I

norganic acids play a major role

in the chemical process industries
(CPI). They are used as raw ma-
terials, catalysts or finishing and
pH control agents in the manufacture
of a wide range of chemical products,
from fertilizers to detergents, and
even foods. Given their widespread
use, a major issue in the CPI is the
proper and safe handling of the acids,
the adequate materials selection for
the pieces of equipment, piping and
fittings used in the process, and the
correct storage and even disposal of
these materials.
These are important factors that
need to be taken into account from the
design phase throughout the operat-
ing life of a facility, in order to ensure
there will not be integrity problems
that may negatively impact project
economical turnover, personnel safety
or the environment.
This article covers the most im-
portant inorganic acids: sulfuric acid
(H
2
SO
4
), nitric acid (HNO
3
), phos-
phoric acid (H
3
PO
4
), hydrogen chloride
(HCl) and hydrochloric acid, and hydro-
gen fluoride (HF) and hydrofluoric acid;
providing general guidelines on their
physical properties, safety data, ap-
propriate materials, storage, pumping
and other common issues encountered
when handling such fluids in the CPI.
Physical properties
Some acids are naturally present as
liquids (H
2
SO
4
), some are solids at am-
bient conditions (anhydrous H
3
PO
4
),
and others are gases (HCl, HF). Acids
are very soluble in water and thus also
widely available as aqueous solutions
at different concentrations. Some of
these solutions are also enhanced by
dissolving additional compounds (for
example, fuming sulfuric acid is made
by dissolving SO
3
in sulfuric acid).
Given that there are several avail-
able grades, the knowledge of physi-
cal properties for each one is impor-
tant in order to avoid freezing, the
formation of hazardous fumes, or
other problems when storing and
handling these materials. The physi-
cal properties of the acids covered in
this article are briefly presented here.
These properties for common avail-
able grades are presented in Table 1.
Figure 1 plots their vapor pressures
at different temperatures.
Sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is the
single most important inorganic
chemical in tonnage produced and in
use. H
2
SO
4
, can be described as a col-
orless, oily, hygroscopic liquid with no
odor; it is the largest inorganic chemi-
cal manufactured and one of the most
widely used inorganic chemical in the
manufacture of many other products.
By the year 2004, North America and
Asia were the biggest producers of
sulfuric acid, recording almost 60% of
world total production. Sulfuric acid
Feature Report
26 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012
Cover Story
Alberto Baumeister
Sebastiano Giardinella
Mayhell Coronado
Ecotek
General guidelines
on materials, storage,
pumping and other
concerns for the
proper and safe
handling of acids
Acids Handling
100.00
Acid vapor pressure versus temperature
10.00
1.00
0.10
0.01
-150 -50 50 150
Temperature, C
V
a
p
o
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
250 350
HCl (pure)
HF (pure)
HCl (34 wt.%)
HNO
3
(100 wt.%)
HNO
3
(90 wt.%)
HNO
3
(70 wt.%)
H
2
SO
4
(70 wt.%)
H
2
SO
4
(80 wt.%)
H
2
SO
4
(100 wt.%)
H
2
SO
4
(98 wt.%)
FIGURE 1. The vapor pressure as a function of temperature for the acids covered in
this article
is manufactured by the combustion of
sulfur with dry air to form sulfur diox-
ide (SO
2
), then sulfur trioxide (SO
3
) is
produced through a catalytic conver-
sion. Finally, sulfuric acid is obtained
after absorption of SO
3
in water.
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid and a
strong oxidizing agent; therefore it re-
acts violently with bases, combustible,
reducing materials, water and organic
compounds with the evolution of heat.
It is highly corrosive to most common
metals and forms a flammable/explo-
sive gas.
Sulfuric acid is mostly used in the
manufacturing of fertilizers, organic
pigments, explosives and more. As a
strong electrolyte it is used in electro-
plating baths for pickling, and for op-
erations in the production of iron and
steel. Moreover, it is extensively used
as a solvent for ores and as a catalyst
in the petroleum industry.
Nitric acid. HNO
3
is a solution of ni-
trogen dioxide (NO
2
) in water; it is a
colorless to light-brown fuming liquid
with an acrid suffocating odor. Nitric
acid is the second most important in-
dustrial acid; it is a highly oxidizing
agent, used in the manufacture of
chemicals, explosives, fertilizers, steel
pickling and metal cleaning. However,
the largest use for nitric acid is for the
production of fertilizers.
Nitric acid is a strong acid that re-
acts violently in the presence of strong
bases, reducing agents and combusti-
ble fluids, such as turpentine, charcoal
and alcohol. It is corrosive to metals,
forming flammable or explosive gas.
Nitric acid also reacts violently with
organic compounds.
Phosphoric acid. H
3
PO
4
or or-
thophosphoric acid is a white solid
with a melting point of 42C, which is
highly soluble in water, non-toxic and
a relatively weak acid.
H
3
PO
4
is the third most important
acid in industry. It is used mostly in
the production of phosphate fertiliz-
ers; but also in the manufacturing of
agricultural feeds, soaps, detergents,
waxes; and in the food industry as pre-
servative, acidifier, clarifier or flavor
enhancer; among other uses.
H
3
PO
4
has two main methods of pro-
duction: the wet process and electric
furnace. It is commercially available
at concentrations of 75, 80, 85 and 87
wt.% of PO
3
. Higher concentrations,
such as 105 wt.% (superphosphoric)
and 115 to 118 wt.% (polyphosphoric)
are also available. Pure or techni-
cal grade phosphoric acid is usually
found at 85 wt.%.
Hydrogen chloride and hydrochlo-
ric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a solu-
tion of the gas hydrogen chloride; it is
a poisonous, highly corrosive, hazard-
ous liquid that reacts with most met-
als to form explosive hydrogen gas. Its
appearance varies from pale yellow to
colorless, according to purity.
Hydrochloric acid has many appli-
cations in the production of organic
and inorganic compounds such as fer-
tilizers, chlorides, dyes and more. HCl
plays an important role in pickling
of steel, acid treatment of oil wells,
chemical cleaning and processing, and
ore reduction among others.
