Global Research & Technology Centre/ GRTC Training Department

RHEOLOGY and HYDRAULICS

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Fluids Rheology
Fluid Rheology affects carrying capacity, slip velocity, and annular hydraulics. Fluid Rheology also affects the suspending characteristics of the Drilling Fluid.

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What are Hydraulics

An operation where the drilling fluid is used to transfer pressure from the surface to the bit, using the pressure drop across the bit to enhance the rate of penetration! Part of this energy is used to clean the face of the bit! The pressures exerted in circulating a well can be calculated, using Rheological Models! We need to know the TYPE of fluid!
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Rheological Term

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Rheological Term

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Rheological Term

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What is Rheology
Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of matter. When applied to Drilling Fluids, rheology deals with the relationship between Flow Rate and Flow Pressure and their combined effects on the Flow Characteristics of the fluid. Each of these three items is inter-related to the other.

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The Type of Fluids

We are primarily concerned with just two TYPES of fluids:

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

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Newtonian Fluids
Named after Issac Newton, the Newtonian fluid exhibits constant ratio for the Shear Stress (the force required to move the fluid) and the Shear rate (the rate at which the fluid moves). For a NEWTONIAN fluid, the ratio of Shear Stress to Shear Rate is a constant, called the viscosity (m) Calculated with the formula: m=t/g Where: Shear Stress: (t) Shear Rate: (g)

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Newtonian Model Graphically Illustrated

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 200 400 600 800 Shear Rate, 1/sec 1,000 1,200

600 RPM Reading = 40 300 RPM Reading = 20 PV = 20; YP = 0

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Non-Newtonian Fluids
Any fluid that does not conform to Newtonian behaviour. For a NON-NEWTONIAN fluid, the ratio of Shear Stress to Shear Rate is NOT a constant! MOST drilling fluids are NON-NEWTONIAN fluids.

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Non-Newtonian Fluids
They contain solid particles of various sizes that form a structure resistant to flow. When sufficient force is applied the structure yields and begins to move. We call this the Yield Point. We call this type of fluid a BINGHAM fluid.

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Non-Newtonian Fluids
Most drilling fluids do not conform perfectly to the Bingham Plastic Model. Most are Shear Thinning, that is, the more shear or velocity applied, the lower their effective viscosity becomes. The lower the shear rate, the thicker they behave. Bingham assumes a proportional straight-line increase after the yield point is passed. Bingham points assume a higher shear rate than is found in most parts of the annulus.
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What is SHEAR STRESS?

Shear Stress is defined as the force required to overcome a fluids resistance to flow, divided by the area that force is working on. Shear Stress, lbs/100 ft = Dial Reading X 1.0678 Basic formula is: Shear Stress = F / A Where: F = Force applied (dynes) A = Surface area under stress (cm2)

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What is SHEAR RATE?

Shear rate is defined as the relative velocity of the fluid layers, divided by their normal separation distance. Shear rate is expressed in reciprocal seconds (sec-1). Basic formula is: Shear Rate = V / H Where: V = Velocity (cm/sec) H = Distance (cm) Shear Rate = rpm X 1.7033. 600 rpms = 1022 sec-1. 300 rpms = 511 sec-1.
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Measurement : MARSH FUNNEL

Determination of fluids Viscous properties. Relies on gravity and predetermined orifice size. SS/SR = Funnel Viscosity Measurement Reported as Seconds / Quart Predicts Trends

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What is Viscosity?
Viscosity relates to the resistance to deformation exhibited by a fluid. In our world, we can think of it as a relationship that exists between the Shear Stress and the Shear Rate. We must not think in terms of thick and thin. Viscosity is calculated with the following formula: Viscosity = Shear Stress / Shear Rate The Marsh funnel is NOT a measure of viscosity.
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The Importance of Viscosity

Hole Cleaning Barite Suspension Drilling Rate Circulating Pressures - E.C.D. Pipe Movement Pressures - Swab & Surge Erosion - Flow Regimes

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The Rheological Models

A RHEOLOGICAL MODEL is a description of the relationship between: Shear Stress: (t) Shear Rate: (g) Most commonly RHEOLOGICAL MODEL used in the drilling fluids industry: Bingham Plastic Model Power Law Model

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The BINGHAM PLASCTIC Model

The simplest model, and one of the most commonly used, is the BINGHAM PLASTIC model. Assumes the shear stress is a linear function of shear rate, once a specific shear stress has been exceeded. Expressed as: t = YP + PV (g) Where: YP PV = = yield point, lb/100 ft2 plastic viscosity, cp (centipoise)

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The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model

Best characterises fluids at higher shear rates. PV and YP are calculated from a conventional concentric viscometer with the data taken at 600 and 300 rpm dial readings. PV = q600 - q300 YP = q300 PV By multiplying the shear rate in rpm by 1.702, you can derive the shear rate in reciprocal seconds (sec-1).

