diesel HT unit 67,028 3,180 180 6

I

49
siderably and has been considered in the
evaluation of the refinery upgrade.
Table 4 shows that diesel and jet fuel
product increase from a total of 4,387
Ktpy in the Base Case to 4,556 Ktpy in
Case 1. Although it is possible to increase
jet fuel production, it was limited to the
projected demand of 33% over the Base
Case (i.e., equivalent to 453 Ktpy). Note:
Revamping the existing FCC unit to
an advanced FCC design resulted in an
increase in propylene from 70 Ktpy (Base
Case) to 183 Ktpy in Case 1. Even though
the heavy crude content was increased
from 35 vol% (Base Case) to 80 vol%
(Case 1), it was possible to increase the
quantity of diesel, jet fuels and propylene
by incorporating the ebullated-bed residue
hydrocracking and advanced FCC units.
Otherwise, the middle distillates yield/
quantity would have been much lower
than that of the Base Case. The incremen-
tal butylenes (98 Ktpy) produced from the
advanced FCC unit are used to produce
alkylate, meeting the internal fuel require-
ments and minimizing natural gas imports,
which is a specific requirement in this case.
Alternatively, the incremental butylenes
can also be sold separately as a petrochemi-
cal feedstock.
Economic benefits. The estimated
total installed cost for Case 1 is presented
in Table 5, together with the gross mar-
gin for the Base Case and Case 1 and the
simple payback for Case 1. The economics
of the project are attractive, with an esti-
mated simple payback period of less than
3.8 years. The proposed scheme results in
significant incentives for refiners aiming
at improving crude blend flexibility with
increased diesel and propylene production.
Conclusions: Several recent factors
have influenced the refinery outlook:
Demand and growth of diesel com-
pared with gasoline, coupled with stringent
automotive fuel specifications
The use of the refinery as an alternate
source for petrochemical feedstocks, lead-
ing to integration of refinery operations
with a petrochemical complex
Shrinking refinery margins due to
higher/volatile crude oil prices, which
increase the need to process opportunity/
inferior feedstocks into useful products
while enhancing yields, product quality
and selectivity.
To address these issues, many existing
refinery configurations include an FCC
unit and delayed coker to maximize gaso-
line production and to upgrade the bottom
of the barrel, respectively. However, add-
ing a new ebullated-bed hydrocracker and
revamping the FCC unit to an advanced
design can result in:
Increased diesel and light-olefins
product yields and quality
Process integration via feed/product
stream sharing
Improved feed quality for FCC unit
Ability to handle heavier crudes effi-
ciently and more cost effectively.
These advantages make the combination
of the ebullated-bed residue hydrocracking
process and the advanced FCC units an
attractive option for refiners. HP
LITERATURE CITED
For complete literature cited, visit HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
NOTES
a
The process is licensed by Chevron Lummus
Global (CLG), a joint venture between Chevron
U.S.A. Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of
Chevron Corp., and Lummus Technology, a
CB&I company.
b
Process developed by Indian Oil Corp. Ltd.s
Research & Development center, with the state-
of-the-art FCC/RFCC technology and know-how
of Lummus Technology.
Debasis Bhattacharyya is a senior research
manger in the R&D Center of Indian Oil Corp. Ltd. He
holds a B. Tech degree in chemical engineering from
Calcutta University and M. Tech degree from Indian
Institute of Technology, Kanpur. He joined Indian Oil
in 1991 and has been engaged in providing technical
services to refineries on catalyst selection, process opti-
mization, troubleshooting, revamping various refining
processes and also the development and commercializa-
tion of new technologies. He holds 10 US patents and
authored more than 35 papers in national and inter-
national journals and symposiums. He is a member of
Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers.
Rama Rao Marri is a principal process technology
engineering specialist at Lummus Technology in Hous-
ton, Texas. He has more than 17 years of experience
in the area of FCC process design, development and
technical services. He was the co-inventor of the Indmax
FCC process developed by IOC R&D center for convert-
ing heavy feeds, including residue to light olefins, i.e.,
propylene and ethylene. He has about 11 patents and
20 publications/papers to his credit. Mr. Marri has a MS
degree in chemical engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology, Kanpur, India.
TABLE 4. Product prices and comparison of product rates
and imported feeds
Base Case Case 1
Products USD/bbl bpsd Ktpy bpsd Ktpy
Propylene-PG 74.7 2,401 70 6,316 183
Euro-IV 92 RON gasoline 76.93 69,511 2,938 63,405 2,664
Petrochemical naphtha 72.78 33,669 1,319 31,935 1,263
Euro IV diesel 82.26 87,023 4059 88,370 4,106
Jet fuel 85.01 7249 328 10,000 453
Sulfur 25 ($/metric ton) 190 (metric tpd) 67 435 (metric tpd) 152
Coke 30 ($/metric ton) 1,303 (metric tpd) 456 1,525 (metric tpd) 534
Diesel + Jet fuels 94,272 4,387 98,370 4,556
Imported feeds
Natural gas ($/MMBtu) 7 444 (metric tpd) 155 364 (metric tpd) 127
MTBE 90.07 6,750 281 7,038 294
TABLE 5. Total installed cost, gross
revenue and simple payback
Investments costs, MMUS$ Base Case 1
ISBL 590.4
Utilities + offsites 178.3
Total installed cost, MMUS$ 768.7
Gross revenue, MMUS$/yr 576.7 780.7
Increase in gross revenue,
MMUS$/yr 204.0
Simple payback, yr 3.77
Gary Michael Sieli is the director of process plan-
ning for Lummus Technologys Process Planning Group
in Bloomfield, New Jersey, and has been with Lummus
since 2002. He has a BS degree in chemical engineer-
ing from the New Jersey Institute of Technology and
an MS degree in chemical engineering from Rutgers
University. Mr. Siele has authored several papers on
refinery planning, heavy oil upgrades and delayed cok-
ing, and has more than 32 years of experience in the
refining industry.
Dalip Soni is the director, FCC Technology, at Lum-
mus Technology in Houston, Texas. He has 30 years of
experience in process design, research, development
and evaluation of petroleum refining and synthetic
fuel processes. The majority of his experience has been
related to FCC technology having worked on several
design and development projects. He has BS degree in
chemical engineering from Panjab University, India, and
an MS degree in chemical engineering from Oklahoma
State University.
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What are the future fungible
transportation fuels?
Alternatives hold promises to decrease dependence on crude oil,
but they also uncover other challenges in distribution and engine use
M. STOCKLE, Foster Wheeler, Reading, Berkshire, UK
T
he drive to reduce carbon emissions
has resulted in the development of
a number of alternatives to diesel
and gasoline for transport fuels. One of
the key factors influencing how readily
these fuels could be adopted is the level
of infrastructure investment required and
how readily these fuels can make use of
the existing distribution systems. Based
upon recent studies, there are a number
of these alternative fuels, and this article
will summarize the advantages and chal-
lenges of each alternative, paying particu-
lar attention to how readily these fuels can
be used within the existing infrastructure
and fleet.
Drive for alternative fuels. The
use of transport fuels other than mineral
oil-derived gasoline and diesel is driven
by two main concernsclimate change
and security of supply. These drivers have
seen a number of governments introduce
targets regarding renewable content of the
transport fuel pool. Often, these targets
are influenced not only by the sustainable
level of production for the renewable fuel
but also how fungible the renewable is in
comparison to existing fuels.
Fungibility is defined as the property
of a good or a commodity whose indi-
vidual units are capable of mutual sub-
stitution. For a transport fuel to be fully
fungible, it must be capable of completely
replacing the current mineral oil-derived
fuel in the present infrastructure. Given
this definition, this article only considers
gasoline and diesel replacements and not
fuels like hydrogen or electricity, which
would be consumed in completely differ-
ent engines/power trains and for which
the distribution infrastructure is com-
pletely different.
Current transport fuels. If we are to
consider the fungibility of alternative fuels,
we first need to understand the specifica-
tions for present-day transport fuels. The
major transport fuels used are gasoline, die-
sel, jet kerosine and marine bunker fuel. The
main focus of government legislation has
been on fuels used in the road transport
industry, that is, gasoline and diesel. These
two transportation fuels will be the focus of
this discussion.
Specifications. The fuel specifications
for both gasoline and diesel are generally
set by either state or national government
with significant variation around the globe
between the specifications required. How-
ever, the drive towards clean (low-sulfur)
fuels and pressure from engine manufactur-
ers to have consistent specifications globally
have seen a general convergence in current
or planned fuel specifications world-wide.
Key differences now generally relate to the
progress toward clean fuel mandates by the
individual countries.
The key global specifications are those
used in the US and the European Union
(EU). To illustrate the typical qualities of
gasoline and diesel, this article will use
specifications from the Worldwide Fuels
Charter Category 4 (as this reflect the
general trend in fuels specification) to
reflect these key performance and qual-
ity targets. Table 1 summarizes the key
specifications from the Worldwide Fuels
Charter Category 4 for gasoline; Table 2
lists diesel specifications.
The alternative fuels considered here can
be split into either gasoline or diesel replace-
ments. Table 3 lists fuels to be considered.
Gasoline replacements. Table 4 com-
pares the typical properties of gasoline
replacements with the gasoline specifica-
tion. The advantages and disadvantages of
each fuel are discussed here:
Ethanol. The amount of ethanol that
can be blended into the gasoline pool is
generally limited to 10% (although the
US has just gone to E15 (15% blend) for
2007+ cars and light trucks). This limita-
tion is imposed by current car engines and
TABLE 2. Diesel specifications
from the Worldwide Fuels Charter
Category 4
Property Value
Cetane index 51
Density, kg/m
3
820840
Sulfur content, wt ppm 10
T95 boiling point ASTM D86C 350
FAME content, vol% 5
CFPP, C 5
Viscosity @ 40C cst 24
Flash Point, C 55
TABLE 1. Gasoline specifications
from the Worldwide Fuels Charter
Category 4
Property Value
RON 95
Rvp, kpa (varies by region) 65
Aromatics, vol% max 35
Density, kg/m
3
715770
Benzene, vol% max 1
Oxygen content, wt% 2.7 max
Olefins, vol% max 10 max
Sulfur content, wt ppm 10 max
Ethanol, vol% 10 max

I

53
by the present infrastructure. This is due
to the corrosive nature of ethanolsome
engine components and parts of the infra-
structure (for example, filling nozzles on
pumps)need to be specifically designed
to handle higher ethanol concentrations.
Blending ethanol into the pool also
produces challenges in meeting gasoline
specifications. Ethanol appears to be a good
blendstock, but if we look at the measured
properties of pure ethanol, when added to
the gasoline pool, it behaves in a far from
ideal way. The key impact is that ethanol
raises the Rvp, so that the Rvp of the blend
is higher than either of the blend compo-
nents. This can make it difficult to add
ethanol to gasoline pools that are already
tightly constrained on Rvp.
Ethanol also presents problems when
transporting fuels. The key issue is that
ethanol is soluble in water. If a gasoline
blend with ethanol comes into contact
with water, the ethanol will preferentially
dissolve in the water, not only contaminat-
ing the water but also possibly sending the
gasoline off-specification. This means that
ethanol needs to be added into the blend
as late as possible, generally at the termi-
nal before distribution to retail outlets, but
after transportation by pipeline or ship.
Therefore, refiners often have to blend
some or all of their gasoline in such a way
that ethanol is not in the pool but that the
pool is blended to meet the specifications
after the ethanol is added. A number of
vehicles are now being produced that can
run on 85% ethanol (E85) blends and this
offers the opportunity for more extensive
use of ethanol. However it would require
a separate distribution system and sepa-
rate pumps at retail stations to avoid issues
with contamination.
Despite the challenges of using etha-
nol, it is still the most widely used alterna-
tive to gasoline, and Brazil has been run-
ning higher ethanol blends (20%25%
ethanol) for some time. In Brazil, it is
easy to produce ethanol from a number
of readily available feedstocks; it is also
possible to use more sustainable, non-food
competing feedstocks in the future. The
infrastructure issues can be overcome as
was demonstrated in Brazil by having flex-
fuel engines and upgrading pumps. But
there is a cost associated with this. Over-
all, ethanol can be considered only partly
fungible, as market penetration beyond
10% of the pool would require dedicated
infrastructure.
Butanol. This alcohol (butanol) is simi-
lar to ethanol but is based on a four-chain
rather than on a two-chain carbon mol-
ecule. However, butanol has some advan-
tages and some disadvantages when com-
pared to ethanol.
On the plus side, because butanol has
a higher molecular weight than ethanol, it
has lower vapor pressure, lower water solu-
bility and a higher energy density. The first
two attributes mean that it can be more
easily added to gasoline than ethanol. In
addition, it is less corrosive than ethanol;
thus, it can be more easily transported in
pipelines and used in vehicle engines in
higher blend concentrations than ethanol
without the need for extensive modifica-
tions. The lower oxygen content of butanol
means that more can be blended into the
pool before the oxygenate specification is
reached. In theory, butanol can be blended
at about 18% rather than the 10% limit
for ethanol. On the down side, butanol is
more toxic than ethanol. Unlike ethanol,
there is no body of experience in its appli-
cation as a transportation fuel.
Fischer-Tropsch naphtha. The con-
version of biomass into syngas and then
into hydrocarbons via the Fischer-Tropsch
(FT) process is a prime candidate for pro-
ducing alternative transport fuels. While
this process is primarily aimed at produc-
ing diesel, it also produces some naph-
tha. This naphtha is primarily paraffins
with traces of aromatics; thus FT naph-
tha cannot be used as gasoline or even
as a gasoline-blendstock without further
processing, due to the very low octane of
the product.
However, FT naphtha can be further
processed to improve the octane, with
light naphtha routed to an isomerization
unit and the heavy naphtha reformed to
improve octane. The isomerate and refor-
mate produced are identical in their prop-
erties to those produced from similar units
processing fossil-derived naphtha. How-
ever, this does not mean that an on-speci-
fication gasoline can be produced from FT
TABLE 5. Properties of diesel replacements
Property Diesel Spec Mineral Diesel FAME HVO FT Diesel ME
Cetane 51 51 5065 7090 7090 55
Density, kg/m
3
820840 840 880 770800 770800 Gaseous at normal
conditions
FAME, vol% 5% max 0% 100% 0% 0% 0%
CFPP, C -5 -5 -513 -30 -5 -30 -5 N/A
TABLE 3. Fuels considered
Gasoline Diesel
replacements replacements
Ethanol Fatty acid methyl esters
(FAMEs)
Butanol Hydrotreated vegetable oil
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Fischer-Tropsch diesel
naphtha
Di-methyl ether (DME)
TABLE 4. Properties of gasoline replacements
Property Gasoline spec Mineral gasoline Ethanol Butanol FT naphtha
RON 95 95 107
1
96 10
Density, kg/m
3
715770 740 794 814 700
Benzene, vol% 1% max 1% 0% 0% 0%
Aromatics, vol% 35% max 35% 0% 0% 2%
Oxygen, wt% 2.7% max 2.7 34.8% 21.6% 0
Rvp, Mpa 65 kpa 65
2
6.4
3
40
Sulfur, wt ppm 10 ppm 5 ppm 0 0 0
1
A higher figure is often used for blending due to interactions in the pool.
2
Ethanol interactions with gasoline are nonlinear and effective Rvp of ethanol is different to the pure Rvp and varies depending
on the level of ethanol blended into the pool. The figures used are generally higher than the specification for the blend.
3
Figure used for blending.
We could potentially
combine technologies to
produce fully fungible
gasoline and diesel
54