When boiling all aqueous solutions,
HCl forms an azeotropic constant-
boiling mixture that contains 20.24%
HCl and boils at 110C (230F).
Hydrogen fluoride and hydroflu-
ric acid. Anhydrous hydrogen fluo-
ride (AHF) is a clear, colorless, corro-
sive fuming liquid with an extremely
sharp odor. It easily dissolves in water
to form hydrofluoric acid.
HF forms dense white vapor clouds
if released. Both liquid and vapor can
cause severe burns to all parts of the
body. Specialized medical treatment is
required for all exposures.
HF occurs naturally in volcanic
gases and may result from industrial
activities, such as coal-burning, and
the manufacture or production of alu-
minum, phosphate fertilizer, steel and
other chemical derivatives.
Commercially, HF is used to man-
ufacture fluoropolymers, pharma-
ceuticals, aluminum, stainless steel,
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012 27
TABLE 1. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS [15]
Units H
2
SO
4
H
3
PO
4
HNO
3
HF HCl
CAS Number 7664-93-9
7664-
38-7
7697-37-2 7664-39-3 7647-01-0
Molecular
weight
g/gmol 98.079 97.994 63.01 20.01 36.46
Grade
Concen-
trated
Fertilizer Tower
Fuming,
65%
oleum
Pure WFNA Strong Common
Gas (an-
hydrous)
Aqueous Aqueous
Gas (an-
hydrous)
Aqueous
Aqueous.
Technical
Grade
22Be
Concentra-
tion
wt.% 98 7880 6270
35 H
2
SO
4
,
65 SO
3
7585 100 90 68 100 4851 40 100 50 33
Physical
state
Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Solid Liquid Liquid Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid
Color Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless
Odor Odorless Odorless Odorless Odorless Odorless
Pungent
odor
Pungent
odor
Disagree-
able (can
cause
choking)
Pungent
odor
Acrid
Odor
Acrid odor
Pungent
odor
Pungent
odor
Pungent
odor
Boiling point
(760 mmHg)
C 340 200 155.85 151.1 212.8 86 120.5 121 20 108 112.2
F
85 100 83
Vapor density
(air = 1)
3.4 3.4 2.2 2.5
D
0.7 1.97 1.3 0.62 1.267
Specific grav-
ity (H
2
O=1)
1.83 1.72 1.57 1.56 1.87 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.17 1.14 1.03 1.16
Liquid
density (at
20C)
g/mL 1.8361 1.7272
B
1.6105
C
1.5533 1.579
A
1.5129 1.4826 1.4048 1.202 1.159 1.251 1.164
Melting point C 10.5 4.29 36.55 36.98 42.2 42 41.6 83 40 62 114 46.2
Dynamic
viscosity (at
20C)
cP 20.5 6.5 3.52 2.68
E
2
Notes:
A
Liquid Density of phosphoric acid at 75%
B
Liquid

density of sulfuric acid at 80%
C
Liquid density of sulfuric acid at 70%
D
Vapor density of nitric acid at 65%
E
Dynamic viscosity obtained after extrapolation
F
Boiling point at 38.2%
Cover Story
28 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012
high-octane gasoline, electronics (mi-
crochips and printed circuit board
cleaning) and uranium isotopes. It is
also used to etch glass or metal.
Safety and emergency response
Because acids are mostly hazardous
chemicals, their toxicity levels and in-
compatibilities need to be taken into
account when storing and transport-
ing them, as well as how to respond in
the event of a spillage.
Permissible exposure limits (PEL) for
hazardous materials are given by the
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) regulations:
29 CFR 1910.1000, 29 CFR 1926.55
and 29 CFR 1915.1000 for the general,
construction and maritime industries,
respectively. Other toxicity levels, such
as the Recommended Exposure Limit
(REL) and Immediately Dangerous
to Life and Health Concentrations
(IDLH) are published in the U.S. Na-
tional Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards. The chemical
incompatibilities, health effects and
other concerns when handling or stor-
ing hazardous chemicals are also given
in the NIOSH Pocket Guide.
In the U.S., transportation of these
acids or other hazardous materials
is subject to the U.S. Department of
Transportation Pipeline and Hazard-
ous Materials Safety Transportation
regulations. Transportation of hazard-
ous materials in various forms (bulk,
pipeline or tank cars) is subject to
Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regula-
tions (49 CFR).
In the event of spills of these acids
or other hazardous materials, only
properly trained personnel such as
firemen and policemen (or properly
trained plant personnel) should be in-
volved in the emergency response and
containment of the product.
The Emergency Response Guide-
book 2008 (ERG2008) provides guide-
lines for managing emergencies when
hazardous chemicals are involved.
This guidebook is available in printed
form, and can also be downloaded in
convenient electronic form, includ-
ing applications for smart phone that
allow for quick searches of the chemi-
cals and their associated guides. A new
version of the Emergency Response
Guidebook is scheduled for release
this year (2012).
The chemical safety data for the
acids covered in this article, including
toxicity levels, incompatibilities and
emergency response guides are sum-
marized in Table 2.
Materials selection
The materials of construction, as well
as any lining or internal coating re-
quirements should be determined by a
materials expert based on the acid, its
concentration and storage conditions.
Aqueous acid solutions are very cor-
rosive, and usually require special ma-
terials depending on the temperature
or phase.
Some recommendations are given
regarding the correct material selec-
tion depending on acid, such as in the
following reference for H
2
SO
4
: NACE
RP0391 Materials for the Han-
dling and Storage of Concentrated
(90 to 100%) Sulfuric Acid at Ambient
Temperatures; HF: NACE 5A171
Materials for Storing and Handling
Commercial Grades of Aqueous Hy-
drofluoric Acid and Anhydrous Hydro-
gen Fluoride.
Depending on the acid and stor-
age, transport or process conditions,
interior coatings or linings could also
be considered. For instance, rail tank
cars transporting concentrated sulfu-
ric acid should be internally coated
according to NACE SP0592 Appli-
cation of a Coating System to Interior
Surfaces of New and Used Rail Tank
Cars in Concentrated (90 to 98%) Sul-
furic Acid Service.
