Journal of the Geological Society

Evolution and volcanic hazards of Taapaca Volcanic Complex, Central Andes of Northern Chile
J.E. Clavero, R.S.J. Sparks, M.S. Pringle, et al. Journal of the Geological Society 2004; v. 161; p. 603-618 doi: 10.1144/0016-764902-065

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Copyright 2004 Geological Society of London

Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 161, 2004, pp. 603618. Printed in Great Britain.

Evolution and volcanic hazards of Taapaca Volcanic Complex, Central Andes of Northern Chile
1

J. E . C L AV E RO 1,2, R . S . J. S PA R K S 2 , M . S . P R I N G L E 3 , E . P O L A N C O 1,4 & M . C . G A R D E W E G 1 a y Miner a, Av. Santa Mar a, 0104-Santiago, Chile (e-mail: jclavero@sernageomin.cl) Servicio Nacional de Geolog 2 University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK 3 Scottish Universities Reactor and Research Center (SURRC), East Kilbride G75 0QF, UK 4 noma de Me xico (UNAM), Coyoaca n 04510, Me xico D.F., Mexico Universidad Auto
Abstract: Taapaca Volcanic Complex is a large dacitic volcano (35 km3 ) located in the western border of the active zone of the Central Andes of Northern Chile. Apart from early poorly preserved silicic andesites, Taapaca Volcanic Complex has generated remarkably similar porphyritic hornblendebiotite dacites with distinctive sanidine megacrysts for at least 1.5 Ma. The main products of the volcano are dacite lavas and domes with associated block-and-ash ow deposits. There have also been several sector collapses to generate debris avalanches, which are closely associated with volcanic blasts and episodes of dome growth. Four stages of evolution are recognized with volcanism occurring in short bursts between much longer periods of dormancy. Volcanism has built a substantial stratovolcano and has migrated 45 km towards the SW with time. Late Pleistocene to Holocene activity has involved at least three sector collapses of the hydrothermally altered anks and domes. Volcanic blasts, block-and-ash ows, debris avalanches and lahars have been distributed down the southwestern anks. These areas are the main populated part of the Chilean Altiplano and the location of the main road between Bolivia and the Pacic Ocean coast. A future eruption will threaten these areas and the regional economy. Keywords: Central Andes, Holocene, debris avalanches, pyroclastics, volcanic risk.

Although Quaternary volcanism is widespread in the Altiplano of Northern Chile (de Silva & Francis 1991), Holocene activity has been little documented, with descriptions available from a small number of volcanic centres: Guallatiri volcano (Gonza lez 1995), La scar volcano (Gardeweg et al. 1998) and Parinacota volcano (Clavero et al. 2002). These volcanoes are mainly located in desert areas and do not threaten populations. Taapaca (locally known as Nevados de Putre) had previously been considered to be an extinct volcanic complex (Salas et al. 1966; Gonza lez 1995). However, the rst reconnaissance map of the volcano was presented only recently by Kohlbach & Lohnert (1999). Geochronological and geochemical data for the volcanic complex demonstrating Late Pleistocene eruptive activity were reported by Lohnert (1999) and Wo rner et al. (2000a). Taapaca Volcanic Complex is located in the Altiplano of Northern Chile (Fig. 1) on the western border of the active volcanic zone of the Central Andes (Fig. 1). Its highest summit reaches 5850 m a.s.l. (above sea level) (188069S, 698309W), its volcanic products cover an area of more than 250 km2 and the main edice has an estimated minimum volume of 35 km3 . This paper describes the geological and geochemical evolution of Taapaca Volcanic Complex, based on mapping carried out at 1:25 000 scale (Clavero 2002). Mapping, accompanied by geochronological (radiocarbon and 40 Ar/39 Ar), geochemical, physical volcanological and detailed stratigraphic studies document the evolution of Taapaca Volcanic Complex. Methods used for mapping, and to obtain geochemical and geochronological data (including discussion on sample results), have been presented in detail by Clavero (2002). The new observations of Taapaca Volcanic Complex have implications for several general volcanological problems. Volcanic activity here has been persistent during the last 1.5 Ma and
603

its eruptive history suggests that Taapaca Volcanic Complex is not extinct. Injections of new batches of mac magma have been important for triggering dacitic eruptions. The activity of Taapaca Volcanic Complex is mainly characterized by debris avalanches and dome growth with associated block-and-ash ows and highly destructive volcanic blasts. Putre, the main village in the Chilean Altiplano, is built on top of these pyroclastic deposits, some younger than 8 ka bp. Moreover, the volcano is close to the main highway between Bolivia and the Pacic coast (Fig. 2). Taapaca Volcanic Complex has had a previously unknown history of violent volcanic eruptions during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene and is not an extinct volcano. Future activity at Taapaca Volcanic Complex therefore represents a threat to the most populated area of the Altiplano of Northern Chile and to economic activities in the region.

Analytical techniques Geochronology

Radiocarbon. Samples of peat, palaeosoil, organic-rich fallout ash layers and carbonized wood contained in pyroclastic ow deposits were taken in the eld, avoiding contamination with young carbon, and packed in aluminium foil packets. Conventional analyses were carried out at Isotrace Radiocarbon Laboratory (University of Toronto) and AMS analyses were performed at Rafter Laboratories (New Zealand). Sample ages are quoted as uncalibrated conventional radiocarbon dates in years before present (bp), using the Libby 14 C mean life of 8033 a. The errors represent the 68.3% condence limit.
40 Ar/39 Ar. Samples were selected following the petrographic criteria of Maniken & Dalrymple (1972), mainly choosing holocrystalline (as much as possible) unaltered rocks.

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Fig. 1. Location and regional geological map of the study area, within Northern Chile.

Fig. 2. Satellite TM Landsat image (bands 7,4,1) of Taapaca Volcanic Complex area, showing its major geological features and the location of Putre, the main village of the Chilean Altiplano. Snow and ice in blue and vegetation in green. The deep Lluta Valley can be seen to the left. The white dashed lines mark the international Chile Bolivia road (to the east) and the road to Visviri and Peru (to the north).

E VO L U T I O N O F TA A PAC A VO L C A N I C C O M P L E X Groundmass separates consisted of 100250 mg of the 250500 mm sieve fraction. All distinct phenocrysts phases were eliminated by handpicking to better than 99% purity. Biotite separates of 125250 mm sieve fraction were prepared by magnetic and heavy liquid separation. Feldspar (including sanidine and plagioclase) separates were handpicked from a 62125 mm sieve fraction crushed from megacrysts. Mineral and groundmass separates were loaded in 99.99% copper foil packets. Neutron ux standards were loaded in aluminium foil packets, and loaded in 6 mm (internal diameter) quartz vials at intervals between 20 and 30 mm, intercalated with the samples. The monitor mineral used was the 27.92 Ma USGS (US Geological Survey) sanidine 85G003 from the Taylor Creek rhyolite (Dalrymple & Dufeld 1988). The quartz vials were irradiated at 1 MW for 30 min in the Cd-shielded CLICIT facility at the Oregon State University Triga reactor. After 26 months the samples were analysed at SURRC (Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre). Incremental step-heating experiments comprising 1018 steps were carried out either in a double vacuum resistance furnace, attached to a small volume gas clean-up system with SAES ZrAl C50 getters at 400 8C and a zeolite nger, or with a CO2 laser beam. Temperatures reported for incremental steps are as calibrated by optical pyrometry in the case of furnace experiments. After 15 min heating and 1015 min further clean-up with an additional ZrAl C50 getter at room temperature, isotopic analysis of the puried gas was carried out on an ultrasensitive rare-gas mass spectrometer (Mass Analyser Products 215), with a modied Nier source and variable slit. On the basis of previous work (Wijbrans et al. 1995), the reactor corrections for interfering neutron-induced reactions of 40 K and 40 Ca are as follows: [40 Ar=39 Ar]K 0:00086; [36 Ar=37 Ar]Ca 0:000264; ger [39 Ar=37 Ar]Ca 0:000673. The decay constants of Steiger & Ja (1977) were used in age calculations. J values were determined from the mean of 10 laser fusion analyses from each monitor packet. Comparison of the J curve with individual monitor estimates suggests that a conservative error in J for samples is 0.30.5%. Samples ages were calculated from both plateau and isochron analyses. Plateau ages were calculated as weighted means, where each age is weighted by the inverse of its variance (Taylor 1982), and involve a single variable mean square weighted deviation (MSWD) calculation to test for excess scatter. Isochron ages were calculated using the cubic least-squares regression with correlated errors (York 1969). All errors are reported as one standard deviation of the analytical precision, and all signicant tests were carried out at the 95% condence level.

