DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION

MODEL
MODEL: simplified version of the real system, by which the behavior of the real system can be approximately but yet representatively simulated.

THEORETICAL MODEL

Set of simplifying assumptions

MASS BALANCE EQUATIONS:

for the considered extensive quantities extensive quantities to the significant state variables of the problem

FLOW EQUATIONS: relate the MATHEMATICAL MODEL

STATE EQUATIONS: define the INITIAL AND BOUNDARY

behavior of the components of the system CONDITIONS: must be defined after the domain geometry has been established

MODEL SOLUTIONS
MODEL COEFFICIENTS:
the transport coefficients of the considered extensive quantities

REAL SYSTEM

MATHEMATICAL MODEL
SOLUTIONS OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL
NUMERICAL METHOD

Preferable for the ease of applicability of the solutions

ANALYTICAL METHOD

Needed in the case of: non linearity of the equations which constitute the model complexity of the boundary conditions, etc.

FLOW PROBLEM Number of phases

single phase (kass) multiphase (krel) compressible (liquid) very compressible (gas) monodimensional bidimensional (radial flow) tridimentional steady state flow pseudo-steady state flow transient flow

Nature of fluids

Geometry

Hydraulic regime

BASIC EQUATIONS
CONTINUITY EQUATION

( ) ( v ) = t
STATE EQUATIONS
Liquid Real Gas

= 0 e c (p p 0 )
= Mp zRT

FLOW EQUATIONS
(gravity effects are neglected)

Laminar flow (Darcy)

Turbulent flow (Forchheimer)

p = v + v 2 k

v =

k p

DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION
MONOPHASIC FLOW THROUGH A OF A SLIGHTLY COMPRESSIBLE FLUID (LIQUID) AND ISOTROPIC POROUS MEDIUM. HOMOGENEOUS

PRESSURE GRADIENTS ARE SMALL AND DARCYS LAW APPLIES:

c t p 1 p p = = k t t
2

DIFFUSIVITY CONSTANT

k = c t

MONOPHASIC FLOW: in the case of oil flow, water saturation is

equal to the irreducible value Swi, and pressure is always higher than the bubble point pressure; in the case of water flow the oil saturation is equal to the residual value Sor

PRESSURE PROFILE
9 Each time the well production is modified (i.e. rate change) a pressure
disturbance starts to propagate in the reservoir.

9 The DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION describes how this pressure disturbance

evolves within the reservoir.

AVERAGE PRESSURE
AVERAGE PRESSURE: the representative reservoir pressure at which the pressure-dependent parameters in the material balance equations should be evaluated.

1 p = V

pdV

VOLUME AVERAGED RESERVOIR PRESSURE

MEASUREMENT OF AVERAGE PRESSURE

Theoretically: the average pressure could be measured in the wellbore under static conditions if the well (or the field) had been shut in for an infinitely long time so as to allow the reservoir pressure to reach equilibrium. In practice: the average pressure can be determined from buildup tests.

Infinite Acting Radial Flow (I.A.R.F.)

HYPOTESIS: constant thickness of the producing layer, and
wellbore open to production across the entire layer thickness. Therefore, the fluid flow is horizontal.

RADIAL FLOW EQUATIONS

Transient flow

2p 1 p c t p + = 2 r r r k t

Van Everdingen-Hurst SOLUTIONS to diffusivity equation

CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE : Rate of water influx=const for t calculation of pressure drop CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURE: boundary pressure drop=const for t calculation of water influx rate

WATER ENCROACHMENT
rw rw

Van EverdingenHurst Model

Carter-Tracy Model

VAN EVERDINGEN-HURST SOLUTION

2p 1 p c t p + = r 2 r r k t
Initial and boundary conditions:

t = 0

p = pi r = rw r = re

r p(rw , t ) = p i p w = cos t re p ( r , t ) p = = i e rw p re = 0 rw r

t > 0

VAN EVERDINGEN-HURST AQUIFER

Dimensionless water influx
re Q t , D r w

Dimensionless time

tD =

kt 2 w c t r w

Dimensionless radius

re rD = r w

Cumulative Water encroachment:

re We = B p wQ t , D r w
where B: water influx constant

2 B = 2 c t r w h
2 B = 2 c t r w hf f =

360

FUNCTION Q(re/rw,tD)

Water Influx, Q

Dimensionless Time, tD

CARTER-TRACY AQUIFER
The Carter-Tracy solution is not an exact solution to the diffusivity equation, it is an approximation

Condition: CONSTANT WATER INFLUX RATE

over each finite time interval.

