MAMCAJ21 Human Communication

Models of communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude . Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).

Shannon and Weaver

The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal. In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content is sent in some form (as spoken language) from a sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements: 1. An information source, which produces a message. 2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals 3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission 4. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal. 5. A destination, where the message arrives. Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating: It assumes communicators are isolated individuals. No allowance for differing purposes. No allowance for differing interpretations.

No allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts.

David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weavers (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver .Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules: 1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols), 2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and 3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent). Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set ofsemiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.

Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
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The

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending

upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).

Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts. Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features: Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively A list of ke y words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.

Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswells attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the

constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman. Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis. Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, What does seem to be required of the individual is that he lear n enough pieces of expression to be able to fill in and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression. The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process. Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yetexpect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines. Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15): Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message. For example; physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you. physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the

ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough. psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country cant speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them. semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables. Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience. Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message. Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages) Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal). Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.

Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver. For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.

RINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction

Interpersonal communication is the foundation of human interaction. Its importance for innovation and change can hardly be overemphasized. In this section, communication from different viewpoints including listening and speaking is ex.
Objectives

To introduce communication and to demonstrate the importance of communication in a variety of contexts including that of the manager of innovation and change. To evaluate and discuss the characteristics of good communication and how to improve our communication.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION Communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information through any number of channels. Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague, addressing a conference or meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles apply:

Know your audience. Know your purpose. Know your topic. Anticipate objections. Present a rounded picture. Achieve credibility with your audience. Follow through on what you say. Communicate a little at a time. Present information in several ways. Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback. Use multiple communication techniques.

Communication is complex. When listening to or reading someone else's message, we often filter what's being said through a screen of our own opinions. One of the major barriers to communication is our own ideas and opinions. There's an old communications game, telegraph, that's played in a circle. A message is whispered around from person to person. What the exercise usually proves is how

profoundly the message changes as it passes through the distortion of each person's inner "filter."
Environmental factors

Communication can be influenced by environmental factors that have nothing to do with the content of the message. Some of these factors are:

the nature of the room, how warm it is, smoke, comfort of the chair, etc outside distractions, what is going on in the area. the reputation/credibility of the speaker/writer. the appearance, style or authority of the speaker. listener's education, knowledge of the topic, etc. the language, page layout, design of the message.

People remember:

10% of what they read 20% of what they hear 30% of what they see 40% of what they hear and see

Communication with Decision Makers

Innovation and change often depends upon persuading potential users of the benefits of an innovation. To deal persuasively with decision makers, it is necessary to know and understand their interests and opinions. The following questions are helpful in organizing technology transfer efforts:

Who are the key people to persuade? Who will make the decisions about innovation and change? What are these decision makers' past experiences with innovation and change? What are the decision makers' current attitudes toward innovation and change? Are they neutral, friendly, hostile or apathetic? What is the most appropriate way to approach the decision maker? What are the work styles of the decision makers? Are they highly formal people who want everything in writing and all appointments scheduled in advance? Or are they more flexible, responding favorably to personal telephone calls and informal meetings?

What networks or groups is the decision maker a part of? What programs or services will the new innovation improve? What programs or services will the new innovation cause problems with? How will the innovation or change benefit the decision maker?

Principles of Effective Persuasion

Whether making a formal presentation at a meeting or writing a report or fact sheet, the following principles hold.

Do not oversell or overstate your case. Make effective use of understatement. Outline the topic you are trying to cover into two parts. The first part should give broad background information, while the second part provides a detailed summary. Persuasion depends on clarity and simplicity. Avoid the use of jargon and buzz words. Be prepared to back up claims or facts immediately. Incorporate major anticipated objections into your program or presentation. Address all relevant aspects of a topic, especially those that may affect the functioning of an organization. Use graphics and audiovisuals appropriately. Consider ways to get meaningful input from people. Find out what they think about the innovation or change.