605

Western Cordillera is formed by rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Miocene (Pacci et al. 1980; Wo rner et al. 2000b; Garc a 2001; Fig. 1), uplifted on a west-vergent thrust system oz & Sepu oz mainly during the Miocene (Mun lveda 1992; Mun & Charrier 1996; Garc a et al. 1999; Garc a 2001). Taapaca Volcanic Complex started its eruptive activity c. 1.5 Ma ago on top of this uplifted cordillera, about 20 km to the west of the main Quaternary volcanic chain (Fig. 1). To the west and south (Figs 1 and 3), the basement of the volcanic complex is formed by a strongly deformed Upper OligoceneLower Miocene volcaniclastic sequence known as the Lupica Formation (Montecinos 1963; Pacci et al. 1980; Garc a 2001). The Lupica Formation is here largely made of rhyolitic ignimbrites, andesite lavas and epiclastic rocks. These units have been strongly folded and thrust oz & Sepu during the Miocene (Garc a et al. 1999; Mun lveda oz & Charrier 1996). To the east and south (Figs 2 1992; Mun and 3) Taapaca Volcanic Complex was built on top of mainly andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic sequences of Mid- to Late Miocene to Pliocene age (Garc a 2001; Garc a et al. 2004). To the north (Figs 2 and 3), the basement is formed by Mio-Pliocene lacustrine sedimentary sequences of the Huaylas Formation (Salas et al. 1966; Garc a et al. 2004), and the Pliocene rhyolitic Lauca Ignimbrite (Wo rner et al. 2000a; Garc a 2001).

Taapaca Volcanic Complex

Having long been considered an extinct volcano, Taapaca Volcanic Complex has been the focus of only a few geological studies. Kohlbach & Lohnert (1999) produced a reconnaissance geological map of Taapaca Volcanic Complex, dividing its history into three stages, based mainly on mapping (1:25 000) and geochemical data. Lohnert (1999) studied the chemistry of a sanidine megacryst and reported the rst Late Pleistocene 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age date for Taapaca Volcanic Complex. Wo rner et al. (2000a) followed the three evolutionary stages proposed by Kohlbach & Lohnert (1999) and published a few more 40 Ar/39 Ar dates. Figure 3 is a reduction of the new 1:40 000 scale geological map of Taapaca Volcanic Complex and surrounding areas (Clavero 2002). On the basis of this mapping, as well as geochronological, geochemical and stratigraphic criteria, the eruptive history of Taapaca Volcanic Complex has now been divided into four stages, adding a previously unrecorded stage to the scheme of Kohlbach & Lohnert (1999). These stages show an evolution from a volcano composed of andesite lavas (Stage I), to a steep-sided lava-dome complex (Stage II), to a dome complex and associated debris and pyroclastic deposits in its two youngest stages. This evolution has been accompanied by moderate compositional changes. A migration of the main focus of eruptive activity also occurred towards the SSW by 45 km. Stage I (PlioceneEarly Pleistocene?). The only outcrops are located in the basal part of the northern ank of Taapaca Volcanic Complex (Figs 2 and 3). They consist of two silicic andesite lava ows (6061% SiO2, Table 1, Fig. 4), with a smoothed eroded morphology, and no preservation of primary structures, such as ow ridges or levees. The ows (,60 m thick), partially covered by younger Stage II pyroclastic deposits, extend at least 6 km in a northsouth direction (Fig. 3). They are moderately porphyritic (up to 15 vol.% phenocrysts) with plagioclase, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene, and occasional amphibole and sanidine. No radiometric dates have been obtained so far from these ows, and so it is only possible to say that they are older than 1.5 Ma.

Geochemistry
Thirty-eight samples were selected in the eld to be representative of all four evolutionary stages of Taapaca Volcanic Complex. Unaltered rocks were taken, avoiding slightly to strongly hydrothermally altered rocks. Samples of 0.51 kg were taken from those rocks that were slightly porphyritic (mainly Stage I), and samples of 23 kg were taken from those with sanidine megacrysts to avoid the lack of sample homogeneity caused by the presence of large phenocrysts. Major and trace element chemical analyses were carried out at the Chilean Geological Survey laboratories (SernageominChile). Samples were crushed to less than 200 sieve size and then analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) for major oxides, and by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) for trace elements. Errors in the methods used by Sernageomin geochemical laboratory are usually less than 0.5% for major oxides and less than 3% for trace element. These results are permanently calibrated with international standards.

Geology Basement
Taapaca Volcanic Complex is on the western edge of an uplifted high plateau developed between two mountain ranges, the Western and Eastern cordilleras, both of which have been built since the Late Oligocene (Garc a 2001; Garc a et al. 2004). The

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Fig. 3. Taapaca Volcanic Complex geological map (reduction from 1:40 000 scale map of Clavero 2002).