I

naphtha as it is almost impossible to blend
gasoline from just isomerate and reformate
if a Euro V type specification is to be met.
This is due to the octane (aromatics) Rvp
limitations of the blend. In this case, every
time the blend is changed to meet one of
the specifications, one of the other specifi-
cations is exceeded.
To produce an on-specification blend-
stock, a third component is needed, such as
ethyl tertiary-butyl ether (ETBE) or alkyl-
ate. Ethanol is not that useful due to its
impacts on the already constrained Rvp
of the pool. This means that although FT
naphtha is highly fungible, once processed,
it is not fully fungible; a fully on-specifica-
tion product cannot be produced from FT
naphtha on its own.
Diesel replacements. Table 5 shows
the properties for diesel replacements
compared to diesel specifications from the
Worldwide Fuels Charter Category 4.
FAME. Fatty aci d methyl esters
(FAME) are produced from triglycerides
found in animal and vegetable oils. The
triglycerides are reacted with methanol
(or ethanol to make fatty acid ethyl esters
(FAEE) to produce three esters and a
glycerine. FAME has some pluses and
minuses as a diesel blendstock. It has
good cetane, but its high density makes
it hard to blend into some pools. The big-
gest drawback is that FAME is corrosive
and can only be blended at relatively low
levels into diesel. It can also go off speci-
fication, and, so, it can only be stored
for a relatively short time. The level of
FAME is limited to 5% by European
(Euro V) diesel specifications. This may
be relaxed to 7%, but is unlikely to move
beyond this.
Hydrotreated vegetable oil and FT
diesel. Although hydrotreated vegetable
oil (HVO) and FT diesel are produced
by different processes, the products from
the two processes are very similar. The
materials can be considered as being the
same for the purposes of evaluating their
fungibility. HVO is produced from direct
hydrotreating of vegetable oil, producing
three long-chain hydrocarbons and a pro-
pane molecule from each triglyceride fed
to the process. The properties of the pro-
duced diesel are dependent on the process
used with a better quality diesel produced
from a dedicated process where the prod-
uct can be isomerized from a straight-chain
to a branched-chain structure.
FT diesel produced from biomass
via syngas is very similar to HVO once
the FT wax has been hydrocracked and
isomerized. The products consist almost
entirely of paraffins and, in many ways,
make an excellent diesel. It is certainly
a very good blendstock for mineral oil-
derived diesels. There are some challenges.
Cold-flow properties can be a problem,
although this can be improved somewhat
by isomerization.
The density of the diesel from FT and
HVO can also be a problem; typically they
are in the range 770 kg/m
3
to 800 kg/m
3
.
Thus, they are well below the minimum
specification of 820 kg/m
3
. This is not
a major problem for engines, but could
produce issues with consumers achieving
much lower mileage because of the lower
energy density.
A bigger challenge is that the almost
total lack of aromatics in HVO and FT die-
sel can cause problems in engines that have
been run previously on mineral-derived die-
sel. The aromatics in the mineral-derived
diesel replace the plasticizers in rubber
and plastic. When pure FT diesel is run,
the aromatics are stripped out leading to
embrittlement and failure of seals and hoses
in the engine. It may be theoretically pos-
sible to overcome this problem by produc-
ing kerosine-range aromatics material from
alkylation of gasoline-range aromatics and
olefinic liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to
improve not only the aromatics content but
also the density of the blend. The aromatics
problem can also be overcome by limiting
the amount of FT diesel in the blend to
around 50%, meaning that FT diesel, while
highly fungible, is not fully fungible.
Dimethyl ether. Another molecule
being evaluated as a diesel replacement is
dimethyl ether (DME). This ether can be
run in conventional diesel engines with
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mineral
gasoline
Ethanol Butanol FT naphtha
(processed)
Mineral
diesel
FAME HVO/
FT diesel
DME
Fungibility of alternative fuels as a percentage of total blend. FIG. 1
Biomass
Ferment
Gasication FT HCK
Dehydrogenation
LPG
ETBE Gasoline
Diesel
Alkylation
C
4
isomerization
CCR Fractionation
Alkylation
Isomerization
Possible links for clean fuels and blending components. FIG. 2

55
some modifications. It is produced from
methanol made from syngas. DME behaves
more like LPG than other conventional
fuels, and this means it needs a separate
handling and distribution system similar to
LPG. DME is not really compatible with
conventional diesel. Given this, DME is
not considered fungible.
Moving forward. Fig. 1 summarizes
the limits on the blending of each of the
alternative fuels considered. We can see
from the figure that none of the alterna-
tive fuels commonly considered is actually
100% fungible. None can be used directly
as a fully on-specification substitute for
either gasoline or diesel. This does not
mean that there are no replacements for
gasoline and diesel. But these replacements
may need to meet different specifications
and possibly also require different distribu-
tion systems. For example, an E85 gasoline
could be produced from ethanol and FT
naphtha, but this would require different
distribution systems.
It may also be possible to produce
fully fungible fuels by further processing
some of the alternative fuels considered.
This article has already considered the
option of reforming and isomerizing FT
naphtha. Combining this product with
butanol may produce an on-specifica-
tion gasoline and further processing of
the LPG from the FT process or from
hydrotreating butanol should allow pro-
duction of a third blendstock for gasoline,
and thus meet the current specifications.
Combining dehydration with alkylation,
oligomerization or ether production
(ETBE) should provide a blendstock that
allows a non-fossil-fuel-derived gasoline
to be produced.
Diesel may be more challenging;
but, even here, there are options. Pro-
ducing pyrolysis oil from biomass and
hydrotreating this material could produce
aromatics containing a high-density mate-
rial that, when blended with FT diesel,
will produce a fully on-specification mate-
rial. It may also be possible to boost the
aromatics content and density by combin-
ing gasoline-range aromatics with olefinic
LPG to produce an aromatic kerosine-
range material.
Fig. 2 shows how we could potentially
combine technologies to produce fully
fungible gasoline and diesel. We have seen
that there are a number of challenges in
moving away from fossil fuels while mak-
ing as much use of the existing infrastruc-
ture as possible. We have also seen that,
while current proven technologies cannot
produce fully fungible fuels, the develop-
ment of some new and existing technolo-
gies means that we may not be far away
from a direct replacement for fossil-fuel-
derived-transport fuels. The facilities to
produce these fully fungible fuels will be
more complex and will require a level of
integration between facilities. Getting this
integration right will be key to the attrac-
tiveness of the process, and this will involve
a holistic approach assessing a wide range
of possible options. HP
Mike Stockle i s chi ef engi -
neerRefi ni ng Technol ogy and
currently works in Foster Wheelers
Business Solutions Group in Read-
ing, UK. He graduated from Notting-
ham University in 1995 and is a Chartered Engineer
and a Fellow of the IChemE. During his time at Foster
Wheeler, he has worked on a number of refining
projects ranging from a grassroots refinery config-
uration studies and FEEDs, through major refinery
revamps. Mr. Stockle is an experienced LP modeller
and has undertaken a number of studies looking at
the impacts of changing markets and legislation on
refineries across the globe.
Selas Fluid
Subsidiary of The Linde Group
www.selasuid.com
sales@selasuid.com
Headquarters: Five Sentry Parkway East Blue Bell, PA 19422 USA Tel: 610-832-8797 Fax: 610-834-0473
Texas Ofce: 16225 Park Ten Place Suite 250 Houston, TX 77084 USA Tel: 281-717-9090 Fax: 281-717-9091
Linde has built a history of proven results with over 250
synthesis gas plants and 2,800 air separation plants
installed worldwide.
As a world class supplier of synthesis gas and air separation plants,
Linde Engineering and its subsidiary, Selas Fluid, provide single source
responsibility for engineering, procurement and construction of
complete synthesis gas and air separation plants.
Synthesis Gas Plants:
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide
H2/CO synthesis gas
Ammonia
Methanol
Synthetic natural gas
Cryogenic Plants - standard or

custom designed:
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Results
S
E
E

U
S

A
T

T
H
E

N
P
R
A
A
N
N
U
A
L

M
E
E
T
I
N
G
,

M
A
R
C
H

2
0

-

2
2
!

I

57
How to fabricate reactors
for severe service
Many critical factors are involved in the design
and welding of hydrocracking reactors
D. QUINTILIANI, G. FOSSATARO and M. DE COLELLIS, Walter Tosto SpA, Chieti, Italy
D
emand for transportation fuels and other crude oil-based
products has been increasing. To meet growing demand
for cleaner fuels, refiners are using more severe processing
methods such as hydrocracking. Demand for refined products has
increased to the extent that refiners desire larger hydrocracking reac-
tors that can operate at higher pressures with design conditions that
are even more severe. New feedstock diets for refineries utilize more
difficult to crack crudes; demand for reactors that can withstand
higher temperatures (over 450C) and higher hydrogen partial pres-
sures (12 MPa to 15 MPa) likewise is increasing. Under such severe
processing conditions, reactor vessels are constructed from low alloy
chromium (Cr)-molybdenum (Mo) steel of various grades.
Severe processing environment. Hydrocracking or crack-
ing, in the presence of hydrogen or dehydrogenating, is a cata-
lytic process; heavy oils are converted into lighter fractions. The
upgrading is done by several chemical reactions and involves the
saturation of aromatics, cracking (breaking the bonds of chains
of Carbon NDR) and isomerization in the presence of hydrogen.
Hydrocracking is, therefore, one of the two major conversion
processes used by the modern refining industry. The other impor-
tant process is the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC). However, this
processing operation is mainly used to produce gasoline.
Cracking operations play a more versatile role in refining
hydrocarbons. This process can be adapted to produce middle
distillates; thus, it is widely adopted due to its ability to pro-
vide a wider range and higher yield of quality products. Typical
products from hydrocracking include: liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), naphtha, jet fuel (kerosine), diesel, ethylene, lubricating
oils and gasoline.
Process level. The chemical reactions of the hydrocracking
processes are grouped into two broad classes. The first group
includes hydrotreating reaction, during which impuritiessuch
as nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen and metalsare removed from the
hydrocarbon mixture. The second group of reactions involves
hydrocracking, in which the carbon-carbon bonds are broken
with the help of hydrogen, using bifunctional catalysts. Typical
variability of hydrogen partial pressure in representative appli-
cations is:
Mild hydrocracking of vacuum gasoil (VGO), Arab or Urals:
800 psia to 1,200 psia (5.5 Mpa to 8.2 Mpa)depending on the
desired operating period
Arab hydrocracking of VGO with 70% conversion mode
single-stage once through ( SOT)1,800 psia2,000 psia (12.4
Mpa to 13.8 Mpa)
Arab hydrocracking of VGO with 100% conversion mode
TSREC1,800 psia2,000 (12.4 Mpa to 13.8 Mpa).
Typical variability of starting operation temperature of the
catalyst in various treatment schedules are:
SSOT, 390C to 430C
Second phase of optimized partial conversion (OPC) or
TSREC, noble metal catalyst/zeolite, 290C350C, catalyst and
base metal/zeolite, 320C400C.
As shown here, the severe operating conditionshigh tempera-
ture, high pressure and high partial pressure of hydrogenincrease
the activity of the catalysts. And only under these harsh conditions
can the best performance be expected from catalyst materials; and
therefore, the refining operations can be more effective.
Designing for severe service. Under these extreme con-
ditions, reactors need to be constructed from high-performance
materials that are both resistant to high pressure at high tem-
perature and are resilient to corrosive attack from the inside. In
fact, the majority of hydrocracking reactors in operation today,
are built from a low alloy Cr-Mo type 2.25Cr-1Mo steel. But
the trend in recent years is to build hydrocracking reactors with
materials with even better performance. A new generation of
steels such as low alloy Cr-Mo with enhanced vanadium (V)
2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V [plate steel SA542 D4a and forgings SA336
F22V (P-No.5C-ASME IX)].
Usage of better-performance materials has increased the service
life of high-pressure vessels and can exceed the service life length as
compared to those manufactured with more conventional materi-
als, even in cases where hydrogen partial pressures are higher than
those comparable to conventional 2.25Cr-1Mo reactors.
The industry has seen that 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V can provide
better mechanical properties at room temperature, hot and
creep as compared to conventional 2.25Cr-1Mo. In short, the
2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V, when compared to conventional 2.25Cr-
1Mo, is considered to be:
Stronger in tensile strength at elevated temperatures
Less vulnerable to temper embrittlement
Less vulnerable to hydrogen embrittlement
Less vulnerable to hydrogen attack
More resistant to weld overlay disbonding.
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8dhi/ Sl,2S0 / attoodoo
8dciVXi/ ||ch|o| b|dgos 28l-249-l960
ADVANCED FIRED HEATER TRAINING
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v|s|t lll#`i^Xdge#Xdb o a dota||od agooda.

I

59
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in
the Boiler and Pressure Vessel code has also recognized these
advantages. In the ASME VIII Division 2 Ed. 2007, these addi-
tions are listed:
Design stress intensity changed for this material, ASME
Code Allowable Stress Intensity Changed
2007 ASME Section VIII Division 2 Pressure Vessel
Code permits significantly higher design-stress intensities for
2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V steel than the previous edition:
2004 Edition: 169.1 MPa @ 454C, 163.0 MPa @ 482C
2007 Edition: 199.8 MPa @ 454C, 164.6 MPa @ 482C.
The conventional 2.25Cr-1Mo material properties are:
2004 Edition 127.8 MPa @ 454C, 110.0 MPa @ 482C
2007 Edition 149.8 MPa @ 454C, 112.0 MPa @ 482C.
The significant revision of the allowable stress intensity from the
2004 Edition to the 2007 Edition of the Code, shows, at 454C
an increase of 18.2%, and, in the 2007 Edition, shows an overall
increase of the V-modified steel over conventional material of
33.3%. This increase above conventional material means that the
V-modified steel will have even greater application in the future.
Cost issues. Thanks to all these benefits, reactors can be built
lighter and, therefore, cheaper. For the reactor manufacturer, this
translates into fewer and lighter movements in the factory, easier
transportation, lighter loads on the roads and lighter lifting, which
opens up crane availability and using a lighter crane while loading
on a ship or during erection, which means less cost. The founda-
tions where the reactor will sit can now afford to be lighter and
shallower. Each of these activities provides cost benefits with a
lighter weight reactor. The industry cannot deny these benefits as
they give considerable economic advantage.
Manufacturers are becoming more confident in the construction
of V-steel vessels and are able to assist the engineering, procurement
and construction (EPC) companies in the evaluation of possible
alternatives, even hybrid solutions between plate and forgings to
assess the best results in terms of operational safety, quality and cost.
Another aspect to consider is the inside surface protection.
Classically, hydrocracking reactors need to protect their inner
surface from direct contact from process fluids. This protection is
provided by an internal liner that is capable of protecting the base
metal from high-temperature corrosion. This cladding is typi-
cally carried out by overlaying a weld metal over the base metal.
Macro of 2Cro-1Mo-V decarburization and fissuring in
high-temperature hydrogen service.
FIG. 1
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I

