Airport Engineering

Syllabus Functional areas of airports- Runways, Taxiways, Aprons, Terminal buildings; Classifications of Airports; Airport site selection; Design of Runway, Runway orientation, Wind Rose diagram; Design of Taxiway and Terminal building. Books
1. 2. 3. 4. Airport Planning and Design Khanna, Arora & Jain Airport Engineering Rangawala Air Transportation Planning & Design Virendra Kumar & Satish Chandra Reference Book: Planning & Design of Airport R. Horonjeff & F.X. Mckelvey
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Introduction
1.1 Characteristics of Air Transportation Advantages of Air Transportation I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Speed:- High Speed among all the transport mode Accessibility:- Open up any region that is inaccessible by other means of transport e.g. Hill area Continuous Journey:- Movement is possible continuous over land and water unlike other modes Aerial Photography Military use Encourage Trade and commerce:- More opportunities for business Agricultural spraying Impact on Economic and Social life of country Safety:- Safer than road way travel. Fatal air accident is less 3 than 20% of that of highway accident.

Disadvantages are 1. High Cost 2. Noise Pollution 3. High Energy Consumption: Per passenger fuel consumption is 10 times more than bus 1.2 Air Transport in India & Abroad History of Development of Air Transport and its characteristics. Different Stages and modification in Air Transport mode. Present Scenario of worldwide Air Traffic. Development of Air Transportation in India. History and Back Ground Operational Development Present Private and Govt. Participation in operation of Domestic as well as International Air Transportation
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1.3 Elements of Air Transport Airport: It is an area of land and water which is to be regularly used for commercial purposes for arrival, departure and movement of aircrafts. Aerodrome: Any defined area of land or water intended to be used for arrival and departure of aircraft is called aerodrome. Any airport is largely divided into three major components: The air side: this consists of airfield and landing take-off area i.e. runway and taxiway The land side: this consists of terminal areas i.e. apron, hanger, terminal building. Air traffic control: this consists control movement of aircrafts in airspace surrounding the airport. Airport Engineering deals with first two components
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A : Runway B: Taxiway C: Apron D: Hanger E: Terminal Building F: Car parking Zone

E F

Fig. Schematic Diagram of an airport

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Runway: Long and comparatively narrow strip of land which is used for landing and take-off of aircraft along its lengths. Paved. More than one runway. Taxiway: Access of the aircraft from runway to apron or hanger. Speed of the aircrafts are less than runway. Less thick pavement. Apron: Paved portion in front of the terminal building or adjacent to hanger. Space for parking of aircrafts. Size of the apron depends upon aircraft volume Paved space provided near the runway is known as holding apron. Apron exclusively used for fueling purpose is known as fueling apron 7

Hanger: Space for servicing, overhauling and repairing of aircrafts Important airports may have more than one hanger Terminal Building: Building complex mainly used for passengers, airliners and airport administration facility. Passenger facilities for convenient and direct access to ground transportation and parking area.

An airport encompasses a wide range of activities which have different complex. The airport activity system is shown in the next slide
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and

conflicting

requirements.

As

they

are

interdependent, a single activity may limit capacity of entire

Enroute Airspace

Airfield Surface System

Terminal Airspace

Air side

Runway

Holding Apron

Exit Taxiway

Taxiway

Apron/Gate Area Terminal Building Vehicular Circulation Parking Aircraft flow Passenger flow

Land side

Fig. Components of the airport system for a large airport

Airport Ground Access System

1.4 1.4.1

Classification of an Airport International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

Most important international agency concerned with airport development. Specialized agency of UNO with head quarter at Montreal, Canada. 169 nations are members. The objective of ICAO are: Safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation. Aircraft design and operation for peaceful purpose. Development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities. Safe, regular, efficient and economic air transportation. Rights of the contracting nations are fully respected. Promotion of all aspects including safety of flight of international civil aeronautics.