E VO L U T I O N O F TA A PAC A VO L C A N I C C O M P L E X Table 1. Major elements geochemical data from Taapaca Volcanic Complex products
Sample UTM coordinates N CAL-13 CAL-16 CAL-32 CAL-34 CAL-36 CAL-38 CAL-116A CAL-116B CAL-117 CAL-120 CAL-121 CAL-123 CAL-124A CAL-124C CAL-124E CAL-128C CAL-131 CAL-136 CAL-138A CAL-138B CAL-139 CAL-140 CAL-141 CAL-142 CAL-143 CAL-147 CAL-147A CAL-148 CAL-148A CAL-149 CAL-150 CAL-152 CAL-153 CAL-157 CAL-167 CAL-168 CAL-169 CAL-170 7988952 7990395 8000822 8000822 8004209 7993502 7999476 7999476 8000090 8007014 8006298 8004600 7987788 7987788 7987554 7990348 7989956 7990536 7999348 7999348 8003022 8007216 7994367 7999650 7999450 7998619 7998619 7998511 7998511 7998390 7998154 7991595 7994246 7996142 7996840 7996576 7995172 7993955 E 442817 446055 445413 445413 448135 443367 442445 442445 443433 443147 442887 442640 440673 440673 440512 441936 444332 436398 445557 445557 448553 451755 442667 447450 447280 445277 445277 445378 445378 445003 444562 448127 445684 442723 448687 448820 448211 447458 IV/Socapave IV/Putre II II II IV/Putre IV/Tajane Mac inclusion IV/Putre II I I IV/Tajane IV/Tajane IV/Churilinco IV/Socapave IV/Socapave IV/Tajane IV/Tajane Mac inclusion II II II II III Mac inclusion IV/Tajane IV/Socapave Mac inclusion III IV/Socapave IV/Putre IV/Churilinco III IV/Churilinco III II II 65.20 64.33 63.34 65.40 61.55 63.32 63.22 54.59 65.50 63.24 60.37 59.45 65.82 64.30 65.49 65.63 62.89 64.46 63.99 52.18 63.66 63.95 62.73 63.25 65.74 53.70 62.14 65.68 58.92 66.22 66.85 65.91 61.08 62.63 60.31 63.38 62.03 66.68 15.95 15.79 16.04 15.79 16.96 15.98 16.39 16.62 16.43 16.20 16.60 17.46 15.96 15.95 16.20 15.66 16.18 16.01 15.74 16.27 16.03 16.02 16.54 15.83 15.50 17.64 15.85 15.40 16.30 15.52 15.45 15.34 16.01 16.60 15.78 15.96 16.05 15.55 0.71 0.81 0.86 0.59 1.01 0.93 0.95 1.63 0.55 0.85 0.98 1.07 0.75 0.90 0.72 0.70 0.92 0.63 0.90 1.77 0.95 0.88 0.72 0.78 0.78 1.18 0.83 0.80 1.30 0.70 0.73 0.82 1.01 0.96 1.15 0.89 1.07 0.58 2.07 2.28 2.81 2.92 4.08 2.78 3.02 5.72 1.95 2.52 4.11 3.19 2.35 2.47 3.98 2.72 3.02 2.51 3.00 5.75 2.45 2.50 3.18 3.62 2.59 6.31 3.46 2.90 4.79 2.99 3.45 2.34 3.17 3.38 3.32 3.26 2.79 1.87 1.40 1.81 1.42 0.48 1.13 1.89 1.58 2.18 1.31 1.65 1.48 2.51 1.41 1.85 0.09 1.03 1.74 1.24 1.61 3.54 1.95 1.80 1.77 0.32 1.37 2.35 2.04 1.10 1.74 0.76 0.26 1.63 1.73 1.12 2.13 1.24 2.29 0.97 3.75 4.29 4.06 3.51 4.53 4.63 4.35 6.86 3.27 4.10 4.72 5.04 3.74 3.95 3.84 3.43 4.39 4.10 4.34 7.28 3.82 3.93 4.76 2.33 3.79 7.64 4.94 3.71 5.34 3.27 3.29 3.69 4.64 4.29 5.02 4.34 4.64 3.20 1.50 1.90 1.87 1.41 2.11 2.12 2.01 4.29 1.32 1.91 2.30 2.39 1.70 1.97 1.92 1.47 2.09 1.76 2.38 6.41 1.77 1.80 2.35 0.80 1.72 4.56 2.77 1.72 3.02 1.53 1.51 1.78 2.25 1.77 2.41 2.01 2.38 1.17 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.05 4.54 4.32 4.20 4.15 4.36 4.35 4.46 3.91 4.29 4.15 4.17 4.11 4.44 4.41 3.66 4.32 4.35 4.29 4.31 3.86 4.15 4.31 3.80 3.78 4.41 3.38 3.88 4.39 4.29 4.31 4.41 4.34 4.25 4.50 4.44 4.58 4.21 4.37 3.41 3.10 2.99 3.25 2.87 2.86 3.18 2.73 3.26 3.71 3.44 3.43 3.46 3.31 3.39 3.46 3.07 3.23 3.12 2.00 3.43 3.43 3.19 3.37 3.31 1.80 2.79 3.39 2.83 3.60 3.63 3.46 3.56 3.22 2.93 3.64 3.26 3.94 0.28 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.41 0.34 0.31 0.51 0.13 0.28 0.28 0.36 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.17 0.25 0.14 0.23 0.46 0.24 0.24 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.28 0.18 0.20 0.37 0.17 0.17 0.20 0.32 0.26 0.31 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.81 0.94 1.60 1.76 0.68 0.26 0.25 0.75 1.78 1.02 1.11 0.80 0.04 0.21 0.32 1.09 0.69 1.31 0.06 0.12 1.08 0.95 0.58 3.30 0.43 0.86 0.95 0.41 0.48 0.66 0.03 0.30 1.56 0.84 1.94 0.25 0.65 1.28 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.09 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Stage/Unit SiO2 Al2 O3 TiO2 Fe2 O3 FeO CaO MgO MnO Na2 O K2 O P2 O5 H2 O C S

607

Total

0.05

0.05 0.05

0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02

99.72 99.99 99.59 99.68 99.77 99.53 99.79 99.92 99.85 99.70 99.65 99.93 99.95 99.62 99.87 99.81 99.68 99.74 99.76 99.75 99.59 99.88 99.87 99.71 99.96 99.85 99.92 99.75 99.52 99.78 99.89 99.89 99.68 99.64 99.83 99.88 99.72 99.86

Fig. 4. Whole-rock geochemistry of selected Taapaca Volcanic Complex products.

Stage II (EarlyLate Pleistocene, 1.50.5 Ma). The rocks and deposits of this stage form the main part of the northern and eastern anks of the volcanic complex, and a small part of the southwestern ank, covering a total area of more than 150 km2 (Fig. 3). They consist mainly of lavas, domes, block-and-ash ow and lahar deposits. Stage II products are porphyritic (up to 18 20 vol.% phenocrysts) and are mainly dacites (6268% SiO2, Table 1, Fig. 4), containing sanidine megacrysts (up to 23 cm), plagioclase, biotite, quartz and amphibole phenocrysts, with minor proportions of clinopyroxene and titanite. Mac inclusions (,1 vol.%) are found in most products. They have smooth circular to oval shapes (,15 cm in diameter), chilled margins,

skeletal textures (dyxitaxitic texture) and are composed mainly of a microcrystalline aggregate of plagioclase, hornblende and magnetite. Occasionally the inclusions also contain quartz, biotite and/or sanidine crystals commonly showing reaction rims, which are thought to be xenocrysts incorporated from the host dacite. Lavas form the main part of the northern and eastern anks and a small part of the southwestern ank (Figs 3 and 5ad). They are usually thick (60150 m) with a maximum length of 3 km (Fig. 5b and c). Primary morphologies, such as ow ridges, are preserved especially on the eastern ank. On the northern and eastern anks the lavas have been more strongly affected by

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Fig. 5. (a) Taapaca Volcanic Complex viewed from the north, showing the remnant of Stage II edice and its northern pyroclastic fan in the foreground. To the east, a Stage III torta-type dome can be observed. (b) Taapaca Volcanic Complex viewed from the north (closer than (a)), showing the hydrothermally altered core and the possible shape of the ancestral edice, based on the morphologies of the remnant anks. (c) Northwestern ank of Taapaca Volcanic Complex, showing Stage II and III lavas partially covered by a Tajane Unit dome. (d) Taapaca Volcanic Complex viewed from the east, showing its southeastern ank formed by Stage II lavas covered by a series of Stage III domes. The highest peak of Stage IV domes can be seen in the background.

glacial erosion, and also locally affected by silicic and clay-rich hydrothermal alteration. Two domes of different shape and size have also been recognized (Fig. 3). Block-and-ash ow deposits are located mainly on the northern and northwestern anks, covering an area of more than 110 km2 (Figs 3 and 5a). Despite their smoothly eroded surfaces, at least 16 ow units have been recognized. Individual deposit thicknesses vary from 20 m in proximal facies, to less than 2 m in distal facies. Their run-outs range from c. 6 km to over 13 km, with some reaching the Lluta valley (Figs 2 and 3). The deposits consist mainly of a monomict dacitic breccia, with rounded to subrounded blocks up to 4 m in diameter, many of them showing prismatically jointed block structures (Cas & Wright 1987), within a mainly monomict matrix of ne to medium ash size. They show poorly dened subhorizontal bedding, and individual ow units have a tendency to show reverse grading. Lahar deposits (up to 5 m thick) crop out in the distal areas in gradual transition from Stage II block-and-ash ow deposits (Fig. 3). They consist mainly of similar material to the block-and-ash ow deposits, but contain many accidental lithic fragments (up to 50 vol.%) within a sandy matrix. The largest fragments are less than 80 cm in diameter and are usually located at the bottom or middle of individual ow unit deposits, which are less than 2 m thick.

