Some Notes on a Theory of African Rhythm Advanced by Erich von Hornbostel Author(s): John Blacking Source: African Music,

Vol. 1, No. 2 (1955), pp. 12-20 Published by: International Library of African Music Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30249422 Accessed: 28/05/2010 14:31
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SOME NOTES ON A THEORY OF AFRICAN RHYTHM ADVANCED BY ERICH VON HORNBOSTEL JOHN
JOHN BLACKING on African Music written in 1928,Hornbostel offered an explanation In an article of African which may puzzle Western ears (Hornbostel features of certain rhythms '28, p. 52):be understood. Each single movement is againtwofold: themuscles African beating rhythms thehand is lifted anddropped. is stressed andreleased, acoustiarestrained Onlythesecond phase as itwere, in thestraining inaudible onehasthemotor which consists of accent, cally;butthefirst contrast ourrhythmic an essential between andtheAfrican's; themuscles. Thisimplies conception the twophases andcommence weseparate from from weproceed motion; hearing, they bya barline, to them, thebar,with theacoustically stressed thebeginning ofthe themetrical time-unit; unity, the ofthe isatthe same time areunknown thearsis, movement, rhythmical beginning figure; up-beats as weakbeats, Western usethem. inthe musicians to them.(i.e. up-beats way J.B.) To us thesimple because as syncopated, to itsacoustic we onlyattend ofbeats succession -1 -' 1 appears aspect. as they we must to understand African In order are,therefore, really rhythms change thoroughly to write them downadequately we must before and in order the ourattitude; placethebar-line of African form is not >rest ortheup-beat ... theelementary >3/4rhythm

matters actofbeating; isthe andonly what from this can orthe really xylophone; point clapping

is ultimately founded on drumming. can be replaced "African Drumming rhythm byhand-

IdJIbut|J . . ."
(r) (')

in his article"African to theseremarks A. M. Jonesrefers Drumming"(Jones '34, p. 49):-

these(marks of emphasis) on the ground withconsiderable justifies ingenuity "Hombostel thantheactualsoundof thestrike, thatcarries of thearmrather thestrong thatit is theraising be accepted, If our version notethatthese accented notes in African accent rhythms. percussion thestrike as theaccent.MyAfrican informant all fallnaturally intoposition, counting practically at anyrate, it is entirely irrelevant." notion.In thisexample, Hombostel's repudiates

to motor concepts of rhythm in AfricanMusic that These are the only references I have been able to find. Hornbostel does not say whetherhe deduced the theoryhimself or whether he had gotten it from some educated African or European enquirer. If his theory is correct then it deserves more attentionthan it has so far received, since of much Africanmusic. Although to the proper understanding it would be fundamental Hornbostel implies that all African peoples conceive their rhythmsphysically from motion rather than musically from hearing, it is more likely that the generalization repudiatesthe notion; applies, if at all, only to certaingroups. Jones' Africaninformant in thisway. and thissuggests thatat least one group of Africansmay not thinkof rhythm Until Hornbostel's theory has been hammered out and proved true or false-or parts of Africa-accurate perhaps true and false, according to its application in different researchinto Africanmusic is seriouslyimpeded. His proposition raises manyproblems some solution to others:and offers

with all the force they can muster. The only movement "attacking" theirinstruments downwards that could be interpretedas a release of muscular tension is that which follows the raising of one arm in the air (see photo below), and this movementappears to be done only by a leader; it is a sign for the beginningof a new section of the music. ? .... Already an indictmentof Hornbostel's theory

contrast between andEuropean nature is the African ofthissuggested precise (1) What of rhythm? concepts If one watchesChopi musiciansplayingtheirxylophones, they appear to be

SOME NOTES ON A THEORY

OF AFRICAN

RHYTHM

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orchestra to begin a preparing High-speedphotographof the leader of a Chopi timbila new sectionof the music. (Photo--J.B.)

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Two high-speed of Chopi musiciansplayingin the arena of a Johannesburg photographs Mine Compound. Note the looseness and turningof the wrists,especiallyof the bass theirinstruments players(top). If theywere hitting theywould not be holdingthe beaters in that way. The picturesalso show how the wristsare suspendedfromthe shoulders. In the second photo (bottom) theleader has just jerkedhis bereton to the xylophoneof the man behind. (Pbotos--JB.)

