I.

INTRODUCTION

Electricity is an invisible force that is used to transfer energy into heat, light, intelligence, or motion. Electricity is explained in terms of electrical charge, potential difference (or voltage), electrical charge flow (or current), and resistance to current flow. The normal unit of current measurement is the ampere, whereas the normal unit of voltage measurement is the volt. The unit of opposition to current flow, or resistance, is the ohm. Electricity service in a building consists of light switches, sockets, clock connectors, cooker control units and similar outlets. Such fittings are collectively known accessories; this name came about because they are accessory to the wiring, which is the main substance of the installation. A switch is used to make or interrupt a circuit. A complete switch consists of three parts. There is the mechanism itself, a box containing it, and a front plate over it. A successful electrical power and lighting project depends on effective planning in the form of drawings, schedules, and contract specifications. This contract documentation provides a concise picture of the objectives for the electrical project work to be done. It also serves as a record of intent for owners and as instructions and guidance for contractors, electricians, installers, and others performing the work. Contract documents, which might also include surveys and test data, are legal documents, and they can be used as evidence in court cases involving contractor malfeasance, or failure to comply with the intent of the drawings and specifications. The present conformity to accepted formats for drawings and specifications is the result of years of practical experience reinforced by accepted national and international standards issued by government agencies and private standards organizations. Drawing for an electrical project serves for different purpose. 1. Describes the electrical project in sufficient detail to allow electrical contractors to use the drawings in estimating the cost of materials, labor, and services when preparing a contract bid.

2. Instructs and guides electricians in performing the required wiring and equipment installation while also warning them of potential hazards such as existing wiring, gas pipes or plumbing systems. 3. Provides the owner with an as-built record of the installed electrical wiring and Equipment for the purposes of maintenance or planning future expansion. The owner then becomes responsible for recording all wiring and equipment changes. A typical electrical drawing consists of solid or dashed lines representing wiring or cables and symbols for luminaries, receptacles, switches, auxiliary systems, and other electrical devices and their locations on a scaled architectural floor plan of a home or building. The drawings also include title blocks to identify the project, the designersor engineers, and the owner, and change blocks to record any changes that have been made since the drawing was first issued. PLANNING FOR ELECTRICAL DESIGN INSTALLATION SYSTEMS The IEE Regulations recommend that every consumers installation should have a means of isolation, a means of over current protection and a means of earth leakage protection. This recommendation applies whatever the size or type of installation. 2.SAMPLE CALCULATION I.SEQUENTIAL STEPS TO SUCCESSFULLIGHTING DESIGN SOLUTIONS Step 1: Determine Lighting Design Criteria Design Criteria: Quantity of Illumination Illumination is generally measured in the horizontal plane 30" above the floor. The units of illumination are foot-candles or fc (lumens per square foot) or lux (lumens per square meter). The IESNA categorizes light level criterion recommendations based on complexity and difficulty of the visual tasks being performed in the space. Step 2: Record Architectural Conditions and Constraints Architectural conditions that may control or affect lighting design decisions. The two conditions that most frequently affect lighting design are window location and size and the availability and size of plenum space. It is not uncommon for the structural system and/or its materials, ceiling heights, partition construction and/or materials, ceiling systems and their materials, and finish materials to have significant influence on lighting solutions. Step 3: Determine Visual Functions and Tasks to Be Served 2

In the case of a residential dining room, the primary visual task is the dining table, where seeing the food on the table and the faces of other diners is the first priority. An additional need is to see the items on a buffet when it is used as a serving station; third, a painting on a wall deserves accent lighting. While the corners of a residential dining room may not be lighted, a typical room of this size does not require perimeter lighting, assuming the luminaries(s) for lighting the table is selected to throw off adequate peripheral light reception room, which might serve a small suite of business or professional offices, is typical of many office building settings. The only critical visual tasks are related to the receptionists workstation, where conventional deskwork and reading printed material in the file drawers must be accommodated. Working-level lighting in that area automatically provides a lighting accent in that corner of the room so that the attention of visitors is naturally drawn to the receptionist as they enter the room. The visual tasks in the remainder of the space call for ambient light for conversation and casual short-term reading. Rooms of this kind often have a visual feature such as framed artwork or a company logo that calls for focused accent lighting. Step 4: Select Lighting Systems to be used The location of the light source is critical. Should light come from above or at eye level (or occasionally from below)? Should the light be directed or diffuse? Should the light source be visible or hidden? The architectural conditions and constraints described in Step 2 often affect these decisions due to lack of plenum space, available ceiling height, or difficulty in getting power to particular locations. It is impossible to generalize about the effects of architectural conditions because each case is so individual. Step 5: Select Luminaire and Lamp Types Based on the lighting systems decisions made, select luminaries and lamp types. The details of luminaries construction, shape, and dimension must produce the desired direction and concentration of light as well as fit the details of construction type and the materials with which they are to be integrated. Aesthetic compatibility often plays a major role in luminaire selection; shape, style, materials, and color must integrate with architectural quality as well as the details of interior finishes and furnishings.