(W e )n

= (W e )n 1 +

[(t D )n (t D )n 1 ]

B p n (W e )n 1 (p ' D )n (p D )n (t D )n 1 (p ' D )n

Where : B=Van Everdingen-Hurst water influx constant n=current time step n-1=previous time step pn=total pressure drop, pi-pn pD=dimensionless pressure pD=dimensionless pressure derivative

PRODUCTION DRIVE MECHANISMS

OIL RECOVERY
Traditionally, oil recovery was subdivided into three stages which described the production from a reservoir in a chronological sense:

Primary recovery production due to energy naturally

existing in a reservoir

Secondary recovery water flooding (and gas injection) for

pressure maintenance

Tertiary recovery processes that use miscible gas,

chemicals, and/or thermal energy to displace additional oil after secondary recovery processes become uneconomical However, many reservoir production operations are not conducted in the specified order. Thus, the designation of

Enhanced Oil Recovery became more accepted instead of the

term tertiary recovery in the petroleum engineering literature.

DRIVE MECHANISMS
DEPLETION DRIVE (GAS):
reservoir with constant porous volume gas recovery: 80-90% GOIP

DEPLETION DRIVE (OIL):

undersaturated oil reservoir with constant porous volume source of energy: expansion of solution gas oil recovery: 2-5% OOIP

DISSOLVED GAS DRIVE:

saturated oil reservoir oil recovery: 15-20% OOIP
Decreasing of pressure: p< pb Gas liberation and expansion. Sg<Scg : gas is unmovable Sg>Scg : gas is movable

Decreasing of oil production: Gas expansion force oil out of the pore space decreasing So ko o (qoko/o ) increasing GOR

DISSOLVED GAS DRIVE: MULTI-PHASE FLOW

T = constant

pb

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

GAS SATURATION

Oil

qo = qg =

ko oBo kg gBg

A A

( ) ( )
dp dr

dp dr

Gas

DRIVE MECHANISMS
GAS CAP DRIVE:
oil reservoir with initial gas cap pressure must fall slowly in order to favor gas cap drive compare to

depletion drive as greater recovery is obtained as it is liberated

source of energy: expansion of the gas cap, and expansion of solution gas oil recovery: 25-30% OOIP

WATER DRIVE:
oil reservoir with active aquifer water drive supports totally or partially the reservoir pressure that tends

to decrease due to production

water moves into the pore spaces originally occupied by oil, replacing the

oil and displacing it to the producing wells.

source of energy: expansion of the aquifer oil recovery: 40% OOIP

MATERIAL BALANCE

Reserves Evaluation: Material Balance

Material Balance Evaluation (MBE) is based on production history data

Nremaining = Ninitial - Nremoved

INPUT
pressure and production histories, PVT

MBE

OUTPUT
reserve evaluation and drive mechanism identification

MBE can be written in terms of volumes but, because volumes vary with pressure, they must be referred at the same conditions (i.e. standard or stock tank conditions). MBE (or Schilthuis equation) expresses the concept that in the reservoir the algebraic sum of volume variations of oil, gas and water must be null. The reservoir is considered as a system described by overall parameters, i.e. by total volumes of oil, gas and water and by the values of the average pressure (pav) and average saturation at each moment. This assumption is equivalent to consider the reservoir at equilibrium.

Material Balance
Because of production, the reservoir pressure decreases from the initial value pi until the average pressure value pav

PRODUCED FLUIDS
The removed fluids brought back in the reservoir must occupy the volume invaded by the remaining fluids due to the effect of p

ORIGINAL RESERVOIR SYSTEM AT INITIAL PRESSURE pi

EXPANSION

p = pi p av

Material Balance vs Numerical Simulation

NO GEOLOGICAL MODEL IS NEDEED PRODUCTION DATA PRESSURE DATA PVT DATA

THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL IS NEDEED PRODUCTION DATA PETROPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS PVT DATA