This process of weld overlay uses austenitic stainless steel, usually
the type SS 347, niobium-stabilized to resist the phenomenon
of precipitation of carbides at the grain boundary, in particular,
during construction and, especially, during post-weld heat treat-
ment (PWHT).
However, the real purpose of the cladding is for process service
of the reactornamely preventing hydrogen (H
2
) and other cor-
rosive media attacks on the base metal wall of the reactor. A major
problem is that an H
2
attack can provoke:
Decarburization of the surface as carbon migrates to the
surface of the material exposed to the process fluids
Carbon at the surface combines with the free hydrogen to
form methane (CH
4
) and causes blistering on the undersurface
(see Fig. 1).
Tough fabrication process. Following so many positive
characteristics, there must be another side to this coin. And there
is, in fact, the only weak link in this design-materials-construc-
tion-in service chain is limited to fabrication. All the potential
risks are borne by the manufacturer, so it is necessary to assign
these projects to reliable manufacturersexperts with credentials.
Some of the risks in using 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V are:
Greater sensitivity to weld cracking during fabrication
Susceptible to re-heat cracking
Intermediate stress relief (ISR) mandatory for highly
stressed-pressure retaining welds and catalyst-bed supports zone
Greater control required on preheat and inter-pass tem-
peratures
Higher weld-metal hardness compared to the conventional
2 Cr-1Mo steel
Difficult to guarantee toughness for the V-modified steel
with 54 joule impact energy level at 29C.
Welding consumables suppliers are limited globally
Very low toughness of as welded weld deposit prior to
PWHT, can cause:
o Cracking from not carrying out ISR for sufficient time
for nozzle welds
o Cracking resulting from weld flaw in nozzle welds
o Cracking resulting from cutting nozzle opening through
a bed support weld build up after DHT
TABLE 1. Procedures for weld types in reactor construction
Before PWHT After PWHT After hydro test
Longitudinal welding MTTOFDMANUAL U.T. MTTOFDMANUAL U.T. MTTOFDMANUAL U.T.
Circumferential welding MTTOFDMANUAL U.T. MTTOFDMANUAL U.T. MTTOFDMANUAL U.T.
Nozzle welding MT MANUAL U.T. PHASED ARRAY MTMANUAL U.T. PHASED ARRAY MTMANUAL U.T. PHASED ARRAY
Overlay PTUTFERRITE PTUT
EMI SSI ONS
REDUCED
FUEL CONSUMPTI ON
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61
Field-weld repairs are much more difficult to carry out, due
to heating steps necessary in the welding process.
Critical quality issues. Material quality from the mill is
critical; consumable-material quality and management are also
critical. V-modified steel is difficult to work with and it needs
to be managed well. The manufacturer needs to properly plan
the construction of the reactor or vessel. From initial material
handling, through to cutting, rolling, beveling, welding, heat
treating and non-destructive testing (NDT) inspection, all need
to be tackled by skilled trained personnel.
Moisture problems. The real price to pay for its advantages in
mechanical properties is that V-modified steel is extremely difficult
to weld. To make the welding easier, an increased overall material
management system of the welding process and welding consum-
ables are necessary. In particular, electrodes and flux are subject
to intense drying, between 350C and 400C, and maintained at
temperatures well above 130C, to remove any sign of moisture.
Moisture is extremely harmful inside the welding process; mois-
ture contains hydrogenthe primary element for cracking. It is
imperative that even the welding material held in the welding
equipment during the feeding process of the weld should be kept at
elevated temperatures. The elevated temperatures help avoid form-
ing condensation and ensure that when weld consumable material
reaches the weld zone, it is dry and fully cleared of moisture.
Managing the welding and controlling the heat treatments
helps to obtain the desired mechanical properties, especially
the required toughness. From historical evidence, typically the
heat-affected zone is the weakest area in most welded metals. In
V-modified steel, regarding toughness at low temperatures, the
critical zone is the area meltedthe weld deposit. Today, despite
all the technological efforts, the filler material still faces some dif-
ficulties keeping up with the requirements of industry.
The welding consumable materials are characterized by very
low storage of hydrogen, specifically designed for welding steels
with 2.25% Mo, 1% Cr, 0.25% V, resistant to creep and hydrogen
attack. The weld metal is resistant to embrittlement caused by the
high-temperature service, and is verified during step cooling tests.
The valuesX factor and J factorare very low, on average
below 15 and 100, respectively.
Another important factor in fabricating reactors in
2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V is the PWHT. In fact, compared to the con-
ventional 2.25Cr-1Mo, V-modified steel requires a higher tem-
perature PWHT with longer holding times, typically 710 +/5C
for 89 hours.
Critical temperature parameters. Specialists in this field
recognize that the weld metal on these types of materials has a
critical PWHT temperature of 705C and a holding time at that
temperature for at least 8 hours. These two parameters of tem-
perature and holding time are higher than the standard required
by ASME where:
ASME VIII Div. 2 Ed. 2009b Table 6.11 for P-No.5C states
a minimum 675C
ASME VIII Div. 2 Ed. 2009b Table 6.11 P-No.5C states a
Holding time minimum for tn < 50 mm 1h
Many specialists consider these temperatures and holding
times to be insufficient.
Therefore, to have good mechanical properties of materials in
welding, PWHT is carried out at higher temperatures and over
longer periods of time in special furnaces capable of treating whole
or sections of reactors from 800 tons to 900 tons.
In addition to these two parameters, the temperature profile is
critical. It is essential that the temperature is the same all the way
through the reactor body, and that during the temperature rise
and fall, the differences in metal temperature is minimal.
Problems for reactors where temperatures of the PWHT are
not homogeneous can include:
Potentially leave residual welding stresses and generate new
stresses due to the different temperatures in various parts of the
reactor
Reduce toughness (and risk H
2
attack) in the zones under
temperature
Increase hardness in the zones under temperature
PWHT at over temperature with over soak (e.g., 720C/12
h) along with higher X factor and J factor, can compromise step-
cooling test results (an accelerated thermal aging test)
Circumferential welding of 2 x 2Cro-1Mo-V shell cans
with preheat burners.
FIG. 3
55 50 45 40 35
Temperature, C
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

M
p
a
30 25 20
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
Minimum pressure temperature cure. FIG. 2
62

I

PWHT and other cumulative heat treatments influence the
properties of materials (base metal and weld metal).
It is clear that the target must be to create a homogeneous
temperature profile over the whole reactor, where the temperature
gradient must be steady enough to ensure that temperature dif-
ferentials do not occur through the thickness of the metal. Also,
it can be demonstrated that the PWHT during construction plays
a vital role in determining the service life of the reactor, and that,
critically, any one activity can jeopardize the success of a project,
but none more so than PWHT. A well-executed PWHT can be
proven to extend the service life of the reactor.
Non-destructive testing. Another very important aspect in
the construction of the reactors is nondestructive testing (NDT).
For reactors in 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V, the acceptance criteria are
necessarily higher and more stringent than conventional steels.
Even small indications may give rise to problems later in fabrica-
tion, where they can be a trigger for defects with greater impor-
tance, such as cracks. Table 1 lists examples of typical examination
procedures used on certain weld types in the manufacturing cycle.
Fitness for service. A final consideration should be made to
the minimum pressurization temperature (MPT). Process equip-
ment fitness-for-service assessments using API RP 579 is a sophis-
ticated prediction tool to assess the metallurgical condition of a
section of process equipment. The analyses of stresses and strains
of pressure equipment can assist in predicting whether operating
equipment is fit for its intended service. The studies predict how
the material will behave according to certain operating conditions
and is used to establish an MPT curve. This curve provides an
accurate limit for operating characteristics. In this manner, startup
and shutdown procedures can be set closer to these limits, making
the plant more flexible. If the MPT is under the curve, then we
are in optimal conditions. Other critical information necessary
to calculate the MPT include actual data from the material used.
There is a direct correlation between the X and J factors and MPT.
The lower the X and J factors, the lower the MPT. And to achieve
a low X and J factor, then cleaner materials with fewer impurities
are necessary. Fig. 2 shows a typical MPT curve.
This field of research regarding the use of materials and pro-
cess standards for fabrication of heavy-wall vessels of 2 Cr-
1Mo- V alloy for service with hydrogen at high pressures and
temperatures is under continuous review. American Petroleum
Institutes publication of API 934-F is under development exclu-
sively for this topic.
Reactor fabrication. In summary, there are only a small
number of key factors that greatly influence safer reactor fabrica-
tion. Intensive training of all personnel involved in the fabrica-
tion and inspection of the reactor is paramount. It is important
that each individual takes responsibility and care for himself, his
(her) fellow workers, as well as the entire team. The importance
of special care required in the management of welding consum-
ables is also illustrated here. We have highlighted the importance
of good reliable automated process control during each of the
welding phasesfrom pre-heating, to welding, to post-weld
heat treating. Control of the complete manufacturing process
should be guaranteed by developing and following specific weld-
ing procedures, and by fixing welding parameters in production
with automatic continuous recording and control methods. To
minimize the risk of premature brittle fracture, it is advisable to
have an ISR furnace in the shop. It is indispensable to be critical in
NDT, as small indications can propagate into larger failures. Con-
sequently, specific training and qualification are required for all
technicians and operators. Finally, and arguably most importantly,
it is important to have reliable execution of PWHT procedures,
with well controlled furnaces and skilled personnel to guarantee
precise temperature curves with a temperature profile no greater
than +/- 5C. HP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASME CODES
API 579
API 934-A & -B
API 941
Giacomo Fossataro is the technical and operation manager
at Walter Tosto with global responsibility for design, manufacturing
and quality control activities. He started his professional career in
Walter Tostos technical department and has held many positions
within Walter Tosto including head of technical department and
manager of site activities. Mr. Fossataro holds a degree in engineering (industrial
technologies) from the Politecnico di Milano.
Davide Quintiliani is an international welding technologist
and international welding inspector, and II Level of several NDE
techniques. He joined Walter Tosto in 1996 as a quality control
Inspector; in 2004, he became head of the quality control depart-
ment with roles of NDE and welding coordinator. From 2008 to
present, he is the head of the welding department, chief welding coordinator and
material selection specialist. Mr. Davide has a degree from the University of Chieti
G. DAnnunzio, in health and safety at work and a second degree in techniques of
loss prevention at work and the environment. He has authored 24 technical articles
regarding PED, quality, NDE and welding.
Michael De Colellis is a project manager at Walter Tosto
SpA in Chieti, Italy. He has a BE degree in manufacturing systems
engineering from the University of Hertfordshire, UK, and an MSc
degree in advanced manufacturing systems and technology, from
the University of Liverpool. Mr. De Colellis began in the automo-
tive and earthmoving equipment industry, working from quality engineer to quality
manager, at General Motors and Case New Holand, before transferring into the oil
and gas pressure equipment construction business.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) of the 2Cro-1Mo-V shell
cans.
FIG. 4

I

63
Designing atmospheric crude
distillation for bitumen service
Oil sands add complexity to separation units and require a new approach
M. GRANDE and M. GUTSCHER, Fluor Canada Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada
B
itumen blends derived from the Alberta oil sands are becom-
ing a significant feedstock for North American refiners. In
2009, Canada produced about 1.5 million bpd of raw bitu-
men with about 0.46 million bpd of bitumen blends exported to
the US.
1,2
This export figure becomes even larger when consider-
ing bitumen blends that are commingled with conventional heavy
oil and are, therefore, classified as conventional heavy oil, such as
Western Canadian Select (WCS). The steep production decline
from Mexicos Cantarell field and Venezuelas recent shift toward
non-US markets, such as China, could make securing supplies
from Canada more attractive.
3
Many US refineries in the Gulf
Coast area are already configured to process heavy oil and a pipe-
line network is already established to transport oil sands produc-
tion to refineries located within Canada as well as in the US West,
Midwest and Gulf Coast areas.
1
Additional pipeline capacity has
been recently completed to the US Midwest with additional pro-
posals for other areas, including the Gulf Coast, indicating that
more refiners will have access to feedstocks containing bitumen.
BACKGROUND
Bitumen from the Alberta oil sands has an extremely high
viscosity (typically approaching 1 x 10
6
cSt at 15C) and a high
asphaltene content approaching 20 wt% C
5
insoluble. Conse-
quently, transportation of bitumen is accomplished by forming
blends with a diluent comprised of gas condensates or naphtha
(C
5
+) that is termed dilbit, with synthetic crude oils termed syn-
bit, or a combination thereof referred to as syndilbit. The blend-
ing ratio for dilbit is typically about 70:30 bitumen to diluent by
volume; whereas for synbit, the blending ratio is typically 50:50.
These blending ratios are based on meeting pipeline specifications
of 18API and 350 cSt. Bitumen from the Alberta oil sands is
similar in gravity but typically much more viscous than the extra
heavy oil produced from Venezuelas Orinoco Belt.
Challenges with bitumen. Some other challenging proper-
ties of bitumen from the Alberta oil sands include:
Higher fouling tendencies and a lower thermal stability than
other higher hydrogen-content crudes due to a high aromatic con-
tent, particularly asphaltenes
Large atmospheric residue (AR defined as 343+C TBP) con-
tent of approximately 85 vol%
High total acid number (TAN) value of approximately 2.5 to 3.5
mg KOH/g, a high sulfur content of approximately 4.5 wt% to 5 wt%,
and a high nitrogen content of approximately 0.3 wt% to 0.55 wt%
Increased salt hydrolysis in the fired heater as desalting a
dilbit feed has not been proven commercially reliable.
Processing issues. Processing bitumen blends, particularly
dilbit containing Athabasca bitumen from the Alberta oil sands
that is the focus of this discussion, requires specific considerations
that impact the design of a crude unit within an upgrader or the
revamp of such a unit within an existing refinery. Revamp consid-
erations may include existing crude units that will process various
bitumen blends with other conventional feedstocks. In the case of
an upgrader, this unit is often referred to as the diluent recovery
unit (DRU) because the recovered naphtha/gas condensate is
recycled as transportation diluent. Refiners processing dilbit or
other feeds may also sell a portion of the recovered naphtha/con-
densate as transportation diluent as opposed to further refining
this material for the gasoline pool or as a petrochemical feedstock.
Due to a shortage of diluent in Alberta in 2009, more than 60,000
bpd of diluent was returned to Alberta by rail from the US.
1
The
completion of the Enbridge Southern Lights diluent pipeline will
provide the capacity to deliver 180,000 bpd of diluent to Alberta
from the US Midwest. Furthermore, with the use of the Capline
pipeline, diluent from the US Gulf Coast area will be able to con-
nect with the new Enbridge pipeline via the Chicap pipeline.
1
DRU COLUMN DESIGN
The main objectives of a DRU column are to recover transpor-
tation diluent remaining in the column feed (after preflash) and to
fractionate distillates, such as atmospheric gasoil (AGO), from the
bitumen feed that can be processed directly in a hydroprocessing
unit. To achieve these objectives, a typical column configuration, as
shown in Fig. 1, consists of a diluent rectification section, an AGO
pumparound section, an AGO product-side stripper, an AGO
wash section and an atmospheric residue (AR) stripping section.
Naphtha rectification section. The degree of fractionation
required between the recovered naphtha in the DRU column
overhead and the AGO product is dependent on whether the
recovered naphtha will be further refined or will be returned as
transportation diluent. If the recovered naphtha is further frac-
tionated and refined, the downstream naphtha processing units
will determine the naphtha endpoint and the sharpness of frac-
tionation required. When the recovered naphtha is returned for
transportation purposes, the degree of fractionation between the
recovered naphtha and the AGO product is typically determined
64

CLEAN FUELS
based on the percentage of diluent recovery desired while main-
taining a total recovered diluent composition that is essentially the
same as the originating feed diluent, i.e., provide sufficient frac-
tionation gap between the diluent and the AGO products. As the
initial boiling point of bitumen typically resides in the kerosine
boiling range, providing this fractionation gap is easily achievable
based on the typical boiling range of transportation diluent.
If the naphtha is recycled for use as transportation diluent, the
recovered naphtha from the DRU column overhead, together
with that of the preflash section, is typically routed to a reboiled
stripper to remove hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) and other light mate-
rials. The level of H
2
S stripping is dependent on the amount of
cracked H
2
S formed in the fired heater and is a function of the
feed sulfur content and film temperatures reached in the fired
heater. Significant diluent losses to the overhead of a stripper may
be incurred if a stringent vapor pressure specification also applies.
For these cases, the recovered naphtha may be processed through
a refluxed column (i.e., a debutanizer) that will also achieve the
required H
2
S specification. The rectification section of a refluxed
column ensures that a high diluent recovery is maintained.
AGO PA and product stripping. The AGO pumparound
(PA) section removes a significant portion of cooling duty lower
in the column to help condense the AGO product and the AGO
wash oil sent to the wash section. The heat removed in the AGO
Stripping
steam
Stripping
steam
Column feed
from red heater
AGO product
Recoverd
naphtha
Offgas
Sour water
Preash vapor
AR product
Typical DRU column configuration. FIG. 1
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Diluent preash diluent feed, %
F
i
r
e
d

h
e
a
t
e
r

C
O
T
,

C
O
T
M
a
x

+
/
-

C
78
84
90
96
102
108
114
120
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