It is not uncommon for lamp selection criteria to be the dominant factor in luminary selection when the lamp qualities are critical for economic, code, or color factors. In our case we have chosen U-bent and fluorescent because it is cost efficient, green technology, and they give sufficient light with minimum power. U-bent lamps are straight lamps that are manufactured in a U shape but otherwise perform about the same as straight lamps. Standard straight and U-bent lamps are preferred for general illumination Because of their cost effectiveness and energy efficiency. In current designs, the T-8 is the most commonly used general-purpose lamp, and the T-5 and T-5 high-output lamps are becoming increasing popular for a number of specific lighting systems. The T-12 lamps are an older style that is less energy efficient. Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Step 6: Determine Number and Location of Luminaries Accurate luminarys placement, required levels of illumination, and the avoidance of veiling reflections should all be accomplished. Then determine how many of each luminaries type is required. Often, several luminaries-

lamp combinations are considered, so the number of luminaries will vary with the lumen output of each combination. In the great majority of cases in which luminaries are placed in, on, or suspended from the ceiling, they should be placed in an orderly pattern, creating an obvious visual geometry. Methods to calculate number of lamps The two methods used to calculate the number of lamps is Watt per Square Meter Method and Lumen method. Watt per Square Meter Watt per Square Meter is mostly applicable for rough calculation .It consists in making an allowable of three watt per square to be laminated. The second method considers the specification of lamp and the real situation of the area. Step 7: Place Switching and Other Control Devices User traffic paths, room usage, and user convenience should be your guides to good switching and control systems. Repeated experience and familiarity with controls technology create workable and usersatisfying solutions. Take into account the opportunities conveyed by the most recent developments in controls that automate energy management or user convenience function. Step 8: Aesthetics and Other Intangibles The aesthetic and psychological factors that must be considered in a complete approach to lighting design are, by their nature, intangible and difficult to categorize.

II.CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF FITTINGS,N

The value of E is obtained from the Standared table of Ilumination Engineering Society,IES. Building Staircases Corridor,pasage way General Living room general Bed room Bed lead kitchen Bath room E 100 50 15O300 50 50 150 100

Characteristic of a Thorn Lighting 1500mm 65w bi-Pin-tub

Tube colour

initial lamp luminnus 2600 2900 3500 3700 4800 4950 5100 250*

Lightin g Design 2100 2500 3200 3400 4450 4600 4750 250

Colour redering quality Exellent Verygoo d Good Good Fair Fair Fair Poor

colour apearance

Artificial day light De-Lux Natural De-Lux warm whight Natural Day Light Warm White White Red

cool Intrmediate Warm Intermediat e Cool Warm Warm Deepred

The initial lumens are the measured lumens after 100 hours of life the lighting design lumens are the out put lumens after 2000 hours colour tubes are intended for decorative purposes only N=E*A/(F*UF*MF),Where E=Ellumination(measure of amount of light on the surface) F=Fux UF=Utilization factor MF=maintenance factor Two Type bed room Bed R.1 Bed R.2 Toilet/bath Liv. dinning Kitchen area(m2 E ) 9.28 50 8.9 3.6 & 24.13 12.57 50 10 0 50 15 0 F 370 0 370 0 370 0 370 0 370 0 UF 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 MF 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 N 1 1 1 1 1

Deternining cable current carrying capacity Step -1Calculation of design current (Ib)

Ib= P/V ` Loadin V gs(W) 127 1200 1200 1500 1000 5027 Therefore, a cable of 2.5mm2 is selected since the actual voltage drop less than the allowable voltage drop. CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF FITTINGS,N FOR ONE BEROOM The value of E is obtained from the standared table of Ilumination Engineering Society,IES 22 0 22 0 22 0 22 0 22 0 Ib In I b 0.5 16 77 5.4 16 55 5.4 16 55 6.8 16 18 4.5 16 45 Ca Iz=In /Ca 15.5 3398 15.5 3398 15.5 3398 15.5 3398 15.5 3398 cab mv le size 2.5 0.0 18 2.5 0.0 18 2.5 0.0 18 2.5 0.0 18 2.5 0.0 18 leng Vd=m Ch th(1) v*Ib*l eck 21.8 25 8 13 20 0.227 2.455 0.785 1.595 1.636 OK ! OK ! OK ! OK ! OK !

Ligh ting Soc ket Stov e Hea ter Res erve

1.0 3 1.0 3 1.0 3 1.0 3 1.0 3

Building Stairecase Corridor,pasage way General Living room general Bed room Bedlead kichen Bath room

E 100 50 15O300 50 50 150 100

Charactoristic of a Thorn Lighting 1500mm 65w bi-Pin-tub Characteristic of a Thorn Lighting 1500mm 65w bi-Pintub

Tube colour

initial Lightin lamp g luminnus Design 2600 2900 3500 3700 4800 4950 5100 250* 2100 2500 3200 3400 4450 4600 4750 250

Colour redering quality Exellent Verygoo d Good Good Fair Fair Fair Poor

colour apearance

Artificial day light De-Lux Natural De-Lux warm whight Natural Day Light Warm White White Red

cool Intrmediate Warm Intermediat e Cool Warm Warm Deepred

the initial lumens are the measured lumens after 100 hours of life the lighting design lumens are the out put lumens after 2000 hours colour tubes are intended for decorative purposes only N=E*A/(F*UF*MF),Where E=Illuminations(measure of amount of light on the surface) F=Fux UF=Utilization factor MF=maintenance factor

one bed room m

Type Bed Room Toilet/bat h Liv. & dinning Kitchen stair corridor-1 corridor-2 corridor-3

area(m 2 ) 11.21 2.925 23.325 4.0965 9.575 12.698 19.762 5.628

E 50 100 50 150 100 50 50 50

UF

MF 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

N 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2500 0.8 3700 0.8 3700 0.8 3700 3700 3700 3700 3700 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

DETERMINATIONOFCABLECURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY

a, for lighting Step -1 Calculation of design current (Ib) Ib=P/V,where, p=power V=voltage p=116 W v=220V Ib= 0.527272727A Nominal setting of protaction(In) using table 9.1 where
Ib In