SOME NOTES ON A THEORY OF AFRICAN It H

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the Ifinfact ofa virtuoso hewere watches hisinstrument pianist. performance pounding harsh thetonewouldbe unpleasantly ofhismove(It sometimes is!). Closer analysis willusually reveal that there is constant ments which thedownward makes lift, upward more ofa downward "thrust" insist that allthe muscular "drop" Somepianoteachers must be made effort when to play eachtone, so that the note is actually struck preparing a moment ofmuscular relaxation. Thefingers areallowed tofallon to thekeys during tohitthem: than towhat rather seem the louder thus, natural, contrary compelled may the more relaxed oneplays oneis. In playing oftones, orchords, which succeed groups itis possible to emphasize eachother theperiods ofeffort between therelaxed slowly of thetones.Obviously thisis impossible whenthetones are sounded in sounding as in fastsemiquaver effort is made runs; and herethemuscular quicksuccession, thebeginning before each"moment ofrelaxation" ofeachmusical theoretically phrase, several tones. covering quickly-changing African or drummers Thuswhen ofnotes or beats xylophonists playsuccessions to be downwards and still be adhering toHornbostel's they beating may quickly appear with thesame that a pianist would haveto make to histheory modifications of theory, effort and relaxation whenplaying fastpassages.The clue to thetechnique which their underlies conscious or unconscious, whether is to be found in the performance, of thetrunk, movements theshoulders. and more In thesamewayone particularly a pianist's often learns arms moreby watching and shoulders rather thanhis hands and fingers. The Chopiplaytheir with a loosewrist which is supported xylophones theshoulder; from ifthewrist were rather the than directly bytheforearm supported hit so that thekeys with thebeaters, I do notthink that shoulder, they forcefully they couldpossibly andas vigorously as they do formore an than continuosly playalmost hourat a time, dance is performed. while theNgodo of bothEuropean The procedure andAfrican to be virtually performers appears hishand the same:anAfrican drummer raises to letting itfall on to the instrument, prior and a European mustprepare a chordbothmentally and physically before pianist the musical sound.In both cases the is a step ahead ofhisaudience; producing performer ina sense as much the from motion as the African drummer. pianist proceeds Similarly a violinist a muscular effort must make before a musical tone;a wind sounding player must "strain" andtakea breath before he releases theairandplays. Thecontrast which is therefore Hornbostel notso much oneofprocedure suggests as of attitude towards movements and theproduction of musical sounds.He claims that Africans of thesounds as a bi-product think of rhythmical whereas movement, Westerners attention to the sounds than to themovement which causes them. paymore "In Africa, themusic ofthedance andthedance itself areoneindivisible whole." '52,page1). (Jones Thisfact hasbeencorroborated other observers that there seems little byso many reason to doubt itstruth. music for Since must be related to thedance movedancing ments andinmany casesinAfrica be considered subordinate tothem, onemight might to find derived the musical from of the movement. expect physical concepts pattern on this in Sachs'37,page 181ff., several of the (Sachsdwells point giving examples correlation anddancing.) ofmusic between styles
as extrovert be described A largenumber of African dancesmight (see Sachs '37); thebodyupwards release andoutwards. thetendency is to achieveemotional bystraining Africa The Ndblamu dance of theNguni groupin Southern might appearat stamping ofthis: butin fact thetensewinding-up ofthebody to be an obviouscontradiction first with andthe ethos music. (2) Comparison theory ofHornbostel's dancing ofmuch African