MATERIAL BALANCE

Hydrocarbons originally in place Drive mechanism

SIMULATION

Pressure values Saturation values

a) Gas reservoirs

Gas Reservoir with Constant Porous Volume

GP = G GR

G=

Vp (1 Swi ) Bgi

GR =

Vp (1 Swi ) Bg

Vp (1 Swi ) = GBgi

GP = G

Vp (1 Swi ) Bg

= G

GBgi Bg

GP =

G(Bg Bgi ) Bg

Methods for gas reserves evaluation

G(Bg Bgi ) Bg

p/z METHOD

GP =

Bgi = G1 zi p GP = G 1 z pi Bg

zi pi p GP = G pi zi z
G= Vp (1 Swi ) Bgi Vp (1 Swi ) = zi psc T pi Tsc

Vp (1 Swi ) pi p GP = psc zi z T Tsc

 p p pi T sc GP = z zi Tsc Vp (1 Swi )

y = a bx

p z

p z

pi zi

Possible uncertainty

GP

GP

1. Water-drive Gas Reservoirs

p z pi zi

Tsc 1 zi p p GP = G 1 + W e z pi z psc T

Gwrong GP
Gas is trapped behind the forehead water that is moving forward GWC Sgr Sw = 1-Sgr Sw = 1 Swi Sg = 1-Swi

original GWC

In the presence of water drive, the production of gas must be accelerated to maximize recovery so as to evacuate the gas before the less mobile water can catch-up and trap significant quantities of gas behind the advancing flood front.

krw 0.2 M = w = 0.4 0.01 krg 0.9 0.02 g

THE GAS CAN MOVE 100 TIMES FASTER THAN WATER BY WHICH IT IS BEING DISPLACED

RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION BEHIND THE WATER FRONT

Sgr = 0.3 - 0.4

2. Anomalous initial pressure Reservoirs

c ge = c g (1 S wi ) + c w S w + c f 1 S wi cg
compressibility

1 1 dz cg = p z dp

cg

cge cg

cf

only when pressure decreases

cw

p z

pi zi

Overpressured f(ce)

Gas compressibility predominates f(cg)

GP

Methods for gas reserves evaluation RAMAGOST-FARSHAD METHOD

Hp: 1) constant effective formation compressibility 2) limited water drive

GP =

G (B g B gi ) Bg
zi pi pi p z z i

GP = G

Accounting for the effective or equivalent formation compressibility:

ce =

S wi c w + c f 1 S wi

p z

c w S wi + c f 1 1S wi

p i p iG p (p i p ) = z z G i i

Assuming:

p y = z

c w S wi + c f 1 1 S wi

(p i p )
slope = pi z iG

x = Gp
p/z or p/z(1-pce)

int ercept =
p/z method

pi zi

Ramagost-Farshad method GOIP Gwrong

Gp

Methods for gas reserves evaluation American Gas Association (AGA) METHOD
GP = G(Bg Bgi ) Bg
z p z zi p pi

G=

GpB g Bg Bgi

Gp

pi ppi zi zz G G= Gp i = ppi pi p p z zi zzi zi z p pi z p

pi p pi Gp = zi z zi G

pi pi p zi log = log + log Gp z z G i

pi p log z z i
45

y =a+x

G G

pi z i log G
log Gp

Methods for gas reserves evaluation MB equation linearization METHOD

GP = G(Bg Bgi ) Bg

BgGP = G(Bg Bgi )

BgGP

y = ax

(Bg Bgi )

Recovery factor
B gi zi p GP = 1 = 1 z pi G Bg
RECOVERY IS A FUNCTION OF: Initial pressure of reservoir Pressure drop due to the production Chemical composition of gas

RECOVERY IS INDEPENDENT FROM TIME

Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs

GP = G GR
GP = G GB gi (We WpB w ) Bg
We IS THE WATER ENCROACHMENT

Van Everdingen-Hurst equation:

2 W e = 2 rw h c w, e p

re Q t , w D r w

We = f (B, tc, pw, aquifer geometry)

B = AQUIFER STRENGTH (CONSTANT)

tc = CHARACTERISTIC TIME

2 B = 2 hc w, e r w

tc

2 c t r w = k

pw pressure difference at inner radius of the aquifer

Havlena-Odeh Method
GP = G GB gi (We WpB w ) Bg

GPB g = GB g GB gi + We WpB w GPBg + WpB w = G(Bg Bgi ) + We

or

F = GEg+We

GPBg + WpBw (Bg Bgi )

or

= G+

We (Bg Bgi )

W F = G+ e Eg Eg

GPB g + WpB w (B g B gi )
F Eg

STRONG AQUIFER MODERATE AQUIFER

G
GOIP

VOLUMETRIC DEPLETION

Gp
Havlena-Odeh method allows identification of the driving mechanism: if We=0: volumetric depletion; estimate of G if the (F/Eg) plot is a concave downward shaped arc: water drive if the production rate is constant, the aquifer strength can be qualitatively assessed