Step -2

Step -3

In=16 A>Ib=0.53A.OK! Selection of correction factors Ca,Cf,Ci from table A-4

Where,Ca=Ambient tempreture Cf=Fusing factor Ci= Termal insulation Ca= 1.03 ,taking ambint temprature 25c for Addis Ababa case Since we use circuit breaker instead of fuse we donot use fusing factor Step -4.Determine current carrying capacity,Iz Iz=In/RCF,RCF=relevant correction factor Iz=15.53398058A Step -5 Choose a cable size suitable to Iz using table B-1 Taking Insulating in condute on a wall or intruking,two cables single fase a.c or d.c Our Iz =15.534A>14.5.There for the conductors crrosectional area is 2.5mm2 from the table. Step 6.Check the voltage drop,Vd less than 4%of the nominal voltage Vd=mV*Ib*L,Where,L=length of the cable mV is obtained from the table B-4 mV=18 ,for 2.5mm2and taking two-core cable single phase a.c(alternating current) Vd=0.170931273<4%of normal voltage= 8.8.OK!

Therefore, a cable of 2.5mm2 is selected since the actual voltage drop less than the allowable voltage drop. Using the above steps the rest power outlets are done and are shown below.
Power outlets Lightig Socet Stove Heater Resere Loadings(W) 116 1200 1200 1500 1000 5016 V 220 220 220 220 220 Ib 0.527 5.455 5.455 6.818 4.545 InIb 16 16 16 16 16 Ca 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 Iz=In/Ca 15.53398058 15.53398058 15.53398058 15.53398058 15.53398058 cable size 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 mv 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.018 length(1) 18.01 27.3 5 11 20 Vd=mv*Ib*l 0.170931 2.680364 0.490909 1.35 1.636364 Check OK! OK! OK! OK! OK!

Therefore, a cable of 2.5mm2 is selected since the actual voltage drop less than the allowable voltage drop. Distribution Board We have G+4 with typical floors and each floor has two single bed rooms and two double bed rooms. SBD1/1 ..Distribution board for each single bed room Cable size determination of sub distribution board, SDB
Power outlets SDB1/ 1 Loadings( W) 5016 V Ib InI b 32 Ca Iz=In/Ca cabl e size 6 mv length( 1) 20 Vd=mv*I b*l 3.3288 Chec k OK!

220

22. 8

1.03

31.06796 117

0.00 73

Therefore, a cable of 6mm2 is selected since the actual voltage drop less than the allowable voltage drop. SBD1/2..Distribution board for each two bed room

Power outlet SDB1/2

Loadings(W) 5027

V 220

Ib 22.85

InIb 32

Ca 1.03

Iz=In/Ca 31.067961

cable size 6

mv 0.0073

length(1) 20

Vd=mv*Ib*l 3.3361

Check OK!

The rest floors are designed by similar procedure in the above. Cable Size Determination Of Sub Distribution Board,SDB For Each Floor

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Cable size determination of sub distribution board,SDB- 0 (GROUND FLOOR)

Po wer outl ets SD B0

Loadi V ngs(W ) 2008 6

Ib

In Ib

Ca

Iz=I n/Ca

cable size

mv

leng th(1 ) 6

Vd= mv*I b*l

Ch ec k

24 83.6 0 916 7

10 0

1.0 97.0 3 873 8

35

0.0 01 3

0.628 OK !

Cable size determination of sub distribution board, SDB1(1st FLOOR) Pow Loadin er gs(W) outl ets SDB 20086 1 V Ib In I b 10 0 Ca Iz=In/ ca Ca ble siz e 97.08 35 738 mv lengt h(1) Vd=m v*Ib*l Che ck

2 4 0

83.69 167

1. 03

0.0 013

10

1.046

OK!

Cable size determination of sub distribution board,SDB 2(2nd FLOOR) Po Loadi V Ib In Ca Iz=I cable mv leng Vd= Ch wer ngs(W Ib n/Ca size th(1 mv*I ec outl ) ) b*l k ets SD 2008 24 83.6 10 1.0 97.0 35 0.0 20 2.092 OK B2 6 0 916 0 3 873 01 ! 7 8 3 Cable size determination of sub distribution board, SDB3 (3rd FLOOR)
Power outlets SDB 3 Loadings(W) 20086 V 240 Ib 83.69167 InIb 100 Ca 1.03 Iz=In/Ca 97.08738 cable size 35 mv 0.0013 length(1) 30 Vd=mv*Ib*l 3.138 Check OK!

Cable size determination of sub distribution board,SDB 4 (4th FLOOR)

Power outlets SDB 4 Loadings(W) 20086 V 240 Ib 83.69167 InIb 100 Ca 1.03 Iz=In/Ca 97.08738 cable size 35 mv 0.0013 length(1) 40 Vd=mv*Ib*l 4.185 Check OK!

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Cable size determination of sub distribution board,MDB

Power outlets MDB Loadings(W) 100430 V 240 Ib 418.4583 InIb 450 Ca 1.03 Iz=In/Ca 436.8932 cable size 300 mv 0.0002 length(1) 50 Vd=mv*Ib*l 3.243 Check OK!