of downward"attacking"movements One has a similarimpression when one

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movement than thestamping is a longer andmore release.The pattern is significant Tension-Relaxation. Thisis the ofmany African one ofTension-Relaxation, pattern Hornbostel of melody melodies '28, p. 34 ff.);Sachscallsthistype (see forinstance (Sachs'43,p. 41). "pathogenic" is one of Relaxation-Tension-Relaxation.x music of Western The general pattern in Africa is to singup thescale,whereas is to do the thetendency The tendency instruments are even tuned from the to some the lowest note--or, highest opposite: from thesmallest tothelargest. musicians as African say, intothespaceofa baroffour these beats we larger physical patterns Telescoping shouldbe thestrong to theWestern thattheAfrican find beat,equivalent up-beat thesensations aresimilar; thefirst beatis thestrong beat: but down-beat. Physically a movement and in theother downwards. in one case it is a movement upwards are notthesame: theWestern theresults as Hornbostel music suggests, Musically, 1 - 2 - 3, 1 - 2 - 3 etc. theAfrican music runs whereas runs 1 - 2 - 3, 1 - 2 - 3 etc., in theoverall a similar contrast movements ofballroom I havenoticed expressed dancestheFoxtrot or the Quickwell one waltzes, andjiving.However dancing to theground on thestrong to come down beats:-1- 2 - 3, 1 - 2 - 3, 1 onetends Step, one to lift thebodyoff or 1 - 2 - 3 - 4, 1 - 2 - 3 - 4. In jivedancing, however, tends atsome this clubs inJohannesI havechecked thefloor. point recently night European and sentimental of waltzes, numbers thecouples steady burg. Duringtheplaying but as soon in thenormal Western fashion: or slouched aroundthefloor danced several dancers wouldindulge a semi-hot number in a pseudoas thebandplayed a single With all those ofbounce-dancing. whom hardly exception amongst jive style their bodieson thestrong beatsof themusic lifted I observed, (Beats1 and 3, they andletthem were in duple beats. all thetunes since time), dropon theweak of Jazzareoften andmonotonous, andit may be that The syncopations regular ofup-beats anddown-beats. The upward as this is due to a different lift, conception whatgivesJazzits bounce.On thefew beat,is surely opposedto thedownward I have that found I have when occasions played jazzonthe piano bouncing upanddown is very in time to themusic theshoulders to good on thepianostoolor lifting helpful thefundamental It might wellbe shown innovation in Jazz that playing. rhythmic inmost movement found Western music ofthe anddances, wasthe down-up replacement a concept from derived African movement, apparently dancing. bytheup-down to apply to the theory likely rhythmic foundations ofall (3) Howfar is Hornbostel's music? and instrumental vocal African in linewith Hornbostel's I havesuggested thetaking that, hypothesis, Although is equivalent to theraising forsinging andplaying windinstruments in ofthebreath ofthedrum I ofthese itis more to thebeating ofthearm (Section Notes), likely prior thestrong with ofexhalation coincides movement moment of theactual that upward that oftaking a breath, further thebody.Although tension, it,thebeginning precedes moment oftension. is really theclimactic lineofmelody ofa pathogenic (When Chopi their heads backwards and wind themselves dancers forwards, moving up, they sing with before into the melodic tremendous andright left bursting phrase vigour. sideways of Portugese East Africa sizzles of theMakwaya danceof theShangaan The leader
Western isshaped music like a curve Hindemith ora rising for instance 1 See, '47,p. 115etc.Most inoutline. Onemight a point and stretch could works few be called pathogenic perhaps plane;very a pattern inE minor follows ofTension--Relaxation. 6th Williams' Symphony Vaughan saythat

SOMENOTES ON A THEORYOF AFRICANRHYTHM

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before like thefuseof a thunderflash intothe putting everyounce of effort ominously deducesthattheoretically of his speech-song.)Hornbostel theemphasis first explosion thatof melodiesplayedon windinstruments of the vocal line (and presumably also) withtheaudiblebeat of thepercussion:shouldrunat loggerheads
Body Up Up

Perouselonr

Voice

movement

down down

I (r)j(r)