Four 40 Ar/39 Ar dates were obtained from lavas and domes of this unit (Table 2). One of them gave an anomalous result (8565.1 66.9 ka), probably owing to xenocrystic feldspar contamination, as has been documented to occur in other dome complexes (Harford 2001; Harford et al. 2002). The other three dates, and one consistent published age of c. 1.2 Ma (Wo rner et al. 2000a), indicate that the Stage II edice was formed between 1.5 and 0.5 Ma. Taking into account the spatial distribution of the units, primary dips and location of the hydrothermal alteration zones (Figs 3 and 5b), it is proposed that the original edice, built during Taapaca Stage II, was a voluminous stratovolcano (Fig. 5b). However, it is only the northern ank of this ancestral edice that remains (Fig. 5b). The missing part of the southern ank was probably eroded by glaciers and affected by a huge sector collapse, which generated the Churilinco debris avalanche deposit (discussed below). Stage III (Late Pleistocene, 0.50.47 Ma). Stage III consists of dacite lavas, domes and associated block-and-ash ow deposits (6367% SiO2, Table 1, Fig. 4), mainly located in the central part of the volcanic complex and on the southwestern and eastern anks, covering an area of over 18 km2 (Fig. 3). The dacites are similar to those of Stage II, with a slightly higher proportion of

E VO L U T I O N O F TA A PAC A VO L C A N I C C O M P L E X
11.3 9.4 104.6 13.2 19.3 10.2 40.8 16.5* 53.5 7.2 2113.3 24.2 16.7 6.1 622.3 31.2 281.2 15.6 382.4 200.1 418.3 13.0 1804.9 299.2 8760 135 Age 1 (ka)

609

Increments used (8C)

both sanidine megacrysts (up to 34 vol.%), which are up to 4 5 cm long, and mac inclusions (up to 23 vol.%). Lavas are mainly located on the western anks (Figs 3 and 5c). They are typically thick (60120 m) and their maximum length is 2 km. Primary structures include ow ridges smoothed by erosion (both glacial and alluvial), and some of them preserve blocky surfaces. Domes are mainly located on the eastern ank, and show a northsouth alignment. A at torta-type dome occurs in the north (Fig. 5a). Such at morphologies are common in the Central Andes (de Silva et al. 1996; Watts et al. 1999). There are several shear zones between different dome lobes, similar to those recently described from the Soufrie ` re Hills dome, Montserrat (Watts et al. 2002). The southern ones crop out 1 km to the south of the torta-type, and are aligned in a northsouth trend 4.5 km long (Figs 3 and 5d). Block-and-ash ow deposits are mainly located on the northwestern ank of Taapaca Volcanic Complex (Fig. 3). Their individual thickness varies from 1520 m near the source to less than 3 m in distal areas. Their petrographic and internal structural features are similar to Stage II block-and-ash ow deposits. No radiometric data have been obtained from Stage III rocks. However, dates from the youngest Stage II lava and the oldest Tajane Unit (Stage IV) ow (Table 2) constrain Stage II activity to a short period between 0.5 and 0.47 Ma. Stage IV (Late PleistoceneHolocene, 0.45 Marecent). This stage consists of a series of dacite (6268% SiO2, Table 1, Fig. 4) domes and associated deposits from block-and-ash ows, debris avalanches, blasts, tephra fallout, rock falls, pyroclastic ows and lahars, which cover an area of more than 80 km2 . The domes and their deposits form the main edice and pyroclastic fans in the southern and southwestern part of the complex (Figs 3 and 6a, b). Most of the pyroclastic deposits are cut by deep gullies, which have developed in the last 40 ka. The town of Putre is built on top of one of these major pyroclastic fans. Three distinct Stage IV terraces, cut into the pyroclastic fans, can be identied in the area of Putre (Fig. 3). Each terrace represents a fan of younger pyroclastic deposits inlling valleys cut in older fans. The porphyritic dacite (up to 40 vol.% phenocrysts) is characterized by sanidine megacrysts (up to 12 cm long, some of them having euhedral shapes), plagioclase, biotite, amphibole and quartz phenocrysts, and occasional clinopyroxene, within a fresh glassy to trachytic groundmass with plagioclase and sometimes hornblende microlites, as well as tiny FeTi oxide crystals. Mac inclusions are ubiquitous and form up to 56 vol.% of the juvenile material. A series of stratigraphic columns were constructed, four of which are summarized in Figure 7, corresponding to the most representative sections located in the surroundings of the village of Putre. From these stratigraphic columns, four subunits have been recognized. Churilinco Unit (Late Pleistocene, 430450 ka). The oldest unit, consisting of a debris avalanche deposit and a thick lava ow, has been recognized only on the southern ank (Fig. 3). The outcrops cover an area of only c. 1 km2 , as the unit has been eroded by younger debris avalanches or buried by pyroclastic deposits (Fig. 7). The Churilinco debris avalanche deposit crops out at the bottom of Quebrada Socapave. It consists of a monomict dacitic breccia (65% SiO2, Table 1, Fig. 4), semi- to strongly consolidated, with mainly angular fragments up to 2.5 m in diameter, within a medium-grained reddish matrix of the same composition. It shows a hummocky upper surface and contains many

Inverse isochron amalysis

Ar/36 Ar 1 intercept

SUMS

40

MSWD

Age spectrum analysis

Age 1 (ka)

1.78 2.70 10.60 4.27 2.46 1.71 19.5 6 4.0 114.6 6 5.3 24.9 6 6.6 102.0 6.7* 41.8 6 3.4 2163.3 6 10.1 693986 8631101 493749 911986 860981 9861142 6 of 14 7 of 17 5 of 13 6 of 21 12 of 36 6 of 20 60 67.4 71.5 59.3 73.6 66.2

Ar (%)

39

of 11 of 11 of 11 of 10 of 10 of 11 of 12 7994050 7987554 7999348 7993955 7999476 8007216 7994367 447150 440512 445557 447458 442445 451755 442667 IV/Socapave IV/Churilinco IV/Tajane II IV/Tajane II II Feldspar Feldspar Feldspar Feldspar Feldspar Feldspar Feldspar n.a. 3.39 3.12 3.94 3.18 3.43 3.19 1.882645 0.1816166 0.429699 0.1774603 0.8192181 0.1822443 0.09150907 1.50E15 1.51E15 2.91E15 1.31E15 5.09E15 1.48E15 1.04E15 35.9 1.7 587.4 9.8 240.9 13.1 687.7 18.0 426.8 6.3 1606.1 504.6 8465.5 33.8 5 7 7 4 5 6 9

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

56.7 90.3 81.2 52.8 75.1 61.1 79.7

14.9 6 1.3 595.0 6 7.9 262.2 6 8.2 495.6 6 20.0 427.7 6 3.5 1464.1 6 69.1 8565.1 66.9*

0.59 1.26 2.77 3.60 2.21 1.42 8.58*

0.71 2.46 4.57 5.03 2.67 6.2 10.31

2.41 3.18 2.65 0.49 4.32 0.65

289.7 17.3 298.3 5.5 296.4 3.2 338.3 77.9 305.6 14.2 292.3 2.9 305 22

297.6 2.4 296.7 1.6 310.3 3.2 302.3 1.8 294.4 0.8 300.3 2.1

n.a., not available. N, number of heating increments used in regression. Value in bold is the preferred age for each sample. *Not reliable age (see text for discussion).

Total fusion age (ka) 1

Total Ara mol/g

Total K/Ca

Ar/39 Ar geochronology data of Taapaca Volcanic Complex

Whole-rock K2O (wt%)

UTM coordinates

Stage/Unit

40

Furnace CAL-38 CAL-105 CAL-13 CAL-13 CAL-108 CAL-98 Laser CAL-166 CAL-124E CAL-138A CAL-170 CAL-116A CAL-140 CAL-141

Table 2.

Sample

7993502 7995500 7988952 7988952 7996600 800000

443367 445100 442817 442817 444900 450700

IV/Tajane IV/Tajane IV/Socapave IV/Socapave IV/Tajane II

Groundmass Biotite Groundmass Biotite Biotite Biotite

Material

2.88 n.a. 3.41 3.41 n.a. n.a.