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13

DISTRIBUTION BOARD DIAGRAM

N0 . 0 FROM EPCO 1 2 3 4

LOAD DISTRIBUTION SDB 0 SDB1 SDB 2 SDB 3 SDB 4

I (A)

A(mm2 ) 35

LOAD(KW ) 20.086

83.6916 7 83.6916 7 83.6916 7 83.6916 7 83.6916 7

X 35 X 35 X 35 X 35 X 20.086 20.086 20.086 20.086

N0. DESCRIPTION

I (A)

A(mm2 ) 2X2.5

LOAD(KW)

1 2 FROM MDB 3 4

LIGHTING SOCKET STOVE HEATER

10.12 5 100 100 125

2.43 X 24 X 24 X 30

2X2.5 2X2.5 2X2.5

14

X 5 RESERVE 0 X N0. DESCRIPTION I (A) A(mm2 ) 2X2.5 X 2X2.5 X 3 4 5 STOVE HEATER RESERVE X 20 25 2X2.5 X 2X2.5 X 4000 6000 4800 4800 R S T LOAD(KW ) 486 20

1 2 FROM SDB

LIGHTING SOCKET

2.02 5 20

MATERIAL SPECIFICATION 1.CABLE The cable that we use is PVC cable. Cable PVC-insulated only, and PVCinsulated PVC-sheathed cable shall be 600/1000Vgrade to BS 6004:1969.The cable shall be delivered to site on reels, with seals and labels intact and shall be of one manufacturer throughout the installation. The cable shall be installed direct from the reels and any cable which has become kinked, twisted or damaged in any way shall be rejected. The installation shall be cabled on the loop-in system, i.e. wiring shall terminate at definite points (switch positions, lighting points, etc.) and no intermediate connections or joints will be permitted. Cables shall not pass through or terminate in lighting fittings. Circular flexible cable PVC-insulated PVC-sheathed having the number of cores with cross-sectional areas specified. The cores of all flexible cords shall be colored throughout their length and colourcodedto comply with the British Standard Specification. Lamp Size The physical size of the lamp affects the size of the luminaire and, in turn, determines how some sources might be used. Small, low-wattage lamps permit small luminaries, such as under cabinet lights and reading lights; large, high-powered lamps, such as metal halide 15

stadium lamps, require a large luminaries, both for heat and for the reflector needed to aim the light properly Voltage The electric power needed to operate a lamp is measured first by voltage. In the United States, the standard voltage services are 120 volts, 240 volts, 277 volts, and 480 volts. The standard 120-volt service is available in all building types; 240-, 277-, and 480-volt services are available only in large industrial and commercial buildings. Service voltage varies from country to country. Many types of low-voltage lamps, operating at 6, 12, or 24 volts, are used throughout the world. Transformers are used to alter the service voltage to match the lamp voltage. Bulb Temperature The bulb of a lamp can get quite hot. The bulb temperature of incandescent and halogen lamps and most high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps is sufficiently high to cause burns and, in the case of halogen lamps, extremely severe burns and fires. Fluorescent lamps, while warm, are generally not too hot to touch when operating, although contact is not advised. Operating Temperature Fluorescent lamps are sensitive to temperature caused by the ambient air. If the bulb of the lamp is too cool or too hot, the lamp will give off less light than when operated at its design temperature. Most other lamps give off the same amount of light at the temperatures encountered in normal applications. Operating Position Some lamps produce more light or have longer lamp life when operated in specific positions with respect to gravity. Metal halide lamps are especially sensitive; some versions will not operate unless in the specified position. INCANDESCENT AND HALOGEN LAMPS Incandescent lamps generate light when electric current heats the lamps filament.The hotter the filament, the whiter the light. The problem is that as the lamp filament gets hotter, the more rapid the evaporation of metal from the filament. A very dim lamp giving off yellow-orange light (2200K) may last a long time; a lamp giving off pure white (5000K) light will probably last for a few seconds only. The evaporated filament material blackens the bulb wall. 16

Standard incandescent lamps today use tungsten filaments that generate a warm-colored white light and last about 750 to 1000 hours. Two special types of incandescent lampskrypton-incandescent lamps and xenon-incandescent lampsmake lamps last a bit longer. The temperature of the incandescent lamp bulb is generally too hot to touch but luminaires are designed to prevent inadvertent contact, so in general, the lamps heat is not a problem. The color temperature of incandescent lamps is about 2700K, generating a warm-toned light.

FLUORESCENT LAMPS The fluorescent lamp is the workhorse light source for commercial and institutional buildings. Fluorescent lamps use the principle of fluorescence, in which minerals exposed to ultraviolet light are caused to glow. Electric energy excites the gas inside the lamp, which generates ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light in turn excites the phosphors, which are a mixture of minerals painted onto the inside of the bulb. Phosphors are designed to radiate particular colors of white 17

light, thus enabling the choice of both the color temperature and CRI of a lamp. The color of the lamp is described by the name or designation. Traditional lamp colors include cool white, warm white, and daylight. However, modern lamps are identified by a color name that designates its color temperature and CRI. For example, a lamp having a color temperature of 3500K and a CRI between 80 and 90 is known as the color 835.

