LESSON 22 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES, SCHOTTKY DIODE CLIPPING, CLAMPING, RECTIFIERS

Introduction
The fundamental concepts of Metal-Semiconductor junction will be explained to you in this chapter. Then Light Emitting Diodes (LED), Schottky diode concept as well as Schottky transistor will be taught to you.. Some other applications of diodes like clipping, clamping and rectifiers will be explained to you in the later part of the chapter. Pn Junction Diode Applications Until now, we have mentioned only one application for the diode-rectification, but there are many more applications that we have not yet discussed. Variations in doping agents, semiconductor materials, and manufacturing techniques have made it possible to produce diodes that can be used in many different applications. Examples of these types of diodes are signal diodes, rectifying diodes, Zener diodes (voltage protection diodes for power supplies), varactors (amplifying and switching diodes), and many more. Only applications for two of the most commonly used diodes, the signal diode and rectifier diode, will be presented in this chapter. The other diodes will be explained later on in this module. Biasing PN Junction When negative voltage is applied, no current flows in the reverse bias condition. However, if the electric field becomes too strong avalanche breakdown occurs and the diode will become a short circuit and often be damaged. To counteract this physical distance between the anode and cathode is increased by increasing the size of the bulk region and changing impurity atom doping levels. Construction process: N type silicon substrate heated to ~1000o C in presence of vapour containing positive charged impurity atoms. P region diffused into N region. The resultant effect is to cause more charge carriers to be present within the diode when it is conducting. For the diode to switch OFF, the charge carriers must either recombine (minority) or be removed, the latter mechanism appearing as a reverse current (reverse recovery) flowing in the diode as it turns OFF. Put simply, diodes with higher voltage To achieve very fast switching, Schottky diodes can be used although their current and voltage ratings are restricted. Rectifying action dependant solely on majority carriers therefore no minority carrier recombination. Recovery is only dependant on the capacitance of metal-silicon junction. Polished pre-doped N+ epitaxial substrate with thin N layer barrier metal deposit. Interface between metal and N layer creates a barrier potential
Light emitting devices: The light emitting diode(LED)

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quantum well in the middle are all used for LEDs. We only consider the p-n diode with a quantum well because the analytical analysis is more straight forward and also since this structure is used often in LEDs and even more frequently in laser diodes.
Rate equations

The LED rate equations are derived from the continuity equations as applied to the p-n diode:

where G is the generation rate per unit volume and R is the recombination rate per unit volume. This equation is now simplified by integrating in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the junction. We separate the integral in two parts: one for the quantum well, one for the rest of the structure. Light-emitting diodes (LED) emit light in proportion to the forward current through the diode. LEDs are low voltage devices that have a longer life than incandescent lamps. They respond quickly to changes in current (many can easily go up to 10 MHz). LEDs have applications as visible indicators in devices and in optical-fiber communication. LEDs produce a narrow spectrum of visible) many colors available) or infrared light that can be well collimated. LEDs have generally very low reverse breakdown voltage (typically from 3-10V depending on LED) and can be damaged by the breakdown. Most GaN and InGaN LEDs (UV, violet, blue, non-yellowish green, white, pink, and anything non-red by Nichia) suffer damage in the form of partial shorts (resistance often around a hundred to several hundred ohms) when they break down. I would add a parallel diode to keep the reverse voltage out of LED in applications where LED can get considerable reverse voltage (for example when powered with AC power). I would not use just a series diode since it may leak enough current to cause breakdown or result in excessive reverse bias that some types may be aged excessively. Some LEDs have survived a very harsh environment that had high voltage spikes in the reverse direction. But that doesnt mean that they should be exposed to those high reverse voltages. Light-Sensitive Diodes indicate light of a proper wavelength. Photo-diodes or photocells can receive light signals. LEDs and photodiodes are often used in optical communication as receiver and transmitter respectively. Schottky Diodes
The Metal-Semiconductor (M-S) junction

A light emitting diode consists of a p-n diode which is designed so that radiative recombination dominates. Homojunction p-n diodes, heterojunction p-i-n diodes where the intrinsic layer has a smaller bandgap (this structure is also referred to as a double-heterostructure) and p-n diodes with a
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Metal-to-semiconductor contacts are of great importance since they are present in every semiconductor device. They can behave either as a barrier or as an ohmic contact dependent on the characteristics of the interface. This section discusses the
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electrostatics of the M-S junction (i.e. the charge, field and potential distribution within the device) as well as the current versus voltage characteristics. The electrostatics are calculated using what is known as the full depletion approximation and complemented with a description of the numeric solution. Various approximations are used to obtain closed form expressions under different circumstances. Two types of metal-semiconductor junctions are possible, ohmic and rectifying. The former is the type of contact desired when a lead is to be attached to a semiconductor. On the other hand, the rectifying contact results in a metal. Semiconductor diode (called a Schottky barrier), with volt-ampere characteristics is very similar to those of a p-n diode. The metal-semiconductor diode was investigated many years ago, but until the late 1960s commercial Schottky diodes were not available because of problems encountered ill their manufac-ture. It has turned out that most of the fabrication difficulties are due to surface effects; by employing the surfacepassivated integrated-circuit tech-- niques described in this chapter, it is possible to construct almost ideal metal semiconductor diodes very economically. Aluminum acts as a p-type impurity when in contact with silicon. If Al is to be attached as a lead to n-type Si, an ohmic contact is desired and the formation of a p-n junction must be pre-vented. It is for this reason that n+ diffusions are made in the n regions near the surface where the Al is deposited. On the other hand, if the n+ diffusion is omitted and the Al is deposited directly upon the n-type Si, an equivalent p-n structure is formed, resulting in an excellent metal-semiconductor diode.