TABLE 2. TOXICITY AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE DATA
H
2
SO
4
H
3
PO
4
HNO
3
HF HCl
PEL (OSHA)
[68]
1 mg/m
3
1 mg/m
3
TWA 2 ppm,
5 mg/m
3
TWA
3 ppm, 2 mg/m
3
TWA 5 ppm, 7 mg/m
3
ceiling
REL (NIOSH)
[9]
1 mg/m
3
TWA 1 mg/m
3
TWA;
3 mg/m
3
STEL
2 ppm,
5 mg/m
3
TWA;
4 ppm,
10 mg/m
3
STEL
3 ppm, 2.5 mg/m
3
TWA;
6 ppm, 5 mg/m
3
(15 min)
ceiling
5 ppm, 7 mg/m
3
ceiling
IDLH
(NIOSH) [9]
15 mg/m
3
1,000 mg/m
3
25 ppm 30 ppm 50 ppm
Incompat-
ibilities &
Reactivities
Organic materials, chlorates, carbides, fulminates,
water, powdered metals. Reacts with water to produce
heat. Corrosive to metals
Strong caustics, most
metals, Reacts with
metals to form H
2

gas. Do not mix with
solutions containing
bleach or ammonia
Combustible materi-
als, metallic powders,
hydrogen sulfide, car-
bides, alcohol. Reacts
with water to produce
heat. Corrosive to
metals
Metals, water or steam. Cor-
rosive to metals. Attacks glass
and concrete
Hydroxides, amines, alkalis,
copper, brass, zinc. Hydrochlo-
ric acid is highly corrosive to
most metals
UN Listing
Number
1830: sulfuric acid; sulfuric acid,
with more than 51% acid
1831: sulfuric acid, fuming; sul-
furic acid, fuming, with less than
30% free sulfur trioxide; sulfuric
acid, fuming, with not less than
30% free sulfur trioxide
1832: sulfuric acid, spent
2796: sulfuric
acid, with not
more than 51%
acid
1805: phosphoric
acid; phosphoric
acid, liquid; phos-
phoric acid, solid;
phosphoric acid,
solution
3453: phosphoric
acid, solid
2031: nitric acid,
other than red fuming
2032: nitric acid,
fuming; nitric acid,
red fuming
1052: hydro-
gen fluoride,
anhydrous
1790: hydro-
fluoric acid
1050: hydrogen
chloride, anhy-
drous
2186: hydrogen
chloride, refriger-
ated liquid
1789: hy-
drochloric
acid; hydro-
chloric acid,
solution
Emergency
Response
[10]
Guide 137 Guide 157 Guide 154 Guide 157 Guide 125 Guide 157 Guide 125 Guide 157
Notes: PEL: Permissible exposure limit REL: Recommended exposure limit IDLH: Immediately dangerous to life or health concentration
TWA: Total weighted average STEL: Short time exposure limit ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012 29
Tables 38 list some common metal
alloys used in the CPI, along with their
general acceptable use ranges (concen-
trations and temperatures) for each of
the acids covered in this article.
Storage tanks
Usually aboveground storage tanks
(ASTs) are used to store acid as they
facilitate accessibility to tanks and
ancillary equipment for inspection
and maintenance. The storage tank
should be sized for at least 50% more
volume than required.
Tanks for acid storage are usually
built of either metal (lined or non-
lined), or fiber reinforced plastic (FRP).
Metal tanks offer a higher durability,
and can also resist higher stresses or
impacts; whereas FRP tanks are eco-
nomical, usually chemically inert, and
can be a good alternative for low-vol-
ume, short storage times.
The mechanical design of tanks for
acid storage usually follows either of
the following codes:
API ST 650 WoIdod SfooI
Tanks for Oil Storage: for vertical
tanks with flat bottoms and oper-
ating pressures less than 0.14 barg
(2.5 psig)
API ST 620 Rocommondod
Rules of Construction of Large,
WoIdod, Low Prossuro Sforago
Tanks: for vertical tanks with flat
bottoms and operating pressures
between 0.14 barg and 1.03 barg
(2.5 psig and 15 psig)
ASM BPV Codo, Socf VIII, Iv 1:
for other operating pressures
Special design criteria, such as par-
ticular corrosion allowances or nozzle
design, are also considered in acid
sforago fanks oIfhor by spocIaI com-
pany or supplier criteria, or from pro-
fessional associations. For instance,
concentrated sulfuric acid tanks de-
sIgn shouId IoIIow NAC SP0294
osIgn, !abrIcafIon, and InspocfIon
of Storage Tank Systems for Concen-
trated Fresh and Process Sulfuric Acid
and Oleum at Ambient Temperatures.
Tanks should allow access to the
top nozzles and the vent system, and
offer an appropriate facility for sam-
pling. Periodically, it is necessary to
homogenize the contents of the tank,
because the acid that remains on the
surface establishes a vapor-liquid
equilibrium in which toxic and corro-
sive gases are released, so a recircula-
tion system is recommended.
Special attention should be given to
the acid physical properties in stor-
age to prevent freezing, high corrosion
rates or vaporization.
In general, corrosion rates increase
at higher temperatures, so acids
should be stored at the lowest pos-
sible temperature without freezing
the acid. Higher corrosion rates could
also result from heating of the metal
surfaces due to sun radiation, so the
tank exterior should be painted with
a radiation reflecting color, such as
white. Another regular measure to
maintain acids at an appropriate
temperature is coating the tank with
an adequate material such as vinyl-
based materials.
In places where the storage tem-
perature could be below the acid
freezing point, storage tanks and ves-
sels should be provided with heating
facilities, such as plate coils mounted
on the outside of the tank wall, or ex-
ternal heat exchangers connected to
TABLE 3. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, CLADDING & LINING [12]
Materials of
construction
H
2
SO
4
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys may be used to handle dilute (concentration below 10%) and concentrated
acid (above 98%). It suffers corrosion for handling sulfuric acid in a range of concentration
of 4095 %
Carbon steel
It can be used to handle concentrated sulfuric acid at ambient temperatures under static and
low-velocity condition. Corrosion resistance depends on temperature, acid concentration, iron
content and flowrates
Cast Iron
Alloys with 14.5% content of silicon have shown best resistance to corrosion for sulfuric acid
handling in all concentrations at temperatures up to the boiling point
Copper Copper and copper alloys are not suitable for sulfuric acid handling
Lead
It has shown high resistance to corrosion in sulfuric acid handling up to 70% concentration.