Selling New Ideas

Creating Isn't Selling Often the creators of an innovation feel that convincing others of the idea's value is somehow superfluous to their activities. To them, conceiving the idea is enough. This combines with their inner conviction that their idea will "sell itself." Change agents provide a link between creators of new techniques and users. Ideas Need Selling Someone must recognize when an idea is good. It is important that when an idea is good it is sold to those who can act on it--those who have the power to evaluate and adopt it. Understanding users is an important activity for any change agent. People must be convinced that a particular idea or innovation has enough merit to warrant adoption. Selling Ideas Takes Effort Selling innovations requires preparation, initiative, patience, and resourcefulness. It

may take more effort than originating the idea. In an age of technical complexity and information overload, new ideas seldom stand out. Information on new ideas must be targeted to the appropriate users and relate to their needs and motivations. Once is Not Enough A new idea has to be suggested many times before it will "catch on." Initial failures at promoting a new idea are to be expected, so don't get discouraged if you don't get the results you want the first time. Some ideas take years to catch on. However, first exposures are crucial to future prospects. Do it right the first time
Feedback (Listening)

Getting and giving feedback is one of the most crucial parts of good communication. Like any other activity, there are specific skills that can enhance feedback. Listening is a key part of getting feedback: Listen to the Complete Message. Be patient. This is especially important when listening to a topic that provokes strong opinions or radically different points-ofview. In these situations, it's important not to prejudge the incoming message. Learn not to get too excited about a communication until you are certain of the message. Work at Listening Skills. Listening is hard work. Good listeners demonstrate interest and alertness. They indicate through their eye contact, posture and facial expression that the occasion and the speaker's efforts are a matter of concern to them. Most good listeners provide speakers with clear and unambiguous feedback. Judge the Content, Not the Form of the Message. Such things as the speaker's mode of dress, quality of voice, delivery mannerisms and physical characteristics are often used as excuses for not listening. Direct your attention to the message--what is being said--and away from the distracting elements. Weigh Emotionally Charged Language. Emotionally charged language often stands in the way of effective listening. Filter out "red flag" words (like "liberal" and "conservative," for instance) and the emotions they call up. Specific suggestions for dealing with emotionally charged words include

Take time to identify those words that affect you emotionally. Attempt to analyze why the words affect you the way they do. Work at trying to reduce the impact of these words on you.

Eliminate Distractions. Physical distractions and complications seriously impair

listening. These distractions may take many forms: loud noises, stuffy rooms, overcrowded conditions, uncomfortable temperature, bad lighting, etc. Good listeners speak up if the room is too warm, too noisy, or too dark. There are also internal distractions: worries about deadlines or problems of any type may make listening difficult. If you're distracted, make an effort to clear your head. If you can't manage it, arrange to communicate at some other time. Think Efficiently and Critically. On the average, we speak at a rate of 100 to 200 words per minute. However, we think at a much faster rate, anywhere from 400 to 600 words per minute. What do we do with this excess thinking time while listening to someone speak? One technique is to apply this spare time to analyzing what is being said. They critically review the material by asking the following kinds of questions:

What is being said to support the speaker's point of view? (Evidence) What assumptions are being made by the speaker and the listener? (Assumptions) How does this information affect me? (Effect) Can this material be organized more efficiently? (Structure) Are there examples that would better illustrate what is being said? (Example) What are the main points of the message? (Summary)

Sending Messages

Messages should be clear and accurate, and sent in a way that encourages retention, not rejection.

Use Verbal Feedback Even If Nonverbal Is Positive And Frequent. Everyone needs reassurance that they are reading nonverbal communication correctly, whether a smile means "You're doing great," "You're doing better than most beginners," or "You'll catch on eventually." Focus Feedback On Behavior Rather Than On Personality. It's better to comment on specific behavior than to characterize a pattern of behavior. For example, instead of calling a colleague inefficient, specify your complaint: "You don't return phone calls; this causes problems both in and outside your office." Focus Feedback On Description Rather Than Judgment. Description tells what happened. Judgment evaluates what happened. For example, in evaluating a report don't say, "This is a lousy report!!" Instead, try: "The report doesn't focus on the information that I think needs emphasis," or "This report seems to have a lot of grammatical and spelling mistakes."

Make Feedback Specific Rather Than General. If feedback is specific, the receiver knows what activity to continue or change. When feedback is general, the receiver doesn't know what to do differently. For example, in an office situation, instead of saying "These folders are not arranged correctly," it's better feedback to say, "These should be arranged chronologically instead of alphabetically." In Giving Feedback, Consider the Needs and Abilities of the Receiver. Give the amount of information the receiver can use and focus feedback on activities the receiver has control over. It's fruitless to criticize the level of activity, if the decision to grant the necessary monies for materials, personnel or technology is made at a different level. Check to See if the Receiver Heard What You Meant to Say. If the information is important enough to send, make sure the person understands it. One way of doing this is to say, "I'm wondering if I said that clearly enough. What did you understand me to say?" or "This is what I hear you saying. Is that right?"