D
B
a
s
e
,

%
COT
Diameter
Impact of diluent preflash on fired-heater COT and column
diameter.
FIG. 2
Not the length is important
but the technique
Abstain
from drive shafts being long and susceptible to troubles
Spare
needless shaft and guide bearings
Forget
complex and cost-intensive seal technology
Require
best available technology for a long service life
and high availability

HERMETIC-Pumpen GmbH
P.O. Box 1220
D-79191 Gundelngen
info.hp@lederle-hermetic.com
www.lederle-hermetic.com
support and
cable pipe
pressure /
discharge line
extremely short
drive shaft
if 2 or 20 meters we are exible
H E R M E T I C A L L Y S E A L E D
S U B M E R S I B L E P U M P S

I

65
PA section reduces the vapor traffic and the resulting required
column diameter of the diluent rectification section while pro-
viding higher heat recovery than that available from the col-
umn overhead. The AGO withdrawn from the DRU column is
steam stripped in a product side stripper for flash point reduction.
The TAN content of the AGO material is typically about 2 mg
KOH/g. This TAN content requires upgraded metallurgy for this
column section, as well as for the hot portions of the AGO PA
and product circuits.
AGO wash section. The degree of fractionation required
between AGO and AR products is based on the desired distillate
yield and endpoint specification (ASTM 95% temperature). The
yield of AGO and its associated endpoint is determined by the
level of distillate hydrotreating required to meet distillate product
specifications while minimizing AGO material in the AR product.
The objectives of the wash zone are to minimize AGO product
endpoint by rectifying the flash zone vapor, and to de-entrain AR
in the flash zone vapor. Minimizing the endpoint for a desired
yield will improve the quality of the AGO product that is fed to a
hydroprocessing unit. The wash section also minimizes the amount
of solids/ultra fines, which can be particularly troublesome with
mined bitumen feedstocks, from entering the AGO product draw.
The selected wash-oil rate and design of wash section internals
is important to ensure that the listed objectives are achieved.
The wash-oil rate should be based on the governing require-
ment between the required rectification for the AGO endpoint
specification and the required overflash for de-entrainment of AR/
solids. Overflash is defined as the true reflux, excluding entrained
liquid that exits the wash section. Good fractionation between
the AGO and AR products is best achieved with a combination
of a low specific surface area (grid) type packing that is placed as a
bottom layer followed by a higher specific surface area (structured)
type packing as a top layer. The resulting combination improves
the de-entrainment and fractionation ability while maintaining a
reasonable packed-bed height and minimizing fouling. The larger
open area (relative to trays) also allows packing to better handle
a sudden increase in vapor rate, such as an upset that can occur if
a liquid water slug is carried over in the feed to the fired heater.
Bottoms stripping. Bottoms stripping improves the frac-
tionation between AGO and AR products and allows for decreas-
ing the fired-heater coil outlet temperature (COT) or increasing
the preflash for a fixed AGO yield. Trays are best suited to achieve
multiple stages of fractionation in this section.
The bottoms stripping section requires a smaller diameter rela-
tive to the upper sections based on the steam and stripped hydro-
carbon vapor loading. However, to minimize column height, using
a full-diameter sump is more practical for providing the required
AR product residence time. An internal cylinder may be utilized
with multi-pass trays (preferably two-pass) that minimize liquid
stagnant zones with suitable active and fractional hole areas that
will minimize fouling and maximize tray efficiency.
PREFLASH TARGET CONSIDERATIONS
Due to the large amount of transportation diluent in the dilbit
feed, a preflash system is often applied. The preflash removes a
substantial portion of this diluent to lower the flow through the
remaining preheat circuit and the fired heater, as well as to reduce
the DRU column diameter.
The main process parameters involved in achieving distillate
lift are diluent slip (diluent that is remaining in the column feed),
stripping steam and fired-heater duty at the permissible COT.
Diluent slip and stripping steam assist in stripping distillate mate-
rial in the bitumen feed that allows for a lower fired-heater COT or
an incremental gain in AGO yield. The fired-heater COT required
for reliable operation in bitumen service is typically lower than that
encountered when processing light conventional crudes.
Consequently, optimizing the preflash target requires assessing
the impact that the diluent slip and stripping steam rate have on the
fired-heater COT and column diameter. This assessment should
also include the costs associated with producing the steam required
and treating the resulting sour water produced. These concepts in
optimizing the preflash section can also be applied to the revamp
of an existing crude distillation unit (CDU) to unload the upper
portions of the column and column-overhead system. These areas
may become bottlenecks due to the high naphtha content of dilbit
feeds even with preflash processing schemes.
Column diameter assessment. The impact that the
diluent preflash has on the DRU column diameter and fired-
heater COT is illustrated in Fig. 2 This figure is based on the
column configuration discussed earlier with a fixed stripping
steam rate as well as a fixed AGO yield and endpoint specification.
Fig. 2 illustrates that the fired-heater COT is reduced as
diluent preflash decreases at a fixed stripping steam rate. However,
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
F
i
r
e
d

h
e
a
t
e
r

C
O
T
,

C
O
T
M
a
x

+
/
-

C
78
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25
84
90
96
102
108
114
120
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

D
B
a
s
e
,

%
COT
Diameter
Stripping steam rate, % AR
Impact of stripping steam rate on fired-heater COT and
column diameter.
FIG. 3
Steam rate
Diameter
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.7
3.0
3.3
3.6
25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Diluent preash, % diluent feed
S
t
r
i
p
p
i
n
g

s
t
e
a
m

r
a
t
e
,

w
t
%

A
R
78
84
90
96
102
108
114
120
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
,

%

D
B
a
s
e
Impact of diluent preflash and stripping steam on column
diameter.
FIG. 4
66

I

this reduction is obtained at the expense of significantly increasing
the column diameter due to the additional diluent feed (vapor
traffic) to the column.
The higher (and lighter) content of diluent in the column feed
provides marginal incremental lift with single-stage separation
that occurs in the flash zone. This single-stage separation, coupled
with the resulting relative volatility of the diluent mixture, does
not effectively reduce the required fired-heater COT when the
resulting impact on column diameter is considered. Consequently,
fired-heater designs that allow for an incrementally higher COT
while maintaining suitable film temperatures and residence times
will significantly reduce the required column diameter due to the
allowable diluent reduction in the column feed.
Achieving this incrementally higher COT may also have a sig-
nificant impact when considering the revamp of an existing CDU.
Any modifications to the fired heater that will achieve a higher
COT will allow for a higher preflash (practicality needs to be deter-
mined on a case-by-case basis). This higher preflash will unload the
upper portions of the column and column-overhead system that
may result in a higher dilbit feed throughput to the existing unit.
The impact that the stripping steam rate has on column diame-
ter and fired-heater COT is illustrated in Fig. 3. This figure is based
on the column configuration discussed earlier with a fixed-column
feed diluent content as well as a fixed AGO yield and endpoint
specification. Fig. 3 illustrates that the fired-heater COT is signifi-
cantly reduced as the stripping steam rate increases. Furthermore,
the corresponding column diameter increase is not as significant
as that required to achieve the same effect by increasing the diluent
content in the column feed (see Fig. 2). The stripping steam pro-
vides more incremental lift due to its higher relative volatility and
multiple stages of fractionation provided in the stripping section.
Another advantage that the stripping section stages provide
is sharper fractionation between the AGO and AR products.
Consequently, the combined vapors from the stripping and flash
sections require less rectification in the wash section. If the wash-
oil rate is dictated by the AGO endpoint (i.e., the rectification
requirement discussed earlier), the required wash-oil rate will
decrease. This decrease will further lower the required fired-heater
COT because less bitumen material needs to be lifted to supply
the required wash-oil rate.
The disadvantage of significantly increasing the stripping
steam rate is the increased operating costs associated with supply-
ing steam and treating the additional produced sour water. Fur-
thermore, the water dew point of the column overhead increases
and needs to be addressed in the design of the overhead system.
With the fired-heater COT set to the constraint established,
the required column diameter vs. diluent preflash and stripping
steam rate may be determined. Fig. 4 illustrates this relationship.
This figure is based on the column configuration discussed earlier
with a fixed AGO yield and end-point specification.
Fig. 4, as expected from Figs. 2 and 3, illustrates that column
diameter is reduced when diluent preflash is maximized. This
trend is observed up to a preflash value of approximately 80%.
At this high level of preflash, limitations of the overhead system
to maintain column reflux and a margin above water dew point
become a concern. For a two-stage condensing configuration (as
shown in Fig. 1), as the amount of preflash increases, the hydrocar-
bon flowrate at the column overhead decreases and the steam rate
increases. This combined effect significantly increases the steam
partial pressure, which reduces the amount of condensable material
available for column reflux at a fixed condensing temperature. At
a diluent preflash of about 80%, the net overhead liquid product
available from the reflux drum is fully consumed by the reflux
requirement. To increase preflash beyond 80%, the reflux tempera-
ture must be reduced and/or AGO PA duty must be shifted to the
overhead system. Reducing the reflux temperature is not desirable
as this quickly eliminates any margin between the reflux tempera-
ture and the water dew point temperature of the column overhead.
This reduced reflux temperature may lead to water condensing in
the first-stage overhead drum. Shifting the PA duty to the overhead
condenser increases the vapor traffic in the naphtha-rectification
section, which will increase the required column diameter, revers-
ing the trend of increasing preflash. Furthermore, shifting the PA
duty reduces the amount of high-level heat that can be recovered
from the column through heat integration.
PREFLASH TARGET OPTIMIZATION
Considering the impact that preflash has on the DRU column
diameter, the overall preflash target can be optimized with the
remaining unit capital and operating costs. This optimization
should consider the cost of steam required for stripping, the
operating cost to treat the resulting produced sour water and any
environmental issues/limitations in water usage.
The preflash target will also have implications on the heat-inte-
gration scheme. As the diluent preflash is increased, the preheat
temperature required for preflash can increase significantly. For
the example utilized in the earlier figures, the preheat temperature
required for a total diluent preflash of 55% is 185C and increases
to 235C for a total diluent preflash of 80%. These temperatures
are at the second stage of a two-stage preflash drum configuration.
The preheat temperature(s) required to achieve the desired pre-
flash can have a significant impact on the heat-recovery arrange-
ment and on the utility heat and/or fired heater duty. Therefore,
the resulting heat integration scheme, including the cost benefits
of using utility heat and the desired flexibility in preheat/preflash
control, should be considered.
Preflash configuration. The preflash
target may be achieved with either a single-
or multiple-stage preflash configuration, as
illustrated in Fig. 5. A preflash column is
not generally required due to the significant
volatility gap between the portion of trans-
portation diluent preflashed and the bitu-
men. Preflash drum(s) will provide adequate
separation within the range of preflash levels
presented in the earlier examples without
impacting the desired fractionation between
the diluent and the AGO products.
Dilbit
feed
Preash vapor
Column
feed
Column
feed
Preash vapor
Single-stage preash system Two-stage preash system
Dilbit
feed
Preflash configurations. FIG. 5

67
To minimize fouling and provide reliable parallel flow control
for multiple heat-exchanger services and fired heater, single liquid
phase dilbit preheat is desired. Single-phase dilbit preheat should
be maintained through to the inlet of the preflash flow control
valve(s) and the inlet of the fired-heater pass control valves. To
suppress vaporization at the required preheat temperatures, an
adequate pump head must be supplied with the dilbit control
valve(s) placed at the back (i.e., hot) end of the preheat circuit(s),
immediately upstream of each stage of preflash.
Design. Dilbit feeds contain water and light-diluent compo-
nents that significantly increase the feed vapor pressure (par-
ticularly water). To achieve higher levels of preflash, the required
preheat temperatures increase, resulting in very large increases in
the feed vapor pressure. An advantage of the two-stage configu-
ration is that the desired total preflash can be controlled at the
second stage, allowing the first-stage preheat temperature to be
selected independently of the total desired preflash. The preheat
temperature for the first stage can be selected with the objective
of only removing all of the free water normally present in the feed,
thereby minimizing the vapor pressure of the first stage.
Minimizing this vapor pressure will minimize the result-
ing operating pressure required to suppress vaporization in the
first-stage preheat circuit. The desired total preflash is then fully
accomplished in the second stage at a comparably lower vapor
pressure than that required with a single-stage configuration.
Consequently, the head requirement of the preflash feed pumps
as well as the design pressures of downstream exchangers/piping
in both stages for a two-stage system are reduced compared to a
single-stage system. These reductions are achieved at the expense
of adding a second-stage flash drum and pump. The intent is to
reduce cost with the reduction in heat-exchanger design pressures
and piping flange ratings permitted by a two-stage configuration.
Fig. 6 illustrates the reductions in vapor pressure achievable
with a two-stage system by plotting the resulting vapor pressure
vs. the desired preflash with a single- and a two-stage flash-drum
configuration. For the two-stage configuration, the first-stage flash
is maintained constant with the objective of only removing all free
water resulting in a first-stage preflash of approximately 27%. To
achieve the total desired preflash, any additional diluent flash is
generated with the second stage.
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Diluent preash, % diluent feed
V
a
p
o
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

k
P
a
A
Single stage
Second stage
First stage
Effect of diluent preflash on vapor pressure. FIG. 6
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I