Although, this material is not recommended for pumps or valves
Nickel
Nickel 200 demonstrates good tolerance to sulfuric acid when it is handled at low or moder-
ate temperatures
Niobium
It can be used for handling sulfuric acid at concentrations below 95% under oxidizing condi-
tions
Gold
Exhibits excellent resistance to sulfuric acid up to 250C (480F) and is used when no corro-
sion can be tolerated
Platinum Resists sulfuric acid in all concentrations and temperatures
Palladium It is attacked by sulfuric acid in the presence of air
Rhodium In wrought or cast form rhodium is not recommended for handling sulfuric acid
Stainless steel
Concentrated sulfuric acid turns extremely corrosive in presence of 316 and 304 stainless
steels. The conventional austenitic grades show good resistance in dilute or highly concen-
trated acid at moderate temperatures
Zinc
It is slowly dissolved by dilute sulfuric acid; corrosion resistance depends on the concentra-
tion of the acid and the purity of the metal
TABLE 4. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, CLADDING & LINING [12]
Materials of
construction
H
3
PO
4
Aluminum
Aqueous solutions of phosphoric acid with concentration of 5 to 85% are highly corrosive
for alloys 1100. Consequently this material is not recommended for phosphoric acid han-
dling
Cast Iron
All cast irons can be considered to handle phosphoric acid; although the presence of
contaminants must be previously evaluated since it can provoke severe cases of corrosion.
High-silicon cast irons are ideal to manage phosphoric acid in all concentrations at any
temperature, no presences of fluoride ions (F
-
) are allowed
Copper
Copper and copper alloys can be used to manage pure phosphoric acid solutions in heat-
exchanger tubes, pipes and fittings. System impurities can accelerate the rate of corrosion
more than acid concentration
Lead
It is extensively used in the manufacture of phosphoric acid. It is highly resistant to corro-
sion
Nickel
Nickel alloys are appropriate for handling phosphoric acid. For dilute acid alloys 20Cb-3
and 825 are recommended; for concentrated acid at high temperatures alloy B-2 offers the
highest corrosion resistance
Niobium Resistant to corrosion for handling acid at temperatures below 100C in all concentrations
Silver
Resistant to corrosion for handling acid at temperatures between 160 and 200C in all
concentrations
Tantalum
Resistant to corrosion for handling acid at temperatures up to the boiling point in all con-
centrations in absence of fluoride ions (F

)
Stainless Steel
Conventional austenitic stainless steel has shown elevated corrosion resistance for all con-
centrations of phosphoric acid up to 65C (150F)
Cover Story
30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012
the tank. Internal heating coils are
not recommended, because excess
temperature in the coil walls acceler-
ates corrosion and could cause leaks.
Also, high-pressure steam is not rec-
ommended as a heating medium since
heat exchange surfaces could exceed
100C, causing severe corrosion.
Pressurized storage is required
when the vapor pressure exceeds the
atmospheric pressure at the storage
temperature.
Common guidelines for acid storage
tank design are summarized in Chem.
Eng. May 2008, Facts at your Finger-
tips: Acid Storage.
When storing acids above ground,
containment is also an issue. Tanks
should be properly diked, or double
walled, to contain spills. In general,
containment should be at least for one
tank volume (if not properly drained),
or less provided there is adequate
drainage to an acid neutralization
pit, with blockage valves accessible
to operators. Local code requirements
should also be addressed when de-
signing acid-tank containment; for
instance, the U.S. State of Florida has
specific requirements as given by Rule
62-762.891 Mineral Acid Storage
Tank Requirements.
Pumps
The design basis should be set before
selecting a pump, that is, the operat-
ing conditions such as temperature,
suction pressure, acid concentration,
and so on.
A primary issue that must be taken
into account while pumping acids is
safety, so, the selected pump for the
system cannot leave place for leak-
age; this is an advantage regularly
offered by vertical submerged pumps
over horizontal pumps. Also, material
selection guidelines shall be followed
to avoid casing, impeller or other in-
ternals damage.
Piping and fittings
Selecting pipe material and designing
the pipe system is a very important
issue in a plant, especially while han-
dling acids. The system must ensure
the acid is transported safely and ef-
ficiently. Piping should have as few
flanges as possible, so the chance of
having leaks becomes negligible.
In order to select the piping mate-
rial, the following aspects have to be
defined: acid concentration, transport
temperature, phase, fluid velocity,
type of flow, impurities in the acid and
solids presence.
Corrosion is often related to an
acids velocity. In order to maintain a
low velocity of the fluid, a bigger pipe
diameter is suggested.
Valves
Valves are used for various functions,
including the following:
For blocking, gate valves or plug
valves are regularly used. However,
plug valves are preferred for this ser-
vice, to ensure proper valve operation.
For control, globe or buttery valves
are suitable; they can be manually op-
erated or be fitted with actuators.
Materials for different parts of the
valves (disk, stem and seat) should be
selected according to the acid concen-
tration and operating conditions, by
consulting the valve manufacturer.
Some common materials according
to the acid to be handled are presented
in Tables 913.