Selecting the Best Communication Method

In communicating with decision makers, use the most appropriate communications method. One way to do this is to ask yourself the following questions.

What is the purpose of your message? Do you plan to tell them something new? Inform? Do you plan to change their view? Persuade? What facts must be presented to achieve your desired effect? What action, if any, do you expect decision makers to take? What general ideas, opinions and conclusions must be stressed? Are you thoroughly familiar with all the important information on the innovation? What resources and constraints affect adoption of the innovation? How much time is available? How much money is available Which method, or combination of methods, will work most effectively for this situation? Personal contact--requires scheduling, time and interpersonal skills.

Telephone contact--requires good verbal skills and an awareness of voice tones as nonverbal communication. Letter--requires writing skills. e-mailinformal, needs to be short and to the point, but not get lost in clutter. May

require frequent follow-up. News release--requires writing skills and cooperation of the media and time.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Speaking to Communicate

Spoken communication occurs in many different settings during the course of successful innovation and change. These may be divided into three main types:

The formal and informal networks in which peers exchange information, such as professional associations, work units, work teams, etc. The activities of change agents, opinion leaders, etc. The contacts established at team meetings, conferences, training courses, etc.

Whether to use oral communication is a decision we all make frequently in the course of a workday. The change agent must be able to identify those situations in which oral communication is the most appropriate one to use. Don Kirkpatrick suggests the -following guidelines for making such decisions.
Use Oral Communication When:

The receiver is not particularly interested in receiving the message. Oral communication provides more opportunity for getting and keeping interest and attention. It is important to get feedback. It's easier to get feedback by observing facial expressions (and other nonverbal behavior) and asking questions. Emotions are high. Oral communication provides more opportunity for both the sender and the receiver to let off steam, cool down, and create a suitable climate for understanding. The receiver is too busy or preoccupied to read. Oral communication provides more opportunity to get attention. The sender wants to persuade or convince. Oral communication provides more flexibility, opportunity for emphasis, chance to listen, and opportunity to remove resistance and change attitudes. When discussion is needed. A complicated subject frequently requires discussion to be sure of understanding. When criticism of the receiver is involved. Oral communication provides more opportunity to accomplish this without arousing resentment. Also, oral communication is less threatening because it isn't formalized in writing.

When the receiver prefers one-to-one contact.

Presentation Styles

There are different styles of making a presentation and different people will use the approach that suits them. Good Old Boy: This is usually an experienced person who is the peer of most of the audience. Generally, there is a lot of good information but it may be poorly organized or poorly delivered. The Entertainer: This person relies on jokes and stories to get their point across. Good visual aids could be an important feature of the presentation. Sometimes there is too much emphasis on satisfying the audience that little information is actually transferred. The Academic: This person tends to be very precise and deliberate in presenting information. There is considerable content and it usually is well organized. Unfortunately. it can also be boring and irrelevant and not relate well to the audience. The Reader: This person decides to read his material word for word. The material is often not especially prepared for an oral presentation and can be overly technical, boring and hard to understand. All topics are covered and what is said is precise and accurate. The Snail: This person is nervous about the presentation and goes into a shell. Like a snail, this person also moves slowly and the presentation seems to last forever. What is best? You have to have a style you are comfortable with. Ideally, you have the rapport of the good old boy, the organization and content of the academic, the ability to get and maintain interest of the entertainer, and the precision of the reader. If you do this you will avoid the slow pace of the snail and effectively present information to your listeners. The Gadgeteer: This person uses every gimmick and technique in his or her presentation and visual aids. It can be overdone with the message getting lost among the bells and whistles.
Components of an Effective Oral Report

Introduction Capture the attention of the group right from the start.

Give the necessary explanation of the background from which the problem derived.

Clearly state and explain the problem. Clearly state your objectives. Indicate the method(s) used to solve the problem. Suggest the order in which you will provide information.

Organization

Provide sufficient introductory information. Use transitions from one main part to the next and between points of the speech. Use summary statements and restatements. Make the main ideas of the report clearly distinguishable from one another.