Flourescent Lamps

Standard Straight and U-bent Lamps Most common fluorescent lamps are straight tubes. The longest standard fluorescent lamps are 8' long and the shortest are 4". The most common length is 4', and the most common diameters are 58" (T-5), 1" (T-8), and 1 12" (T-12). U-bent lamps are straight lamps that are manufactured in a U shape but otherwise perform about the same as straight lamps. Standard straight and U-bent lamps are preferred for general illumination because of their cost effectiveness and energy efficiency. In current designs, the T-8 is the most commonly used general-purpose lamp, and the T-5 and T- 5 high-output lamps are becoming increasing popular for a

18

number of specific lighting systems. The T-12 lamps are an older style that is less energy efficient. Compact Fluorescent Lamps There are two major types of compact fluorescent lamps: those with screw bases, designed to directly replace incandescent lamps in incandescent lamp sockets, and those with plug-in bases designed to fit into sockets in luminaries designed specifically for compact fluorescent lamps. Because compact fluorescent lamps, like all fluorescent lamps, require a ballast, lamps with screw bases are larger and costlier than those for dedicated Fluorescent Lamps Compact Fluorescent Lamps There are two major types of compact fluorescent lamps: those with screw bases, designed to directly replace incandescent lamps in incandescent lamp sockets, and those with plug-in bases designed to fit into sockets in luminaries designed specifically for compact fluorescent lamps. Because compact fluorescent lamps, like all fluorescent lamps, require ballast, lamps with screw bases are larger and costlier than those for dedicated compact fluorescent luminaries. As a result, it is generally best to employ dedicated compact fluorescent luminaries in new designs. Screw-based compact fluorescent lamps should be used to convert incandescent type luminaries only after the fact.

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Compact Fluorescent Lamps CONCLUSION From this electrical design part of the project we get a lot of knowledge on designing electrical works such as light design, cable size, and other fixtures. The main design considerations when we select the materials are safety and economy. The materials that we used for lighting are florescent and U-shape compact florescent lamps. This is because of their efficiency. For example 11W compact florescent lamps give equivalent elimination with the previous 40W incandescent lamps. There for if we use compact florescent lamps we can save the energy by 50%. Hence we are more economical at the same time we are safe. The same is true for other florescent lamps. The Ethiopian Electric & Light Power Authority (EELPA) also advertizes this lamp instead of using incandescent lamps for their economic case and their compatibility with Green Technology.

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2. SANITARY
2.1 Background

Water and air are essential elements for human life. Even then, a large population of the world does not have access to a reliable, uncontaminated, piped water supply. Drinking water has been described as a physical, cultural, social, political, and economic resource 2.1.1 Materials used in plumbing work By now you should have an idea of the basic properties of material. Next we are going to look at plumbing pipe work materials. There is no perfect pipe work material that is suitable for all applications; different materials perform better in relation to different factors and conditions which can affect pipe work such as: Pressure Properties of the water Cost 21

 Bending and jointing method Corrosion resistance Expansion Appearance. There are two basic types of pipe work material: metal and plastic. I.Metals commonly used in the plumbing industry Metals used in the plumbing industry include steel, iron, copper, brass, lead, tin, zinc and aluminum. a. Copper Copper is supplied in lengths and coils and in a range of diameters. Copper is a malleable and ductile material which you will use frequently throughout your plumbing career. There are several types of copper tubes (Figure 4.18) manufactured for use in the plumbing industry: b. Lead The term plumber is derived from the chemical symbol Pb, and the Latin phrase plumbum, which when translated, means worker of lead. Traditionally, lead was commonly used for water supply, sanitary and rainwater pipe work, but it has now been superseded by the use of materials, such as plastics and copper. These days, its main use in the plumbing industry is for sheet lead weatherings as its use for new water supply pipe work is prohibited, although you may come into contact with lead pipe work if renewing an old service pipe. Lead is a very heavy, valuable metal which requires careful handling. It is ideal for sheet roof work as it is extremely malleable. c. Cast iron Cast iron is an alloy of iron and approximately 3% carbon. It has been used in the plumbing industry for many years for above and below ground drainage pipework. Cast iron is very heavy but quite brittle, and can withstand many years of general wear and tear. You will probably come into contact with it on older properties on newer buildings it has been superseded by plastic-PVC. Copper is also used in the manufacture of pipe work fittings. As with lead, cast iron is sometimes used on historic buildings and lead, cast iron is occasionally used on new build public and commercial buildings, where its strength and rigidity are an advantage. d.Alloys Alloys can be produced either by mixing different metals or by mixing metals with non-metallic elements, such as carbon. Steel is one of the 22

most common alloys in the world and many plumbing materials and appliances are made of different types of steel. Other alloys include: Brass (alloy of copper and zinc) which is used for various types of plumbing fittings (see Figure 4.20). Taps are chromeplated for decorative effect. The image shows an example of brass used in the manufacture of pump isolation valves. Bronze (copper and tin), again, used mainly for fittings Solder (lead and tin), which is used for soldering capillary fittings, although solder containing lead is no longer permitted for use on water supply pipework, which is a requirement of the Water Regulations. Low carbon steel (LCS) or mild steel is an alloy made from iron and carbon. It is commonly used in the plumbing and heating industry in larger premises, such as factories and commercial buildings. In the domestic market, radiators are manufactured from steel, and LCS pipe work and fittings are used in some small residential buildings for central heating systems. LCS pipe is manufactured to BS 1387:1985 and comes in three grades of weight: light, medium and heavy. As with copper tube, the internal bore and wall thickness varies. Light LCS tube thin walls larger bore Medium LCS tube medium walls medium bore Heavy LCS tube thick walls smaller bore Light LCS is mostly used for electrical conduit. As a plumber, you may come across it occasionally, but are more likely to work with medium and possibly heavy grades. Medium and heavy LCS tubes are used for water supply and heating services, and are capable of sustaining high pressures. Heavy grade LCS tube can be identified by a red band painted towards the end of the tube, and medium by a similarly positioned blue marking. When LCS tube is used for water supplies it must be galvanized. e. Stainless steel Stainless steel pipe work was used extensively in the domestic market during the copper shortage of the 1970s; it is not that common today, although you may come across it while completing maintenance work. The tube has a shiny appearance due to the chromium and nickel content and is protected from corrosion by a microscopic layer of chromium oxide, which quickly forms around the metal and prevents further oxidization. This tube is produced with bores of 635 mm and has an average wall thickness of 0.7 mm. 23