Acid handling
Sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid must be
stored separately from combustible
and reducing substances in a well-
ventilated environment at tempera-
tures below 23C (73.4F). Concen-
trated acid needs to be isolated from
water, as it may react violently, releas-
TABLE 6. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, CLADDING & LINING [12]
Materials of con-
struction
HF
Aluminum Unsuitable for handling hydrofluoric acid
Stainless steel
Stainless-steel type 304 has a good performance for handling anhydrous hydrogen fluoride
up to 200C (390F), it has poor resistance to dilute or concentrated hydrofluoric acid. On the
other hand stainless-steel type 316 can be used for handling dilute acid at low temperatures
Copper
The use of copper alloys is affected by aeration and velocity, its corrosion resistance depends
on the concentration and temperature
Lead
Fair corrosion resistance in a wide range of concentration and temperatures for handling
hydrofluoric acid. Not recommended for handling dilute acid
Molybdenum
It offers great corrosion resistance to aqueous and anhydrous hydrofluoric acid with concen-
trations up to 50%, below 100C (212F)
Nickel
Nickel 200 is ideal for handling hot anhydrous hydrogen fluoride vapor, but it is not recom-
mended for handling hydrofluoric acid in aqueous solutions
Niobium Unsuitable for handling hydrofluoric acid
Tin Unsuitable for handling hydrofluoric acid
Titanium Unsuitable for handling hydrofluoric acid
Zirconium Unsuitable for handling hydrofluoric acid
TABLE 5. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, CLADDING & LINING [12]
Materials of con-
struction
HNO
3
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys commonly used for nitric acid services are 1100 and 3003. Corrosion de-
pends on temperature and concentration of the acid. Aluminum alloys are compatible with ni-
tric acid at temperatures up to at least 71C (160F) when it is inhibited by hydrofluoric acid
Cast iron
Cast iron can be used for handling concentrated nitric acid under control conditions such as
low temperature and low velocity. Corrosion attacks when handling dilute nitric acid
Stainless steel
For concentrations of 0 to 65%, most AISI 300-Series stainless steel has shown great corro-
sion resistance for temperatures up to the boiling point
Copper Not suitable for use in nitric acid
Lead It can be used for concentration between 52 and 70%
Molybdenum Not suitable for use in nitric acid
Nickel
Nickel alloys are widely used in the production of nitric acid. Alloy 617 offers an excellent
performance and corrosion resistance for handling nitric acid at high temperatures in the
catalyst-support grids in high pressure plants
Niobium It is completely resistant to nitric acid in all concentration at temperatures below 100C
Gold It is resistant to nitric acid in concentrations up to 50% above that it is attack by corrosion
Palladium It is vulnerable to attack from corrosion when nitric acid is in presence of air
Rhodium
In wrought or cast form rhodium is resistant to corrosion produced by concentrated nitric acid
at 100C
Silver Not suitable for use in nitric acid
Tin Not suitable for use in nitric acid. Complex reaction occurs
Titanium
Appropriate for handling nitric acid at any concentration in temperatures below the boiling
point. As temperatures exceed 80C (175F), corrosion becomes stronger depending on nitric
acid purity. Titanium alloys cant be used for red fuming nitric acid due to a violent reaction
that can take place in the system
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012 31
ing heat. If sulfuric acid needs to be
diluted or combined with water, then
it has to be added to water carefully.
To manipulate sulfuric acid, proper
personal protective equipment, such
as gloves, a vapor respirator when
ventilation is inadequate, face shield
and full suit shall be used.
Nitric acid. Nitric acid must be
stored separately in a corrosion resis-
TABLE 8. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, CLADDING & LINING
ACIDS COMMON ALLOYS
H
2
SO
4
For dilute and intermediate sulfuric acid (between 40 and 80% concentration) Incoloy alloys 25-
6MO, 825, 020 and Inconel alloy G-3 have shown excellent corrosion resistance for temperatures up
to 50 C (120F). When handling aggressive acid, Inconel alloys 625, 622, C-276 and 686 are suit-
able. For reducing conditions, Monel alloy 400 is appropriate in the absence of air for temperatures
up to boiling point for concentrations below 15%. For storage of H
2
SO
4
, Monel alloy 400 can be used
at room temperatures up to 80% concentration. Hastelloy B3, C-2000 and G-30 are also suitable for
handling sulfuric acid
HNO
3
Chromium enhances corrosion resistance in alloys while handling nitric acid, due to this fact, Incoloy
alloy 800 and 825 are adequate for nitric acid at all concentrations for temperatures up to the boiling
point. Inconel alloy 600 and C-276 also offer good corrosion resistance to nitric acid for concentra-
tion over 20% at room temperature; alloy 690 has shown better corrosion resistant because its
chromium content is higher. Hastelloy G-30 alloy and G-35 offer excellent corrosion resistance for
this same reason
H
3
PO
4
When handling phosphoric acid, Incoloy alloys 825, 020 and 25-6MO, as well as Inconel alloy G-3
are suitable and regularly used. For extreme conditions such as high temperature and high amount of
impurities or halides contaminants, Inconel alloys 625, 622, C-276 and 686 are recommended. Has-
telloy alloys B-3 and G-30 stand phosphoric acid in all concentrations and temperatures. Hastelloy
alloy G-35 was especially designed for phosphoric acid wet processing in fertilizers manufacture
HCl
Incoloy alloys 25-6MO, 825 and 020, and Inconel alloy G-3 are used for dilute hydrochloric acid
handling. Another alloy that offers good corrosion resistant in concentrations below 10% with aer-
ated conditions at room temperature is Monel alloy 400. Nickel alloy 200 can be used at room
temperature for concentrations up to 30% as well. For environments that contemplate the presence
of oxidizing contaminants and hot hydrochloric acid, Inconel alloys 625, 622, C-276 and 686 are rec-
ommended. Hastelloy alloys B-3, C-2000 and G-30 are also suitable for handling hydrochloric acid,
at all concentrations and temperatures
HF
The formation of fluoride films is key on engineering materials in order to offer good corrosion-
resistance rates while handling hydrofluoric acid. Monel alloy 400 is widely used for this purpose,
due to the fact that it has shown excellent corrosion resistance for all hydrofluoric acid services in all
concentrations and temperatures up to (and even above) the boiling point. For anhydrous hydrogen
fluoride up to 82C (180F), Nickel alloy 200 is commonly used. For dilute HF and temperatures up to
70C (158F) Inconel alloy 600 can also be used. Other alloys like Hastelloy C-2000 and Hastelloy
G-30 are also recommended for handling hydrofluoric acid
TABLE 7. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION, CLADDING & LINING
Materials of con-
struction
HCl
Aluminum
It is not appropriate for handling HCl; it has no resistance to corrosion
Cast Iron
Unalloyed cast iron systems are unsuitable for handling HCl, especially if high velocities
are involve. A high-silicon iron alloyed with small amounts of molybdenum, chromium and
copper can be used to handle hydrochloric acid up to 95 C (200F) at all concentrations
Stainless steel
Corrosion attacks stainless steel (316) and stainless steel (304) when handling HCl at any
concentration or temperature
Copper
Copper can be used to handle dilute hydrochloric acid only, due to its sensitivity to velocity,
aeration and oxidizing impurities
Lead
It exhibits tolerance to corrosion at 24C (75F) and concentrations up to 15%. It is unsuit-
able for concentrated acid at higher temperatures
Nickel
Pure nickel and nickel-copper alloys can be used for handling hydrochloric acid below 10%
concentration, without air presence, at low temperatures. The lower the concentration the
higher can be the temperature of the system; for example, HCl at 0.5% can stand tempera-
tures up to 200C before corrosion attacks the alloy
Niobium
It has shown excellent corrosion resistance to handle HCl at any concentrations and tem-
peratures up to 100C (212F)
Gold
It can be used for handling hydrochloric acid at any concentrations and atmospheric pres-
sure up to the boiling point
Palladium Unsuitable for handling hydrochloric acid
Rhodium
In cast or wrought form, rhodium has excellent corrosion resistance to handle concentrated
hydrochloric acid in temperatures up to 100C (212F)
Silver It is very susceptible to aeration when concentration and temperature are high
Tantalum
It has shown excellent corrosion resistance to handle HCl at any concentrations under
atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 90C (195F). It can be used to handle acid
with concentrations below 25% up 190C (375F)
Titanium Unsuitable for handling hydrochloric acid
References
1. Perry, R., Green, D. W., & Maloney, J. O. Perrys
Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-
Hill, N.Y., 2008.
