Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

for Research & Development

Bharat S. Sontakki (bharatss@naarm.ernet.in)

 Session Outline
 Background
 Genesis & Evolution of PRA
 Concepts (RRA & PRA) and comparison
 Salient features, Philosophy & Principles
 Utility
 Dos and don'ts
 Overview of Tools
 Background
Growth of alternative approaches to understand rural
systems was due to realization of

 Farmer as a professional
 Inadequacy of conventional methods to study and
understand rural systems
 Potential of ITK for technology development
 Farm and farmer household as the references for TD

As a response, several new approaches have evolved

for quick and comprehensive understanding and
appraisal of rural systems.
 Genesis
 Dissatisfaction with biases (especially anti-poverty
bias)
 Dissatisfaction with conventional methods (surveys)
 Long drawn
 Tedious
 A headache to administer
 A nightmare to process
 Inaccurate & unreliable
 Ending up with long, late, boaring, misleading &
non-usable reports
 Need for cost-effective methods of learning from rural
people was felt
 Evolution of alternative approaches
Conventional versus Participatory Approaches

Features Conventional Participatory

Approaches Approaches
Emphasis Rigour Relevance
Rule Precision Richness
Focus Verification Learning
Purpose Interventions Empowerment
Time scale Time consuming Rapid
Cost High Low
 Evolution
 Farming System Research (Mellor, 1966; Collison, 1972; Norman, 1974)
 Indigenous Technical Knowledge (IDS, 1979; Brokesha et al. 1980)
 On-farm Trials (Tripp, 1982)
 Farmer Back to Farmer (Rhodes and Booth, 1982)
 Farmer First and Last (Chambers and Gildyal, 1985)
 Farmers Participatory Research (Farrington and Martin, 1988)
 On Farm Client Oriented Research (Merill-Sands & Kaimowitz, 1990)
 Interactive Bottom-up Approach (Bunders et al. 1990)

 Rapid Rural Appraisal (IIED, 1991)

 Participatory Rural Appraisal (IIED, 1991)
 Participatory Technology Development (Reintjes et al. 1992)
 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
It is an applied, holistic and flexible approach of
progressive learning conducted by multi-disciplinary
teams, emphasizing community participation (Theis and
Grady, 1991)

RRA is more extractive and elicitive. ‘We’ go to rural areas

and collect data from ‘them’, bring them away and
process them (Chambers, 1992)

 Systematic and semi-structured activity

 Conducted in a rural scenario
 Done by outsiders
 Cost-effective and timely means of gaining insights
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
PRA is a set of tools, an approach and an ideology

PRA is a growing family of approaches and methods to

enable local people to share, enhance and analyze their
knowledge of life and conditions to plan and to act
(Chambers, 1992)

It is a way of learning from, and with, community members

to investigate, analyze and evaluate constraints and
opportunities and make informed and timely decisions
regarding development projects (Gooselink and Strosser,
1995)
 Salient Features of RRA & PRA
 Done/facilitated by outsiders (multi-disciplinary team)
 Planned & systematic
 Semi-structured
 To understand rural life
 Short period of time
 Low cost
 Iterative process using many methods
 Flexible
 Triangulation
 Use of checklists
 RRA and PRA Comparison
Criteria RRA PRA
Objective Outsiders decide Community decides
Time scale Rapid and short Rapid, short or long
term for PME term for community
learning and
management
Key actors Outsiders Locals facilitated by
facilitated by locals outsiders
Results used By outsiders By locals
Techniques Few Many and diverse
Key resource Knowledge Analytical ability
Innovation Method Behaviour
 RRA and PRA Comparison
Criteria RRA PRA
Nature Extractive Facilitative
Instruments Verbal Visual & analytical
Ideal Learning by Empowerment of
objectives outsiders from locals
insiders
Outsiders’ Investigators Initiators, facilitators
role and catalysts
Role of locals Respondents Presenters, Analysts
& Planners
A model for Participatory Participatory planning
interventions and action
 Philosophy of PRA

 Humility  Participation
 Respect  Learning
 Patience  Role reversals
 Interest  Active listening
 Openness  Spot decisions
 Non-interruptive  Flexible
 Principles of PRA

 Offsetting biases

 Triangulation

 Optimizing tradeoffs

 Optimal ignorance

 Appropriate imprecision

 On-the spot analysis

 Principles of PRA
 Bottom-up approach

 Searching for difference

 Rapport Building

 Check list of items

 Facilitating, observing and catalyzing

 Embracing error

 Dissemination of knowledge
 Utility of PRA

 Quick access to & analysis of rural life

 General analysis of a specific topic, question or

problem

 Needs assessment

 Feasibility studies

 Identifying and prioritizing options/ projects

 Project / program evaluation

Rapport Building - CSF
‘Do’s

 Greet
 Do as they do
 Learn
 Tell the purpose
 Make them feel great
 Ask about him / her
 Be humble
 Repeat the questions
 Show gratitude & thank before leaving
Rapport Building ...