Fig. 6 illustrates that the resulting exchanger design pressures,
piping flange ratings and combined pump-head requirements for
the single-stage preflash configuration become much greater than
for the two-stage configuration as the diluent preflash increases.
Consequently, a two-stage configuration may become more
appealing for higher levels of diluent preflash. For integrated mine-
upgrader facilities, where higher unit feed dilbit ratios are encoun-
tered, it may be desirable to achieve a much higher diluent preflash
to maintain a similar optimum diluent slip to the DRU column as
in a segregated upgrader/refinery facility. Therefore, a multi-stage
configuration is even more appealing for integrated mine-upgrader
facilities than for a stand-alone refinery or upgrader.
Free water issues. Free water that is not removed from a
diluted bitumen feed may cause significant damage to the fired
heater and/or to the DRU column due to the heaters ability to
rapidly vaporize the free water. At the very least, if water is unex-
pectedly present at the heater inlet control valves, it will likely form
steam, thus creating two-phase flow and control difficulties with
the heater pass control valves. Consequently, a two-stage preflash
configuration that removes all feed water in the first-stage flash
offers an additional benefit. With this design, should a slug of feed
water enter the unit, the second-stage flash will reduce the risk of
free water breaking through to the final preheat circuit upstream
of the fired heater. However, both single- and two-stage preflash
configurations that are designed for a high level of diluent preflash
(i.e., hotter preflash temperatures) will operate with a margin above
the expected water dew point and will consequently provide some
flexibility in removing a higher than expected feed-water content.
A higher than expected feed-water content will affect the per-
formance of the preflash section and column overhead system
for both preflash configurations. A higher feed-water content
will alter the preflash temperatures and may affect the amount
of diluent preflashed. The additional steam entering the column
overhead system from the preflash section may increase the over-
head system pressure, increase the offgas rate (resulting in lower
diluent recovery and possible venting to the flare) and signifi-
cantly increase sour-water production that could accumulate in
the overhead drum. These consequences for the preflash section
and column overhead system should be evaluated to determine
if design adjustments to minimize these impacts are warranted.
DRU COLUMN OVERHEAD SYSTEM DESIGN
The objectives of the overhead system are to condense the
DRU column overhead and preflash overheads; supply column
reflux; and separate water and any noncondensable gases present
due to cracking reactions (thermal decomposition) in the fired
heater. Design of the overhead system should mitigate corrosion
to maximize equipment service life while providing an operation-
ally reliable design. HP
Marco Grande is a principal process engineer with Fluor Canada Ltd., Calgary,
Alberta, Canada. His experience is in bitumen/heavy-oil upgrading and downstream
refining. He holds a BSc degree in chemical engineering from the University of Alberta.
Matthew Gutscher is an engineer in training (EIT) in the process engineering
group with Fluor Canada Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He has a BSc degree in
chemical engineering from the University of Alberta.
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71
Minimize carbon footprint
from Claus tail-gas units
Reevaluate emissions efficiencies on sulfur-removal operations
M. P. HEISEL, ITS Reaktortechnik GmbH, Pullach, Germany; and
M. RAMESHNI, Worley Parsons, Monrovia, California
T
here are thousands of sulfur recovery units (SRUs) world-
wide converting poisonous hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) into ele-
mental sulfur (S). A typical two-stage Claus plant achieves
95%97% recovery. In most cases, secondary tail-gas treating is
required for total recoveries from 98% to 99.98%.
In the past, authorities required a sulfur recovery rate (SRR)
to meet local legislation. Other emissions, notably carbon dioxide
(CO
2
), were of no concern. In view of the global climate change
debate and continuously rising energy prices, limiting CO
2
emis-
sion is becoming important. Various Claus tail-gas treatment
options are available, but, differ in terms of carbon footprint,
sulfur recovery efficiency, capital expenditure (CAPEX) and oper-
ating expenses (OPEX).
What is the best? There are three principles of Claus tail-gas
treatment:
Recycle processes that convert all residual sulfur species
into either H
2
S or sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) scrub off this species and
recycle it to the front end of the Claus plant
Cyclical catalytic sub dew point (SDP) processes that con-
tinue the Claus reaction at temperatures below the SDP and shift
the chemical equilibrium to more sulfur formation
Selective oxidation of H
2
S directly to elemental S.
In quantifying relative CO
2
emissions, it is surprising how
much the carbon footprint can vary between processes despite
comparable sulfur recovery efficiencies as presented here.
Calculation method. Barring sister units, there probably are
not two really identical Claus plants in the
world, even though the process principle
is very similar. For example, there are dif-
ferent methods of reheat before entering
the catalytic reactors, as indirect heating by
steam or by inline burners, to name just two
alternatives frequently applied. When com-
paring available processes, a base case must
be selected. The calculation method is listed
so that every adaptation of the specific case
can easily be done.
Quantitative comparison requires defin-
ing an equivalent unit of CO
2
emission for
any form of energy expended. This is easiest
done via fuel gas, where oxidation of 1 mole
of methane (CH
4
) emits 1 mole of CO
2
.
For other energy forms, equivalents must be calculated by more
complex methods, as summarized in Table 1.
All of these values are calculated rather conservatively. For
example, generating electric power in a lignite-fired power plant
requires more CO
2
than in a gas-power plant and that too does
not have more than approximately 40% efficiency. Actually, per
kWh electric power, one can assume between 439 g CO
2
/kWh
and 1,306 g CO
2
/kWh (see Fig. 1), which corresponds to 0.22
m CO
2
/kWh to 0.65 m CO
2
/kWh. For our calculation, we
assumed 0.26 m CO
2
/kWh, i.e., a low value.
The processes. The basic principle of the Claus process is the
1017
790
Coal Gas
Source: IAEA 2000
Hydro Solar PV Wind Nuclear
575
362
236 280
100
48
10 9 21
77
4
113
176
289
Indirect, from life cycle
Direct emissions from burning
Twin bars indicate range
0
200
400
600
G
H
G
,

g
r
a
m
s

C
O
2

e
q
u
i
a
l
e
n
t
/
k
W
h
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
CO
2
emission per kWh of electric power.
1
FIG. 1
Feed gas
Air Air Fuel gas Sulfur
Oxygen
(optional)
BFW
MP stream
To atmosphere
MP stream
F2 F1
C1 R1 R2
W1 W2
W4 W3
BFW
Typical process flow diagram of a 2-stage Claus plant. FIG. 2
72

I

conversion of H
2
S into elemental S. In a two-stage Claus unit,
this is done by oxidation of nominally one-third of the H
2
S in
the feed gas to SO
2
and reacting these compounds according to
the Claus equation:
2 H
2
S + 1 SO
2
3/x S
x
+ 2H
2
O + energy Claus reaction
x: 2, 4, 6, 8 according to the modifications of sulfur
This reaction initially takes place in the Claus furnace, typi-
cally accounting for 60%70% of total conversion. This level is
not sufficient to meet environmental standards, and the reaction
must proceed further in downstream catalytic stages. A two-stage
Claus plant typically achieves 95%97% sulfur recovery. A typical
process flow diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
From a carbon footprint perspective, the Claus process is essen-
tially a power house, generating steam from oxidation of H
2
S
to elemental S with very little CO
2
emission. In the majority of
Claus plants, the feed gas has a CO
2
content of less than 10 vol%.
The incoming CO
2
is of course later emitted from the plant. In
addition, the fuel gas is consumed to thermally oxidize residual
Claus tail-gas sulfur species to SO
2
. This fuel gas also adds to the
CO
2
emission. Overall, a Claus plant produces a lot of steam with
very little CO
2
emission. Actually, H
2
S is a very potent fuel with
zero CO
2
footprint of its own. Unfortunately, it has the great
disadvantage that its incineration product SO
2
is very poisonous.
Of course, the heating capacity of the Claus process can be used
in an industrial complex, thus reducing fuel requirements and
CO
2
emissions elsewhere.
The two-stage process does not meet current environmental
requirements. Therefore, tail-gas treatment processes are added
downstream for improved sulfur recovery. There are three types
of tail-gas treatment processesselective direct oxidation, the
recycle processes and the SDPand these will be discussed here.
Direct oxidation processes. In a direct oxidation process,
the Claus reaction furnace is operated slightly air-deficient so that
the tail gas contains mainly H
2
S that is then directly oxidized to
sulfur with supplemental air, as shown in Fig. 4. Tail-gas H
2
S must
typically be limited to 1.5 vol% to avoid catalyst damage from
high exotherms. As a matter of practicality, three Claus stages are
advisable to temper the impact of real-world fluctuations.
To calculate the CO
2
footprint from the direct oxidation
process, data from Table 2 was applied. With the data listed in
Tables 1 and 3, the CO
2
footprint can be calculated. Table 4
summarized the results (Editors note: Table 3 is available online
at HydrocarbonProcessing.com).
The process generates more energy than it consumes. This
results in a carbon credit from surplus energy. In the tables, this
is indicated by negative CO
2
emission numbers. For the other
tail-gas treatment processes, the same calculating system for deter-
mining the CO
2
footprint was applied. However, it is not shown
in the same extent of details as in this example.
TABLE 2. Process data for calculation
Claus capacity 100 t/d sulfur
Feed composition See Table 3
Reheat HP steam, indirect
Air1, Air2, Air3 Dedicated blowers for each of these units
Air demand analyzer H
2
S /SO
2
ratio = 6
Temperatures See Table 3
TABLE 1. Basic data for calculation of CO
2
footprint
Thermal energy 1 m/h of CH
4
generates 35,200 kJ/h which is 9.78 kWh/h. With this value can be calculated the CO
2
emission of thermal sources, e.g., of steam
Electric power 1 kW electric power was assumed to be generated from thermal power with an efficiency of 40% which results in
9.78 x 40% = 3.76 kWh/m CO
2
or 0.26 m CO
2
/kWh
N
2
Requires approximately 0.2 kW/m which results then in 0.2 / 3.79 = 0.05 m CO
2
Instrument air Compression energy to 10 bar plus 10% for purification: 0.15 kWh/m = 0.15/3.79 = 0.06 m CO
2
Cooling water Pumping energy up to 20 bar = 0.75 kWh/m = 0.2 m CO
2
/m CW
Demin water Cooling water + 20% = 0.24 m CO
2
/m demineralized water
HP steam Requires thermal energy of 1,678 kJ/kg steam (45 bar) plus preheat of boiler feed water from ca 105C to boiling temperature
of 256C = (1,685 + 417) / 35,200 = 0.06 m CO
2
LP steam Requires thermal energy of 2,119 kJ/kg steam (4.5 bar) = 2,119/35,200 = 0.06 m CO
2
Claus
plant
Incinerator
Air Air
Sulfur Sulfur Fuel
Vent gas
Claus feed
gas
Direct
oxidation
Block diagram of direct oxidation tail-gas treatment. FIG. 3
FrC
Feed gas Air
Condenser
S S S S
QC
FC
QC
Steam
Waste-heat
boiler
Steam
Reheater
Claus
reactor
Selective
oxidation
reactor
Incinerator
Stack
Incinerator Claus sections Claus furnace Direct
oxidation
H
2
S 0.81.5 vol%
O
2
0.52 vol%
Combustion
chamber
Typical process flow diagram of a direct oxidation
process.
2
FIG. 4
74

I

Recycle processes. Fig. 5 shows a typical hydrogenating
recycle process. In such a process, the Claus tail gas is catalytically
reduced to convert virtually all sulfur species and sulfur vapor to
H
2
S, which is then absorbed in an amine scrubber. Usually, a ter-
tiary amine selective for H
2
S is used to limit CO
2
co-absorption to
approximately 15%. In the regeneration column, a concentrated
H
2
S fraction is stripped off and is recycled to the front end of the
Claus plant, as shown in Fig. 6 (Editors note: Figs. 79 are avail-
able online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com).
There are many possible process variations. In particular, the
hydrogenation bed is often filled with a low-temperature hydro-
genation catalyst now commonly used to reduce preheat energy,
thus reducing CO
2
emissions by approximately 10%. For the
comparison, we chose a conventional catalyst requiring higher
inlet temperatures. The calculation method and process data
applied are the same as for the direct-oxidation process with only
one exception: In the air-demand analyzer (ADA), the H
2
S/SO
2

ratio is 2 here, while it was 6 for direct oxidation. Table 6 sum-
marizes the results of the CO
2
footprint calculation.
SDP processes. For the SDP process, the catalytic Claus reac-
tion is continued at lower temperatures, which shifts the chemi-
cal equilibrium to favor more sulfur formation. The tempera-
ture is chosen between the sulfur solidification point at 120C
and the SDP, which, in practice, means an inlet temperature of
125C130C. During operation, the reactor operated at SDP
conditions accumulates condensed sulfur which slowly deactivates
the catalyst. It therefore has to be regenerated, which is done by
taking this reactor out of operation and heating it by an inert gas,
such as nitrogen (N
2
), to vaporize sulfur deposited on the catalyst.
In a sulfur condenser, the sulfur is recovered and the inert gas
recycled to the reactor. While the catalyst regeneration is proceed-
ing, a parallel SDP reactor takes over the task.
There are several processes applying this principleSDP1, SDP2
and SDP3.
a,b,c
SDP1 was chosen here for the comparison. The oth-
ers can easily be derived from the SDP1 data. For calculation of the
CO
2
footprint of the SDP1 process, Table 5 summarizes the data.
For the regeneration cycle, the data in Table 5 were assumed. Table
6 lists results from the CO
2
footprint calculation. SDP1 produces
more energy from the conversion of H
2
S to elemental S than it con-
sumes. Therefore, the net CO
2
emission from the process is negative.
Alternative SDP processes. The process principle of SDP4
is a combination of a conventional Claus process with the well-
proven sub-dew-point tail-gas treatment, as the SDP1 and SDP2
processes.
a,b,d
Unlike these older processes, SDP4
f
combines the
Claus furnace with just two catalytic reactors, which are cooled
internally. This allows sulfur recovery efficiencies up to 99.85%.
Such high values could be achieved in the past only by much
more complicated processes, i.e., a complete Claus plant with
downstream tail-gas treatment. As the two-reactor process requires
less equipment and process steps, it is cheaper and more reliable.
Equipment that is not there cannot fail. Fig. 10 is a simplified
process flow diagram.
The fundamental idea of SDP4 is removing reaction heat
of the Claus reaction directly in the catalyst bed rather than in
a downstream heat exchanger. This controls the temperature
throughout the catalyst bed within a narrow range. The top layer
of the catalyst is left without cooling. The feed temperature to
this adiabatic section is typically 220C and reaction heats it up
to 320Cthe temperature required for COS and CS
2
hydrolysis.
The second section downstream in the same reactor is cooled to
an outlet temperature of typically 260C. This combination of
adiabatic and cooled reaction reaches conversion rates comparable
to a two-stage Claus plant.
Downstream then follows a sulfur condenser and then a second
identical reactor which, is operated at lower temperatures. This
Claus
plant
Incinerator
Air
Sulfur Fuel
Vent
gas
Claus
feed gas
H
2
S
wash
Hydrogen-
at ion
H
2
S recycle
Block diagram of hydrogenating recycle process. FIG. 5
TABLE 4. Summary calculation of CO
2
footprint
of Claus unit plus direct oxidation tailgas treatment
Import Equivalent CO
2
emission
El. Energy, kW 456 120
Cooling water, m/h 0 0
H
2
, std m/h 0 0
Fuel, std m/h CH
4
335 335
Instrument air, std m/h 90 3
N
2
, std m/h 0 0
Demin. water, m/h 18 4
HP steam, 45 bar sat t/h 3.32 220
LP steam, 4.5 bar sat t/h 0.2 13
Export
HP steam, 45 bar sat t/h 8.48 562
LP steam, 4.5 bar sat t/h 5.69 377
SRR,% 98.60
SO
2
emission, m/h 40.9
SO
2
emission, kg/h 116.7
CO
2
-emission total, m/h 244
CO
2
-emission total, kg/h 479
Heat
recovery
Air or
CW
Lean amine
from regen.
Partly loaded
amine to
regenerator
or another
absorber
To incinerator Claus unit
offgas
Upstream (shown as block 1), Claus furnace and catalytic Claus sections 1
and 2 shown, Hydrogenation step 2 cooler 3, quench 4, amine scrubber
5, downstream (not shown), Regeneration and incinerator.
Water (to utilities
or disposal)
Reducing
gas (opt.)
1
2 4
3
5
Typical PFD of a hydrogenation tail-gas treatment.
2
FIG. 6
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76