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The document Aerodromes, Annex 14 to the convention on International Civil Aviation issued by ICAO provides international design standards and recommended practices applicable to all international airports. ICAO uses a two-element code to clarify geometric design standards at an airport. The code element consist of a numeric designator and an alphabetic designator. Aerodrome code numbers 1 through 4 classify the length of runway available or the reference field length. Aerodrome code letters A through F classify the wingspan and outer main gearwheel-span for the aircraft for which the airport has been designed. This aerodrome reference code is shown in Table 1.0
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Table 1.0 ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code

Aerodrome Code No. 1 2 3 4 Reference field length (m) <800 800 - <1200 1200 - <1800 1800 Aerodrome Code Letter A B C D E F Wing Span (m) < 15 15 - < 24 24 - < 36 36 - < 52 52 - < 65 65 - <80 Outer main gear wheel span (m) < 4.5 4.5 - < 6 6-<9 9 - < 14 9-< 14 14-<16

Reference Field Length: Actual Runway takeoff length converted to an equivalent length at MSL, 150C, and 0 percent gradient. Wing Span: Distance between outside of two wings of the aircraft. Outer main gear wheel span: Distance between outside edges of tyres on the main gear wheel. 17

Table: Aerodrome Reference Code

(m)

(m)

Source: ICAO Annex 14, Aerodromes, Volume I, Aerodrome Design and Operation 4th edition

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1.4.2. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) This is an agency which governs air transportation including airports in United States. It develops and establishes standards, government planning methods and procedures, airport design, construction management, operation and maintenance. It clarifies airports for geometric design purposes based upon airport reference code. It is based upon the aircraft approach category and the airplane design group to which the aircraft is assigned. Utility Airport: Utility airports serves and accommodate small aircraft with maximum take off weight of 12,500lbs. or less. Transport Airport: Transport airports can accommodate large aircraft with maximum take off weight in excess of 12,500 lbs. FAA also defines five aircraft approach categories. The approach category is defined by aircraft approach speed which is defined as 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration of the aircraft at the maximum certified landing weight.
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Stall Speed
A stall is a sudden reduction in the lift forces generated by a airfoil. This occurs when the critical angle of attack of the airfoil is exceeded,typically about 15 degrees. Typically it is the situation in aerodynamics and aviation where the angle between the wings chord line and the relative incomong wind (the angle of attack) increases beyond a certain point such that the lift begins to decrease. The angle at which it occurs is known as the critical angle of attack. At the stall neither the engine(s) of the aircraft stopped working or aircraft has stopped moving.
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Table 2.0
A B C D E

FAA Aircraft Approach Category Classification

Aircraft approach Speed (Knot) <91 91 - <121 121 - <141 141 - <166 166 Airport Category Utility Airport Utility Airport Transport Airport Transport Airport Transport Airport

Airport Approach Category

Table 3.0

FAA Airplane Design Groups for Geometric Design of Airport

Aircraft Wing Span (ft.) Typical Aircraft

Airplane Design group

I II III IV V VI

< 49 49 <79 79 - <118 118 - <171 171 - < 214 214 - < 262

Beech Bonanza A 35 Learjet 25 DeHavilland DHC-5 Gulfstream II Boeing 737, Martin-04 Boeing 757, Lockheed 1011 Boeing 747-400 Lockheed C5A 1 Knot = 1.87 km/hr.
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1.4.3. Govt. of India, Dept. of Civil Aviation Classification. I. II. iii. a) Central Govt. Aerodrome b) Privately owned licensed aerodrome a) State Govt. Aerodromes maintained in a serviceable condition b) State Govt. Aerodromes maintained not in a serviceable condition Air force aerodrome available for limited civil use Airport configuration The airport configuration is the number and orientation of runways and the location of the terminal area relative to the runways. The number of runways provided at an airport depends on the volume of traffic. The orientation of these runways depends to a large extent on the direction of the prevailing wind patterns in the area, the size and shape of the area available for airport development, and land-use or airspace restrictions in the vicinity of the airport
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Runways
In general, runways and connecting taxiways should be arranged so as to-

Provide adequate separations between aircraft in the air traffic pattern. Cause the least interference and delay in landing, taxing, and takeoff operations. Provide the shortest taxi distance possible from the terminal area to the ends of the runways. Provide adequate taxiways so landing aircraft can exit the runways as quickly as possible and follow the shortest possible routes to the terminal area. At busy airports, holding or run-up aprons should be provided adjacent to the takeoff ends of the runways these aprons should be designed to accommodate three or possibly four 25 aircraft to bypass one another.