Content

Have adequate supporting data to substantiate what you say. Avoid using extraneous material. Present supporting data clearly--in terms of the ideas or concepts you are trying to communicate. Were the methods of the investigation clearly presented? Visual Aid Supports Use clear drawings, charts, diagrams or other aids to make explanations vivid and understandable. Make visual aids fit naturally into the presentation. Be completely familiar with each visual used. Don't clutter your report with too many visual aids.

Conclusion Conclude your report with finality in terms of one or more of the following:

the conclusions reached the problem solved the results obtained the value of such findings to the county recommendations offered

Question Period

Give evidence of intelligent listening in interpreting the questions.

Organize answers in terms of a summary statement, explanation, and supporting example. Show flexibility in adapting or improvising visual aids in answering questions.

Delivery

Be natural, "communicative" in your delivery. Use frequent eye contact to maintain rapport with the audience. Vary your delivery with appropriate movements and gestures. Speak distinctly. Display confidence and authority. Express enthusiasm for your ideas.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION There's an old saying that "a picture is worth a thousand words." Life would indeed be difficult without paintings, photographs, diagrams, charts, drawings, and graphic symbols. These are some of the reasons why SHOWING is such an important form of communication.

Most people understand things better when they have seen how they work. Involved, complex ideas can be presented clearly and quickly using visual aids. People retain information longer when it is presented to them visually. Visuals can be used to communicate to a wide range of people with differing backgrounds. Visuals are useful when trying to condense information into a short time period.

Visual aids--used imaginatively and appropriately--will help your audience remember more. Consider the following:

People think in terms of images, not words, so visuals help them retain and recall technical information. Visuals attract and hold the attention of observers. Visuals simplify technical information. Visuals may be useful in presenting technical information to a nontechnical audience.

Questions to Ask about Visual Aids:

Is my objective clear? What are my key points? Do they deserve the emphasis that a visual aid gives? What visual aid or aids have I planned to use? Will the visual aid clarify my spoken words? Will it support my spoken words rather than replace them? Is each visual aid simple, orderly and consistent? Is it free from incompatible and complicating ideas, symbols, art techniques and typefaces? Can my audience quickly and easily grasp what they see or must it be read to them? Avoid making it a reading session. Is it symbolic or pictorial? Which treatment is best for my subject? Which treatment is best from the standpoint of my audience? Is my visual direct and to the point? Is the art functional or ornate? Is it really one visual aid or several? If my subject is complex, will it be presented in easily comprehensible units? (Drop-ons or overlays) Was my artwork designed just for this presentation? Is my visual aid realistic? Does it give all the pertinent facts? Have the facts been distorted? Is my visual aid as effective as it can be made? Have I used all the available techniques to make it so? Did I put enough effort into the planning of the visual aid? Have I sought criticism from others? Will it achieve my objectives? Will my audience understand, appreciate and believe it? If my presentation calls for some action by the audience, will it stimulate them to do so willingly? Have I overlooked anything in the use of the visual aid? Have I tested the visual aid? Have I planned one or more rehearsals; if not, why? Will my visual aid material be visible to the entire audience?

Visual Aid Checklist

Slides ( ) Does the projector work properly? Bulb, lenses, change mechanism, fan. ( ) Does each slide present a simple, clear message? ( ) Are the slides arranged and numbered consistently and consecutively? ( ) Are the slides clean and mounted properly? ( ) Will the audience be able to see slide details in the location I plan to use?