I

shifts the chemical equilibrium toward more sulfur formation. Actu-
ally, the outlet temperature is chosen in the range of 100C125C,
i.e., even below the S solidification point. In this operating mode,
sulfur recovery rates (SRRs) up to 99.85% have been observed.
During the operation below the SDP, the sulfur produced accu-
mulates on the catalyst and deactivates it slowly. Therefore, the cata-
lyst must to be regenerated and that is done by switching it into the
position of the first reactor. At high temperatures of up to 320C, the
sulfur is desorbed and the catalyst regenerated. The former first reac-
tor is switched at the same time into the position as the cold second
reactor. This procedure is repeated typically once every 24 hours.
Reaction heat in the catalytic converters generates steam. For
the CO
2
footprint calculation, it was assumed that this steam is
condensed in air coolers. This reduces the energy efficiency of the
process, but it simplifies operation. Table 6 summarizes the results
of the CO
2
footprint calculation. SDP4 produces more energy
from the conversion of H
2
S to elemental S than it consumes on the
way. Therefore, the net CO
2
emission from the process is negative.
Hydrogenation/selective process. The TGT5 catalyst is a
proprietary low-temperature H
2
S oxidation and Claus-reaction
catalyst.
e
Reduced tail gas from the TGT5 contact condenser is
reheated to 200C250C and combined with a stoichiometric
quantity of air in the reactor to produce elemental S that is subse-
quently condensed. Total recoveries of 98.5%99.5% are achiev-
able. The reactor inlet is limited to 5 vol% H
2
S, above which
recycle dilution (or inter-bed heat removal) is necessary to limit the
exotherm. A simplified process flow diagram is shown in Fig. 12.
The result of the CO
2
footprint calculation is summarized
in the Table 6 overview. The SDP5 process also produces more
energy from the conversion of H
2
S to elemental S than it con-
sumes on the way. Therefore, the net CO
2
emission from the
process is negative.
Catalytic incineration process. For the increasingly rare
instances when tail gas treatment is still not required, a new pro-
cess, TGT6, uses a two-stage catalytic thermal incineration process
(patent pending).
f
A low-temperature hydrogenation catalyst
TABLE 6. Comparison of the CO
2
and SO
2
footprints of
various Claus tail-gas treatment processes
Import Claus 1 Claus 2 SDP1 SDP4 SDP5 SDP6
Equivalent CO
2
emission, m
3
/h
kW 189 120 140 135 119 124
Cooling water, m
3
/h 80 0 0 0 0 0
H
2
, m
3
/h 42 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel, std m
3
/h CH
4
384 335 323 356 262 297
Instrument air, std m
3
/h 3 3 3 2 3 3
N
2
, std m
3
/h 6 0 3 0 0 0
Demin water, m
3
/h 10 4 4 4 4 4
HP steam, 45 bar sat, t/h 115 220 156 73 116 165
LP steam, 4.5 bar sat, t/h 179 13 13 13 13 13
Export
HP steam, 45 bar sat, t/h 721 562 626 864 590 579
LP steam, 4.5 bar sat, t/h 109 377 309 195 332 309
SRR, % 99.9 98.6 99 99.8 99 97.3
SO
2
emission, kg/h 8 117 83 13 81 224
Total CO
2
emission, kg/h 349.6 479.0 577.5 932.1 798.1 554.4
Claus 1 r Hydrogenating (TGT1)
g
Claus 2 r Direct oxidation (TGT2)
h
SDP1 r Sub-dew-point 1
a
SDP4 r Sub-dew-point 4
d
SDP5 r Hydrogenation/selective oxidation (TGT5)
e
SDP6 r Catalytic incineration (TGT6)
f
Claus
furnace
SDP4
stage
cold mode
Sulfur
condenser
SDP4
stage
hot mode
Feed
gas
Air
1
Incinerator
Fuel Air
Reheat
Reheat
1
10
8
7
3
4
9
2
11
5
6
SDP4 process flow diagram. FIG. 10
TABLE 5. Data for calculation of energy demand for
regeneration of the sulfur loaded SDP1 reactor
Inert gas N
2
Gas flow 250 kmol/h
Temperature in sulfur condenser 125C
Regeneration temperature 340C
t in heat exchanger, which has to be covered by fuel 30C
Claus
plant
Air Air
Sulfur Sulfur Fuel
Vent
gas
Claus
feed gas
Selective
oxidation
Hydro-
genation
Thermal
incineration
Block diagram of the TGT5 process. FIG. 11
SRU tail gas
RGG
Hydrogenation
reactor
Air
Steam
reheater
TGT5
reactor
Sulfur
condenser
Tail gas to
incinerator
Sulfur
LP steam
Recycle
water
Sour water
blowdown
10% NaOH
Contact
condenser
Desuper-
heater
Reduced
tail gas
Natural gas
Combustion air
TGT5 process flow diagram. FIG. 12

77
converts virtually all Claus tail-gas sulfur to H
2
S while capital-
izing on the resultant exotherm to initiate thermal oxidation in
the subsequent TGT5 stage. Incineration fuel is thus substantially
reduced from that required for conventional catalytic incinera-
tion. A simplified process flow diagram is shown in Fig. 13. Table
6 summarizes the CO
2
footprint calculation results. The TGT6
process also produces more energy from the conversion of H
2
S to
elemental S than it consumes. Also, the net CO
2
emission from
the process is negative.
Comparing technologies. With the data from the described
technologies, we can now compare the respective CO
2
footprint
quantified. In Table 6, the CO
2
contributions of the different
steps in the processes are listed. One can easily distinguish the
contributions of different forms of energy to the emissions.
Import of utilities. Needed imports include:
Electric power. While TGT2,
h
SDP1, SDP4 and TGT5 are
rather close together, TGT1
g
requires 50% more power. The reason
is mainly that the downstream scrubbing process has a consump-
tion to pump solvent around, which increases power requirements.
Hydrogen (H
2
). Only TGT1
g
and TGT5 reduce the sulfur
species to H
2
S, and, therefore, they are the only processes to
require some H
2
. With the new low-temperature hydrogenation
catalysts, H
2
demand may approach zero.
Fuel. All processes require fuel to incinerate the offgas. The
different requirements result from varying compositions of the
tail gases. But, the total fuel consumptions do not vary widely,
with the exception of TGT5, which requires 10% less than TGT2,
SDP1 and SDP4, while TGT1 needs 20% more due to recycle
gas. In some TGT1 installations, the incinerator may be operated
in stand-by mode. This reduces fuel consumption.
High-pressure (HP) steam. This is required essentially for
reheating the process gas to the inlet of the catalytic reactors. The
more reactors there are, the more HP steam is required. In that
respect, SDP4 needs only
1
3 of TGT2 requirements. The HP-
steam consumption contributes markedly to the total consump-
tion of all the processes.
Low-pressure (LP) steam. All processes need some LP steam to
heat sulfur lines. TGT1 needs major LP steam quantities to regen-
erate the scrubber solvent. But all processes also produce LP steam,
so all generate a surplus of steam with the exception of TGT1. HP
To SO
2
recovery
or stack
TGT6
oxidation
catalyst
Low
temperature
hydrogenation
catalyst
Supplemental
hydrogen (optional)
Oxidation
air blower
HP steam
Claus tail gas
O
2
AC
TGT6 process flow diagram. FIG. 13
TABLE. 7. CAPEX for various sulfur recovery processes
and their respective SRRs
CAPEX in % of
Plant type second-stage Claus unit SRR, %
2-stage Claus unit plus
incinerator (base case) 100 9597
SUPERCLAUS (downstream
of a 3-stage Claus) 140160 98.599.2
Hydrogenating tail
gas treatment, Amine 150200 > 99.9
SDP1 130150 99.099.4
SDP4 140160 99.499.8
TGT5 130150 98.599.5
TGT6 130 96.598
Michael Heisel PhD, is general manager of ITS Reaktortechnik GmbH. He has
more than 30 years of experience in sulfur recovery plant design, startup, validation
and troubleshooting.
Mahin Rameshni P.E., is vice president and global manager Sulfur Technology
& Gas Processing for Worley Parsons in Monrovia, California. She has more than 22
years of experience in the design of sulfur recovery and gas processing plants and
holds six patents.
.!4) /.!,0%42/#(%-) #!,2%&) .%23!33/#) !4) /.
Meet the Right People
f or Busi ness Success
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equipment manufacturers around the world.
Leading industry experts will provide invaluable insight and analysis on operational and safety practices,
energy and environmental initiatives, and technological developments during management and technical
sessions that examine key issues facing the petroleum refining community.
Former U.S. Congressman Joe Scarborough and veteran journalist Mika Brzezinski, hosts of the popular
Morning Joe program on MSNBC, are featured speakers and will give their thoughtful, dynamic and
fast-paced perspectives on the current political and media landscape.
Register today at npra.org/am or call us at (202) 457-0480 for more information.
Join colleagues and customers at
NPRAs Annual Meeting
March 2022 Marriott Rivercenter San Antonio, TX

I

79
Avoid these risks concerning
combustion control in fired heaters
Tuneable diode laser analyzers offer diagnostic benefits
R. JENKINS, Servomex, Crowborough, England
F
ired heaters are integral to hydrocarbon processing (HP).
Specifically designed for the reaction of fuel and air to pro-
duce extremely high gas temperatures, heaters transfer this
energy to potentially flammable process fluids via heat exchangers.
They consume large quantities of fuel, produce large quantities
of emissions, and are a potential safety hazard to personnel and
the plant. However, they are irreplaceable within hydrocarbon
processingso they warrant the highest levels of understanding
and care in their operation and control.
Recent improvements to reduce NO
x
emissions require closer
process monitoring, as newer burners often operate under nar-
rower process control conditions than older, larger-nozzle-diam-
eter gas burners. Demands have grown on plant operators to
improve safety practices, increase plant efficiency and reduce
environmental emissions. As a consequence, accurate and reliable
instrumentation is required to support the control of the process.
Improved technologies are available to control fired-heater com-
bustion with greater accuracy and reliability, but the correct selec-
tion and effective use of these technologies require understanding
of a complex and delicate process.
Principles of effective combustion control in fired
heaters. The cornerstone of a well-controlled combustion pro-
cess is optimized air-to-flue ratio and efficient fuel consumption.
Before analyzer technologies were developed to measure excess air
in the products of combustion, fired heaters were run in condi-
tions of high excess air. Although this meant inefficient and costly
fuel consumption, it was the only way to avoid the creation of
low-oxygen, fuel-rich conditions that could lead to dangerous
explosions.
Zirconium oxide technologies that were introduced in the
late 1960s allowed engineers to obtain reliable and continuous
measurements of excess air, enabling them to reduce the air-to-fuel
ratio closer to that of the theoretical stoichiometric combustion
mix. Unfortunately, reducing excess air poses a new problem: the
nearer the process moves to the tipping point at which incomplete
combustion takes place, the potential to move from safe to unsafe
operating conditions increases, as well as the speed at which these
transitions can happen (Fig. 1).
The control and safety systems that run fired heaters must
therefore perform an extremely complicated balancing act. It is not
enough to just increase excess air levels when incomplete combus-
tion is detected, as the complex interactions of O
2
and unburned
fuel can lead to flammable mixtures igniting further down from the
burners. Such conditions can lead to a number of negative process
control conditions, including excess heat at the process tubes,
which causes damage and leaks; carbon deposits on the process
tubes, which causes decreased efficiency and heat transfer; and, in
extreme cases, potentially dangerous combustion events.
However if a process problem is detected either by analytical
instruments or other safety devices, it is inadvisable to simply
switch off the fuel supply to the burners. Abrupt stops, restarts
and light-off conditions are the most common time for furnace
incidences to occur. It is safer to bring the process carefully and
correctly under control than to fully shut down and restart the
process, and this is why comprehensive analysis of the products of
combustion, or the lack of them, is vital.
Despite the risks, there are measureable rewards for operating
fired heaters at low excess-air (LEA) levels. In LEA combustion
control, the lowest level of fuel is consumed and the combustion
products are cooled the least by unused excess air. The cost ben-
efits of these efficiencies are considerablejust a single percentage
saving in fuel can save hundreds of thousands of dollars per year.
Controlling air levels just above the point at which incomplete
combustion starts also enables the cleanest burn, helping plants
meet emissions requirements. This, in particular, reduces the
emission of NO
x
, created when unused O
2
reacts with nitrogen
Excess oxygen, %
-3 0 3 6
Fuel-rich
NO
x
Air-rich
O
2
CO, combustibles
and soot
Efciency
Ideal
Example of a gas-fired process; actual excess oxygen
levels will vary with heater size, fuel, loading and ambient
conditions.
FIG. 1
80

I

from the combustion air, which will be produced even by low
NO
x
burners if they are not run lean (Fig. 2).
A competent LEA combustion processrunning at approxi-
mately 2.5%5% excess air or 0.5%1% O
2
above the point at
which unburned fuel in the form of CO starts to break through
can be maintained and controlled at the most efficient running
point. As soon as there is not enough air to allow full fuel combus-
tion, the process will quickly degenerate into an unsafe condition.
Pockets of CO and possibly hydrogen and methane can travel
through the process, causing localized hot spots as they ignite.
These effects begin to manifest at less than 10%15% excess air or
2%3% O
2
in the flue gas, with burner inefficiencies preventing
stoichiometric combustion levels being reached.
Excluding extractive techniques used for portable gas analyz-
ers and some highly specialist fixed-gas analyzer applications,
there are currently two very different technologies available to
measure the level of unused O
2
in the fired-heater combustion
process. Zirconium oxide cell technologiescommonly known
as zirconiahave been established for more than 40 years, but
have recently been challenged by the introduction of tuneable
diode laser (TDL) analyzers. Both offer distinct advantages and
disadvantages in their usage, so it is extremely important to under-
stand their respective qualities to deduce which is most suitable
for an application. Neither offers a one-size-fits-all solution,
but there are notable advantages to be gained by using them as
complementary techniques.
Zirconium oxide: Optimum techniques for optimum
O
2
control. Zirconia is a proven technology that measures O
2

on a wet basis, enabling the sampling and direct analysis from the
hot, wet and often corrosive products of combustion. This avoids
added complexities and reliability issues associated with a sample
conditioning system.
Zirconia analyzers are broadly split into two types: close-cou-
pled extractive analyzers and in-situ analyzers. The most effective
and reliable method for using zirconia technology in process
control is within a close-coupled extractive analyzer system, where
a sampling system and sensor enclosure is installed to the side of
the process. This enclosure is heated above the gas dew point and
contains the zirconia sensor connected to the process via a sample
probe. The enclosure normally contains an aspirator driven by
compressed air or, occasionally, by nitrogen, which is used to
extract the sample from the process.
As this type of system can be installed close to the burners,
the lag time for analysisthe measurement delay due to sensor
responseis minimized, giving operators a comparatively short
response time. Individual burner performance can be monitored
by installing multiple analyzers across banks of burners; this is
especially important in fired heaters where low NO
x
burners are
fitted, as the burners are notoriously difficult to evaluate through
visual inspection because the flame is nonluminous. Many systems
also offer the option of fitting an additional CO or combustibles
catalytic sensor. This offers additional diagnostic benefits for pro-
cess and burner optimization, including providing early indica-
tions that excess-air levels are too low, or that a bank of burners is
incorrectly set up, adversely affected by other burners or suffering
from nozzle blockage.
Flame traps should always be specified when choosing this
type of analyzer system to prevent the sensors from becoming a
source of ignition back to the process. Care should then be taken
to ensure that the flame traps have little effect on measurement
lag times. High-flow close-coupled extractive analyzersanalyzers
that aspirate over 1 L/min of sample from the processcan suffer
from considerable sample lag times, as the pressure drops across
flame traps and causes a reduction in sample flow to the zirconia
sensor. For added measurement certainty, it is recommended that
analyzers are specified where the calibration gases supplied to the
instrument can verify the whole systems performance, inclusive
of the probe inlet to the analyzer, sensors and the aspirator outlet.
With in-situ analyzers, the zirconia sensor is situated at the end
of a probe that is inserted into the hot products of combustion.
While relatively simple and cost-effective to install, the sensor
is directly affected by the process temperature variations and is
limited in absolute operational temperature. The mechanical
requirements of higher-temperature operationeffectively mak-
ing the analyzer operate like a diffusion-based, semi-close-couple
extractive analyzerare complex, with bulky assemblies that incur
high installation overheads.
Critically, when flame traps are fitted to an in-situ technique,
the lag time can be more than one minute in length which many
engineers will consider too risky for safe control. Problems can be
compounded by probe installation points: if placed too far from
the burners to limit process temperature effects on the sensors,
then both air ingress into the flue and delays caused by distance
from the burners can weaken the ability to control the process
efficiently and safely. As a consequence, engineers must have a
clear understanding that the processes may be compromised by
the potential shortcomings of in-situ techniques, regardless of the
initial installation cost benefits they offer.
TDL TECHNOLOGIES: A COMPLEMENTARY
TECHNOLOGY TO OPTIMIZE PROCESSES
A major development in gas analysis techniques has been the
introduction of TDL technologies. Enthusiastically received by
engineers and plant operators, a range of different technology
integrations are now available from multiple manufacturers.
Yet, while TDL offers advantages in measuring multiple gas
types, it also has limitations that make its use in fired heaters a
complementary technique rather than a complete replacement
for other technologies.
A typical cross-stack system consists of the laser-emitter
module and receiver mounted across the process pipeline or
TDL methane,
carbon monoxide
and water
Convective heat
Radiant heat
Zirconia or irconia
and combustibles
Burner
FIG. 2
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82