Galvanized tubes have an outer layer of zinc, which prevents the process of oxidation or rust. Stainless steel pipe work is more commonly found where exposed pipe work and sanitary appliances are needed, as it is a very strong metal (much stronger than copper) and is easy to clean. Stainless steel is commonly used for: Sink units and other sanitary appliances Urinal units and supply pipe work Commercial kitchen or catering installation pipework. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the most common pipework materials, and is used for discharge and drainage pipework Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) is more rigid than PVC and is used for cold water supply pipework Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is able to withstand higher temperatures than PVC, it is used for small diameter waste, discharge and overflow pipework Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) can withstand very high temperatures, up to 300C, and is generally used as a thread sealant Polystyrene is brittle and light; it is used generally for insulation purposes, but must have fire-retardant capabilities. f.Other materials relevant to the plumbing industry Ceramics include those products which are made by baking or firing mixtures of clay, sand and other minerals bricks, tiles, earthenware, pottery, china. There is a sense in which the kiln firing process is creating artificial metamorphic rocks by using heat to fuse together the individual ingredients of the product into a matrix. The main constituent of all these products is silicon, clay is aluminum silicate; sand is silica dioxide. This category would also include those products made by curing mixtures of sand, gravel, water, and a setting agent (usually cement) to concrete, and mortar, a sand, water and cement mixture. Vitreous china is made from a mixture of white burning clays and finely ground minerals which are mixed and fired at high temperatures. 2.1.2 Properties of materials What are a materials basic properties? In general terms, you may say this could be how strong it is, how well it conducts heat or electricity, or how flexible it is. Scientifically, materials are classified according to a variety of properties and characteristics. The properties can be measured as the materials react to a variety of influences, which include: 24

 Mechanical properties, such as hardness, strength, elasticity, toughness, stiffness, ductility, malleability Thermal properties like conductivity (how well or poorly a material will conduct heat) Electrical properties like conductivity (how well or poorly a material will conduct electricity) Chemical properties like reactivity and solubility Optical properties like transparency, reflectivity, refractivity Magnetic properties. Hardness There are many different aspects of materials which could be considered as a measure of hardness. Hardness can mean resistance to permanent or plastic deformation by scratching, indentation, bending, breaking, abrasion or fracture. This is a very important factor in materials which have to resist wear or abrasion a sink tap for example and frequently needs to be considered along with the strength of materials. Strength The strength of a material is the extent to which it can withstand an applied force or load (stress) without breaking. Load is expressed in terms of force per unit area, and is measured in newtons per square metre (N/m2). This can be in the form of: Compression force, as applied to the piers of a bridge, or a roof support Tensile or stretching force, as applied to a guitar string, tow rope or crane cable Shear force, as applied by a shearing machine or scissors, or when materials are torn (see below). Materials are therefore described as having compressive, tensile or shear strength. Elasticity Almost all materials will stretch to some extent when a tensile force is applied to them. This increase in length on loading, compared to the original length of the material, is known as strain. As increased loading continues, a point is reached when the material will no longer return to its original shape and size on removal of the load, and permanent deformation has occurred. The material is said to have exceeded its elastic limit or yield stress, beyond which the material is suffering plastic deformation it is beingstretched irreversibly. 25

Here are how some common materials shape up Mild steel has little elasticity, but has a high yield stress and is fairly ductile, i.e. has a large range over which it can sustain plastic deformation. It also has a high tensile strength. Cast iron is brittle it has poor elasticity and has no ability to sustain plastic deformation, although its tensile strength is higher than that of concrete. Copper has little elasticity, but is ductile. It has an ultimate tensile strength less than half that of mild steel. Concrete has little elasticity, and the lowest tensile strength of the four, but is extremely strong in compression. Some other important characteristics which must be considered when considering material used in the plumbing trade are: Plasticity The exact opposite of elasticity: a material which does not return to its original shape when deformed Ductility Is the ability of a material to withstand distortion without fracture, an example is a metal such as copper that can be drawn out into a fine wire. Durability The materials ability to resist wear and tear Fusibility The melting point of a material, i.e. when a solid changes to a liquid Malleability The ability of a metal to be worked without fracture; sheet lead is a very malleable metal Temper The degree of hardness in a metal Tenacity A materials ability to resist being pulled apart Thermal The amount a material expands when expansion heated.

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2.2.PIPE DESIGN 2.2.1.Design Considerations The design considerations involve topographic features of terrain, economic parameters, and fluid properties. The essential parameters for network sizing are the projection of residential, commercial, and industrial water demand; per capita water consumption; peak flow factors; minimum and maximum pipe sizes; pipe material; and reliability considerations. Another important design parameter is the selection of an optimal design period of a water distribution system. The water systems are designed for a predecided time horizon generally called design period. For a static population, the system can be designed either for a design period equal to the life of the pipes sharing the maximum cost of the system or for the perpetual existence of the water supply system. On the other hand, for a growing population or water demand, it is always economic to design the system in stages and restrengthen the system after the end of every staging period. The design period should be based on the useful life of the component sharing maximum cost, pattern of the population growth or increase in water demand, and discount rate. The reliability considerations are also important for the design of a water distribution system as there is a trade-off between cost of the system and system A safe supply of potable water is the basic necessity of mankind in the industrialized society, therefore water supply systems are the most important public utility. A colossal amount of money is spent every year around the world for providing or upgrading drinking water facilities. The major share of capital investment in a water supply system goes to the water conveyance and water distribution network. Nearly 80% to 85% of the cost of a water supply project is used in the distribution system; therefore,using rational methods for designing a water distribution system will result in considerable savings.