( ) Does the slide tray have a title slide at the beginning and a blind slide at the end to avoid blinding the audience with light? Power Point or Transparencies ( ) Is the lettering large enough to be seen by the audience? ( ) Is the projector placed so that the audience has an unobstructed view? ( ) Is the projector and slide color scheme adequate for the lighting of the room being used? ( ) Does the projected image fit the screen? ( ) Are my slides in proper order? ( ) Does each present a clear message? ( ) Is the projector compatible with the computer being used? Video Tape ( ) Do you have the correct machine for the tape you plan to show (Beta or VHS)? ( ) Is the equipment in proper working order? ( ) Is the tape set to start at the proper place and does it "track" properly? ( ) Will the WHOLE audience be able to see the presentation? ( ) Is the sound level on the monitor(s) set at the proper level? The Location ( ) Does the room match the size of the audience? ( ) Is the location accessible to the physically disabled? ( ) Can the lighting be controlled for showing slides and transparencies? If so, is a reading light available? ( ) Is the location equipped with a projector cart or table? ( ) Are electrical outlets conveniently located--do I need extension cords? ( ) Is the room equipped with an adequate screen? ( ) If using video equipment, can monitors be set up at appropriate locations? ( ) Does the room have a speakers table or podium? ( ) Will the location be available prior to your meeting so you can set up and test your equipment? ( ) Is the room equipped with a newsprint easel or chalkboard? ( ) Does the room have chairs and tables or desks? Can they be rearranged if needed? ( ) Is the main entrance separated from the speaker area so that late arrivals will not disrupt your presentation? Always check out the room and equipment in advance to see that it works properly! Never assume that it will work without trying it first. As a general

rule, the more complicated the technolgy for an oral presentation, the more likely it will fail
Checklist for Tables and Charts

( ) Be ruthless with numbers: use the fewest possible that will still convey the point of the visual. Do not exceed twenty numbers or a single slide. ( ) Combine numbers into larger sums wherever possible; eliminate any number that does not contribute significantly to your message. ( ) Consider using a chart (pie, bar, etc.) for presenting some information, especially if you want to draw comparisons between two or more items. ( ) When preparing charts use colors or patterns with a lot of contrast. ( ) Split information into two or three smaller tables rather than using one huge table. Use no more than three or four columns per table. ( ) Have a short, yet descriptive, title that states the point of the visual. Put it at the top. Include a date at the bottom. ( ) Label columns clearly and at the top. Show the units (dollars or tons, for example). On the left, label the statistics being compared. ( ) Avoid footnotes and symbols that may not be generally understood by your audience. ( ) Use light horizontal lines if they improve readability. ( ) Be consistent. Do not mix pounds and tons, years and months, gross and net. ( ) Avoid decimal points whenever possible. Use round numbers for tables and graphs. ( ) Highlight the most important numbers with boxes, underlining, or color. ( ) If arithmetic operations are not obvious, state them: (less), or "Less Depreciation Expense." ( ) Eliminate zeros by expressing numbers in thousands or millions, if possible. ( ) Show negative numbers in parentheses, not with minus signs.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION Written materials often bear the greatest burden for the communication of new ideas and procedures. Effective writing is the product of long hours of preparation, revision and organization. One book that follows its own rules is Strunk and White's Elements of Style, a short book which argues persuasively for clarity, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English. Its entire philosophy is contained in one paragraph:

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reasons that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that EVERY WORD TELL. Clear, vigorous writing is a product of clear, vigorous thinking. Clarity is born of discipline and imagination. Kirkpatrick gives the following guidelines for using written communication:
Use Written Communication When:

The sender wants a record for future references. The receiver will be referring to it later. The message is complex and requires study by the receiver. The message includes a step by step procedure. Oral communication is not possible because people are not in the same place at the same time. There are many receivers. Caution: the receivers must be interested in the subject and will put forth the time and effort to read and understand. It is cheaper. Caution: the same as above. A copy of the message should go to another person. The receiver prefers written.

Advantages of Written Materials

Highly technical topics can be presented using words and diagrams. Written material provides a permanent record that can be referred to from time to time or passed on to others. Written material can be duplicated in large quantities or distributed on the Internet relatively inexpensively. It is fairly easy to distribute written material to many people, but this practice is getting increasingly expensive and its effectiveness questionable. Written material is preferred when it is desirable to get the same information to a group of people. Written records and reports are sometimes useful in legal matters. Written material may be useful for documenting the success or progress of some project or activity.

Disadvantages of Written Material

People seldom take the time and effort to read technical materials. The preparation of written documents is time-consuming. Once prepared in large quantities, printed documents are difficult to change. Written material provides little feedback for the sender. Technical documents are often too long and complex for the majority of readers. A portion of the population may not be able to read written material. Too much reliance on written material as a communication method may obscure the true needs of potential users.

Communicative competence
Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately. The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam [2] Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance. To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that [3] included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other". The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication. Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.
[1]

Use in education
The notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative [3] approach to foreign language teaching. Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components: 1. grammatical competence: words and rules 2. sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness 3. strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies Canale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherence A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary"
[5]

competence. Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009). Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom [7] practice. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.

