May 2008

Chief Editor : Anurag Misra In-charge : Manogyan R. Pal

Vol 52
Joint Director (Prod) : N.C. Mazumder Cover Design : Chirag Sharma E-mail (Editorial): editoryojana@hotmail.com : ce.yojana48@yahoo.co.in (Circulation): pdjucir_ jcm@yahoo.co.in Website : www.publicationsdivision.nic.in

Let noble thoughts come to us from every side

Rig Veda

CONTENTS

INTERVIEW And Child Labour on. Say a firm No.......................................................................5 A Moral Conundrum..........................................................8 Shireen Miller No More Tools in Tiny Hands.......................................13 Kailash Satyarthi Problems and Solutions................................................18 Meghnad Desai Best Practices Children as change makers....22 Kiran Sharma Change of Societal Attitude Imperative..............28 Dhurjati Mukherjee

Myth and Reality..............................................................32 Subhash Sharma Devendra Mishra J&K Window ......................................................................37 do you know ? what is polio?. ................................41 in the news ........................................................................43 1857 Azizun - The Enigmatic Courtesan of Cawnpore ........................................................................46 Tripurari Sharma Rural Development. .........................................................49 Ishita G Tripathy K K Tripathy book review . .......................................................................52

Our Representatives : Ahmedabad: Manisha Verma, Bangalore: B.K. Kiranmai, Chennai: I. Vijayan, Guwahati: P. Chakravorty, Hyderabad: V. Balakrishna, Kolkata: Antara Ghosh, Mumbai: D.L. Narayana Rao, Thiruvananthapuram: Madhusudan Verma.
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YOJANA May 2008

YOJANA May 2008

About the Issue

Saving Childhood : Not by Laws Alone
he Union Government banned in 2006 the employment of children below 14 years in restaurants, hotels, teastalls, eateries and in domestic help. According to child rights activists, there has been little improvement in the situation. Child labour is still rampant across the country. According to the 2001 census, there are over 61,000 children working in hotels, restaurants, teastalls and road side eateries. This figure is just a small fraction of over 12.6 million child labourers in India, the highest in the world. Though law is a necessary step, it does not solve the problem. The ban does not work. Is it realistic? Will it be successful? Will the parents cooperate? Will the children give up their jobs so easily if they are earning some livelihood? When the US banned carpet exports in 1990s, Nepalese children turned to prostitution. When Bangladeshi garment industry suffered, children turned to stone-crushing and similar hazardous work. In almost every case, children are forced into labour either by economic or social compulsions or due to absence of choices and opportunities. The parents of working children are either unemployed or do not get work for even 50-60 days in a year. The policy makers must be aware of harsh realities of society. If children are completely deprived of their employment and made to study in a school. They might study upto matriculation. But what thereafter? Will they be assured of any job. In our country, it is not easy to get a job. Instead, if children are learning a craft, they should be encouraged. At the same time appropriate provision must be made for their education. They can be made to learn while they earn. They must be given enough time to play. It is societys responsibility to provide all facilities to our children for their moral, emotional and physical development. Therefore, we have to look at it from a holistic angle.
YOJANA May 2008 3

YOJANA May 2008

child labour
And Child Labour on. Say a firm No
agsaysay Award winner and Chairperson, N a t i o n a l Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) Shantha Sinha feels no serious effort has been made to make children go to school. To protect childrens rights, issues of nutrition and education should form the core of any government policy. In an exclusive interview to Anurag Misra, Chief Editor (Yojana), she speaks about her concerns and priorities of NCPCR. India is having the largest number of malnourished children, bypassing even SubSaharan Africa. What will be the strategy/advocacy of the NCPCR on this? SS It is unacceptable that Indias track record on malnourishment of its children is so appalling. It is in the process of responding to the most vulnerable and in their weakest moments viz. children who are malnourished that democracy is tested. Continuous failure on this account has to be perceived as a threat to the nations progress. This can be combated only through public pressure and outrage on the failure of the system to keep children out of hunger and malnourishment. The government too must strengthen the structures and processes that are to provide services to childrens access to food such as the ICDS and the mid day meal program and is to be held accountable for malnourishment.
YOJANA May 2008