Don’ts

 No politics

 No arguments

 No interruptions

 No abrupt ending
 PRA Tools & Techniques

These methodologies offer a basketful of tools and

techniques for one to choose a best combination
depending on the purpose, objectives and resource
availability for conducting development research.

There are more than 20 PRA techniques, which can be

employed for understanding and analyzing various
facets of rural life.
Classification of PRA Methods/Tools/Techniques

Based on Type of 1. Basic Information

Data/Information 2. Agro-Eco System Analysis
gathered 3. Decision Analysis
4. Trend Analysis
5. Problem Analysis
Based on Type of 1. Village Characterization
Analysis 2. Space Analysis
3. Time Analysis
4. Flow Analysis
 and finally …

“The word ‘participation’ is kaleidoscopic; it

changes its colour and shape at the will of the
hands in which it is held. And, just like the
momentary image in the kaleidoscope, it can be
very fragile and elusive, changing from one
moment to another”.
Shirley A. White (1994)
Visit us at: http://icar.naarm.ernet.in
 Basic Information of the Village

 This will indicate the data regarding the

population to area under crops, number of
families, yield of animals and crops, mortality
related to animals etc.
 In doing a PRA within a reasonable time frame,
the PRA team has to collect he basic
information of the village by referring to the
records available in the village panchayat office
and also by interacting with the key informants
(Kis).
 For this, ideally select official members of
panchayat / school and such organizations of
the village as KIs.
 Village Transect
It is also known as general transect.
Transact is making a long walk inside the
village and locating the various items
that are found in the village like soil,
crops, animals, problems, etc.

Agro-ecology Map:
Agro-ecology map will indicate the
relation between agriculture and
environment which includes average
temperature, average rainfall,
fragmentation of holdings, natural
vegetation, drainage system, weeds, etc.
Resource Map:

This indicates both the natural

resources and man made resources
needed for development of agriculture.

Social Map:
This is a simple drawing or map drawn
without scale to enable to understand and
social issues of rural life
Indigenous Technical Know-how
(ITK):
This is the indigenous technology found
in village with reference to agriculture.

Technology Map:
The technology map will indicate the
technology decision behaviour of the
farmers, in terms of adoption, rejection
and discontinuance with reference to the
agricultural technologies.
 Matrix Ranking:
Matrix ranking will indicate the reasons
for technology decision behaviour of the
farmers.

Preference ranking:
This is to find out the perception of farmers
regarding the magnitude of the problems of
agriculture found in the village.
Problem tree:
The problem tree will indicate various
resources responsible for the specific
problem related to agriculture. This will
also indicate the intervention for the
various causes which will help in problem
identification related to a discipline.

Solution tree:
It is a modification of the problem tree,
wherein for each level of problem cause,
solutions are indicated to solve that
particular problem.
Mobility Map:
This indicates the mobility pattern of rural
people in terms of the places visited, purposes,
mode of transport, cost and time involved, etc.
In a way, this techniques helps us to analyze
the cosmopolite behaviour of people.

Time line & time trend:

Time line indicates the major remembered
events in the history of a village life that have
direct or indirect bearing on the rural life.
Time trend reveals the changes / fluctuations
that have occurred over a period of time in the
variables influencing village life. It hints at the
coping behaviour of villagers during adversities.
Impact diagram:
This indicates the changes that have occurred
either for individual or for the society due to
adoption of technology.

Wealth ranking:
It refers to placing villagers along a wealth
continuum described in terms of a set of
criteria identified by the villagers
themselves.
Livelihood analysis:
It indicates the way in which villagers
belonging to different wealth categories
manage their livelihood in terms of
income-expenditure dynamics including
crisis management.

