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_
_
The Gradient Operator
The gradient operator is a vector containing three partial
derivatives [/x, /y, /z]. When applied to a scalar, it
produces a vector, when applied to a vector, it produces a
tensor.
T = [T/x, T/y, T/z]
v =
_
_
/x
/y
/z
_
_
_
v
x
v
y
v
z
=
_
_
v
x
/x v
y
/x v
z
/x
v
x
/y v
y
/y v
z
/x
v
x
/z v
y
/z v
z
/z
_
_
The gradient vector of a scalar quantity denes the
direction in which it increases fastest; the magnitude
equals the rate of change in that direction.
The Gradient Operator
x
y
_
_
v
x
v
y
v
z
_
_
=
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
The divergence of a vector eld may be thought of as the
local rate of expansion of the vector eld.
v = lim
V0
_
1
V
ndS
_
The Divergence Operator
This formula describes an integral over surface S of a
small element with volume V.
n is the unit outward normal
on the surface.
The physical signicance of the divergence of a vector eld
is the rate at which density" exits a given region of space.
For example, if u is the velocity of an incompressible uid,
then u = 0 - uid particles cannot bunch up".
S
Divergence of a 2D vector field
V
n
(x,z) v
Curl of a Vector Field
The other important vector operator is curl, . It can be
represented as a matrix operating on a vector eld.
v = det
i j k
/x /y /z
v
x
v
y
v
z
=
_
_
v
z
/y v
y
/z
v
x
/z v
z
/x
v
y
/x v
x
/y
_
_
The curl may be thought of as the local curvature of the
vector eld.
(v)
i
= lim
A0
_
n
i
A
_
v dl
_
Curl of a Vector Field
The integral is taken around the perimeter of the small
area element A which is perpendicular to
n, the unit
normal vector to v. Since there are three orthogonal
orientations for the area element, the curl has three
components.
The physical signicance of the curl of a vector eld is the
amount of rotation" or angular momentum of the contents
of a given region of space.
A
Curl of a 3D vector field
n
dl
(x,y,z) v
Example 1
Scalar function f =
_
(x 1)
2
+ (y 1)
2
in the interval
0 x 2, 0 y 2.
0
.
2
0
.
4
0
.
4
0
.6
0
.6
0
.
6
0
.8
0
.
8
0
.
8
0
.
8
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 1
f =
_
x 1
_
(x 1)
2
+ (y 1)
2
,
y 1
_
(x 1)
2
+ (y 1)
2
_
0
.
2
0
.
4
0
.
4
0
.6
0
.6
0
.
6
0
.8
0
.
8
0
.
8
0
.
8
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 1
f =
1
_
(x 1)
2
+ (y 1)
2
=
2
f = Laplacian
1
1
1
1
1
.2
1
.
2
1
.
2
1
.
2
1
.4
1
.
4
1
.
4
1
.
6
1
.6
1
.
6
1
.
8
1.8
1
.
8
2
2
2
.
2
2
.
2
2
.
4
2
.
4
2
.
6
2
.
6
2
.
8
2
.
8
3
3
3
.
2
3
.
2 3
.
4
3
.
4
3
.
6 3
.
8
4
4
.
2 4
.
4
4
.
6
4
.
8
5
5
.
2
5
.
4
5
.6
5
.
8
6
6
.
2
6
.
4
6
.
6
6
.
8
77
.
2
7
.
4
7
.
6
7
.
8
8
8
.
2
8
.
4
8
.6
8
.8 9 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.8
1
0 10.2 10.4 10.6
10.8
11
1
1
.
2
1
1
.
4
1
1
.
6
1
1
.
8
1
2
1
2
.
2
1
2
.
4
1
2
.
6
1
2
.
8
1
3
1
3
.
2
1
3
.
4
1
3
.
6
1
3
.
8
1
4
1
4
.2
1
4
.4
14.6 14.8
1
5
1
5
.2
1
5
.
4
1
5
.
6
1
5
.
8
1
6
1
6
.
2
1
6
.
4
1
6
.
6
1
6
.
8
1
7
1
7
.
2
1
7
.
4
1
7
.
6
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 1
f =
"
0,0,
x
y1
(x1)
2
+(y1)
2
!
x1
(x1)
2
+(y1)
2
!#
=0
For any scalar functions f , g and any vectors u, v
f = 0 v = 0
(fg) = f g + gf (f /g) = (gf f g)/g
2
(f v) = f v +v f (f g) = f
2
g +f g
(f v) = f v + f v
(u v) = v u u v
Example 2
Scalar function f = (x 1) exp[(x 1)
2
(y 1)
2
] in the
interval 0 x 2, 0 y 2.
0
.
4
0
.
2
0
0
.
2
0
.
4
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 2
f = exp[(x1)
2
(y1)
2
]
_
1 2(x 1)
2
, 2(x 1)(y 1)
_
0
.
4
0
.
2
0
0
.
2
0
.
4
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 2
f = 4(x1) exp[(x1)
2
(y1)
2
]
_
(x 1)
2
+ (y 1)
2
2
_
1
0
1
1
2
2
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 3
Vector function v = [y cos x, x cos y] in the interval
0 x 2, 0 y 2.
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 3
v = y sinx x siny
1
0
0
0
1
2
y
0 1 2
x
Example 3
v = [0, 0, cos y cos x]
0
1
2
z
0 1 2
x
0
1
2
z
0 1 2
y
y=1.0 x=1.0