1.911983 119.9473 3.891494 41.56245 41.35194 96.54967

3.20E14 6.55E14 3.82E14 5.24E14 5.57E14 6.04E14

5.2 8.6 156.7 7.9 44.1 2.9 149.4 8.3 66.0 3.9 2200.9 8.8

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Fig. 6. (a) Taapaca Volcanic Complex viewed from the SW, showing the major features of the southwestern anks: Socapave and Putre domes, the Socapave debris avalanche deposit, and Putre Unit pyroclastic deposits around the Putre village area. (b) Taapaca Volcanic Complex viewed from the west, showing, from left to right, the western ank of the ancestral Taapaca II edice, Stage III domes and Stage IV domes, which show the southern migration of the focus of eruptive activity through time.

blocks with jigsaw fractures. However, there is no evidence for hot emplacement. The morphology, composition and distribution of the Churilinco debris avalanche deposit indicate an origin by partial sector collapse of the ancestral Stage II and III edices. A block within the avalanche deposit was dated at 595.0 7.9 ka (40 Ar/39 Ar in feldspar, Table 2). This date is interpreted to represent the eruption age of a Stage II lava involved in the collapse and therefore gives only a maximum age for the deposit. The age of the Churilinco Unit is also constrained by the oldest date available from the overlying Tajane Unit, which is c. 430 ka, and by the youngest date from a Stage II ow, which is c. 500 ka (Table 2). However, all Stage III products were also erupted in that period, which means that it is likely that the Churilinco Unit was formed slightly before the Tajane Unit in the period 430450 ka. Tajane Unit (Late Pleistocene, 43025 ka). This unit covers an area of more than 30 km2 on the southern and southwestern anks (Fig. 3). It consists of a series of dacite lavas, domes, a debris avalanche deposit, and a sequence of pyroclastic deposits that includes block-and-ash ow, blast, tephra fallout, ash-cloud surge and lahar deposits (Fig. 7). The lava ows, with wellpreserved ow ridges and blocky surfaces, consist of thick aa to blocky lavas (up to 80100 m thick) up to 3 km long (Fig. 3). Two domes occur on the western anks, overlying Stage III lavas (Figs 5c and 6b), the southern one being cut by Socapave Unit domes. They are emplaced on very steep slopes and show well-preserved lobes, blocky surfaces and parallel to folded owbanding. The Tajane debris avalanche deposit crops out on the southern ank (Fig. 3). It consists of an unconsolidated to semiconsolidated breccia, which has a hummocky surface gently smoothed by erosion, and partially inlled by younger pyroclastic deposits. It contains mainly monomict dacitic angular fragments up to 2.5 m in diameter, some of which have prismatically jointed block structures, suggesting hot emplacement. The matrix is poorly sorted and consists of almost the same material, which is of medium to ne lapilli size. Pyroclastic deposits are distributed in two major fans on the southern and southwestern anks, covering an area of more than 25 km2 (Fig. 3). The maximum thickness of the pyroclastic

sequence is 80 m. It mainly consists of block-and-ash ow deposits, which are similar in petrography and structures to Stage II and III block-and-ash ow deposits. Gas segregation pipes are usually found in the upper part of individual ows, and are commonly cut by overlying ash-cloud surge deposits. Their runouts range from a few kilometres to 13 km from the source area. Thin (,20 cm thick), ne-grained ash-cloud surge deposits with well-developed cross-lamination and dune structures are commonly found on top of block-and-ash ow deposits, but lack continuity. Some blast and lahar deposits have also been recognized within the sequence (Clavero 2002). Four 40 Ar/39 Ar and one radiocarbon dates have been obtained from lavas and deposits of this unit (Tables 2 and 3). The oldest date (c. 430 ka, Table 2) was obtained from a block-and-ash ow deposit, and the youngest one (c. 25 ka, Table 3) was obtained from the upper part of the pyroclastic sequence, which forms the terrace on which the village of Putre is built. Socapave Unit (Late PleistoceneEarly Holocene, 259 ka). This unit covers an area over 25 km2 on the western and southern anks. It consists of a series of lava domes, a debris avalanche deposit and a sequence of pyroclastic deposits that includes block-and-ash ow, rock-fall, blast, tephra fallout and secondary pyroclastic ows (Fig. 7). The Socapave domes are located on the western border of the volcanic complex (Figs 3 and 6a). They have blocky surfaces and very irregular shapes as they have been affected by erosion and a sector collapse, which generated the Socapave debris avalanche (Fig. 3). The Socapave debris avalanche deposit (Fig. 6a) covers an area of over 20 km2 , and reaches a distance of more than 10 km (Fig. 3). It has a well-dened hummocky surface (Fig. 8a), with hummocks up to 35 m high, in places smoothed by erosion and by the inlling of younger pyroclastic deposits (Figs 8b and 9a). The deposit consists mainly of a monomict dacitic breccia, formed by angular fragments up to 10 m in diameter, many with prismatically jointed block structures. The matrix is mainly composed of the same material fragmented to a medium to coarse ash size (Fig. 8a). Gas segregation pipes structures, which are not usual in debris avalanche deposits, are common at the top of the deposit, suggesting a hot emplacement related to juvenile

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Fig. 7. Stage IV pyroclastic stratigraphy around the Putre village area, showing the main pyroclastic deposits of Taapaca Volcanic Complex Late Pleistocene to Holocene eruptive activity. PJB, prismatically jointed block.

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Table 3. Uncalibrated radiocarbon dates of peat, paleosoil horizons and carbonized wood from Taapaca Volcanic Complex area
Stratigraphic unit and sample number Putre Unit CAL-24 CAL-23D CAL-23F CAL-23I CAL-23K CAL-23J CAL-23L CAL-23M CAL-115 Socapave Unit CAL-23A CAL-23O CAL-11 CAL-132 CAL-23B CAL-130B Tajane Unit CAL-124D CAL-130 UTM coordinates N E Material Date (years bp)* Method Stratigraphic signicance

7987470 7992546 7992546 7992546 7992546 7992546 7992546 7992546 7989092

441675 444925 444925 444925 444925 444925 444925 444925 447722

Carbonized wood Peat Peat Peat Ash layer with organic material Peat Peat Peat Peat

8970 100 7440 60 6570 70 4900 70 4350 70 3530 70 2260 60 2270 60 3810 120

AMS Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional

Carbonized wood on palaeo-soil horizon developed on top of Socapave deposits. Age of the base of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Carbonized wood within blast deposit. Age of pyroclastic activity of Socapave Unit Carbonized wood within blast deposit. Age of pyroclastic activity of Socapave Unit Lacustrine sequence with peat, sediment and tephra fallout layers. Age of explosive activity of Putre Unit Peat layer on top of pyroclastic sequence. Minimum age of Socapave Unit Date stratigraphically inconsistent Carbonized wood within blast deposit in upper part of sequence. Age of pyroclastic activity of Tajane Unit

7992546 7992546 7988264 7987768 7992546 7988398 7987788 7988398

444925 444925 442427 441308 444925 439500 440673 439500

Peat Ash layer with organic material Carbonized wood Palaeo-soil Peat Peat Palaeo-soil Carbonized wood

10850 100 10250 90 10170 90 10832 65 9850 70 8380 120 9110 240 24410 180

Conventional Conventional AMS AMS Conventional Conventional Conventional AMS

*Present is ad 1950.

Fig. 8. (a) Hummocky morphology of the Socapave debris avalanche deposit (black dashed curve shows hummocky surface of the avalanche deposit) covered by block-and-ash ow, blast and secondary pyroclastic ow deposits of the Socapave and Putre units. Photograph taken 1 km to the east of Putre village; person for scale. (b) Detail of fracture in the Socapave debris avalanche deposit lled by a blast deposit of the same unit (see text for discussion). Hammer is 30 cm long.

material. A blast deposit inlls fractures developed in the avalanche deposit, showing that the sector collapse was immediately followed by an explosion (Fig. 8b). Blast fragments appear incorporated downstream within the debris avalanche deposit. The distal parts of the avalanche deposit are located at the eastern outskirts of the village of Putre (Fig. 6a). The pyroclastic deposits mainly consist of block-and-ash, blast, tephra fallout and secondary pyroclastic ow deposits (Fig. 7). This sequence is generally less than 50 m thick with individual ow unit thickness ranging from few centimetres to 20 m. These deposits form part of the southern fan, overlying Tajane Unit deposits, and are overlain by younger Putre Unit

deposits (Fig. 10a). Block-and-ash ow deposits vary from 10 m to less than 1 m thick, with run-outs of over 8 km. They are mainly composed of rounded to subrounded dacitic fragments (up to 1 m in diameter), many of them showing prismatically jointed block structures (Fig. 10b). Gas segregation pipe structures are common, especially in the upper parts of the deposits. Several block-and-ash ow units are overlain by thin (less than 20 cm thick), ne-grained, ash-cloud surge deposits. Sometimes thin layers (less than 2 cm thick) of ne-grained co-pyroclastic ow ash fallout (Bonadonna et al. 2002) are preserved on top of the surges. Blast deposits are usually less than 2 m thick, and show two distinctive layers, the lower one being coarser-grained