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Bingham Model Graphically Illustrated

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 200 400 600 800 Shear Rate, 1/sec 1,000 1,200

600 RPM reading = 50 300 RPM reading = 30 PV = 20; YP = 10

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Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point

PLASTIC VISCOSITY = 600 Reading - 300 Reading Plastic Viscosity is a measurement of the size, shape and concentration of the solids in the mud and the viscosity of the fluid phase. YIELD POINT = 300 Reading - Plastic Viscosity Yield Point is a measurement of the chemical and electro-chemical charge attractions of the solids.

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PLASTIC VISCOSITY : Definition

PV = 600 RPM reading - 300 RPM reading. Affected by Solids: Size Distribution Shape Concentration Affected by Fluid Phase Viscosity. High Shear (Equivalent to Fluid Shear Rates at Bit)
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YIELD POINT : Definition

Yield Point = 300 RPM Rdg - Plastic Viscosity. Indicates attraction between solids. Electro-Chemical in Nature (+/- charges). A Measure of Flocculation. Gives some indication of the hole cleaning ability of the fluid, when the fluid is in motion.

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Yield Point : Influencing Factor

Cross linking polymers (example: xc polymer) Doubly charged cations causing flocculation

(example: Ca2+ and Mg2+) Polymers with anionic or cationic groups Reactive clays Bentonite

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Causes YP Increase
Flocculation of solids can be caused by: Temperature Chemical degradation, dehydration Chemical contaminants Salt/salt water, calcium, carbonates, cement, H2S Solids crowding Weight up, poor solids formations, dehydration
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clay

movement,

control,

reactive

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Causes YP Increase

Flocculation of solids can be caused by: pH increase/decrease from cement contami nation, lime additions, acid gas influx Commercial additives (Bentonite, Polymers) Inorganic clays, polymers (viscosifiers,

flocculants, some filtration and shale control additives)

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The POWER LAW Model

The POWER LAW model describes a fluid in which the shear stress/shear rate relationship is a straight line when plotted on log-log graph paper. It more closely approximates the low shear rate behaviour of a drilling fluid. The POWER LAW model is: t = K(gn) Where: K = The consistency index, (lb-secn/100 ft2) n = The power law exponent (dimensionless)

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Using Power Law Numbers

Fluid Velocities (in feet per second) are calculated for each hydraulic diameter in the pipe or annulus. Ks and ns are applied to each section. Effective Viscosity (me) of the mud is calculated for each section. A Critical Reynolds Number (Rec) is calculated for the mud.
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Viscosity Profiles for Fluid Models

Viscosity, cP 10,000 5,000 2,000 1,000 500 200 100 50 20 10
Newtonian Power Law Actual Bingham

10

30 100 Shear Rate, 1/sec

300

1,000

3,000

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The concept n and K

The units of Power Law Model are:
n,

the Power Law Index. K, the Consistency Factor Two regimes of flow are usually recognised: Medium range, found inside the pipe, the jets and around the bit. Low range, found in the annulus. The cross-over point between the two is generally recognised as 170 sec-1.

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What about n and K ?

The rheological parameters n and K can be calculated from any two shear-rate/shear-stress data points. This is rarely a totally straight line. Normal procedure is to calculate these values at shear rates in the drillstring and in the annulus! Drillstring = np and Kp Annulus = na and Ka We use the 3 rpm and 100 rpm readings for the low shear rate. We use the 300 rpm and 600 rpm readings for the high shear rate.
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n Power Law Exponent Definition

n power law exponent
High shear environment

= 3.32 log (600 300) viscometer reading Describes the shear thinning properties of a fluid, i.e. degree of non-newtonian behavior. A shear thinning fluid is one that thins in a high shear environment, i.e. in the drill pipe & at the bit, and thickens in a low shear environment, i.e. in the annulus.