interview

NCPCR has a role in creating public awareness on the issue of violation of childrens right to food; receive complaints regarding malnourishment of children and press the state governments to act on them; hold public hearings on the issue and issue directives to the State to take quick action; support and monitor the Supreme Courts directives to the states in ensuring that there is a universal coverage of all children under six years of age through the ICDS and recommend adequate infrastructure and facilities such as two anganwadi workers, decentralization of delivery of services, provision of hot cooked meal and so on; , NCPCR also proposes to conduct public hearings on the mid day meal for all school going children up to primary schools; and work towards a legal framework that assures that children have their right to food. You are quite vocal against child labour and in favour of sending each and every child to school. How would you like to handle this? SS India has the largest number of children out of school. It also has the largest number of children in the work force. Most people agree that

this is not just a coincidence. If it is so obvious then why is it that none of the documents on Education Policy make no more than a passing reference to child labour? The most important reason is that we dont think we can eliminate child labour. That is a problem to be solved another day in another realm. People are poor and they need the income from their childs labour. To eliminate child labour you must eliminate poverty. Otherwise people will starve. This is the poverty argument. It is very convincing. In every village there are a number of poor parents sending their children to school while their better off counterparts are sending them to work. How does one explain that? Actually there is no poverty line below which all parents are compelled to send their children to school. This is a pure myth. Parents basic desire to ensure a better future for their children reduces the poverty threshold at which they MUST send their children to work to much lower levels than we imagine. It is only this that explains why many poor parents (though not as many as we would want) actually send children to school today. To understand the problem of child labour and education therefore we must actually understand why children are in schools instead of why they are not. Unfortunately because we believe in the Poverty Argument we also think every child who is
5

working is doing so because of poverty. Actually there is very little correlation between the two and although there are plenty of examples to show, no one wants to accept it. Then why are so many children out of school and working? We just havent tried to understand the basic causes. l No one has bothered to tell the poor parents that the schools are for them and that the entire government machinery will support them in their endeavour to send their child to school as if they mean it. No one has even told them that it is right for them to think it is wrong to send their child to work? l For generations the poor have been told that it is their lot to labour. Children with education will become useless for labour as well as for any other work. l It is much easier for someone in the village (landless labourer and illiterate to boot) to engage his child in work, even as bonded labourer than put him in school. l A child comes to school for the first time. He is the first person in his family ever to attempt this. Are the teachers sensitive to this? Is the system sensitive to this? l Worse still, a child is 10 years old. He has never been to school. He now wants to. Does the system have any solution than putting him along with five year olds in class 1? The fact is that we have never tried to make it easy for the parents to send their children to school. We simply decided (quite conveniently) that they dont want to. NCPCR has constituted a working group to examine the legal and policy framework on abolition of child labor and childrens right to education from a child rights perspective. The report of the
6

group should be the first step towards generating a public debate on the issue of total abolition of child labour in all its forms in the country. It will hold state and regional consultations to build a mood in support of childrens right to education and against child labour. The NCPCR is also responding to specific complaints of child labour as in the case of hundreds and thousands of children employed in production of hybrid cotton seeds in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh and so on. It is holding discussions with the concerned states to prevent child labour. It is also examining the practices of some of the States to identify, rescue and rehabilitate child labor in each State and arrive at a protocol and institutional mechanism for the same. On the education front the NCPCR is responding to complaints on lack of infrastructure in schools and that of corporal punishment in schools. It has issued instructions to all the States to follow procedures of child participation and also have an active interface with the PTAs to create a culture in schools that would listen to children and stop violence on them. NCPCR is of the view that if schools set correct standards for addressing children and their needs children would remain in schools and not join the labor force. Despite the ban on employing children as domestic labor, the problem persists. Do you think providing alternative livelihood for their families would be a solution or how can this be tackled? SS In spite of the fact that employing children as domestic labor is banned by law and is a punishable offence it is unfortunate that the enlightened section in our society, the middle classes insist on employing children. They live a lonely friendless life lacking in dignity and freedom.