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Taxiways
The principal function of taxiways is to provide access between runways and terminal area and service hangers Taxiways should be arranged so that aircraft which have just landed do not interfere with aircraft taxiing to take off. At busy airports where taxiing traffic is expected to move simultaneously in both directions, parallel one-way taxiways should be provided . Taxiway should be located at various points along runways so that landing aircraft can leave the runways quickly to clear them for use of other aircraft commonly known as exit taxiways.

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Runway Configuration
The basic runway configuration are Single runway. Parallel runways. Dual-lane runways. Intersecting runways. Open or V-runways. Single runway: This is the simplest of the runway configurations. Parallel runways:The capacities of parallel runway systems depend a great deal on the number of runways and on the spacing between them. The spacing is classified as close, intermediate, and far depending on the C.L. seperation between two parallel runways. Close parallel runways seperations 700 ft to < 2500 ft. Intermediate parallel runways seperation 2500 ft to < 4300 ft. Far parallel runways seperation at least 4300 ft. 27

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Intersecting runways: When two or more runways in different directions crossing each other the intersecting runways formed. Intersecting runways are necessary when relatively strong winds come from more than one direction, resulting in excessive crosswinds when only one runway is provided. When winds are strong only one runway can be used. If the winds are relatively light, both runways can be used simultaneously. The capacity of the intersecting runways depends on the location of intersection (i.e., midway or near the ends), the manner in which runways are operated for takeoffs and landings (runway-use strategy) and the aircraft mix. The highest capacity is achieved when the intersection is close to the takeoff and landing threshold. (Figure 1.e)
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Open-V runways: : Runways in different directions which do not intersect are known as open-V runways The strategy which yields the highest capacity occurs when operations are away from the V, which is referred as a diverging pattern (Fig 1h). When the operations are towards the V , it is reffered as a converging pattern (Figure 1i). Combinations of runway cofigurations 9 Single direction-runway configuration is most desirable from the view point of capacity and air traffic control. 9 The open-V runway pattern is more desirable than an intersectingrunway configuration 9 If intersecting runway is not avoidable, then the intersection be placed as close as possible to their thresholds.

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S= close, intermediate, or far TO takeoff L - Landing

(a) Single runway (b) , (c), (d) Parallel runways (e) , (f), (g), Intersecting runways (h) , (i), open-V runways

Figure 1: Runway configurations

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RUNWAY ORIENTATION Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing wind. If the take off is performed in the direction opposite to the direction of wind flow, greater lift on the wings of the aircraft is available. Due to the force applied by the wind, the aircraft can rise above the ground much earlier and therefore a shorter length of runway is required. This wind, directly opposite to the movement of the aircraft, is called head wind. During landing the wind provides a breaking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop within a shorter distance requiring a shorter length of runway. Thus, shorter runway length is required if the landing or take-off operation is performed along the head wind 31 direction

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Takeoff Landing

wsin

Wind Direction

wcos

However, this is not always possible to have the wind blows in the direction of runway as the direction of wind is not same through out the year. When the wind direction meets the runway at angle , its components along the runway centre line will be wcos and perpendicular to the runway centre line will be wsin. This perpendicular components of wind is referred as Cross Wind. This cross wind components interrupts the landing and take off operation of the aircraft on runway. The excessive cross wind may put off the aircraft away from runway. Therefore the runway or system of parallel runway should be directed in such a way that the cross wind component does not cross the specified 32 limit most of the time in a year.