[6]

Self Concept
One's self-concept (also called self-construction, self-identity or self-perspective) is a collection of [1][2] [3][4][5][6][7] beliefs about oneself that includes such things as academic performance, gender roles and [8][9][10] [11] sexuality, racial identity, and many others. Self-concept presupposes but is distinguishable from self-awareness, which is simply an individual's awareness of their self (which "refers to the extent to which self-knowledge is clearly and confidently [12] defined, internally consistent, and temporally stable"), and is also more general than self-esteem, which [13] is a function of the purely evaluative element of the self-concept. The self-concept is not restricted to the present, as it includes past and future selves. Future or possible selves represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming. They correspond to hopes, fears, standards, goals, and threats. Possible selves may function as incentives for future behavior; they also provide an evaluative and interpretive [14] context for the current view of self. The perception which people have about their past or future selves [15] is related to the perception of their current self. Temporal self-appraisal theory argues that people have a tendency to maintain a positive evaluation of the current self by distancing negative selves and bringing close positive selves. In addition, people have a tendency to perceive the past self less [16] [17] favourably (e.g., I'm better than I used to be) and the future self more positively (e.g., I will be better than I am now).

Managing Impressions
In sociology and social psychology, impression management is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event; they do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction (Piwinger & Ebert 2001, pp. 12). It is usually used synonymously with selfpresentation, in which a person tries to influence the perception of their image. The notion of impression management also refers to practices in professional communication and public relations, where the term is used to describe the process of formation of a company's or organization's public image.

The media
The medium of communication influences the actions taken in impression management. Self-efficacy can differ according to the fact whether the trial to convince somebody is made through face-to-face[17] interaction or by means of an e-mail. Communication via devices like telephone, e-mail or chat is governed by technical restrictions, so that the way people express personal features etc. can be changed. This often shows how far people will go.

Perception (from the Latin perceptio, percipio) is the organization, identification, and interpretation [1] of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves [2] signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retinas of the eyes, smell is mediated by odor molecules and hearing involvespressure waves. Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but can be [3][4] shaped by learning, memory, and expectation. Perception involves these "top-down" effects as well as [4] the "bottom-up" process of processing sensory input. The "bottom-up" processing is basically low-level information that's used to build up higher-level information (i.e. - shapes for object recognition). The "topdown" processing refers to a person's concept and expectations (knowledge) that influence perception. Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless [2] because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of experimental psychology in the late 19th Century, psychology's understanding of [3] perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics measures the effect on perception of varying the physical qualities of the input. Sensory neurosciencestudies the brain mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process.Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities [3] such as sounds, smells or colors exist in objective reality rather than the mind of the perceiver. Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to [3] make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich [3] enough to make this process unnecessary. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information may be incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, the taste is strongly influenced by its odor

Emotion
In psychology, philosophy, and their many subsets, emotion is the generic term for subjective, conscious experience that is characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. Emotion is often associated and considered reciprocally influential withmood, temperament, personality, disposition, [citation needed] and motivation, as well as influenced by hormones and neurotransmitters such asdopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin, cortisol and GABA. Emotion is often the driving force [1] behind motivation, positive or negative. In the book "Psychology", Schacter defines emotion as a [2] "positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity." The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Although those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, cognition is an important aspect of emotion, particularly the interpretation of events. For example, the experience of fear usually occurs in response to a threat. The cognition of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing,

sweating, muscle tension) is an integral component to the subsequent interpretation and labeling of that arousal as an emotional state. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience,medicine, history, sociology, and even computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. The current research that is being conducted about the concept of emotion involves the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. ROLE OF EMOTIONS IN COMMUNICATION