Methods for gas reserves evaluation HAVLENA-ODEH METHOD

GP = G GBgi (We WpBw ) Bg = G+ We (Bg Bgi )
CORRECT MATCH

GPBg + WpBw (Bg Bgi ) GPBg + WpBw (Bg Bgi )

AQUIFER TOO WEAK

45

AQUIFER TOO STRONG

We + (Bg Bgi )

Recovery factor
Gp G
Gp G

=1

Bgi Bg

1 (We WpBw ) GBg

=1

zi p 1 p Tsc 1 + (We WpB w ) z pi G z psc T

RECOVERY IS A FUNCTION OF: Initial pressure of reservoir Pressure drop due to the production Chemical composition of gas Time (through We)

Drive Index equation

G(Bg Bgi ) GpBg We WpB w GpBg

=1

1 Drive Index

WDI

DDI

b) Oil reservoirs

Undersaturated-Oil Reservoir with Constant Porous Volume

NP = N NR
N= Vp (1 Swi ) Boi

Vp (1 Swi) = NBoi

Vp (1 Swi ) Vw Vf NP = N B B B o o o
NB Vw Vf NP = N oi Bo
1 V V p
Vw = c w VpSw p V = cVp

c=

Vf = c f Vp p

NBoi c w VpSwip c f Vp p NP = N B o
NPBo = NBo [NBoi Vp (c wSwi + c f )p]

NPBo = NBo NBoi +

NBoi (c wSwi + c f )p 1 Swi NBoi (c wSwi + c f )p 1 Swi

1 V V p

NPBo = N(Bo Boi ) +

c=

Vp (1 Swi ) = NBoi

co =

1 NBoi NBo NBoi p

Bo Boi = c oBoip NPBo = Nc oBoip + NBoi (c wSwi + c f )p 1 Swi

c wSwi + c f NPBo = NBoi c o + p 1 S wi c o (1 Swi) + c wSwi + c f NPBo = NBoi p 1 S wi

c o,e

NPBo = NBoic o,e p

p = pi p

NP =

NB oic o,e (pi p) Bo

GOR = R s = cos t

Gp = R sNp

So = 1 Sw

Methods for oil reserves evaluation

NPB o = NB oic o,e p

y = Nx

NPBo

Boico,e (pi p)

Recovery factor
B NP = oi c o , e (p i p ) N Bo
RECOVERY IS A FUNCTION OF: Reservoir Initial pressure Pressure drop due to production Equivalent compressibility ( 10-5 psi-1) of oil

Saturated-Oil Reservoirs with Constant Porous Volume

GP = G GR
NBoi (N NP )Bo GP = NRSi (N NP )RS + B g
GAS DISSOLVED IN OIL FREE GAS

CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION RATIO

RP

GP = NP

NPR PB g = NR SiB g (N NP )R SB g NB oi + (N NP )B o NP (R PB g R SB g + B o ) = N(R SiB g R SB g B oi + B o )

NP [Bo + Bg (RP RS )] = N[Bo Boi + Bg (RSi RS )]

y = Nx

NP [Bo + Bg (RP RS )]

Bo Boi + Bg(RSi RS )

Combined Gas-Cap Drive and Water Drive Saturated-Oil Reservoirs

General equation:

GP = NR Si + m

NB oi + B gi

NB oi + mNB oi (N NP )B o We WpB w (N NP )R S + Bg Bg

SATURATIONS
1 GAS OIL 2 3 4 Swi Sg=1-Swi So=0 Swi Sor,g Sg =1- Sor,g-Swi Swi So Sg =1- So-Swi WATER 4 Sg 0 Sor,w Sw =1- Sor,w Sw =1 So=0 Sg =0 Sor,g Sor,w 5

Reservoir Pressure Decline

AVERAGE PRESSURE / INITIAL PRESSURE (%)

PRODUCED OIL / OOIP

(%)

GOR

GOR

(Mcf/bbl)

PRODUCED OIL/OOIP

(%)

PRODUCTION DRIVE MECHANISM IDENTIFICATION

F = N(E

+ mE

+ E fw ) + W e

F = N P [B o + B g (R P R S )] + WP B w

Eo = Bo Boi + Bg(RSi R S )

B oi (B g B gi ) Eg = B gi

Boi Efw = (1 + m) (cwSwi + cf ) p (1 Swi)

when m=0

F + E

fw

STRONG AQUIFER MODERATE AQUIFER

N
OOIP

VOLUMETRIC DEPLETION

Np