I

flue stack. The gas concentration information is held in the gas
absorption line shape, which is obtained by scanning the laser
wavelength over the specific absorption line. The measured signal
intensity is detected by a photodiode and then used to determine
the gas concentration.
There are primarily two cross-stack TDL technologies in use:
Direct absorption spectroscopy (DAS) and wavelength-modulated
spectroscopy (WMS). DAS is the first-generation technique of
TDL absorption spectroscopy, providing measurements from a
relatively crude approximation of the area under the absorption
curve generated by the laser scan. Today, few analyzer manufac-
turers use this approach to measurement analysis, as DAS yields
a relatively noisy signal, compromising measurement accuracy.
DAS is also limited due to the broad absorption line shape, with
measurement data contained within wings of the absorption
curve; hence a proportion of the absorption data is not scanned
and cross-interferences from background gases and environmental
fluctuations are difficult to correct. While the disadvantages of
the DAS technique is generally not significant in relation to O
2
analysis, for all other gases it is limited to measurement accuracy.
WMS is a sophisticated evolution of the DAS technique,
which takes a measurement of the second harmonic of the
absorption curve, to determine the rate of change in the absorp-
tion line shape. This yields a very sharp absorption curve with
all measurement data contained within the laser scan width, and
very defined turning points which are easily computed, allowing
an accurate evaluation of the area under the absorption curve.
By delivering excellent cross interference rejection, precise tem-
perature and pressure correction and low noise measurements,
the greater accuracy and stability given by the WMS measure-
ment means it is consequently the most commonly used TDL
measurement technique.
TDL-based systems appear an ideal choice for in-situ cross-stack
measurements in process and combustion control applications.
As there is no physical or mechanical interaction with the pro-
cessother than molecular absorptionthey offer a highly stable
base-line measurement, with a long interval between calibrations
and a fast response measurement in hot, wet and dusty process
conditions. TDL technologies therefore appear highly attractive on
both cost and performance grounds, but the technology has poten-
tial disadvantages when compared to zirconia for a measurement.
For O
2
analysis, TDL can only offer an average path measure-
ment across all burners, while zirconia analyzers can be used to
measure a particular section of burners by their ability to sample
a single point. TDL is also susceptible to a range of environmen-
tal factors that must be compensated for, including path length
variation, window purge gas effects, optical interferences, and
temperature and pressure changes. For a WMS instrument an
error of approximately +/ 5% of reading is normal, while, for a
DAS measurement, the error can be considerably higher.
There is also no way of accurately calibrating a measurement
without removing both the TDL source and detector and fitting a
fixed-length calibration cell. Even with the calibration cell fitted,
which is usually one meter in length, a true calibration is difficult
to achieve accurately, as process path lengths typically vary from
5-m to 20-m long. The instrument must apply correction factors
to compensate for the calibration cell path length and process path
length differences.
Problems can also arise in the fitting of optical windows
between both the source and the process and between the detec-
tor and the process. These windows must remain clean at all times
and can only be achieved by purging the dead space with a gas that
will not interfere with the measurement. For an O
2
measurement,
this precludes the use of compressed air, so nitrogen needs to be
used as the purge gas. As this is normally consumed at a rate of 20
L/min to 50 Lmin, depending on process-gas velocity, it makes
operation prohibitively expensive when compared with zirconia
techniques unless the process is too corrosive or dust-laden for a
zirconia analyzer to operate reliably.
TDL delivers greater advantages in the measurement of CO,
with the fast response and specificity of TDL enabling CO break-
through to be monitored accurately. While it is not generally
advisable to use CO breakthrough as part of the process-control
loop, it can act as a secondary and complementary measurement
to the oxygen measurement, assisting LEA optimization and
introducing a further level of process safety-related diagnostics.
CO measurement using TDL also avoids the problem of high
sulfur levels inhibiting catalytic sensors, while the ability to use
compressed air as a purge gas removes the prohibitive costs associ-
ated with using TDL for an O
2
measurement. But as TDL offers
an average path measurement, rather than a point measurement, a
catalytic measurement of CO combined within the same analyzer
as the zirconia O
2
measurement gives greater diagnostic capabili-
ties for burner efficiency.
Possibly the most significant application for TDL in fired-
heater processes lies in the ability to integrate the technology into
flameout protection, specifically the measurement of methane in
natural-gas burners. If TDL is installed so that a burner flameout
can be detected quickly, it enables greater flexibility and response
to control and shut down processes. In normal operating condi-
tions, no CO or methane should be present in the process, so mois-
ture analysis using the same TDL is used as a reference peak in the
same laser scan cycle to prevent laser drift and loss of laser line lock.
Conclusion. In conclusion, zirconia and TDL technologies
offer the process engineer the greatest advantage when considered
as complementary techniques to control the combustion process,
reduce emissions and improve safety in fired heaters. As a general
rule, the use of close-coupled extractive zirconia instruments to
measure oxygen offers a point measurement that can be related
to specific burners and higher levels of inherent accuracy, coupled
with true calibration capability. TDL offers a highly robust, aver-
age and faster measurement, with less associated maintenance
which is ideal for monitoring purposes.
While TDL will continue to improve, it is not yet ready to
displace the older technologies of zirconia and catalytic sensors
within combustion control. Within the short to medium term, it
seems more likely that its introduction will trigger a new genera-
tion of zirconia and catalytic sensor improvements and analyzer
developments. This competition between technologies will ulti-
mately benefit process engineers and operators, as it will help
generate new, cost-effective and reliable instrument solutions. HP
Rhys Jenkins graduated from Manchester University in 1994
with a BEng in mechanical engineering and joined Servomex in
1995 as a mechanical design engineer within a simultaneous-engi-
neering team. Mr. Jenkins has worked extensively across Servomexs
range of world-leading gas analyzers, being involved in a range of
key projects including development of the Fluegas 2700 combustion analyzer, the
digital range of SBSW infrared sensors, Servomexs 5000 architectural platform and
the 1900 range of infrared and paramagnetic oxygen portable analyzers. He is now
the project manager for Servomex has been most recently instrumental in developing
the award-winning SERVOTOUGH Oxy hazardous area paramagnetic gas analyzer.
Hydrocarbon Processings International Refning & Petrochemicals Conference China will be held 2123 June
2011 at the Beijing International Convention Center in Beijing, China. You are invited to submit an abstract to be
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PLANT SAFETY

I

85
D
ue to higher global demand for gasoil
and gasoline along with strict envi-
ronmental regulations, refineries are
incorporating new hydrotreating units into
their existing facilities. Just in the southern
cone of Latin America (Argentina, Chile
and Uruguay) at least five hydrotreating
units have been projected and/or built in
the last five years. These hydrotreating units
aim to lower the sulfur content to 20 ppm
50 ppm on final products.
Project attention focuses on these new
hydrotreating units, while utilities and
other services are evaluated later in the
project cycle. Verifying the existing refinery
flare systems has to be performed as early
as possible during the detail engineering
project phase to answer key questions, such
as: Would the existing crude distillation
unit pressure-relief valve (PSV) open with
the new backpressure introduced from the
new hydrotreating units PSV? Is the exist-
ing flare tall enough that it doesnt exceed
the radiation limits at ground level? Are the
emission contaminants changing compared
to the previous refinery operations?
Method description and best
practice tips. The proposed method-
ology is used as a multi-tier approach to
compress project schedules, determine
PSV requirements earlier in the project
and purchase those PSVs early, if its eco-
nomical; assess alternatives to improve
design and save on capital costs without
compromising safety.
To quickly identify possible problems,
relief loads are first calculated using a
simple approach. The different concurrent
contingency loads can be calculated with
the basic material and energy balance engi-
neering data. A conservative enthalpy bal-
ance approach can be used. For example, in
a column with a cooling failure, power fail-
ure or reflux failure, the energy balance is:
F h
F
+ Q
R
= B h
B
+ P h
P
+ V h
V
+
Q
A
+ Q
1
+ L h
L
(1)
where:
F = Feed flow
h
F
= Feed enthalpy
Q
R
= Reboiler duty
B = Bottom liquid flow
h
B
= Bottom liquid enthalpy
P = Product flow
h
P
= Product enthalpy
V = Vapor flow
h
V
= Vapor enthalpy
L = Relief load
h
L
= Relief load enthalpy
Q
A
= Air cooler (condenser) duty
Q
1
= Trim cooler (condenser) duty
reboiler
= Latent heat of vaporization or,
for multicomponent systems, the differ-
ence between the vapor and liquid specific
enthalpies.
The reboiler duty is recalculated for
relieving conditions. For an air-cooler con-
tingency (or power loss), Q
A
in relieving
conditions would be 20% of operating Q
A
.
For cooling water loss, Q
1
would be 0. To
evaluate a reflux failure, the top tray vapor
less the operating vapor to the condenser is
a good approximation to calculate L.
14,7
Example. With a new gasoline stabilizer
column without an air-cooler condenser
(Q
A
= 0), the following quick calculations
were considered to estimate the relief load
for a loss of cooling in the condenser:
A steady-state simulation model was
used (Fig. 2), setting the column pressure as
the opening valve pressure and Q
1
= 0. The
relief load is calculated as L = 3,732 kg/hr.
For normal vapor flow to the con-
denser from the material and energy bal-
ance (V
1
), the relief load is calculated as
L = 2,923 kg/hr.
As an approximation, using (Q
1
+
Q
A
)/
reboiler
, the relief load is L = 3,035kg/hr.
Once the preliminary relief loads are
calculated, the new pressure-relief valves
are sized, and the new flare system lines
are designed and routed into a new unit
subheader. While calculating the concur-
rent PSV contingency loads, most coming
from columns, towers or pressure separa-
tors, other process engineers can work on
calculating all the single-contingency PSV
loads, such as blocked outlet loads, control
valve full-open cases, etc.
HAZOP analyses and relief sce-
narios. A hazardous operation (HAZOP)
analysis of the new process enables assess-
ment of the number of PSVs that might
be triggered to open in various scenarios.
In a new gasoline hydrotreating unit, the
number of PSVs involved in a multivalve
opening contingency, other than fire, that
could impact the existing flare design rating
are shown in Table 1.
Out of 30 PSVs, only two were involved
in concurrent PSV discharge scenariosa
cooling water and general power failure
Circumvent design issues when
adding new hydrotreating units
Follow these guidelines for substantial capital cost savings
with existing flare systems
M. H. MARCHETTI, A-Evangelista, S.A., Buenos Aires, Argentina
P
B
B
QR
Q
A
Q
1
CW
V
V
1
L
Material and energy balance in a
column.
FIG. 1
PLANT SAFETY
86

I

and these potentially affect the existing flare
header performance. All other contingen-
cies, including fire, were unit-wide sce-
narios but not plant- or refinery-wide sce-
narios. The number of plant-wide scenarios
that might affect existing flare backpres-
sure, radiation intensity and contaminant
dispersion was reduced to two. Only these
two scenarios had to be studied further at a
plant-wide level. All other new-unit scenar-
ios were studied separately to size the new
unit main header, which in this example
was determined to be governed by one of
the fire cases.
Engineering workflow and guide-
lines. Fig. 3 represents the workflow of
the flare-system rating method. The vari-
ous steps are described as follows:
Workflow starts with a parallel evalu-
ation of multiple PSV load contingencies
and single or unit-wide contingencies,
using a flare-system analyzer model.
New flare network is designed. At this
stage in the detailed engineering project,
the new units isometrics are not available.
To complete the flare header design and
rating, basic routing of PSV exits are made
over the plot plan of the plant or layout of
new and existing units. Choosing the tie-in
point and knockout drum verification will
be discussed in detail later.
The network is designed and rated to
project-specific values of v2 and Mach
number. Good engineering practice uses
v2 for gases of less than 150,000 Pa
and Mach numbers of 0.3 to 0.7. If these
parameters are not met in the existing main
header, then a better understanding of the
existing relief loads can be achieved through
dynamic simulation. Once the hydraulic
calculations comply with the design param-
eters, the PSV orifice calculations for the
multi-PSV opening cases are reviewed. Dis-
persion and radiation studies are performed
and, if all studies comply with international
and local regulations, the flare-system rat-
ing is completed.
Unfortunately, flare-system analysis
does not always follow a straight path.
Sometimes a more detailed analysis and
additional problem-solving solutions are
required, and these will be discussed further.
Tie-in point and final disposal
design. The tie-in location choice is gen-
erally made as close to the flare stack as pos-
sible, taking into consideration whether the
existing knockout drum can handle the worst
case vapor and liquid loads. When a PSV has
a high setpoint and the volumetric flow for
the design case is high, the Mach number at
the tie-in point tends to be high as well. In
these cases, having a higher backpressure at
the tie-in point can reduce the Mach num-
ber. For example, moving the tie-in point
upstream in the existing flare header helps
reduce the Mach number; the consequence
is a slight increase in the backpressure.
Fig. 4 illustrates an example of a flare
system analyzer simulation with a stabilizer
PSV that has a high set pressure with its
tie-in point in the units 16 in. subheader
and in a 30-in. main header. The 30-in. tie-
in point resulted in high Mach numbers
while the resulting Mach numbers using the
TABLE 1. Gasoline hydrotreating unit relief scenarios
Contingency Fire Concurrent other than fire Single contingency only
Number of PSVs involved 25 2 4
A steady-state simulation model. FIG. 2
Design new are PSVs, depressurization valves,
exit lines, sub headers and headers (ISBL)
Verify knockout drum (KOD) with new vapor and liquid loads
Add new KOD tie-in
downstream existing KOD
Verify zv
2
and Mach number on existing header
downstream the tie-in point
Tie-in point upstream
existing KOD, check
Mach. number
Review PSV orice calculation with calculated back pressure
Perform dispersion and radiation studies
Perform dynamic
simulation of columns,
or HIPPS analysis
Multiple-PSV load scenarios Single-contingency loads
Flare system rating method workflow. FIG. 3
PLANT SAFETY