Low shear environment

Annulus

The n value defines the velocity profile in the annulus. Note: PV:YP ratio also defines the velocity profile in the annulus, i.e. PV equal to or < YP results in a flat velocity profile PV > YP will sharpen the velocity profile incrementally.

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The n Value
n is the Power Law Exponent. n dictates the logarithmic curve followed in a Shear Rate/Shear Stress graphical analysis. n is a function of the Shear-Thinning properties of a fluid. n values are always less than 1.000 n values near 1 indicate immediately Shear-Thin. fluids that

A fluid with n near 1 is easier to force into turbulent flow

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Calculating n
Using the 600 and 300 rpm dial readings, the equation simplifies to: (q600) n = 3.32log -------------(q300)

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n Value Relationship
If n = 1, the fluid is Newtonian. If n < 1, the fluid is non-Newtonian and more shear thinning. Low n values: Promote laminar flow Increase carrying capacity As n decreases flow profile flattens Most drilling fluids have n values between 0.3 - 0.5

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Velocity Profile in the annulus

drill pipe n = 0.7 n = 0.5 n = 0.3 borehole wall

Fluid velocity diminishes to almost zero at the face of the borehole and the drill pipe due to frictional drag . Vertical well bore Horizontal well bore

Maximum velocity

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The K Value
K is a consistency constant that gives a measure of thickness compared to other fluids. It may be compared to Plastic Viscosity, but the relationship is not precise. Actual Effective Viscosity must be calculated using K and n for each specific Shear Rate.

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Calculating K
Using the 600 and 300 rpm dial readings, the equation simplifies to: (q300) ---------511n

K =

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K Value Relationship
K defines viscosity at a low shear rate approximately 1 1/sec Higher K generally improves hole cleaning Higher K increases system pressure loss

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Adjusting n and K
To lower n value: Add flocculants and electrolytes Use cross link type polymers To increase K value: Add biopolymers or bentonite Increase solids concentration

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Other Models
HERSCHEL-BUCKLEY (Modified Power Law) Best fit to Drilling Fluids YP = q3 n = (3.32) log [( q600-YP ) / ( q300-YP )] K = q300 / 511n CASSON Very accurate at low shear rates, but complicated and difficult to use. ROBERTSON-STIFF The best model for HPHT Wells A three parameter model that is also difficult to use. Very accurate in many cases.
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Graph of Actual Readings vs. Bingham and Power Law Models

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft 40

30

20

10

Bingham Actual Power Law Power Law Model Values Pipe Annulus

200

400

600 800 Shear Rate, 1/sec

1,000

1,200

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Yz Factor
In recent years a trend has developed where the Yz factor is applied as an indicator of the LOW END rheology of a drilling fluid. It is calculated with the following formula: Yz Factor = (2 * FANN 3) - FANN 6 The LOW END rheology has only a moderate influence on hole cleaning.

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Defining the Flow Regime

What is a Flow Regime? Essentially the nature of the fluid flow. A Flow Regime can be classed in several ways: Plug Flow Laminar Flow Transitional Flow Turbulent Flow What do these terms mean?
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PLUG Flow
The condition where the fluid moves like a solid. Generally attributed to very low flow rates, with high viscosities and/or high solids concentrations.

Wellbore Wall

Drillpipe Wall

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LAMINAR Flow
Laminar Flow is associated with low flow rates and an orderly pattern of flow. The flow rate/flow pressure relationship is governed by the viscous properties of the fluid.

Wellbore Wall

Drillpipe Wall

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TURBULENT Flow
Characterised by chaotic, random flow patterns. Associated with high fluid velocities. The change from Transitional to Turbulent is governed by a dimensionless number, called the Reynolds Number.
Wellbore Wall Drillpipe Wall

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TRANSITIONAL Flow
Transitional Flow is a theoretical state where the Flow Regime is in Transition from Laminar Flow to Turbulent Flow. This transition occurs at some Critical Velocity. If the velocity is reduced slightly, the fluid returns to Laminar flow. Conversely, if the velocity is increased, turbulence is achieved.
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Critical Velocity
The Critical Velocity is that velocity when the movement of a fluid changes from: Laminar to Transitional to Turbulent It is largely governed by the ratio of the fluids internal forces to its viscous forces. We must know the Reynolds Number to determine the Critical Velocity.