2. Davenport, W. G., and King, M. J., Sulfuric
Acid Properties, In Sulfuric Acid Manufac-
ture: Analysis, Control and Optimization,
Elsevier, pp. 287291, 2006.
3. DKL Engineering, Inc.,. Technical Manual,
April 12, 2003. Retrieved July 6, 2012, from
Sulfuric Acid Properties: www.sulphuric-
acid.com/techmanual/Properties/proper
ties_acid_properties.htm
4. Material Safety Data Sheet, Nitric acid, 65%
MSDS.
5. Potash Corp., Purified Phosphoric Acid, Tech-
nical information bulletin, PCS Sale In-
dustrial Products, 2005.
6. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA). Retrieved
May 14, 2012, from Regulations: 29 CFR
1910.1000 (General Industry): www.osha.gov/
pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_
table=Standards&p_id=9991
7. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA), Re-
trieved May 16, 2012, from Regulation:
29 CFR 1926.55 (Construction Industry):
www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_
document?p_table=Standards&p_id=10628
8. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA), Re-
trieved May 16, 2012, from Regulation: 29
CFR 1915.1000 (Maritime): www.osha.gov/
pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p
_table=standards&p_id=10286
9. National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health, NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical
Hazards, NIOSH Publications, 2007.
10. U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Emergency Re-
sponse Guidebook 2008 (ERG2008), 2008.
11. Grossel, Stanley S., Safe, Efficient Handling
of Acids, Chem. Eng., July 1998, pp. 8898.
12. ASM International, (2002). Handbook of Cor-
rosion Data, 2002.13. API Std. 620.
14. API Std. 650.
15. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sec.
VIII Div 1.
16. DKL Engineering, Inc., Technical Manual,
December 20, 2005, Retrieved July 6, 2012,
from Strong Acid System Piping, www.
sulphuric-acid.com/techmanual/strong%20
acid/sa_piping.htm
17. International Program on Chemical Safety,
Chemical Safety Information from Intergov-
ernmental Organizations, April 2000, Re-
trieved May 12, 2012, from Hydrogen Chlo-
ride: www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/
eics0163.htm
18. Pohanish, R. P. , Sittigs Handbook of Toxic
and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens,
Elsevier, 2012.
19. Southerm States Chemical A Dulany Indus-
tries Co., Chemical Safety Handbook, 2002.
20. The Dow Chemical Company, June 2008,
2008, Retrieved July 9, 2012, from Prod-
uct Safety Assessment: Nitric Acid: http//
msdssearch.dow.com/publishedliterature-
DOWCOM/dh_0131/0901b80380131028.
pdf?filepath=productsafety/pdfs/noreg/233-
00312.pdf&fromPage=GetDoc
21. U.S. Dept. Transportation, Electronic Code
of Federal Regulation. Retrieved May 14,
2012, from Chapter I Pipeline and Haz-
ardous Materials Safety Transportation
regulation: http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/
text/ text-i dx?c=ecfr&tpl =/ ecfrbrowse/
Title49/49cfrv2_02.tpl
Cover Story
32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012
tant location, avoiding contact with
powders, carbides, hydrogen, sulfide,
turpentine and strong bases. Along
the same lines it is important to men-
tion that nitric acids storage requires
special conditions, such as adequate
ventilation and especially low tem-
peratures to ensure a cool environ-
ment for the solution, because heat
may cause containers to burst and
result in escape of poisonous gases;
so it should not be stored above 23C
(73.4F), and the container must re-
main dry and locked up.
Nitric acid and its vapors can cause
severe damage during its handling to
persons who have contact with it; the
severity of the damage is related to
the time of contact or exposure and
the acid concentration.
Every process that involves nitric
acid handling or storage must contem-
plate an adequate ventilation system
that ensures airborne levels below the
safety exposure limits allowed, not
only this measure needs to be taken
into account but also workers should
be aware of the risks arising from
management of nitric acid.
Phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid
can be described as a stable chemical,
because it is not subject to thermal
decomposition. However, the design
criteria for its handling should be
based on the acid concentrations and
operating temperatures. The most
important issue about this acid is the
variation of its freezing point accord-
ing to its concentration; the freezing
point of standard concentrations are
17.5C (0.5F) at 75%, 4.6C (40.2F)
at 80% and 21.1C (70.01F) at 85%,
therefore it becomes necessary to
heat phosphoric acid at high concen-
trations in order to maintain the acid
as a liquid solution.