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Fig. 9. (a) Southwestern ank of Taapaca Volcanic Complex viewed from the north. The hummocky topography of the Socapave debris avalanche deposit has been smoothed and partially lled by Putre Unit pyroclastic deposits forming a at terrace. (b) Detail of a block-and-ash ow deposit of the Putre Unit. It should be noted that a gas segregation pipe is deformed (white arrow) in the ow direction of the overlying blast (note the imbricated clast in the deposit; see text for discussion). Hammer is 25 cm long.

and nes-poor, and the upper one being nes-rich. Secondary (surge-derived; Druitt et al. 2002) pyroclastic ow deposits are very local, thin (less than 40 cm thick), massive and ne-grained (ne to coarse ash particle size), and commonly inll local depressions (Fig. 10a). Rock-fall deposits have been recognized on the northwestern slopes of the domes (Fig. 3). They consist of an unconsolidated monomict breccia talus (with fragments up to 2 m in diameter). Three 40 Ar/39 Ar (Table 2) and six radiocarbon (Table 3) dates have been obtained. The earliest Socapave debris avalanche has an age of c. 25 ka (Table 2). Two other block-and-ash ow deposits were dated at c. 20 and 15 ka (Table 2). Six radiocarbon dates were obtained within the pyroclastic sequence, ranging

from 9.8 to 10.8 ka (Table 3). These dates constrain the Socapave Unit between 25 and 9 ka. Putre Unit (Holocene, ,9 ka). The youngest unit of Taapaca Volcanic Complex covers an area of more than 18 km2 on the central, southern and southwestern anks. It consists of a series of domes, block-and-ash ow, blast, tephra fallout, primary and secondary pyroclastic ows, and lahar deposits (Fig. 7). These deposits partially lled the irregular topography of the Socapave debris avalanche (Fig. 9a) and the gullies developed in the previous pyroclastic terraces formed by the Socapave and Tajane units. The youngest domes of Taapaca Volcanic Complex crop out on its eastern and southern borders (Fig. 3). The eastern domes

Fig. 10. (a) Detail of pyroclastic deposits of the Socapave (S) and Putre (P) units (separated by a white dashed curve), 500 m to the east of Putre village. 14 C date obtained in carbonized wood at the base of a blast deposit (b) is shown. A block-and-ash ow (ba) and a surge-derived pyroclastic ow (spf) can also be seen in the sequence. The white dashed curve marks the limit between the two units. Person for scale. (b) Detail of a prismatically jointed block fragment in a coarse-grained block-and-ash ow deposit of Socapave Unit, near Putre village. Hammer is 30 cm long. (c) Highly uidized block-and-ash ow deposit (with gas segregation pipes), overlain by ne-grained ash-cloud surge deposit (acs), which is overlain itself by thin white co-pyroclastic ow ash fallout deposit (fa). Lens is 5 cm in diameter. (d) Detail of gas segregation pipes from (c), showing gas pipes surrounding a large block with a nesrich upper surface (fr) and nes-depleted areas at the bottom and in the surroundings. Lens is 5 cm in diameter.

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are the largest, having subcircular to elliptical bases (Fig. 6a), whereas the southern ones are smaller (Fig. 6b). They usually have blocky surfaces and have small-volume block-and-ash ow deposits around their bases. A pyroclastic sequence, commonly less than 60 m thick, crops out to the south and SW, inlling deep gullies or covering the pyroclastic deposits of the Tajane and Socapave units (Figs 7 and 10a). The block-and-ash ow deposits range from up to 30 m to less than 2 m thick, with dacitic, rounded to subrounded, fragments up to 3 m in diameter with common prismatically jointed blocks. Maximum block size decreases with distance to less than 10 cm in distal areas. Common gas segregation pipes (Figs 9b and 10c, d) tend to develop towards the upper part of the deposit (Fig. 9b). Thin layers (usually less than 20 cm thick) of ash-cloud surge deposits are common on top of the deposit (Fig. 10c). These ash-cloud surge deposits are usually ne-grained, showing well-developed cross-lamination and dune structures, although coarser-grained lenses also occur (Fig. 10c). They usually truncate the underlying gas segregation pipe structures developed in the upper part of the block-and-ash ow deposits (Fig. 10c), suggesting erosion by the surges. Blast deposits, which originated by directional dome explosions usually caused by sudden decompression, have been widely described in the literature (Gorshkov & Dubik 1970; Hoblitt et al. 1981; Belousov 1996; Hoblitt et al. 1997; Druitt 1998; Sparks et al. 2002). These deposits are common in the latest Taapaca Volcanic Complex eruptive history. Blast deposits are commonly thin (less than 3 m), and show two distinctive layers, similar to other blast deposits related to domes (Hoblitt et al. 1981; Boudon & Lajoie 1989; Druitt 1992; Belousov 1996; Gladstone & Sparks 2002; Ritchie et al. 2002). The lower layer is generally massive, nes-poor, and formed by coarse ash to ne lapilli, locally showing thin surge deposits at the base. The upper layer is ner-grained and sometimes shows reverse grading (Fig. 9b). Sometimes the largest fragments are imbricated, and the overlying blast deforms pipe structures of the underlying deposits (Fig. 9b), suggesting little or no time-gap between the deposition of the two ows. The blasts are closely related in space and time with block-and-ash ows, suggesting that most of them originated as a result of sudden decompression during dome collapse, as has been observed to occur in the Soufrie ` re Hills volcano (Cole et al. 2002; Sparks et al. 2002). Secondary (surge-derived) pyroclastic ow deposits are locally exposed, generally inlling palaeochannels with no lateral continuity, and commonly overlying blast deposits. They consist of massive, mainly ne-grained, thin layers (less than 1 m thick) that thin towards the higher parts of the inlled palaeotopography. There is neither reworked material nor erosive features at the sharp contact between the deposits, which suggests that the pyroclastic ow was deposited simultaneously with, or immediately after, the blast. These close relationships suggest that these pyroclastic ows originated from a parent blast cloud, as has been recently observed to occur in the eruption of the Soufrie ` re Hills volcano (Calder et al. 1999; Cole et al. 2002; Druitt et al. 2002). A pumice ow deposit has been recognized on the western anks, with a run-out of less than 3.5 km and a maximum thickness of 10 m. It consists of subrounded rhyodacitic pumice fragments up to 50 cm in diameter, within a ne-grained massive matrix. Two types of tephra fallout deposits have been observed. One is preserved in two lake-lled depressions, interbedded with peat and lake sediments, within the hummocky topography of the

Socapave debris avalanche deposit (Fig. 3). These are generally ne-grained (medium ash to ne lapilli) and well sorted, with thickness ranging between 15 and 50 cm. The other type corresponds to thin (less than 2 cm) ash layers locally found on top of ash-cloud surge deposits associated with block-and-ash ow deposits (co-pyroclastic ow ash fallout; Fig. 10c and d). Lahar deposits have been recognized in the main eastern and southern valleys of Taapaca Volcanic Complex, covering small areas and reaching 5 km from their source (Fig. 3). They consist of unconsolidated polymict breccias with angular fragments up to 2 m in diameter, within a sandy matrix, which shows poorly developed ow-parallel bedding. Nine radiocarbon dates were obtained from this unit (Table 3). Two of them give the age of the pyroclastic deposits, as they were obtained from carbonized wood within a blast layer and from an organic-rich ash fallout layer, showing that Taapaca Volcanic Complex has produced at least three block-and-ash ows younger than 8 ka. The rest give a relative age of tephra fallout deposits as they were obtained from organic-rich sediments between the volcanic deposits, showing that tephra fallout, probably formed by ash-venting, possibly related to dome activity, occurred between 7 and 2 ka bp.

Discussion
The volcanic evolution and stratigraphy of Taapaca Volcanic Complex has important implications for the evolution and behaviour of Andean dome complex volcanoes, for the assessment of volcanic hazards of one of the most populated areas of the Chilean Altiplano, and for the Late Quaternary history of this part of the Central Andes.