rr rI

If the whole body is strainedand liftedin order to accentuatethe melodic at the same time. Perhapsthisis why to beat downwards line,it cannotbe expected on the off-beats of a sung melody:the raising handclapsoftenoccur systematically of the handsis an act of tension resolvedby the clap. of the armsand the spreading of syncopation may be shown to applyin some areas of Though theseexplanations thattheycan be applieduniversally: it mustnot be thought forinstance, in Africa, Rhodesiaand Southern where theareasin Northern is Congo polyrhythmic technique be the used in a a different In may perhaps explained commonly syncopation way. Rhodesia,analysedby D. K. Rycroft poundingsong of Tonga girlsfromNorthern of thepestlescoincides withthestrong '55 ,p. 21), thedown-beat beatsof the (Rycroft vocal line. (This does not of coursemeanthatall worksongs will contradict HornI canthink ofmany itis bestforthephysical caseswhere movement bostel'shypothesis: rather withit. For instance, thansynchronize if a groupof to followthe vocal effort willbe moreeffective a ropeto theshoutof "heave",thepulling ifthe menare pulling the shoutrather thanwithit.) is made just after effort features Similar rhythmic may be foundin Jazz music,accordingto a recent and A. P. Merriam.Undertheheading, "Continual off-beat of F. H. Garner definition list:of melodicaccents", they phrasing in whichmelodicaccentsfall betweendominant "a. Phrasepatterns percussive beats. beatssuperimposed on a fundamental of two b. Melodic cyclesof three rhythm or fourbeats,the beats themselves remaining equal in value." are often Both thesefeatures looselycalled "syncopation".(b) maybe explained be on thebasis of polyrhythmic (see Jones'34 etc.); while(a) mayperhaps technique of I the elaboration which have basis of on the discussed. Hornbostel's theory explained some African music which I across seemedto combine both came Quite recently of the rhythmic at the same time. I give below a diagram foundations thesefeatures theZavala district dancefrom ofPortuguese ofa ChopiNgalanga movement ofthengeniso East Africa.2

2 from theInternational canbe obtained ofthis Special dubbings byarrangement recording Library a short No. HIM-4),during on 4.x.55, led by Music. It was collected ofAfrican (Research expedition Mr.Tracey.

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ahd RATTLE

M1.M. Sloo

basio 6eat of XMOPHONE. Tenor.. NCHUTO Drum,played with stiok. of Right ARM player. R.H. IJXLU Bass Drum, L.H. with two plaeed beaters. VOICES.
a Chopi dance. foundations ofngeniso movement from Rhythmic Ngalanga

up

down up

down up
-I P

down up

down

,b

L~

of thevoicepartmust The notation notbe taken too literally, since therhythm was governed thetendency was to slowdownoverthe by thewords;nevertheless ofeachtwo-bar course as indicated above. A soloxylophone thedance, phrase, begins twojoinin with therattle theother and then thetwodrummers: thevoices player, when therhythm ofthedrum is wellunder notation enter way.I checked my rhythms I emphasized ofeachtriplet them when inthe thefirst Nkulu myself: byplaying group I corrected: I was when Hornbostel's and tested with the accent theory only part played on thelastnoteof eachgroup(as indicated above),was myperformance approved. theNchuto I tried drum as ifitwasthesecond oftriplets; ofa group that was playing There is further use ofpolyrhythmic also corrected. which I havenotinditechnique with cated were often left hand the induple time andthe above; the xylophones played time.I wastoldbyourChopiinterpreter, a musician, in triple himself that the right is regarded time as a variation the basic within itis important andthat time, triple duple should the that time inthe left the hand Drum maintain player duple part.(cf. technique inJones '52 ,p.36 ff.) described is evidence of off-beat accents Here,then, apparently produced bypolyrhythmic and theapplication at thesametime.It is worth of Hornbostel's theory technique when I first that ofpart ofthis I wastempted heard the mentioning play-back recording that the beat ofthe tothink wasinfact drum the beat. When main Nchuto they performed time it a second it was quiteclearthat beatwas setby therattle themain however, andthexylophonists; I noticed alsothebody ofthetwodrummers, movements player Nkulu totake howthe seemed inonedownward eachphrase movement, player swaying andtheNchuto stressed lift ofhisdrumstick theupward almost as much as the player beat. I couldnever downward haveguessed what was happening to the bylistening alone. recording insupport evidence Further theory. ofHornbostel's (4) a a local us with There was The other day boysang guitar accompaniment. song structure ofthemusic intherhythmical ofpolyrhythmic no hint (polyrhythm technique