The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind components remain within the specified limit is called wind coverage or usability factor of airport. ICAO recommended a minimum wind coverage of 95%. The permissible cross wind components on different runway length as recommended by ICAO are Reference Field Length Maximum cross wind component
1500m or over 37 km/hr. (20 knot) 1200m 1499m 24 km/hr. (13 knot) Less than 1200m 19 km/hr. (10 knot)

This 95% criterion suggested by ICAO is applicable to all conditions of weather. When a single runway or a set of parallel runways cannot be oriented to provide the required wind coverage, one or more cross wind runway should be provided.
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The period during which wind blows at a velocity below 6.4 km/hr is called calm period. This intensity does not influence the aircraft operation. Maximum allowable cross wind component depends upon size of aircraft, wing configurations and pavement surface. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recommends that runways be oriented so that aircraft may be landed at least 95%of the time with allowable crosswind components do not exceeding specified limits specified by the airport reference codes

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WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

The wind data and its direction, duration and intensity are represented by a diagram called wind rose. This wind rose is used to analyze the wind data graphically to determine the best runway orientation. The wind data should be collected preferably for a period of 10 years and at least for 5 years. The wind rose diagram are of two types and there are two methods to determine the runway orientations. The wind data for preparation of wind rose diagram should provide: a) Direction of wind preferably in 16 directional segments each covering 22.50. and b) Duration of wind in % of the total time in different velocity group and at least three group should be taken starting from 6.4 kmph.
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Table: Typical Wind Data: Percentage of time that Winds Come from Particular Directions at Various Velocities in All Weather Conditions

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WIND ROSE TYPE I In this method the duration and direction of wind are used, but data on velocity of wind is not required
ENE W E ESE SE S SSE

NNE NE

This is not very accurate method. The radial lines indicate the wind direction and the duration is marked in this radial line to some suitable scale. All plotted lines are joined by straight lines. The best runway orientation is usually along the direction of the largest line on the wind rose diagram. 37

In the figure the best orientation is along EW direction.,

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Wind Rose Co-ordinate system

Cross wind components template showing limits of 15 mi/h

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WIND ROSE TYPE II The type II wind rose diagram shows information of wind on direction, duration and intensity. This diagram is used for orientation of runway. The wind rose diagram consists of a number of concentric circles, each circle represents the wind intensity to same scale. The circles are divided into number of segments, preferably 16 segments, each covering 22.50. Each segment represents a direction of wind flow. The duration of wind flow as a percentage of time in a year is noted in segment representing the respective direction of wind flow.
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Wind rose type II

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RUNWAY ORIENTATION
The procedure for determining the orientation of runway with the help of wind rose diagram is described in the following steps Step I : Draw the equi-spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip. The middle line represents the runway centre line and the distance between it and each of the out side lines is equal to the allowable cross wind component. Step II : Place the transparent strip on the wind rose so that the middle line passes through the centre of the wind rose.
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RUNWAY ORIENTATION
Step III : Rotate the strip with respect to the pivot until the sum of the percentage between the outside lines is a maximum. When the strip covers only a fraction of a segment, corresponding fractional part of the percentage shown should be used. The sum of percentages between the out side lines indicate the percentage of time that the runway with the proposed orientation will conform with cross wind standard. Step IV : Note the direction of runway and calculate the wind coverage.

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Wind coverage for runway 9-27

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Wind coverage for runway 3-21

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Wind coverage for runways 9-27 and 3-21

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Wind Data for day light hours for visual meteorological conditions for an airport

1. Plot the wind rose diagram under VMC 2. Determine the best orientation of primary runway at this airport. Permissible cross wind component 15km/hr
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RUNWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Runway Length
Length of runway depends upon various factors
Characteristics of airport Trip length Environmental factors

The length of the runway under the following assumed condition is known as the basic runway length 1) No wind is blowing in the runway. 2) The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity. 3) The airport is situated at sea level. 4) The standard temperature of 150C exists in the airport. 5) The runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction. 6) There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination. 7) Enroute temperature is standard.
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 The basic runway length depends upon the performance characteristics of the aircraft using the airport As a guide to the airport planners, FAA has published the runway length requirements for air carriers and general aviation aircraft The information from the aircraft manufacturer can be obtained for this purpose also. The necessary correction required for any change in elevation, temperature and gradient for the actual site of construction should be done
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Correction for Elevation

Reason: The density of air reduced with increase in elevation and the

aircraft requires longer length of runway for taking off.