Volcanic evolution of Taapaca Volcanic Complex

During its rst stage (,1.5 Ma) Taapaca Volcanic Complex started to build with the effusion of high-K silicic andesite (Fig. 4) lavas and the formation of a gently dipping shield-like stratovolcano in the northern part of the complex, with the main focus of eruptive activity probably located in the area marked T1 in Figure 11. During Stage II, high-K dacite magmas (Fig. 4), characterized by mac inclusions and sanidine megacrysts, started to emerge, generating thick dacitic lava ows, domes and a pyroclastic fan. A large (c. 6080 km3 ), steeply dipping dacitic lava-dome complex (Fig. 5b) with its associated pyroclastic fan was then formed. The main vent system was probably located in the area marked T2 in Figure 11, which represents a migration of 1.5 2 km to the SSW of the Stage I centre. During Stage III a series of high-K dacite (Fig. 4) domes and associated pyroclastic deposits were erupted, forming a dome complex in the southern part of the ancestral stratocone (Figs 3 and 11). The eruptive activity was mainly concentrated in the western part of the complex and on the eastern side along a northsouth fracture, showing that the main focus of eruptive activity continued to migrate towards the south, about 12 km from the ancestral Stage II stratocone (T3 in Fig. 11). During the latest stages of Stage II, and probably during Stage III, extensive glacial erosion affected the ancestral edice, as evidenced by glacial deposits. A third of the original edice (Stages II and III) was removed, mainly from the southern part, leaving exposed a hydrothermally altered core (Fig. 5b). A major sector collapse of the southern part of the complex at the beginning of Stage IV also contributed to its deep dissection. During Stage IV a dome complex developed on the southern

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Fig. 11. Sketch map showing the migration of the main focus of eruptive activity through time (T1T4, for Stages IIV).

part of the complex, showing that the main focus of eruptive activity continued to migrate towards the SSW about 1.52 km from the Stage III focus, and over a total of 45 km since Stage I (T4 in Fig. 11). A series of voluminous dacitic domes was formed and associated recurrent pyroclastic and debris ow activities were mainly directed towards the south and SW (Fig. 3). Extensive pyroclastic terraces formed during these explosive phases in the last 40 ka, constantly changing the topography, especially in the surroundings of Putre village. Magma composition did not vary from Stages II and III, although both mac inclusion and sanidine megacryst content increased.

Late PleistoceneHolocene dome growthcollapse activity

Several dome eruptions have occurred in the last century around the world, which have strongly affected the surrounding populations and environments (Lacroix 1903; Christiansen & Peterson 1981; Nakada et al. 1999; Sparks & Young 2002). However, in recent years the development of new monitoring techniques has improved understanding of eruption processes. Especially signicant have been the recent eruptions of Mount St. Helens, USA, in 1980 (Lipman & Mulineaux 1981); Pinatubo, Philippines, in 1991 (Newhall & Punongbayan 1997); Unzen, Japan, in 1990 1995 (Nakada et al. 1999); and Soufrie ` re Hills, Montserrat, in 19951999 (Sparks & Young 2002). Late Pleistocene to Holocene eruptive activity in the Taapaca Volcanic Complex has been characterized by repetitive periods of dome growth. Each dome growth phase has itself produced repetitive periods of collapse, ash venting and pyroclastic ows, which were emplaced in short periods of time (no erosive gaps and local preservation of secondary pyroclastic ow and co-pyroclastic ow fallout deposits). These periods of eruptive activity were separated by relatively short periods of quiescence, and therefore of erosion. Domes formed during the Taapaca Volcanic Complex eruptive

history have steep slopes, different shapes and dimensions (Table 4), and some have preserved shear zones similar to those observed in recent domes (Watts et al. 2002). Debris avalanches of two types formed during Stage IV. Churilinco debris avalanche formed by the failure of a weak, strongly altered edice. This extensive alteration may have caused its instability. The triggering mechanism of the sector collapse is not yet clear. However, no evidence of hot emplacement and thus of magmatic triggering has been found, supporting the hypothesis that weakening of the edice by hydrothermal alteration was its main cause, as has been suggested for other volcanic centres (Lo pez & Williams 1993). Recently, a major ank collapse of hydrothermally altered rocks occurred at Soufrie ` re Hills, Montserrat, generating a debris avalanche (Sparks et al. 2002; Voight et al. 2002). The other type of debris avalanche is that formed by a sector collapse induced by the intrusion of a cryptodome. The Socapave debris avalanche is an example of this type. The occurrence of a blast deposit, which inlls fractures in the avalanche deposit as well as being incorporated into the avalanche deposit itself, indicates that sector collapse triggered the blast. At the same time the occurrence of the blast immediately after the collapse suggests that the collapse was itself triggered by deformation of the edice caused by magma ascent into the edice, as has been observed and documented in several dome eruptions (Hoblitt et al. 1981; Druitt 1992; Belousov 1996). Block-and-ash ows were formed by the collapse of an unstable lava dome (Merapi-type). This type of ow is common in dome eruptions (Williams & McBirney 1979; Calder 1999; Calder et al. 1999; Ui et al. 1999; Druitt et al. 2002). Taapaca Volcanic Complex block-and-ash ows have long run-outs, with deposits reaching 13 km from their probable source (Fig. 3). This distance is as much as twice the run-out of the same type of ows from Soufrie ` re Hills volcano (Calder 1999; Calder et al. 1999) and from Unzen volcano (Ui et al. 1999). Although

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Table 4. Volume estimates from selected domes, lava-domes and lava ows from Taapaca Volcanic Complex Type Basal shape L1 (km) L2 (km) H (km) Basal area Volume (km2 ) (km3 )

Stage IV Putre Unit Dome Elliptical Dome Elliptical Dome Elliptical Dome Subcircular Dome Subcircular Dome Subcircular Dome Subcircular Dome Subcircular Socapave Unit Dome Elliptical Dome Elliptical Dome Elliptical Dome Elliptical Dome Elliptical Tajane Unit Dome Subcircular Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Churilinco Unit Lava-dome Sheet-like Stage III Dome Elliptical Dome Subcircular Dome Elliptical Dome Subcircular Dome Sheet-like Dome Elliptical Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Stage II Dome Subcircular Dome Elliptical Dome Subcircular Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Lava-dome Sheet-like Stage I Lava ow Sheet-like Lava ow Sheet-like

0.36 0.36 0.72 1.04 0.52 0.72 0.60 0.48 0.72 0.72 0.44 1.60 1.20 0.72 1.84 3.00 0.84 0.52 0.84 0.64 0.68 1.20 0.68 2.40 0.64 0.80 0.80 0.84 0.44 0.48 3.20 1.20 1.60 1.60 2.32 2.12

0.92 0.68 1.20 1.04 0.52 0.80 0.52 0.60 1.12 1.00 0.76 1.28 0.32 0.60 0.60 0.80 2.40 1.52 0.84 2.40 0.72 1.56 0.40 1.08 1.92 1.60 0.80 0.84 0.96 0.48 1.40 2.24 2.80 2.00 4.00 4.40

0.15 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.06 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.12 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.20 0.28 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.06 0.07

1.04 0.77 2.71 0.85 0.21 0.41 0.28 0.18 2.53 2.26 1.05 6.43 1.21 0.41 1.10 2.40 2.02 2.48 0.55 4.83 0.36 1.87 0.85 2.59 1.23 1.28 0.64 0.55 1.33 0.18 4.48 2.69 4.48 3.20 9.28 9.33

0.08 0.06 0.34 0.17 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.23 0.11 0.97 0.07 0.03 0.11 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.09 0.43 0.04 0.37 0.04 0.39 0.12 0.13 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.02 0.67 0.40 0.67 0.48 0.56 0.65

explain its occurrence in a dome complex where subplinian explosive columns are not common, and where most of the explosive activity is directly related to dome growthcollapse explosion. The nal type corresponds to secondary pyroclastic ow deposits, interpreted to have formed by sedimentation from primary coarser blast ows (Druitt et al. 2002). Two main types of pyroclastic surges occurred at Taapaca Volcanic Complex. Volcanic blasts occurred immediately after sector collapses. These blasts probably originated, as discussed above, by sudden depressurization of cryptodomes after sector collapse. Most common are ash-cloud surge deposits, which are found on top of block-and-ash ow deposits. They probably represent the deposit of the overlying ash cloud of the main body, which entrapped some air and then became more dilute than its parent ow, as suggested by Fujii & Nakada (1999). However, sometimes ash-cloud surges from the Taapaca Volcanic Complex crop out in areas where no block-and-ash ow deposits are present. This is believed to happen when the overlying surge cloud detached from the main body of a ow, as has been observed during the eruptions of Unzen (Fujii & Nakada 1999) and Soufrie ` re Hills (Cole et al. 2002). Tephra fallout deposits are not widely recognized. This could be due either to lack of preservation caused by erosion or to the fact that Taapaca Volcanic Complex has not produced high eruptive columns. Only two types have been recognized. Thin ash fallout layers are preserved only in palaeobasins within the Socapave debris avalanche deposit. Their distribution, particle size and thickness suggest that they represent periods of ash venting related to dome growth. The other type corresponds to localized, extremely thin and ne-grained deposits, which are interpreted as co-pyroclastic ow fallout in the sense of Bonadonna et al. (2002), associated with block-and-ash ows. The local preservation of these easily erodable deposits suggests that the overlying ows were emplaced soon afterwards.