It is contended that children are employed because they need the income and that their quality of life as a domestic child labor is far superior to the child being with her own family submerged in poverty and hunger. This is far from true. Children are employed as domestic child labor because they are a source of cheap labor work and can be forced to work for long hours. As law abiding citizens the middle classes must set an example for all other employers of children and replace child labor with adult labor. What will be the role of NCPCR on this issue? SS N C P C R t a k e s s p e c i f i c complaints of violation of childrens rights while at work and press the concerned departments to enforce the law for rescue and release of child labour. It conducts public hearings on exploitation of children while at work and compels the government to take action on the matter and provide for education of children thus released. It is also working towards establishing protocols for identifying, rescuing and releasing children from the labour force. At the moment there is very little coordination between the labor, police, and education, welfare and health departments in the process of enforcing the law to withdraw the child from work. Since each rescue operation is made in an ad hoc fashion without any reference to procedures or precedence there is no institutional memory. Currently NCPCR has started consultations on the gaps in the existing institutional framework for rescue of child labor, based on which it would recommend guidelines for all the States regarding the process of identifying child labor, rescuing them from work and ensuring that they are mainstreamed into q schools.
(Email : shantha.sinha@nic.in) YOJANA May 2008

YOJANA May 2008

CHILD LABOUR
A Moral Conundrum

opinion

Shireen Miller

We can be the first generation to actually say No to child labour to stop children being exploited or die of hunger
The author is with Save the Children. 8

onali, has come back home to Sandeshkali in West Bengal after two years. She is 12 years old and has spent the last two years as a domestic worker in Kolkata, cleaning a threefloor house and cooking for a fivemember household. Her eyes brim with tears as she shows her hand that was burnt by her employer, who poured hot dal on it, as there was a delay in cooking dinner one day. Sonali earned Rs. 400 Per month. She fled with the help of a considerate neighbour. Activists against child labour are often accused of being bleeding hearts, of importing western concepts into India, of being dreamers. How could we even possibly suggest that child labour should be eradicated in a country such as India? One is then presented with the argument that if children do not work, they will starve, and surely work is better than starvation?

For us, on the other side however, it is surprising and even horrifying that well informed, educated people are still making excuses for child labour in 21st century India with its tales of run away economic growth. And therein, lies the fundamental point. Yes, India has laws and acts to regulate and prohibit child labour, perhaps not strong enough but no doubt sufficient. However, until there are people justifying, tolerating and indeed accepting child labour, no amount of legislation will make any difference. What we need, is to change public opinion, to break the tolerance and acceptance of child labour and what is fundamentally the gross exploitation of children. While poverty may be the background within which children work, it can no longer be a justification for child labour, in a country with 9% growth rates. Most children who work come from the poorest areas of India such as UP, West Bengal and Bihar and from

YOJANA May 2008

the poorest and most discriminated sections, such as lower castes and tribal areas. We also know that in the aftermath of natural disasters, such as floods or droughts many children are forced into work as their families lose everything- their homes, assets and livelihoods. Often children are taken by uncles or middlemen into cities for work, bonded for years. H o w e v e r, r e s e a r c h a n d experience has shown that children earn very little or even nothing at all. Poor parents are ignorant of the law, and often seduced by the promises that they are doing good for their child, that he/she will learn a trade and send home ever-higher paychecks. They are also unaware of the various government poverty alleviation schemes (28 at last count) available to them. Critically, they do not think of the damage labour can do to childrens overall development and to their future prospects of getting a much better job. Yet, once they are aware, we also know that in many cases the poorest e.g rickshaw pullers will make sacrifices to send their children to school and not out to work, whereas cotton farmers may send their children out to work. Often children are forced to go to work because the main earners in their family have fallen ill, or as is often the case, are severe alcoholics. Another key push factor for child labour has been the lack of education or schools that deliver. Since the launch of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan, the government has promised a school within a 1 km radius, and education for children between 6-14 has been declared free and compulsory. If this is the case how can we still have universal education and child labour.
YOJANA May 2008