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Reynold Number (Re)

It is the ratio of the fluids internal forces to its viscous forces. The Reynolds Number is based on the following formula: Nre = ( Dfc * Va * Dm ) / Fv Where: flow channel velocity Dm Fv
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Dfc Va

= = = =

Dimensions of the Average flow Density of the fluid Fluid viscosity

Gel Strength - Definition

Attraction between solids under static conditions. Closely related to Yield Point. Types: Fragile or Flat Progressive or Elevated

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Gel Strength - Importance

An Indication of Low Shear Rate Rheological Properties. Too low may cause: Settling Barite and/or Cuttings Cutting Beds Build-up Too high may cause: Pressure Surges Swabbing

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Fragile Gel Strength

A Gel Strength which increases only slightly after 10 minutes, even if the ten second gel is high. Generally Desirable Lower : Pump Pressures Swab/Surge Pressures

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Progressive Gel Strength

A Gel Strength which increases significantly after 10 minutes, even if the ten second gel is low. May be an indication of: Concentration of Reactive Solids Too High Solids Crowding Insufficient Deflocculation Carbonate Contamination

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Fragile and Progressive Gel Strength

Gel Strength (Lb/100 Sq. Ft.)
50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 80 Time In Minutes Fragile Gel 100 120

Progressive Gel

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HYDRAULICS Analysis
Scomi Oiltools is starting to use HyPR-CALC simulation program The objective of using this program is to assess the effects of the viscosity of any drilling fluid on certain critical drilling parameters at any given depth, formation types, temperature and pressure.

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What does HYDRAULICS mean?

Mechanical and Flow properties of Fluids as applied to practical Mud Engineering Otherwise referred to as Fluid Mechanics Drilling Fluid is the Blood of the Drilling Operation

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Why Effective Hydraulics

Hole Cleaning Hydrostatic Pressure Optimisation Wellbore Stability Wellbore Control Equivalent Circulating Densities (ECD) Surge and Swab Control whilst Tripping Limitation of Pump Capacity Optimisation of Drilling Operation

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Circulating Pressure Losses

Surface Equipment: From Mud Pump to Top of Drillpipe Varies from Rig to Rig - typically 100 psi Drillstring: Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA): MWD tools Downhole Motors Drill Bit: Nozzle number and size Annulus: Open hole Casing
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Circulating System Shear rate Ranges

Settling Barite Particle Drill Pipe Annulus Drill Collars H.C.*

Bit

0.01

0.1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

SHEAR RATE (1/sec)

*H.C = Hydroclones

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Primary Design Criteria

Pore Pressure < Hydrostatic Pressure/ECD < Fracture Pressure

Depth

Fracture Pressure Gradient Pore Pressure Gradient Mud Weight Pressure or Equivalent Mud Weight

Poor Design will likely lead to; Wellbore Control Lost Circulation

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Hydraulics Design Criteria

Casing / Completion Operations Pump Capacity Tripping Speed

Pore Pressure Fracture Pressure

Optimum Design

Maximum ROP

Hole Geometry / Cleaning BHA Design

Bit Hydraulics

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Key Variable in Hydraulics

Pump Rate High Good Hole Cleaning Too High Excessive Pump Pressure, High ECD, Annular Turbulence Density High Wellbore Stability and Control Too high Low ROP, Lost Circulation, Differential Sticking
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Key Variable in Hydraulics

Rheology High Good hole Cleaning, No Barite Sag Too High Low ROP, High ECD, High Pump Pressure, Inefficient Solids Removal

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Design
Mud Selection Environment Lithology Cost Modify Rheology and Hydraulics to meet Drilling Requirements Geometry Modify Drilling Parameters to meet needs of Hydraulics Tools Accurate Dynamic Hydraulics Software Hole Cleaning Software
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Why should calculate the Pressure Losses and Rheology

Determine the ECD (Equivalent Circulating Density) of a drilling fluid. Assess the effects of fluid changes on hydraulic performance. Optimise hydraulics for enhanced drilling performance. Ensure good hole cleaning. Preventing erosion. Prevent borehole instability. Prevent losses due to surge pressures.
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Steps!
Draw the wellbore geometry. Calculate the total annular pressure drop. Calculate the ECD. Calculate the Critical Flow Velocity and Flow Rate around the drill collars. Calculate surge and swab pressures. Calculate cuttings transport efficiency. Calculate the pressure drop in the drillstring. Optimise bit hydraulics.

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