Volcanic hazards
Taapaca Volcanic Complex has been historically inactive. However, in this part of the Central Andes the Spanish arrived in the area only c. 450 years ago. The new data indicate that Taapaca Volcanic Complex is a dormant volcano, with a potential for future eruptions. According to the spatial distribution of the Late PleistoceneHolocene domes and deposits, it is likely that, in the case of renewed activity, products will be distributed over the southern and southwestern anks of the complex. An injection of a new pulse of magma would cause deformation of the edice, result in instability, and trigger a partial collapse of the upper anks and domes with a debris avalanche directed towards the SSW. This sequence of events has been recurrent in Stage IV, as well as in other intermediate volcanoes and dome complexes (Be get & Kienle 1992; Siebert et al. 1995; Ponomareva et al. 1998; Belousov et al. 1999). The three main debris avalanche deposits recognized so far (Churilinco, Tajane and Socapave debris avalanches) have owed down to the SSW, and two of them have reached the area where the village of Putre has been built. There are likely to be associated volcanic blasts, as experienced at Mount St. Helens (Hoblitt et al. 1981) and Soufrie ` re Hills (Sparks et al. 2002). In the case of dome extrusion, explosions, dome collapses and pyroclastic ows will be generated, as has also been a recurrent phenomenon in the Stage IV eruptive history as well as at other dome eruptions worldwide (Nakada et al. 1999; Ui et al. 1999; Robertson et al. 2000; Druitt et al. 2002; Sparks & Young 2002). Some ows will probably reach the Putre village area and the busiest international

individual volume estimates for the block-and-ash ow deposits are difcult, the volumes should be related to the volume of the domes (Table 4). Although many of Taapaca Volcanic Complex domes have similar volumes to those erupted at Soufrie ` re Hills and Unzen, some of them have much larger volumes (Table 4), up to 20 times the largest ow deposit from Soufrie ` re Hills (Calder et al. 1999). Following the idea that ow run-outs are directly related to the ow volume (Hsu 1975; Dade & Huppert 1998; Calder et al. 1999), the Taapaca Volcanic Complex longer block-and-ash ow run-outs could be the result of larger volume collapses than those that occurred in Montserrat and at Unzen. Pyroclastic ows generated by collapse of an eruptive column, and secondary pyroclastic ows formed by rapid sedimentation from a dilute blast, have also been recognized at Taapaca Volcanic Complex. Only one pumice-rich deposit generated by a column-collapse ow has been identied. This ow has the most evolved juvenile material from Stage IV. This fact might help to

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road connecting Chile and Bolivia (Figs 2 and 3). Secondary (surge-derived) pyroclastic ows are documented in the Andes for the rst time. Such ows can easily detach from their original surge source and move in a completely different direction (Calder et al. 1999; Druitt et al. 2002). Lahars are likely to be generated and two possible situations are envisaged. A rst case might occur if an eruption develops between the months of April and November, when there is a prominent snow-cap in the upper part of the complex. Lahar ows will develop and probably be conned to the main valleys and gullies on the south and southwestern anks of the complex. Depending on their extension (volume) they could reach both the international road and the outskirts of Putre. Other ows could also be directed to the western ank, affecting the main road that connects Putre with the northernmost villages in the Chilean Altiplano (Fig. 2). A second situation, not directly associated with new volcanic activity, could develop during the rainy season, from December to March. Small-volume rain-induced lahars occur each year, as a result of the remobilization of loose volcaniclastic material from the steep slopes of the complex. Although they rarely reach populated areas, they commonly cut roads. However, if an eruption occurs the availability of loose material would increase and therefore the volume of these ows would also increase, favouring greater runout lengths. Finally, from a statistical analysis of Taapaca Volcanic Complex eruptive activity in the last 30 ka (Abramowitz & Stegun 1970; De la Cruz 1996), it is possible to say that it has had an eruption rate of 1.6 eruptions per thousand years, with an eruption recurrence of 450 years (95% condence interval). As the eruptions follow a Poisson distribution, the occurrence probability of an eruption in the next 100 years can be estimated at 15%, and in the next 500 years at 56% (De la Cruz 1996). Considering its late Quaternary eruptive history and composition, another eruption can be expected to last several years or even decades, as has been the case for Unzen, Japan (Nakada & Fujii 1993; Nakada et al. 1999), Soufrie ` re Hills, Montserrat (Voight et al. 1999; Robertson et al. 2000; Sparks & Young 2002) and Santiaguito, Guatemala (Rose 1973, 1987).

characterized by the extrusion of several voluminous dacitic domes and the occurrence of numerous block-and-ash ows, blasts, fallouts, lahars and both primary and secondary pyroclastic ows mainly directed towards the southern ank of the complex, forming long fans that reach more than 13 km from their source. Most of the Holocene activity has been directed towards the SW, where is located the most populated area of the Chilean Altiplano and its main town, Putre. This poses a serious threat to human activity in the area, given that new eruptions are likely in Taapaca Volcanic Complex in the next decades or centuries.
This work has been funded through a collaborative project between SernageominChile and University of Bristol, UK. J.E.C. acknowledges the support of Pdte de la Repu blica Scholarship (MideplanChile) and R.S.J.S. acknowledges an NERC Professorship. Radiocarbon dates were obtained through a collaborative project between SernageominChile and GSC, Canada. 40 Ar/39 Ar dates were obtained through an NERC grant (to R.S.J.S. and M.S.P.). The authors gratefully acknowledge O. Roche, A. D az, J. Lemp and M. Robles for their help in the eld. C. Espejo, F. Llona, J. Imlach and B. Davidson provided technical assistance in obtaining geochemical and geochronological data. S. Self and C. Kilburn provided thorough and very helpful reviews, which helped to improve the manuscript. We also would like to thank M. Fowler for his help and patience.

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Conclusions
Taapaca Volcanic Complex is a long-lived volcanic complex of the Central Andes, which started its eruptive activity at around 1.5 Ma, forming a gently dipping stratocone of andesitic lava ows (Stage I). It later evolved to a voluminous steep-sided stratocone, formed by sanidine megacryst-bearing dacitic lava ows, domes and block-and-ash ow deposits (Stage II). This morphological and geochemical evolution was accompanied by a slight migration of the main focus of eruptive activity towards the SSW. This migration continued during Stage III, when a dome complex to the south of the ancestral Stage II stratocone, as well as a dome complex aligned in northsouth direction in the eastern part of the old edice, were built. The magma erupted did not change in composition, but a slight increase in mac inclusion and sanidine megacryst contents occurred. A huge pyroclastic fan to the west of the complex was formed, reaching distances of more than 13 km from its source. During its latest evolution stage, of Late PleistoceneHolocene age, a dome complex to the south of Stage III dome complex was formed, showing that the migration of the main focus of eruptive activity has continued towards the SW. The composition of the magma erupted during Stage IV has not changed; only a slight increase in both mac inclusion and sanidine megacryst content is observed. The Late PleistoceneHolocene activity has been

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Received 9 May 2002; revised typescript accepted 1 February 2004. Scientic editing by Mike Fowler