Critically, child labour further deepens the vicious circle of poverty, rather than helping break out of it. The Andhra Pradesh Government claims its success at reducing child labour from 16.6 lakh in 1991 to 2.48 lakh in 2007 as a result of increasing access to education. MV foundation which was responsible for bringing 400, 000 children out of work and into schools attributes this to community mobilisation; making families both aware of each childs right to education and of the various schemes that exist to help them access these schemes and providing children with appropriate education, once they had withdrawn from there from work. Thus, we see that while poverty may be the context within which these children live and leads them to be exploited it is not the major constraint. An acceptance of child labour, lack of viable alternatives, especially education and functional schools is a major factor sending children out to work. This begs the question- should children bear the burden for their parents poverty or even inability or unwillingness to earn? Is this what we would want or even tolerate for our own children? Employing Children We also know that children are paid half what adults earn at best, and in many cases nothing at all. They are made to work long hourssometimes 12- 15 hours a day, in unhealthy and unsafe conditions, subject to physical sexual abuse and being more vulnerable and powerless are exploited to the full. Make no mistake, child labour is the cheapest

and most exploitative labour. And these children and their families can be exploited in this way because of their own poverty and powerlessness. Increasing urbanisation and the demand for cheap labour has further pushed children into work. A 13 yrs old bonded labourer Bindeshwar Mandal was rescued from I 83-B, Rohini sector 18, New Delhi. His father Shri Jagat Mandal of Maghepur block of Madhubani district informed that Shivakant Jha of his village had taken an amount of Rs.26000/- from him in exchange for 20 beeghas of land. However, even after Jagat Mandal worked hard by pulling a rickshaw and paid the amount of Rs.26000/in installments to Shivakant Jha, Jha refused to hand over the land to him. Instead Jha had already given the same land to Laleshwar Singh and he also demanded to keep his son, Bindeshwar as a bonded domestic labour till the time that he receives the money in full. Whenever, the little boy committed any minor error he was brutally thrashed by Jitendra and his wife. One must also note that Jitendra Jha is a teacher in a Government School and according to the law, if any government official employs a child below 14years of age, he or she will be suspended from their job. While bonded labour may have ceased to exist in some states, it still persits in others such as UP and Bihar. Often parents are paid a down payment by the contractors, and then never see anything after, or give their children in labour as a way of repaying their loans. Childhood stolen Research shows what is needed is a collective commitment to
9

fulfilling children their right to childhood. Childhood should be a time for education, leisure and protection from harm, protection that we as adults have a responsibility to provide children, rather than exploiting them. Political will and political commitment, backed by funding and a complete cultural un acceptance of child labour. Hazardous and exploitative forms of child work, which jeopardise children s physical, mental, educational or social development constitutes child labour should be eradicated. These children are exploited economically, physically abused, including sexually. They are forced to do heavy work, working upto 15 hours a day, are often deprived of food, schooling and rest, and work in unhealthy and unsafe conditions. Many earn nothing, or average 15 dollars a month, in a nation whose annual per capita is 3600.. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was initiated in 1986, which bans children under 14 from 70 hazardous occupations and processes. However, even according to official count India still has 13 million children working and NGO estimates put this at upto 60 million. Only 60,000 prosecutions have been conducted since the promulgation of the act. Labour is a state subject and hence, the implementation of the act falls within the remit of the states. Each State is supposed to have a clearly defined State Action plan. The Ministry of Labour has announced a funding increase
10

from $ 170 million to $1 billion for the rescue and rehabilitation of child labour. States need to address head on the poverty and deprivation issues of the families of working children, to take effective action for the education of all out of school children, to release and rehabilitate child labour, and provide entitlements to the families of child labour and working children. While there are schemes like the National child labour plan which are centrally funded but implementation of these rests with the states. Also, conducting rescue operations without any concrete plans for rehabilitation or alternatives in place will not work. Rescuing children should not be done overnight, but carefully planned always keeping the best interest of children in mind. Judiciary and Police need to be trained to ensure proper implementation of the act in a manner that child goes through no further trauma. Children should be identified and as far as possible re intergrated with their families. There is a need to push for the Child Labour Act to integrate with other supportive legislations like Juvenile Justice Care and Protection Act (2000), Offences Against Children Act and the Immoral Traffic Prevention Act. States need to put in place legislation to monitor placement agencies in the cities which often act as facade for trafficking. Often children are just at the receiving end. There is a need to consult them and their views need to be integrated in interventions