ICAO Recommendation: The basic runway length should be increased @ of 7% per 300m rise in elevation above MSL

Correction for Temperature

Reason: The higher the temperature longer the runway required,

because high temperatures reflect lower air densities, resulting in lower output thrust.
ICAO Recommendation: The basic runway length should be increased @ of 1% for every 10C rise of airport reference temperature (ART) above the standard equivalent atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
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Airport Reference Temperature (ART) = TA+ (TM TA)/3 TA = Monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year TM = Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature for the same month of the year Standard Equivalent Atmospheric temperature = 150C [6.5h]/1000
Where; h = rise in altitude(in m) above MSL [Standard temperature = 150C, Decrease @ 6.50C per 1000m rise in elevation] Check:

If the total correction for elevation plus temperature exceeds 35% of the basic runway length then this should be checked by specific studies
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Correction for Gradient An uphill gradient requires more runway length than a level or downhill gradient. Though ICAO does not specifically provides any correction for gradient, it suggest the FAA recommendation for correction on runway gradient It is recommended that the runway length after having been corrected for elevation and temperature should be further increased @20% for every 1% of effective gradient. Effective gradient is the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and lowest point of runway divided by total length of runway
Problem:

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TAXIWAYS
The main function of a taxiway is to provide access to the aircrafts from the runways to the loading apron or hanger and back.

Dual Parallel Taxiway:

Two taxiways parallel to each other an which airplane can taxi in opposite direction.

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Apron Taxiways It is the taxiway located on the periphery of an apron in order to provide a through taxi route across the apron
Taxi lane: It is a portion of the aircraft parking area used for access between the taxiway and aircraft parking position ExitTaxiway: Taxiways provided at various points along the runway help to divert the landing aircraft quickly.

Figure: Exit Taxiway

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Separation Criteria
To provide a margin of safety in the airport operating areas, the taxiways must be separated sufficiently from each other and from each other and from adjacent obstruction.

ICAO Recommendation
C1

Taxiway to taxiway separation STT = WS + 2U1 + C1 Where; STT = Minimum centre to centre distance between two adjacent taxiway
WS = Wingspan demanding aircraft of the most

STT

U1

Taxiway to taxiway separation

C1 = Minimum wing tip clearance

U1 = Taxiway Edge safety margin i.e. the minimum clearance between edge of each taxiway and the outer main gear wheel
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ICAO Recommendation
C2

Taxiway and Fixed or movable object

U1

STO = 0.5WS + U1 + C2 Where, STO = Minimum separation

C2

C2 = Required clearance between wingtip and object

Taxiway and fixed or movable object separation

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Taxiway Layout
Factors controlling layout of taxiway 1. Arrangement: Aircraft which has just landed does not interfere with the aircraft taxing to take off 2. Busy Airport: Exit taxiway should be provided at various points. Parallel one way taxiway should be provided. 3. Crossing: Intersection of runway and taxiway should be avoided. 4. Route: Route should be so selected that it provides shortest practicable distance.