Unlike other acids, phosphoric acid
does not react violently with metals;
reaction occurs slowly and progres-
sively with hydrogen as a product, so,
caution should be exercised because
the vapors formed are flammable.
Hydrofluoric acid. HF acid is a very
hazardous material, both in liquid and
vapor phase. It can cause severe burns,
which may not be immediately pain-
ful or visible. HF is a strong irritant
to the skin, eyes and respiratory tract.
The fluoride ion easily penetrates the
skin and generates destruction of tis-
sue and severe bone damage.
Package sizes range from 5001,000
mL for analytical products, to 10,000-L
ISO containers. HF is delivered com-
mercially in concentrations of 98 wt.%,
4851 wt.% and 40 wt.%.
Due to HFs nature, strict measures
shall be taken when handling the acid
in industrial facilities. Such measures
include administrative controls (for
example, work permits); engineering
controls (instrumentation: detectors,
relief valves, emergency dump sys-
tems); and personal protection equip-
ment (appropriate clothing).
When boiling all aqueous solutions,
HF forms an azeotropic constant boil-
ing mixture that contains 35.6% (by
weight) HF and boils at 111.35C
(231.8 F).
Hydrochloric acid. HCl must be
stored in a corrosion resistant loca-
tion. Even though the acid is non-
flammable, when it is heated hy-
drochloric acid fumes are released,
TABLE 10. SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT, PIPING, VALVES AND PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING GUIDELINES
Equipment H
3
PO
4
Tanks
Heating coils should be provided in order to maintain the phosphoric acid above its freezing
point, depending on ambient conditions and acid concentration. For instance, 85% H
3
PO
4

freezes at 21.1C
Pumps
All fittings should have wetted parts of 316 L stainless steel, with mechanical seals rather than
packing. Centrifugal pumps are also used for phosphoric acid handling
Piping and
Fittings
Stainless steel 316 is regularly used for piping because it has shown excellent results in cor-
rosion resistance for all concentrations of phosphoric acid, even though the piping material
can be the same used for storage
When using stainless steel, the fittings and valves should be welded or flanged; screwed fit-
tings are not recommended because they may allow leakage
Valves
Butterfly valves: 316 SS, Alloy 20 and Hastelloy C are good stem and disk materials for phos-
phoric acid at various concentrations, with Monel also showing fair results. Common seat
materials include: PVF, Neoprene, Hypalon, Viton or EPT
Protective
Clothing
Properly fitted chemical goggles and protective clothing should be worn. Impervious gloves
and aprons are recommended. No special respiratory protection is required under ordinary
conditions of use, provided that adequate ventilation is maintained. When vapor or mist con-
centrations exceed applicable standards, approved respiratory protective equipment must be
used
TABLE 9. SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT, PIPING, VALVES AND PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING GUIDELINES
Equipment H
2
SO
4
Tanks
Iron sulfate is produced in storage tanks of sulfuric acid; it is a consequence of interaction
between the tanks surface and the acid. Usually iron sulfate precipitates, therefore the pump
suction pipe should be placed above the tank bottom to avoid pumping solid residues that can
compromise pump well-functioning. Under the same line, storage tanks must provide a facility
to clean the tank bottom. The tanks maintenance should be performed periodically according
to the laws of the state and the company policies
Pumps
According to the plant requirements, pumps used for sulfuric acid handling are usually hori-
zontal centrifugal pumps or heavy duty vertical, submerged type
For handling sulfuric acid at 93.19% (66 B) usually horizontal centrifugal pumps with me-
chanical seals are used
Common materials of construction are: cast iron or Alloy 20 wetted ends, Alloy 20 plunger,
tetrauoroethylene plastic chevron packings
Piping and
fittings
For sulfuric acid service, welded pipe lines with schedule 80 are commonly used, these pipes
should be kept full of acid to minimize corrosion attacks. Sulfuric acid also promotes hydrogen
gas formation; for this reason it is necessary to avoid pressure buildup by venting the line
In case of draining the pipe, the use of air is not recommended, because it can accelerate cor-
rosion. Nitrogen can be used for such purposes
Valves
Butterfly Valves: Lead is an adequate stem and disk material for sulfuric acid at all concentra-
tions; for concentrations lower than 75% at low temperatures Alloy 20 and Hastelloy have also
been used. The seat should be made of PVF, with Viton and Hypalon also been used
Protective
clothing
Properly fitted chemical safety goggles, face shield (8-in. high minimum) and protective cloth-
ing should be worn. Acid-proof clothing should be fitted snugly at neck and wrists, in a manner
preventing drainage of acid to gloves or boots. Impervious rubber or polyvinyl chloride gloves
with gauntlets covering forearms should be used. Boots made of the same material should be
worn, with tops being covered by the trousers. Head protection via hard hat or full cover acid
hood should be worn, as well as a respirator for protection against fumes
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM OCTOBER 2012 33
which can compromise the safety and
toxicity levels allowed, therefore stor-
age tanks need proper venting that
shall be directed to a safe location
and treatment facility.
Operators handling hydrochloric
acid must wear protective equipment
and it is advisable for them to take a
shower and gargle with sodium bicar-
bonate after manipulating the acid in
order to avoid teeth corrosion in other
activities performed by the operator.
Undesirable reactions can take
place between hydrochloric acid and
the following compounds: chromate,
permanganate and sulfate. Such re-
actions generate chlorine gas as a
result. A subsequent reaction occurs
with metal peroxide forming its cor-
responding chloride.
When storing hydrochloric acid,
proper ventilation has to be ensured
in order to maintain the acid concen-
tration in air below the permitted
limit of exposure. Q
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
TABLE 13. SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT, PIPING, VALVES AND PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING GUIDELINES
Equipment HCl
Tanks
Outdoor tanks are preferred for storing hydrochloric acid; some common measures of pro-
tection when tank is placed indoors are coating the floor with asphalt or another corrosion
resistant material to prevent several damages in case of leaks or spills. The tank must be
provided with a vent so acid fumes do not accumulate in the tank and a drainage system so
maintenance can be performed periodically. Vents should be routed to a scrubber
Pumps
Pumps similar to those used for H
2
SO
4
and H
3
PO
4
can be used.