SOME NOTES ON A THEORY

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does not appear to be used extensively in the Union of South Africa); by Africans bothaccompaniment and melody werein dupletime, in 4-bar and with arranged periods The player harmonies. beattime withhisfoot; theupward simple European-influenced beatof hisfootcoincided withthestrong, accents of themelodic apparently syncopated beatofhisfootcoincided withthestrong beatsofhisstrumming line; butthedownward on the guitar.Beingaccustomed to Europeanmusic,I regarded his down-beat as the mainbeat and his up-beatas the weak beat,so thatthe vocal line seemedexcessively to me, almostmonotonously so. If on the otherhand the up-beat was to syncopated him thestrong of the syncopation would have been entirely beat,thenhis conception in fact noneofthemusicwouldhaveon himthephysical effect ofsyncopation different; ifit wereperfectly normal forhimto accent thevoice on theup-beat and thepercussive soundon thedown-beat. (As Hornbostel pointsout,themotorconceptof rhythm poses certain problems in transcription. Are we to place thebar-line in accordance withthesoundor withthe movement thatcauses the sound? Written musicshould of courseindicate physical the sound intended, not the methods of producing thatsound; on the otherhand,if we areto analyse musicthoroughly it seemsthatwe shouldtry to express it in theterms in whichit was conceived. Ideally everytranscription of African music should be of thephysical movements which accompanied bysomeindication producethemusical sounds. Transcriptions of drumming, for instance, which do not indicatethe hand used to playeachnote,arenotvery enlightening.) In listening to someitemsof African and trying to beattimewithmyfoot, music, I have often foundthatI wantedto liftnot onlymyfootbutmywholebody on what should be the first beat of the "bar"; onlyin thisway could I feelthe rhythm of the music. An excellent mama(Ngoma 1378. exampleof thissortof tuneis Mwanaaboyi 78 r.p.m.,also on Decca LP 1224,No. 10 in the "Music of Africa"Series). Thereis, moreover, thatAfrican evidence drummers rather than feeltheir rhythms to them.A typical listen ofthisoccurs in A. M. Jones'book on theIcila Dance example on the drum; musician, (Jones '52): Mr. Kombe, an African gives demonstrations whenhe makesa mistake it is significant thathe saysnot thathe HEARS he has gone he FEELS thathe has gone wrong. (p. 36 op. cit.) but that wrong, I witnessed some of themoststriking evidence in support of Hornbostel's theory at theThirdAfrican in Bulawayo(described Eisteddfod in thisissue in the elsewhere Section'NotesandNews'). All theChoirs had to singsetpiecesofEuropeancomposed either forpart-or unison-singing. These songs whereconducted music,arranged by the African teachers who coachedthe choirs: I was astonished to see thatseveralof themgave vigorousup-beatson all the strongbeats whereI should have given a down-beat.An excellent of thisoccurred in thesong,"The Lass of Richmond example conductors beat thus:-Hill", whereeightout of nineAfrican

On

Rich- mond down

Hill UP

there down

lives UP

a down

lass, UP etc.

-UP beat: down Condurtors'

wouldhavedonetheexact conductor The average (It must opposite. European this thrust to the beatofthebaris considerably be saidthat more strong upward lively in European beatcommon I discussed thematter thanthedownward conducting).

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withsome of theAfrican said thattheydefinitely feltthe teachers and they afterwards, to be thestrong beat. up-beat whichhave occurred to me and some of the These thenare some of thethoughts so forcibly sinceI was struck evidenceI have been able to muster by the methodsof at the BulawayoEisteddfod.Hornteachers conducting by some African employed as to the'motorconcept'in African had drawnattention bostel,I discovered, rhythms been he said does not seem to have what the of as full 1928; significance long ago appreciated. will stimulate and I have written thesenotesin thehope thatthey correspondence views both for and against Horbostel's notion from observers and research the last word in this musicians and above all fromAfrican workers, themselves--for come fromthem. mustinevitably matter WORKS QUOTED
Part.Associated BookI-Theoretical ofMusical Craft PaulHindemith: Composition", 1937--"The MusicPublishers Inc.,New York. Vol. I, No. 1. E. M. von Hornbostel: NegroMusic",Africa, 1928--"African the Journal of the University of the A. M. Jones: 1934-"African Bantu Studies, Drumming", oftheRhodes-Livingstone No. 4 oftheOccasional Vol. 8,No. 1: reprinted 1949, Papers Witwatersrand, Museum. L. Kombe), African MusicSociety. A. M. Jones:1952-"The IcilaDance,Old Style" (with Vol. 1, No. 1. andFreeExpression", 1955-"TribalStyle D. K. Rycroft: Music, African

ofthe Dance". Curt Sachs: 1937--"World History

EastandWest". World Curt Sachs: 1943-"The RiseofMusicin theAncient