"First impression is the last impression" is a good old maxim that keeps human beings striving for searching ways that help them create lasting impressions on others, especially those who matter to them the most. Right from wearing costly apparels to accessories and imported perfumes; from villas to cars people try everything, which can help them create a distinct impression for themselves. I know a friend of mine who runs classes wherein she teaches how to make lasting impressions; the institution name itself is 'Impression'. Her clientele includes teenage children, house wives and of course young executives. Even the corporate clients are inviting her to teach business etiquette to their senior executives. No doubt, all the abovementioned paraphernalia help people create an impression that they want to project about themselves. However, little they realize that even before they try to create an impression people make opinion about them. Apart from these physical attributes the basis of these opinions are their own feelings about others and also people's feeling about themselves. Now the question arises what are feelings. It is our feelings that decide our approach, our outlook, the way we think and behave. Our feelings decides not only our thought processes i.e. the mind-set but are also responsible for our reactions, responses, mood, frame of mind in nut shell our overall attitude. This is the attitude that instills passion in human beings, which give rise to excitement, enthusiasm, and zeal to excel. Hence, these are our feelings that help us to create the right impression of ourselves. Another word to describe our feelings or the sentiments is emotions. Yes! These are the emotions that help human beings communicate their real inner self, which gets reflected through their actions and behavior. Paul Ekman who studied human emotions, discovered six facial expressions that almost everyone recognizes world-wide. These are happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise. These expressions communicate the real inner self of an individual to others. However, there are variety of emotions created by the mixing, blending, and overlapping of these basic ones. During the course of life, human beings experience various emotions, such as genuine love and empathy, which are most valuable to an individual. On the other hand, there are emotions such as anger, pride and jealousy, which disturb the mental peace and lead the individual to act in ways that not only hurt others but him as well. Emotions even affect individuals health. It is rightly said, A healthy body has a healthy mind. The moment someone try to repress his emotions it gets manifested as diseases such as, depression, anxieties, panic, and eating disorders to name a few. Ability to recognize and share emotions with others is truly an art. Those of us, who are able to master it, learn how to manage and maintain healthy relationships. If you listen to other's

feelings and try to understand the emotions they are experiencing or expressing; your communication will become a meaningful exchange for both of you. This will help you to avoid unnecessary conflicts in your life. You will become flexible and be in a position to adjust with others easily. In order to do so you need to learn and practice communicating your emotions to others.
ost people have had the experience of feeling overwhelmed by a strong emotion. At those times, the strength of the anger, sadness, anxiety, or discouragement may have made you feel like the emotion was in control of you. Emotional intensity may have affected your attitude and behavior in ways that were distressing both to you and those around you. So, how do you handle these episodes without being overwhelmed or, alternatively, attempting to avoid the feelings entirely? Experiment with the following coping strategies and determine which ones work best for you.

Be aware of your breathing. Make it slow and deep. You are your breaths in your abdomen. This simple step is a natural way to calm a racing pulse and mind and center yourself. Take a moment to check on the muscle tension in your body, particularly in the shoulders, neck and jaw. Relax any tight areas you find. Imagine the tension flowing out as you breathe deeply. Take a brief time out to compose yourself. If you are with others and it is not an appropriate/convenient time to express intense emotions, excuse yourself for a few minutes. You could say "I need a second to get my thoughts together. I'll be back in a moment." Contact supportive people and discuss your feelings or situation. Sharing your feelings with those you trust can help you to feel normal and not as isolated. They may also be able to help you see the situation from additional perspectives. Writing your feelings down in a private journal is an additional tool you can use to help manage emotions. A recent study showed that survivors of traumatic events lowered their distress levels significantly by journaling. The process of putting something down on paper can help a person to stop ruminating. Closing and putting away the journal can also be a symbolic closure on the distressing events or feelings. Speak up when an issue is important to you. This is most effective when you spend the time to think about the problem and clarify your position before you begin. Remember, changes in relationships are a process and usually take time. Rarely are they the result of impulsive confrontation.

Be kind to yourself. This is a good time to practice self-soothing. Do some small things for yourself that give you comfort and provide a mental "mini vacation." For example, take a quiet walk in the park, take a relaxing bubble bath, make yourself a meal with some special comfort foods, or go to bed early with your favorite book. Temporarily distract yourself. Sometimes being flooded with feelings can make it hard to cope. Visualize putting your emotional pain in a box on the closet shelf where you can get back to it to sort it out when you are calmer. Do something that will bring out the opposite emotion. Expend your energy with physical activity. Engage in tasks that require concentration. Attending class or work where you have to focus on a task can provide a temporary relief or break. Try to do the regular, routine things you would do on an average day. This will help you feel more in control. Remember that your feelings will change eventually. Remind yourself that you have not always felt this way and will not always continue to feel this way. Think about previous occasions when the intensity of the pain decreased and you began to feel better. If painful feelings are a regular occurrence, explore why that might be the case and what in your life might need to be addressed. You might want to use selfhelp books or counseling as additional resources in that exploration process.