Centrifugal pumps lined with, or constructed of TFE, PVDF of Derakane are commonly used.
Mechanical seals of carbon and ceramic faces with TFE or fluoroelastomer secondary seals,
and Hastelloy C metal parts, are also recommended [11]
Piping and fit-
tings
CS piping with TFE, PVDF, Derakane or polypropylene lining is frequently used for HCl.
PVC or FRP piping have also been used, depending on fluid pressure
Valves
Butterfly Valves: common stem and disc materials include: lead or Hastelloy C. Common seat
materials include: PVF, Neoprene, Hypalon and Viton
Protective cloth-
ing
For concentrations up to 40% neoprene and fluoroelastomer gloves are recommended for
handling hydrochloric acid. For concentrated acid, butyl gloves are suitable
TABLE 12. SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT, PIPING, VALVES AND PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING GUIDELINES
Equipment HF
Tanks
Anhydrous and 70 wt.% HF up to 66C, or HF between 60 to 70 wt.% up to 38C, can be
stored in carbon steel (CS) tanks, since the metal is passivated with an iron fluoride film
when the fluid is in contact with the metal. Hydrogen corrosion may occur in steel tanks.
Other grades of HF can be stored in tanks made of CS with natural rubber lining, polyethyl-
ene or unplasticized PVC [11]
Pumps
Diaphragm pumps with TFE or polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) diaphragms can handle
anhydrous, 70 wt.% and electronic-grade HF.
Centrifugal pump materials depend on grade: Ni-Cu alloy of Alloy 20 is used for anhydrous
HF, Vinylidene chloride (VC)-lined steel for 70 wt.% and electronic-grade HF, and Penton-
lined steel or solid Penton for electronic grade HF [11]
Piping and fit-
tings
Anhydrous and 70% wt HF can be transported in seamless CS piping. The rating and sched-
ule should be selected according to the operating pressure and corrosion allowance, with
Sch 80 and Sch 160 commonly used for both grades, respectively. CS with VC, TFE and FEP
lining is also used, depending on fluid temperature.
Electronic-grade HF can be transported in unplasticized PVC pipe
Valves
Butterfly valves: Hastelloy C is the best material for the stem and disk, with Alloy 20 also
exhibiting fair results. Common seat materials include: PVF, Hypalon and Viton; for pure
(100%) HF, only PVF or Viton should be considered
Protective
Clothing
Neoprene and natural rubber gloves are excellent for handling hydrofluoric acid in all con-
centrations, glove change is necessary before 8 hours
TABLE 11. SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT, PIPING, VALVES AND PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING GUIDELINES
Equipment HNO
3
Tanks
For acid grades lower than 95 wt.%, tanks should be designed for slight pressure and vac-
uum, with fumes collected at a disposal system and sent to a scrubber. Vent piping should
be designed taking into consideration possible corrosion from contact with moisture
Pumps
Wetted parts should be made of 304L stainless steel for concentrations lower than 95
wt.%; for higher concentrations, they should be made of titanium (with a water content
higher than 1.34% to prevent spontaneous combustion), silicon iron or 3003 aluminum
alloy [11]
Piping and Fit-
tings
Piping made of 304L stainless steel is frequently used for HNO
3
up to 95 wt.%, and of alumi-
num for higher concentrations. Carbon steel (CS) piping with TFE, FEP or glass linings (up to
certain temperatures) can also be used for all grades. [11]
Valves
Butterfly valves: 316 SS, Alloy 20 and Hastelloy C are good stem and disk materials for nitric
acid at various concentrations. Seats made of Viton can handle various concentrations up to
70%; for low concentrations at low temperatures, Neoprene, Hypalon and EPT have also been
used
Protective
Clothing
Neoprene or natural rubber latex gloves are acceptable for handling nitric acid.
Authors
Alberto Baumeister is the
CEO and co-owner of the
Ecotek group of companies,
which is located in the City
of Knowledge, Panama (Calle
60, PH Obarrio 60, Piso 15,
Ofc. 15-A, Obarrio, Panam,
Rep. De. Panam; Phone:
+507-203-8490; Fax: +507-
203-8491; Email: abaumeis-
ter@ecotekgrp.com). He has
experience as coordinator and
senior process consultant in engineering projects
for the chemical, petrochemical, refining, oil and
gas industries. He has a Masters Diploma in
water treatment management from Universidad
de Len (Spain, 2011), a specialization in man-
agement for engineers at Instituto de Estudios
Superiores de Administracin (Venezuela, 1990),
and a degree in chemical engineering from Uni-
versidad Metropolitana (1987), graduating first
of his class. He has been a professor of the Chem-
ical Engineering School at Universidad Metro-
politana between 1995 and 2007 and has written
several technical publications for international
associations.
Sebastiano Giardinella
is the vice president and co-
owner of the Ecotek group of
companies (same address as
above; Email: sgiardeinella@
ecotekgrp.com). He has ex-
perience as process leader,
and in project planning and
control, in engineering proj-
ects for the chemical, petro-
chemical, refining, oil and gas
industries. He is a certified
project management professional (PMP), has
Masters Degree in project management from
Universidad Latina de Panam (Panama, 2009),
and a degree in chemical engineering from
Universidad Simn Bolvar (Venezuela, 2006),
graduating summa cum laude; and is currently
a student of the M.Sc. in renewable energy de-
velopment at Heriot-Watt University (Scotland).
He is also professor of project management at
Universidad Latina de Panam, and has written
technical publications for Chemical Engineering
magazine, international associations and aca-
demic institutions.
Mayhell Coronado is a pro-
cess engineer of the Ecotek
group of companies (same
address as above; email:
mcoronado@ecotekgrp.com).
She has experience in the de-
velopment of conceptual and
basic engineering projects for
the oil and gas, and chemical
industries, as well as in sup-
port to company management.
She has a degree in chemical
engineering from Universidad Metropolitana
(Venezuela), where she taught thermodynamics,
transport phenomena and general chemistry as
professor assistant, and has published a work on
the effects of microbial contamination in diesel
fuel used for thermal power generation.