The design of the pipe is based on the provision of EBCS -9,1995 section 3.8.The sizes of the pipes and fittings used in water service 27

shall be such as will provide an adequate rate of water without recourse to wasteful over sizing. The installation shall be sized so that design flow rates given in EBCS9,1995 table 3.7 .The pipes and fittings shall also be sized so that the water velocity in any pipe dose not exceed those given in table 3.8. The amount of either hot or cold water used in any building is variable, depending on the type of occupancy and time of day. Optimum pipe sizes shall be designed to meet peak demand. b.Flow of Appliances, Loading units and Design Flows A demand rate and corresponding loading unit for various appliancesis specified in table 3.9 in which the loading values Z are given. Z=(q/o.25),where q the flow rate of appliances in l/s. The constant is based up on by granting a flow rate of 0.25 l/s a unit load. The probable design flow, Q =0.25 (Z1+Z2+Zn) c.Minimum Pressure Minimum fairly constant residual pressure at the point of outlet discharge shall not be less than 0.2Kg/cm for all appliances except for flash valves and special equipment. 2.2.2 Diameter determination The pipe entering the house usually has an inside diameter of 1 or 1.25 inch. For our case we use 1.25inches.Soon after the main line enter the house, the pipe reduces to 3/4inch.Pipes that carry water to rooms throughout the house have an inside diameter of 1/2inch.Pipes that supply water to each fixture are usually -inch inside diameter to the shut of the valve and then 1/4-inch inside diameter to the fixture.

The pipe flow is analyzed by using the continuity equation and the equation of motion. The continuity equation for steady flow in a circular pipe of diameter D is Q=( D2/4)*V, where V is average velocity of flow, and Q= volumetric rate of flow, called discharge. A water distribution system is the pipe network that distributes water from the source to the consumers. It is the pipeline laid along the streets with connections to residential, commercial, and industrial taps. The flow and pressure in distribution systems are maintained either through gravitational energy gained through the elevation difference between source and supply point or through pumping energy.

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Sound engineering methods and practices are required to distribute water in desired quantity, pressure, and reliably from the source to the point of supply. The challenge in such designs should be not only to satisfy functional requirements but also to provide economic solutions. The water distribution systems are designed with a number of objectives, which include functional, economic, reliability, water quality preservation, and future growth considerations. Water distribution systems receive water either from single- or multiple-input sources to meet water demand at various withdrawal points. This depends upon the size of the total distribution network, service area, water demand, and availability of water sources to be plugged in with the distribution system. A water distribution system is called a single-input source water system if it receives water from a single water source; on the other hand, the system is defined as a multi-input source system if it receives water from a number of water sources. The water distribution systems are either branched or looped systems. Branched systems have a tree-like pipe configuration. It is like a tree trunk and branch structure, where the tree trunk feeds the branches and in turn the branches feed subbranches. The water flow path in branched system pipes is unique, thus there is only one path for water to flow from source to the point of supply (tap). The looped systems have pipes that are interconnected throughout the system such that the flow to a demand node can be supplied through several connected pipes. The flow direction in a looped system can change based on spatial or temporal variation in water demand, thus the flow direction in the pipe can vary based on the demand pattern. Hence, unlike the branched network, the flow directions in looped system pipes are not unique. The water distribution design methods based on cost optimization have two approaches: (a) continuous diameter approach (b) discrete diameter approach or commercial diameter approach. In the continuous diameter approach, the pipe links are calculated as continuous variables, and once the solution is obtained, the nearest commercial sizes are adopted. On the other hand, in the discrete diameter approach, commercially available pipe diameters are directly applied in the design methodology. In this project, discrete diameter approach will be introduced for the design of a branched water distribution system. Common Code Requirements Here are some commonly required code issues that are applicable virtually nationwide:

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_ Venting: Plumbing fixtures need venting to work properly. You need to determine whether you need to install a new vent stack or can simply revent the current one. _ Fixture placement: Fixtures cant be placed too close together. This requirement is more critical in the bathroom, where space is already limited. Here are the minimum space requirements for toilets and tubs: 15 inches between the center of the toilet and the side wall or sink; 1 inch between the toilet tank and the wall; 18 inches between the bathtub and other fixtures. _ Pipe sizes: The correct size pipes must be used for drains, supplies, and vents. Check your local code for the minimum requirement in your area. Also, find out what type of pipes are accepted in your area for drain lines and water supplies. _ Plastic pipe connections: PVC is so widely accepted that youre likely to use it for repairing or reworking your existing system. PVC pipe joints must be primed and glued to last. And if you dont prime, the joint will eventually leak!

2.3 Sanitary Systems(plumbing second edition)

2.3.1. Types of systems There are four types of systems in use today and these are: Primary ventilated stack systems Stub stack and systems using air-admittance valves Ventilated discharge branch systems Secondary modified ventilated stack systems. All these systems can be installed either inside or outside the building. 1.Primary ventilated stack system You are most likely to install this type of system in the majority of domestic dwelling situations. There are limitations to the minimum pipe sizes, maximum lengths of the branch connections and their gradients. These can be summarised as shown in Table below.
Pipe size Slope (mm) Max Length (m)

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Pipesize MaxLengthSlope(mm)(m) Basin 32 1.7 1880 mm fall per m run