Geometric Design Standard Length of the taxiway should be as short as practicable. No specific guideline is available for length of taxiway. Other features like width, sight distance etc as per ICAO is given in table below
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Aerodrome Code Width Pavement Pavement and Shoulder Edge Safety Margin C1 C2 Gradient Longitudinal maximum Longitudinal maximum change Pavement transverse maximum Minimum length of vertical curve for 1% gradient change Sight Distance Height of object Clear distance

A 7.5 1.5 3.0 4.5

B 10.5 2.25 3.0 5.25

C 15 25 3.0 4.5 7.5

D 18 38 4.5 7.5 12

E 23 44 4.5 7.5 12

3.0% 4.5% 2.0% 25m

3.0% 4.0% 2.0% 25m

1.50% 3.33% 1.50% 30m

1.50% 3.33% 1.50% 30m

1.50% 3.33% 1.50% 30m

1.5m 2.0m 3.0m 100m 200m 300m

3.0m 300m

3.0m 57 300m

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Taxiway width Depending on the code letter of the runway, minimum margins of safety between 1.5m to 4.5m should be provided between outer main gear wheel edge and the taxiway edge Width of taxiway is less than the width of corresponding runway because aircraft taxi speed is considerably slower than the speed on take-off or landing. The taxiway width needs to be between 7.5m (code letter A) to 25m(code letter F). The taxiway width, WT is based on the formula;

WT = TM + 2C
Where; TM = outer main gear wheel span C = clearance between the outer main gear wheel and taxiway edge

Fig Taxiway width requirements

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Fillets
Taxiway need to be widened with fillets where they have sharp curves so that the necessary safe separation distance between the outer main gear wheel edge and runway edge may be maintained Table: Fillet Radaii (m)
Whee lBase (m) 15 to 20 10 to 15 <10 Angle of Intersection <450 22.5 450 -1350 30 >1350 60

7.5

15

60

6.0

10

30 Fig: Taxiway widening to achieve minimum wheel clearance on curve

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Fig: Typical runway and taxiway fillets for small airports

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Fig: Typical runway and taxiway fillets for large airports

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Turning Radius
Horizontal curve is to be provided whenever there is a change in the direction of taxiway Circular curve of larger radius is most suitable
Where; V = exit speed of aircraft F = coefficient of friction between aircraft wheel tyre and taxiway pavement. The adopted value of f is 0.13

R=

V 125f
2

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Exit Taxiway
The function of exit taxiway or runway turn offs is to minimize runway occupancy by landing aircrafts. Location of Exit taxiway The location of exit taxiway depends on the following points: i. Mix of aircraft ii. Approach and touchdown speed iii. Point of touchdown iv. Exit speed v. Rate of deceleration vi. Pavement condition vii. Air traffic control

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Fig: A 450 high speed exit taxiway for air craft category A and B (FAA)

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Point of curvature

Fig: A 300 high speed exit taxiway for aircraft in category C, D and E (FAA)

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Fig: A 900 exit taxiway (FAA)

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Location of exit taxiway Mathematical model are developed to determine the location of exit taxiway Simplified method may be: D = Dtd + De Where: D = distance from runway threshold to exit Dtd = distance from the runway threshold to point where air craft touches down. De = distance from touchdown point to exit De = (Vtd2 Ve2)/2a Where: Vtd = aircraft speed at touch down Ve = exit speed a = deceleration rate which should not be more than 1.5 m/s2 for passenger comfort
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Location of High speed Exit taxiway

V1 D S1 V2 S2 V0= 0

Fig.1 High speed exit taxiway distance from a threshold

The location of the start of a high speed exit taxiway may be derived by assuming a constant retardation a The following shall apply for such movement.

dv d 2s = = a; dt dt 2

v(t) = a.dt = at + C1
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S(t) = (a.t + C 1 )dt =

1 2 a.t + C 1 t + C 2 2

With the beginning of path S=0 to the point with speed v=0 in the moment then C1= C2 = 0 and the following expression is generally valid:

V(t) = a.t;

1 S(t) = a.t 2 2

If the direction to the right of the full-stop point (i.e (S(0) = 0) is considered to be positive and at the same time the acceleration a negative. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 and the meaning of which is expressed by the following:

S1 =

1 2 V at 1 ; V1 = at 1 ; t 1 = 1 2 a

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1 V1 1 V12 S1 = a = 2 a 2 a
As an analogy we can derive;

1 V 22 S2 = 2 a

The Final Expression is:

V12 V22 D = S1 S2 = 2a

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Figure 2. Exit Taxiway

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