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Fig. 22.2: (a) A transistor with a Schottky-diode clamp between base and collector is irrelevant saturation. The external volt-ampere characteristic of a metal-semiconductor diode is essentially the same as that of a p-n junction, but the physical mechanisms involved are more complicated. Note that in the forward direction electrons from the n-type Si cross the junction into the metal, where electrons are plentiful. In this sense, this is a majority-carrier device, whereas minority carriers account for a p-n diode characteristic. There is a delay in switching a p-n diode from ON to OFF because the minority carriers stored at the junction must first be removed. Schottky diodes have a negligible storage time t. because majority carriers carry the current predominantly. (Electrons from the n side enter the aluminum and become indistinguishable from the electrons in the metal, and hence are not stored near the junction.) It should be mentioned that the voltage drop across a Schottky diode is much less than that of a p-n diode for the same forward current. Thus, a cut-in voltage of about 0.3 V is reasonable for a metal-semiconductor diode as against 0.6 V for a p-n barrier. Hence the former is closer to the ideal diode clamp than the latter. The Schottky Transistor To reduce the propagation-delay time in a logic gate, it is desirable to eliminate storage time in all transistors. In other words, a transistor must be prevented from entering saturation. This con-dition can be achieved, by using a Schottky diode as a clamp between the base and collector. If an attempt is made to saturate this transistor by increasing the base current, the collector voltage drops, D conducts, and the base-to-collector voltage is limited to about 0.4 V. Since the collector junction is forward-biased by less than the cut in voltage, the transistor does not enter saturation. With no additional processing steps, the Schottky clamping diode can be fabricated at the same time that the transistor is constructed , the aluminum metalization for the base lead is allowed to make contact also with the n-type collector region (but without an intervening n+ section). This simple procedure forms a metal-semiconductor diode between base and collector.
l Barrier potential created at anode silicon-metal interface

Fig.22.1:A Schottky diode formed by IC techniques. The aluminum and the lightly doped n region form a rectifying contact 1, whereas the metal and, the heavily doped n+ region form an ohmic contact 2. In Fig. 22.1 above, contact 1 is a Schottky barrier, whereas contact 2 is an ohmic (non-rectifying) contact, and a metal-semiconductor diode exists between these two terminals, with the anode at contact 1. The fabrication of a Schottky diode is actually simpler than that of a p-n diode, which requires an extra (p-type) diffusion

eliminates charge storage problems

l Metal layer deposited on thin epitaxial layer of N types

silicon
l There are no minority carriers so recombination time does

not exist and rectification only depends on majority carriers

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l Recovery time only influenced by capacitance of silicon-metal

Here are few examples of Series clipper circuits

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interface
l Have relatively low forward voltage drops dependant on

doping levels and thus barrier potential (0.2 - 0.9V)

l Leakage currents are higher ( >100mA) l Low current ratings (1 - 300A) l Low voltage ratings ( <100V)

Clipping and Clamping Circuits

Clippers/Limiters

There are variety of diode networks called clippers that have the ability to Clip off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is clipped off. There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
Series Connection

The response of the series configuration of figure shown below to a sinusoidal input is provided in the figure. The addition of a dc supply has a pronounced effect on the output of a clipper.

Fig 22.4: Examples of Clipping Circuits

Parallel Connection:

The network shown in Fig below is the parallel diode configuration

Fig 22.3: Clipping Circuits

Fig 22.5: Clamping Circuits

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Some examples of Parallel clipper circuit are given below

As studied, a diode clipping circuit can be used to limit the voltage swing of a signal. Figure above shows a diode circuit that clips both the positive

and acts like a short circuit. The output voltage . The capacitor is charged to the peak value of input voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery. During the positive half of the input signal, the diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit.

Clamping Circuit Clamper is a circuit that clamps a signal to a different dc level. A diode can be used to clamp one side of a sinusoidal signal to near zero. The different types of clampers are positive negative and biased clampers. A clamping network must have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive element. The magnitude R and C must be chosen such that the time constant RC is large enough to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is non- conducting.
Positive Clamper

Fig 22.7: Positive Clamper Hence the output voltage clamped voltage.
Negative Clamper

This gives a positively

The circuit for a positive clamper is shown in the figure. During the negative half cycle of the input signal, the diode conducts
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During the positive half cycle the diode conducts and acts like a short circuit. The capacitor charges to peak value of input

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voltage Vm. During this interval the output Vo which is taken across the short circuit will be zero.

The voltage across the resistor will be equal to the source voltage Vs . During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the diode is reverse biased and it acts as an open circuit. Hence Vs has no effect on Vo. Applying KVL around the outside loop.