Language
Language is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Any estimate of the precise number of languages in the world depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. However, estimates vary between 6,000 and 7,000. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli, for example, in graphic writing, braille, or whistling. This is because human language is modality-independent. When used as a general concept, "language" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs with particular meanings. Oral and sign languages contain a phonologicalsystem that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words andmorphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances. Human language is unique because it has the properties of productivity, recursivity, and displacement, and because it relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure therefore affords a much wider range of possible expressions and uses than any known system of animal communication. Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems, acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and

a shared intentionality. This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca's and Wernicke's areas. Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language also has many social and cultural uses, such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as for social grooming and entertainment. Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later stages to have occurred. A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The languages that are most spoken in the world today belong to the Indo-European family, which includes languages such as English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, and Hindi; the Sino-Tibetan languages, which include Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, and many others; Semitic languages, which include Arabic, Amharic, and Hebrew; and the Bantu languages, which include Swahili, Zulu, Shona, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa. The consensus is that between 50 and 90% of languages spoken today will probably have become extinct [ by the year 2100.

Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between people. Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch, body language or posture, physical distance, facial expression and eye contact, which are all types of nonverbal communication. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.

Characteristics and Types of Nonverbal Communication

There are five characteristics of nonverbal communication that help explain

why it is so important in our daily lives (Floyd pg. 211)
1. 2.

Nonverbal communication is present in most interpersonal conversations, including cyberspace communication with the use of emoticons. Nonverbal communication often conveys more information than verbal communication. It is possible that up to 93% of what we say is translated by

3.

4.

5.

nonverbal clues. However, it is more realistic that only 65-70% of translation is due to nonverbal communication. (That is still a lot higher than I would have ever thought!) Nonverbal communication is usually believed over verbal communication. This could be due to the fact that it is harder to hide or fake our nonverbal clues such as our facial expressions. Nonverbal communication is the primary means of communicating emotion. Think of what someone's facial expressions look like when they are overjoyed or extremely sad. You can usually tell how they are feeling without them saying a word. Nonverbal communication is meta communicative, for example, a wink for sarcasm or covering our mouth with our hand to indicate we are telling a secret.

6 common types of nonverbal communication:

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Facial expressions. Unlike most communication, facial expressions are universal. Body movements and posture. The way we move and carry ourselves can tell a lot about us. Gestures. We often use gestures without thinking about it. Since gestures are so different across cultures it is important to be careful when interpreting someone's gesture to avoid misinterpretation. Eye contact. This is a very important piece of nonverbal communication since the visual sense is dominant for many of us. Touch. A firm handshake during an interview goes a long way. Space. Personal space has to do with how close we like to be when communicating with people. This varies greatly by culture

Active listening
Active listening is a communication technique that requires the listener to feed back what they hear to the speaker, by way of re-stating or paraphrasing what they have heard in their own words, to confirm what they have heard and moreover, to confirm the understanding of both parties. When interacting, people often "wait to speak" rather than listening attentively. They might also be distracted. Active listening is a structured way of listening and responding to others, focusing attention on the "function" of communicating objectively as opposed to focusing on "forms", passive expression [citation needed] or subjectivity. There are many opinions on what is "active listening". A search of the term reveals interpretations of the "activity" as including "interpreting body language" or focusing on something other than or in addition to

words. Successful communication is the establishment of common ground between two people [citation needed] understanding. Agreeing to disagree is common ground. Common ground can be false, i.e., a person says they feel a certain way but they do not. Nevertheless it is common ground, once accepted as understood. Dialogue, understanding and progress can only arise from that common ground. And that common ground cannot be established without respect for the words as spoken by the [citation needed] speaker, for whatever reason. Thus the essence of active listening is as simple as it is effective: paraphrasing the speakers words [citation needed] back to them as a question. There is little room for assumption or interpretation. It is functional, mechanical and leaves little doubt as to what is meant by what is said. "The process is successful if the person receiving the information gives feedback which shows understanding for [citation needed] meaning. Suspending one's own frame of reference, suspending judgment and avoiding other internal mental activities are important to fully attend to the speaker