Farm house hold map:

This map depicts the way in which the

surrounding of a typical house hold
appears without going in to the details of
its inside structure.
Bio-resource flow diagram:

This indicates the degree to which village

house hold members utilize and recycle
the various resources in and around their
settings to suggest remedial measures.

Seasonal analysis:

This indicates the month-wise

abnormalities with regard to
agriculture and animal husbandry.
Venn diagram:
This is also known as Chapati diagram. It
indicates the importance of various individuals
and institutions in and outside the village with
regard to a phenomenon related to rural life,
e.g. getting loan for agricultural purposes. It
reflects on the linkages and the stakeholders of
the village with respect to the phenomenon
studied.

Daily routine diagram:

This diagram depicts the way in which the
rural people manage their daily time.
 Identification and Prioritization of
Researchable Problems
Prioritization Methodology – RBQ Approach

 Identify 30 farmers through snow ball technique.

 Ask the problems they face and rank them according
to their importance, rank 1 being most important.
 Find the Average yield loss experienced by the
farmers because of that particular problem taking
both main and bi-products into consideration
 Find the Extent of damage caused by the problem
 Calculate Total Income loss caused due to the
problem (Standard price of the main products x
Average yield loss + Standard price of bi-products x
Average yield loss ) per acre/ animal/ unit enterprise
 Farmers Ranking of Problems
Constaints Farmers Responses ( N=30)
Ranks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Unavailabity of 15 10 5 - - - - - - -

quality fish no.s no.s no.s

seed

High price of 10 5 5 5 5 - - - - -

fish seed no.s no.s no.s no.s no.s

 The formula for calculating the RBQ
RBQ = n ∑ f i ( n +1 - i) x 100
i =1 ---------------
Nxn

i= Concerned rank ( say 1 to 10 )

N =Total no of farmers ( in our case, 30 farmers)

n = No of ranks ( say, we have asked the farmers to rank problems up to

first 10 ranks, then, n =10)

f i = Number of farmers reporting that particular problem under i th rank

Each rank has to be separately calculated and all should be summed up to

get RBQ value ( say, for 1 to 10 ranks)
 RBQ Calculation:
(i) Rank 1 for Unavailability of quality fish seed :
15 (10+1-1) x100 15 x 10 x 100
--------------------- = ---------------------- = 50
30 x 10 300
(ii) Rank 2 for Unavailability of quality fish seed :

10 (10+1-2) x100 10 x 9 x 100

--------------------- = -------------------- = 30
30 x 10 300

(iii) Rank 3 for Unavailability of quality fish seed :

5(10+1-3) x100 10 x 8 x 100

----------------------- = -------------------- = 26.67
30 x 10 300
Now sum up the values for all the three ranks for calculating the RBQ value
for “Unavailability of quality fish seed” i.e., 50 + 30 + 13.33 = 93.33
 Find the RBQ values for all the constraints listed.
 To prioritize the constraints for a production system,
calculate the VBI separately for each problem.
VBI ( Value Based Index) = RBQ x Total economic loss due to
the constraint (Standard price of the product x Average yield
loss per acre or or per unit enterprise x total affected area (in
acres) or unit enterprises in the village
 The constraint with the maximum VBI has to be accorded
highest priority
 The constraint has to be further analyzed for its possible
causes and solutions which should ultimately result in a
research intervention to mitigate the constraint
PRA Applications: Indian Experiences
 Chipco Movement
 Participatory Varietal Improvement
 Joint Forest Management
 Participatory Management of Natural Resources
 Water Users’ Associations
 Non Government/Voluntary Organizations
 NATP –
 SREP
 IVLP
 NAARM
 Foundation Training
 Micro-level Priority Setting
 Distance Training
Title A case study of people's participation in traditional
village tank systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka by Gamage,
H.; In: Sharma, P.N., (ed.) Case studies of people's
participation in watershed management in Asia; Pt. II: Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam. FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept..
FAO-FO--RAS/93/062 1996

This case study reports on completely indigenous efforts of

the people in management of watersheds of the traditional tank
systems, which has sustained the people for ages in extremely
difficult rainfed weather conditions. This study describes the
manner in which old customs, traditions and relationships
helped in people's participation in watershed management. The
study then describes the lessons that can be learned to bring
about a revival in agricultural development in the Dry Zone of
Sri Lanka. Although some of the traditional systems are not
fully applicable to modern agriculture, some of the principles
on which these systems worked could be effectively utilized
with certain modifications.