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Rectifiers One of the most important uses of a diode is rectification. The normal PN junction diode is well-suited for this purpose as it conducts very heavily when forward biased (low-resistance direction) and only slightly when reverse biased (high-resistance direction). If we place this diode in series with a source of ac power, the diode will be forward and reverse biased every cycle. Since in this situation current flows more easily in one direction than the other, rectification is accomplished. In short, rectifiers are devices that are used to convert Alternating Current(AC) signal in to Direct Current(DC). Examples of rectifiers are Halfwave rectifier and Full Wave rectifier(Center-tapped and Full wave rectifier). Fig 22.8: Negative Clamper During the negative half cycle, the diode is open. The output voltage can be found by applying KVL. Half-Wave Rectifier The simplest rectifier circuit is a half-wave rectifier circuit shown below, which consists of a diode, an ac power source, and a load resister.

Biased Clamper

The circuit of a positively biased clamper is shown in the figure. During the negative half cycle of the input signal the diode is forward biased and acts like a short circuit. The capacitor charges to Applying the KVL to the input side

Fig 22.10(a) : Simple half-wave rectifier The transformer (T1) in the figure provides the ac input to the circuit; the diode (CR1) provides the rectification; and the load resistor (RL) serves two purposes: it limits the amount of current flow in the circuit to a safe level, and it also develops the output signal because of the current flow through it.

Fig 22.9: Biased Positive Clamper

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a dry-disc rectifier, is a metal-to-semiconductor, large-area contact device.

Full-Wave Rectification
Center-Tapped Transformer circuit

Fig 22.10(b) : Simple half-wave rectifier(Diode connected in opposite direction) Before describing how this circuit operates, the definition of the word load as it applies to power supplies must be understood. Load is defined as any device that draws current. A device that draws little current is considered a light load, whereas a device that draws a large amount of current is a heavy load. Remember that when we speak of load, we are speaking about the device that draws current from the power source. This device may be a simple resistor, or one or more complicated electronic circuits. During the positive half-cycle of the input signal (solid line) in Fig 22.10(a), the top of the transformer is positive with respect to ground. The dots on the transformer indicate points of the same polarity. With this condition the diode is forward biased, the depletion region is narrow, the resistance of the diode is low, and current flows through the circuit in the direction of the solid lines. When this current flows through the load resistor, it develops a negative to positive voltage drop across it, which appears as a positive voltage at the output terminal. When the ac input goes in a negative direction as shown in Fig 22.10(b), the top of the transformer becomes negative and the diode becomes reverse biased. With reverse bias applied to the diode, the depletion region increases, the resistance of the diode is high, and minimum current flows through the diode. For all practical purposes, there is no output developed across the load resistor during the negative alternation of the input signal as indicated by the broken lines in the figure. Although only one cycle of input is shown, it should be realized that the action described above continually repeats itself, as long as there is an input. Therefore, since only the positive half-cycles appear at the output this circuit converted the ac input into a positive pulsating dc voltage. The frequency of the output voltage is equal to the frequency of the applied ac signal since there is one pulse out for each cycle of the ac input. For example, if the input frequency is 60 hertz (60 cycles per second), the output frequency is 60 pulses per second (pps). However, if the diode is reversed as shown in Fig 22.10(b), a negative output voltage would be obtained. This is because the current would be flowing from the top of RL toward the bottom, making the output at the top of RL negative with respect to the bottom or ground. Because current flows in this circuit only during half of the input cycle, it is called a half-wave rectifier. The semiconductor diode shown in the figure can be replaced by a metallic rectifier and still achieve the same results. The metallic rectifier, sometimes referred to as
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A popular Full wave rectifier is shown in Fig 22.11 below with only two diodes but requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer. During the positive portion of V1 applied to the primary of the transformer, upper diode assumes the short circuit equivalent and lower diode, the open circuit equivalent, as determined secondary voltages and the resulting current directions. The output voltage appears as shown in figure.

Fig 22.11(a) : Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier During the negative portion of the input the network i.e., reversing the roles of the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the voltage across the load resistor. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process called full-wave rectification. The most familiar network for performing such a function appears in Fig 22.12(a) below with its four diodes in a bridge configuration.

Fig 22.12(a) : Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier During positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the polarity of the input and output signals is shown in figure 22.12(b). Diode D1 and D2 are conducting while D3 and D4 are in the off state. The net result is the output signal shown.For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D3 and D4, resulting in the configuration shown in figure 22.12(b).

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Fig 22.12(b): Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit in forward and reverse bias conditions Over one full cycle, the input and output voltages will appear as shown in figure 22.12(c).

Fig 22.12(c): Brigde rectifier circuit operation and waveforms

Conclusion
I think now we have studied adequate applications of this wonderful device called as diode. The following points are concluded 1. Initially we started with LEDs. Its rate equation was discussed with you. 2. We then studied Schottky effect in Schottky diode. 3. I, then, started with some very important applications like clipping, clamping and rectifiers with circuits and relative waveforms. Note: In our next lecture we will have GD/Quiz for your continuous evaluation on Unit 2 of your syllabus.

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