I

87
16 in. subheader were lower without exces-
sively elevating the PSVs exit backpressure.
The resulting hydraulic performance for
both situations is shown in Fig. 4.
The existing knock-out drum rating
can be performed in parallel with the flare-
header rating and later checked by the final
simulation model. The various flare-header
scenarios are loaded into the simulation
tool, and the PSV sizing and flare calcula-
tions are performed. The flare-tip pressure
drop can be simulated, using the old design
data and extrapolated to new loads, using a
Bernoulli Equation approximation:

v
2
2
+P +g z = K
The process engineer can consider the
backpressure problems that might arise
from these calculations on existing PSVs,
especially on the crude unit PSVs that have
low pressure settings. For the new units,
the project team can select the PSV types,
conventional or balanced, and purchase
these early if there are cost savings.
The radiation intensity methods
described in API 521, a simple radiation
method, and Brzustowski and Sommer, can
be used to determine the radiation intensity
based on the worst case heat of combustion
calculations.
1
Finally, the contaminant dis-
persion into the atmosphere can be calcu-
lated using the US EPA Screen 3 models.
9
When to use dynamic simulation
and relief considerations. The relief
load calculation is a difficult task when rat-
ing or designing a flare system. The API
521 standard gives general guidelines on
estimating relief loads but leaves the cal-
culation details to the process engineers
judgment.
1
This is due to the different
approaches a process engineer can take to
perform relief-load calculations.
As previously discussed, typical scenar-
ios to consider for a column are related to
reflux, cooling or power loss. A dynamic
modeling approach has been used and doc-
umented, and it helped the engineers gain
additional insight on what happened during
a relief event.
5
Often, this confirms that tra-
ditional methods are conservative, allowing
engineers to use reduced relief loads while
still focusing on safety. However, dynamic
simulation takes time and tight project
schedules may make it difficult to use this
approach. Dynamic simulation benefits are
clear and project teams are encouraged to
consider it when the situation requires it.
A dynamic simulation (Fig. 5) was
performed for the new gasoline stabilizer,
resulting in a relief load of L = 2,200 Kg/
hr. This load represented a 24% reduction
of the lowest load estimation using steady
state calculations.
One way to decide when to use dynamic
simulation and when to apply the standard
steady-state calculations is to analyze if the
contingency being studied impacts the whole
flare system, involving multiple units across
the plant or refinery. If this contingency is
limited to a single unit and does not impact
the whole flare system, and if the pressure
drop does not increase substantially, and
there are no radiation or dispersion problems,
then dynamic calculations can be avoided.
Guidelines for hydrotreating
unit flare analysis. Specifically for
hydrotreating units, the guidelines to rate
and design a flare system comprise the fol-
lowing load calculations and possible solu-
tions, including dynamic simulation, to
problems that may be encountered. These
guidelines include the usual analysis of
Nodo 5 Nodo 6
Nodo 5 Nodo 6
Nodo 7
16 in. x 30 ft
16-in. x 30 ft
Nodo 7
610-F
1101-16-in.B
1101-16-in.B
1101-16-in. C
1101-16-in. C
Tie-in 30-in. header
mach 0.8
PSV BP = 2.03 bara
Tie-in 16-in. sub-header
Mach 0.6
PSV BP=2.09 bara
100-RV-0001-30-in. A
1101-16-in.D
1.31911/1.22139
0.360/0.394
100-RV-0001-
30-in. AB2A
1.13374/1.12803
0.108/0.108
100-RV-0001-
30-in. AB2A
1.13373/1.12802
0.108/0.108
3400-RV-1122-14-AB2A
2.03759/1.36906
0.445/0.808
3400-RV-1122-14-AB2A
2.09626/1.58825
0.430/0.624
1311-2-in.
1311-2-in.
PSV-34022
11.53.000/2.03759
0.445
PSV-34026/27
14.00500/
PSV-34022
11.53.000/2.9626
0.445
PSV-34026/27
14.00500/
Quemador 601-L
601-L
1.11894/1.10724
0.109/0.110
Tie-in point diagram.
10
FIG. 4
TABLE 2. Gasoline hydrotreating unit PSV changes between revisions
Rev. A Rev. 0
Projects Month 5 Projects Month 11
Number of PSVs API orifice Number of PSVs API orifice
12 D 13 D
0 E 2 E
2 F 0 F
3 G 3 G
1 H 1 H
1 K 1 K
1 P 0 P
1 Q 0 Q
0 R 2 R
Total 21 22
PLANT SAFETY
88

I

relief loads, but also additional consider-
ation of new acid loads, etc.
Evaluate existing loads. Determine
if, for a plant-wide concurrent contingency
(cooling or power loss, etc.), the new relief
loads added to existing loads resulted in
any of the following effects or conditions
being violated:
Substantial backpressure changes on
existing PSVs
Radiation intensity at ground level
corresponding to API 521 radiation limits
Air contaminant dispersion comply-
ing with EPA and local environmental
regulations.
If any of the verification steps fail, the
solution is to change the existing conven-
tional PSVs to a balanced (bellow or pilot)
type. If the existing PSVs are a balanced
type, then it is advisable to perform a
dynamic analysis of the PSVs that partici-
pate in that design contingency. This would
typically involve PSVs with greater volu-
metric loads and usually concurrent scenar-
ios involving topping columns, absorbers,
stabilizers and FCCs safety valves.
New acid loads. The new hydrotreating
units concentrate H
2
S in the top vapor
streams of unit operations. Most of the H
2
S
is extracted in an amine contactor and then
sent to the amine and sour-water unit strip-
pers, which then have the flare loads rich in
H
2
S and NH
3
. If the refinery doesnt already
have a sour-flare system, then the company
should consider building one when add-
ing the new hydrotreating unit. Dispersion
constraints are key in designing this system
with concentration limits for SO
2
that are
defined by the World Health Organization
and other local regulatory authorities.
New sweet-loads evaluation:
Hydrotreating unit reactors usually work
at high temperatures and when the system
is evaluated at opening pressure for a fire
relief, the hydrocarbon/H
2
mixture usu-
ally enters in a critical flow regime. In these
cases API 521 recommends using depres-
suring systems and dry fire calculations.
The loads calculated using API dry formu-
las are very conservative. A more accurate
approach is presented by Ouderkirk.
8
The new fl are-header design for
hydrotreating units is often governed by
one of these cases:
Depressurization loads
Fire loads
Electrical failure loads (considering
that most condensers are air coolers and
relief loads for cooling-water failure is mini-
mal compared to an electrical failure).
If the multiple concurrent PSV design
scenarios do not comply with the conserva-
tive API 521 radiation limits or environ-
mental regulations, it is worth calculating
the relief loads using dynamic simulation.
Most column relief loads can be calcu-
lated with a more rigorous model, and the
revised loads are used to rate the overall
flare system including recalculating the
flare main header, the radiation intensity
and the dispersion levels.
While the rigorous models are being
developed, the piping engineers might have
also completed the isometrics using the first
non-rigorous simulation diameters. By the
time the more rigorous load calculations
are being done, these final flare simulations
can be performed, putting all the pieces
of the puzzle together (isometrics, revised
multiple-contingencey loads, existing PSV
pressures, etc.). This provides the most
complete, accurate and rigorous analysis.
If radiation intensity, back pressure or
contaminant dispersion issues cannot be
resolved using the methodology presented,
other alternatives may be considered:
1. Perform a high-integrity pressure
protection system (HIPPS) project to iden-
tify which units control the relief loads,
and perform a permutation analysis of the
individual relief loads by their probability
of occurrence and determine the applicable
safety integrity level (SIL). SIL is a measure
of the reliability of a safety instrumented
system to function as designed. There are
three possible discrete integrity levels (SIL
1, SIL 2 and SIL 3) of safety instrumented
systems defined in terms of probability of
Dynamic relief load calculations using a simulation model. FIG. 5
TABLE 3. Gasoil hydrotreating unit PSV changes between revisions
Rev. A Rev. 0
Projects Month 5 Projects Month 11
Number of PSVs API orifice Number of PSVs API orifice
9 D 7 D
3 E 4 E
3 F 4 F
4 G 4 G
4 H 4 H
1 J 1 J
0 K 0 K
1 M 1 M
0 P 0 P
0 Q 0 Q
0 R 0 R
Total 25 25
PLANT SAFETY

I

89
failure on demand (PFD). SIL 3 has the
highest reliability, SIL1 has the lowest. API
521 Fifth Edition allows you to take load
credits for the use of HIPPS.
1
The benefit
of this approach is the avoidance of having
to build a complete new flare. The down-
side is the operational constraints on the
degree of turndown or the possibility even
having to shutdown a unit to avoid over-
loading the flare system, and the capital
investment needed to enhance the control
systems of existing units.
2. Increase existing flare height. The
radiation intensity and dispersion con-
centration at ground level will improve
but the support structures may have to be
revamped or new structures added.
3. Change the existing main flare
header. Sometimes backpressure prob-
lems persist in existing PSVs and the only
option is to replace portions of the existing
network. Obviously, this will require addi-
tional capital investment.
4. Add a gas-recovery facility. When
a dispersion analysis results in high con-
taminant concentration, this approach
could partially solve the problem, but it
also might increase the backpressure on the
PSVs and increase capital cost.
5. Change the flare tip. Sometimes,
high Mach numbers at the flare tip can be
avoided by simply changing the flare tip.
Results obtained by applying
this method. The results of applying
this approach to flare-system analysis in a
project involving the addition of two new
hydrotreating units to an existing refinery
are discussed below.
Tables 2 and 3 show the number of
PSVs that changed from one type to a dif-
ferent type as the project progressed. This
resulted from the simulation model being
improved as various engineering tasks
were completed, and as the overall design
evolved and improved.
Even though many load calculations
changed and PSV sizes were revised during
the project, the units main header diame-
ter, the tie-in point and the knockout-drum
calculations remained unchanged between
design revisions.
This experience demonstrates that some
tasks can be performed in parallel. Later
in the project cycle all pieces of the flare
system can be quickly recalculated using
process simulator and flare system analysis
software.
Benefits of using this method.
Many benefits can be obtained using the
approach presented in this article, as vali-
dated by experience on several projects:
Compressed project schedules by per-
forming PSV calculations and flare system
calculations in parallel. For the example
cited previously, these calculations resulted
in achieving a three-month reduction in the
project schedule.
Project man-hour savings by perform-
ing the appropriate level of modeling as
required by the project-specific design. The
example cited represented saving 160 engi-
neering man-hours of modeling time.
Early definition of header sizing and
the PSVs required. There may be cost sav-
ings in procuring these supplies early.
Material capital cost savings in accu-
rate header sizing.
New flare cost savings in performing
more accurate dynamic-load calculations
when needed. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
ANSI/API Standard 521 (ISO 23251), Pressure-
relieving and Depressuring Systems, Fifth
Edition, January 2007.
2
ANSI/API Standard 520, Sizing, Selection
and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices
in Refineries. Part I: Sizing and Selection, Seventh
Edition, January 2000.
3
K. Banjee, N. P. Cheremisinoff and P. N.
Cheremisinoff, Flare Gas Systems Pocket
Handbook, Gulf Publishing Company, 1985.
4
Kister, H. Z., Distillation Operation,
MacGraw-Hill, Inc, Chapter 9.
5
Gruber, D., D.-U. Leipnitz, P. Seturaman,
M. Alos, J. M. Nougues and M. Brodcorb,
Are there alternatives to an expensive overhaul of
a bottlenecked flare system?, Petroleum Technology
Quarterly, Q1 2010.
6
Marshall, B., Improve Flare System Design
to Reduce Cost and Enhance Safety, AspenTech
Webinar, November 2009.
7
Crosby, T. Pressure Relief Valve Engineering
Handbook, Technical Document, May 1997.
8
Ouderkirk, R., Rigorously Size Relief Valves
for Supercritical Fluids, CEP Magazine, August
2002.
9
US Environmental Protection Agency, Gua
del usuario del Modelo SCREEN3, EPA454/
B95-004, September 2000.
10
Simulation performed with Aspen Flare System
Analyzer V7.1, Aspen Technology, 2009.
CUSTOM
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Mayra Marchetti is a process
engineer at A. Evangelista S.A. She has
10 years work experience in process
simulation and industrial projects, with
a special focus in relief system design
and evaluation studies, revamps and new designs. She
graduated as a chemical engineer from Buenos Aires
University and holds an MS degree in engineering man-
agement from Florida International University.
90

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Y. ZAK FRIEDMAN, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
HPIN CONTROL
Zak@petrocontrol.com
The author is a principal consultant in advanced process control and online
optimization with Petrocontrol. He specializes in the use of first-principles models
for inferential process control and has developed a number of distillation and reactor
models. Dr. Friedmans experience spans over 30 years in the hydrocarbon industry,
working with Exxon Research and Engineering, KBC Advanced Technology and since
1992 with Petrocontrol. He holds a BS degree from the Israel Institute of Technology
(Technion) and a PhD degree from Purdue University.
94

I

It is not a secret that I prefer to base inferential models on engi-
neering principles, rather than on regression. Having said that, the
use of regression is widespread, and being a consultant in the field,
I am often asked about how inferential model performance can be
improved. Indeed it can be much improved, if one only took the
trouble to consider chemical engineering principles.
Example. A classic example of bad input selection is a set of
input variables that contain intensive variables, such as pressures
and temperatures, together with extensive variables such as flows.
The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) fractionator (Fig. 1) will serve
to illustrate this point. To infer the naphtha 90% point regression
practitioners habitually take these regression model inputs:
1. Column top temperature
2. Column top pressure
3. Naphtha product flow.
Why naphtha product flow? How can such a blatant violation
of process engineering facilitate a successful inference? Answer: There
is a correlation of flow against 90% point because at a fixed through-
put and severity, increasing the naphtha yield increases the naphtha
cutpoint. That following a throughput change the inference would
be erroneous is just one example of inferences that correlate but do
not predict. Such inferences fail during a transient operation, when
they are needed the most. Can this problem be solved by inputting
naphtha yield instead of naphtha flow? It is definitely an improve-
ment but still vulnerable to reactor severity or feed quality change.
Why is there a need for naphtha flow or yield input to begin
with? Process engineering dictates that the naphtha 90% point is
a function of column top partial pressure and temperature, with
some internal reflux influence on the heavy distillation tail. It takes
some engineering calculations to create a partial pressure input,
and regression practitioners have become purists in the sense that
they would not consider any engineering procedureonly straight
measurements. Because total pressure is an imprecise input, the use
of naphtha yield or flow improves the fit. I do not recall seeing a
calculated partial pressure anywhere as a regression inferential input.
FCC reactors have several significant steam injections, all of
which end up in the fractionator. Reactor steam injections are
determined by reactor considerations and are not necessarily
proportional to the feed. Inputting total pressure in lieu of partial
pressure is not a very good idea. Further, the FCC reaction creates
a large amount of LPG and gas. At fractionator top conditions,
those light components are not miscible and, in terms of their
effect on partial pressure, they behave like steam. I would assert
that no reasonable inference can be created without partial pres-
sure being one of the inferential inputs.
Things go downhill from here. What would you suggest
as inputs for inferring light cycle oil (LCO) 90% point? The
regression practitioner would typically use:
1. LCO draw temperature
2. Column top pressure
3. LCO product flow.
Why LCO flow? Again, for the same reason, at steady opera-
tion, increasing LCO yield affects the LCO cutpoint. Of course,
such an inference is again weak. It can handle neither throughput
nor severity changes. And for the side draw, there is another ele-
ment of uncertainty. LCO yield can be changed in different ways.
For example, at steady operation, if naphtha yield changes up and
LCO yield down, then the LCO 90% point would actually not
move at all. The LCO inference is vulnerable not only to transient
throughput and severity but also to normal manipulation of the
fractionator top section.
Internal reflux in the LCO section affects both the partial
pressure and heavy distillation tail. Is it possible to take that into
account? The fraction (Fig. 1) has a total draw LCO tray where
internal reflux is measured as pump down, so even the purist
statistician should accept that.
Process engineers spend years studying chemical engineering,
then more years performing process calculations on the real plant.
Where is all that accumulated knowledge? Please, show the world
that a process control engineer is not a statistician. HP
Inferential control model input selection
The author is a principal consultant in advanced process control and online
optimization with Petrocontrol. He specializes in the use of first-principles models
for inferential process control and has developed a number of distillation and reactor
models. Dr. Friedmans experience spans over 30 years in the hydrocarbon industry,
working with Exxon Research and Engineering, KBC Advanced Technology and, since
1992 with Petrocontrol. He holds a BS degree from the Israel Institute of Technology
(Technion) and a PhD from Purdue University.
LC
LCO
Pumparound
Pumpdown
FC
LC
LC
FC
FC
PC
TI
TI
FC
FC
FC
Naphtha
Reactor efuent
PI
TC
PI
TI
Classic example of bad input selectionFCC fractionator
with total draw trays.
FIG. 1
ITS A BRAVE NEW WORLD.
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