Basin 32 Bath *Shower WC

1.7

40 50 100

1880 mm fall per m run 3.0 4.0 6.0

1990 1890 18 h mm/m min

In this system you should have the appliances grouped closely together. There is some flexibility, however. For example, if you did install a shower with a 50mm waste it could be located up to 4 m away from the stack as opposed to 3 m if using 40 mm pipe. The size of the branch pipes should always be at least the same diameter as the trap. Branch connections The location of a branch pipe in a stack should not cause cross flow into another branch pipe (cross flow happens when two branches are located opposite to each other). Cross flow can be prevented by working on the following details. You might find on some installations that it is easier to run the kitchen sink waste pipe into a gulley rather than pipe to the stack. This is allowed as long as the pipe end finishes between the grating or sealing plate and the top of the water seal. These branch connection principles also apply to the ventilated discharge branch and secondary ventilated stack systems mentioned a little later. 2. Stub Stack and Systems Using Air-Admittance Valves i.Stub stacks When a group of appliances or a WC on a ground floor is connected directly to an underground drain, a stub stack of 110 mm diameter pipe can be used. Ventilation is necessary if the distance from the highest appliance connection to the stack to the invert of the drain is in excess of 2 m, or if the distance from the crown of the WC connection to the invert of the drain is in excess of 1.3 m. ii.Use of air-admittance valves An air-admittance valve is a means of adding ventilation to the drainage system, preventing the loss of water seals in traps and consequent release of foul air into the building. Other ventilated stack systems Where the requirements described earlier in the primary ventilated stack system can be met, separate ventilation will not be needed. On some larger domestic properties this is not always possible . The alternative is to install separate ventilation pipe work. This can be done in two ways: 3 Ventilating each appliance into a second stack the ventilated discharge branch system 4 Directly ventilating the waste stack secondary ventilated stack system. In the secondary ventilated system only the main discharge stack is 31

ventilated. This arrangement will prevent any pressure fluctuations, either negative or positive. Branch ventilation pipes rules The branch vent pipe must not be connected to the discharge stack below the spillover level of the highest fitting served The minimum size of a vent pipe to a single appliance should be 25 mm. If it is longer than a 15 m run or serves more than one appliance, then it is 32 mm minimum. The main venting stack should be at least 75 mm. This also applies to the dry part of the primary vented stack system. General discharge stack requirements An external stack would be terminated and a terminal should be fitted to prevent the possibility of bird nesting. A vent cowl could be fitted where the stack is sited in exposed windy conditions. Traps Traps are mainly manufactured in plastic (polypropylene to BS 3943), although they are also available in copper or brass/chrome plated brass for use on copper pipe work, where a more robust installation is required. Most trap fitting connections are either push-fit or compression-type. Trap specifications Where a trap diameter is 50 mm or above, a trap seal of 50 mm is required. This is because the size of the pipe means it is unlikely to discharge at full bore which is one of the two causes for the loss of trap seal. If the discharge pipe from the trap runs into a gulley or hopper head, a seal of 38 mm is allowed; the gap between the gulley and the pipe provides an air break should the trap loosen its seal, thus no smell can enter the building. A summary of the depth of trap seal is given in the Table below
Appliance Diameter of trap (mm) Depth of seal (mm of water)

Wash basin 32 75 Bidet Bath shower 40 50 Food waste disposal sink 40 75 Washing machine 40 75 Dish washer WC pan outlet Below 80mm 75 50 Above 80mm 100 50 The size of the trap is also governed by the size of the waste pipe it is connected to. Table below gives the minimum size of the waste

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fitting and trap. Type of appliance

Waste fitting size (in)

Discharge pipe and trap size

(mm) Sinks, showers, baths, . 112 .40 washing machines and urinals Washbasins, bidets,.114 .. 32 drinking fountains and trough urinals Stall and slab urinal. 212 ..65 Page 222 2.3.2 Septic Tank Design The septic tank design is based on the provisions of EBCS-9, sec6.8.2. Assuming the number of the total population to be 500, p=500 Water consumption =80per head per day (l/day)Table3.3 Hydraulic detention time=1 day (min) Sludge production=0.15 l Number of days between de sludging=360 days (min) The capacity of septic tank (V) is given by V = sed * P * q * 10 3 + vl * ac * P * 10 3 .equ 7.3 Where V=capacity of septic tank (in m3) sed = Hydraulic detention time P=Number of population vl= sludge production Assuming that two septic tanks to be provided and substituting the above values in the equation give V = 1d * 250 * 80l * 10 3 + 0.15l * 360d * 250 * 10 3 = 33.5m 3 using two compartment rectangular septic tank, the capacity of the first and second partitions as specified in ebcs,91995. 2 1 V1 * Vtotal and V2 * Vtotal 3 3 2 1 V1 * 33.5m 3 22.4m 3 and V2 * 33.5m 3 11.2m 3 3 3 now assume v1=30m3 and v2=15m3 and let l1 to be the length of the first compartment and w2 be the width of second compartment. as specified in ebcs, 9-1995 l12*w2 and minimum depth not less than 1.2m. so using h=1.5m and w1=w2 shows v1=l1*w1*h1 v1=2*w2*w2*h1 = 2w2*1.5m=3w2 33

30m3=3w2 w2=3.16m, use w=3,5m and L2 =

l12*w22*3.5m=7m

V2 15m 3 = = 2.86m so use l2=3m W 2 * H 2 3 .5 m * 1 .5 m

the floor of the first compartment should be sloped at 1:4 to facilitate desludging, this leads to the additional depth say, y Y = 0.25 y=1.75m L1 Providing inlet @ 500mm below the top water level and the outlet point RISER DIGRAM DRAINAGE FOR WATER SUPPLY & WASTE WATER

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