designed to combat hazardous and exploitative child labour. What can we do? As Child Labour is a complex problem, occurring for a myriad of reasons, it will thus require a consistent, long-term effort, with broad based strategies that ensure the long-term goal of eradication of child labour. Critically, eradicating child labour needs to be seen alongside the commitment to universalisation of education, so critical for the countries economic and social development. Actions need to be taken by the law enforcers, the employerscorporates and individuals as well as civil society at large. The first step is to recognise, that if you believe that all children should have good health, education, and some form of play or leisure then child labour is unacceptable and in fact stealing childrens childhoods. Importantly, All actions to stop child labour should be implemented taking the childs best interest into account, e.g the family situation, level of schooling, social situation etc. Attention should be given that the child is not merely moved from one labour situation to another, but to ensure rehabilitation, education and development of the child. Rabia a 12 year old was picked up from her village in vishnukantpur village in Burdwan district by Ms. Rubina Ahmed to work in her house in Ekbalpore, Kolkata. Rabia parents worked as daily wagers. Her father being an unskilled labourer moved to Mumbai to work with construction contractors. Ms. Rubina Ahmeds daughter Raya
YOJANA May 2008

is also the same age as Rabia and studies in class VII. Her husband works for the Kolkata Municipal Corporation. Rabia does all the household chores like cooking, washing, cleaning and helping Raya get ready and take her to the bus stop and back. A few months ago Gap pulled its shirt that had been allegedly been made by child labour Why? Mainly, because they knew that their customers would not buy anything made through child labour. Corporates need to have a strong statement making it clear that it does not accept child labour, communicate this to all staff, throughout their supply and manufacturing chain and develop a code of conduct to implement this. The requirements in the code of conduct should be mandatory and should be as stringently applied as any other quality control mechanism. A labour force register should be maintained, with the Date of Birth of all workers. Appropriate assessment methods should be used. If child labour is found in a workplace, a corrective plan of action, within a time bound period should be put in place which should be acted upon by the supplier, manufacturer etc. The child should not be ejected out overnight without any form of rehabilitation in place. If the company fails to comply action must be taken or ties with the sub-contracted manufacturing unit severed. Companies should know about all production sites, including of the sub-contractors and any undisclosed production centre found should be
YOJANA May 2008

considered a violation of the code of conduct. Reach out to the families It is critical to work with the families to ensure they understand the gross violations children will suffer and the short-term benefits of child labour. Families need to be aware of the education schemes and programmes available for all children and be helped to access schools and support their childrens education. Ensure poverty alleviation programmes reach the poorest and the vulnerable families especially in disaster prone areas. Community need to be encouraged to put in place based protection mechanisms (Child Protection Committees) with the involvement of local police stations, ward committees, labour department, NGOs and youth groups in both rural and urban areas to prevent children form entering the work force, and critically to monitor and supervise children once they return Policy documents tell us that children are the wealth of the Nation, our future. Yet we know that at official count approximately 13 million children between the ages 5- 14 are working. The UN says that 55% of the workforce in India is made up of child labour. Over 11 million children are on the streets of India unprotected. And less than 5% of the union budget is allocated to children of which only 0.92% of the Union budget is allocated for child protection. Eight crore children today between the ages of 11-18, have had

no access to primary education, and of the children currently enrolled in primary schools, 50 % drop out before completing the primary cycle. Are these, then, the children who are going to sustain Indias economic growth, is it the children who work in our homes, in the tea shops, in zari sweat shops that will contribute to Indias social and economic development? Or is it just our children who have the right to good schooling, to food, to play, freedom and the innocence of child hood ? When you next see a child remember, childhood comes just once, and for millions of children in India it is stolen far too early. Is ending child labour an impossibility? Can we make it a closer reality rather than a distant dream? Granted, it will not happen overnight, but the time to start is now. In the words of. If not now, then when? If not us, then who? At a time of unprecedented prosperity, we are perhaps the first generation that can make this change for Indias children and for the development of a civilised society. The choice is ours. Its up to us. In a time of unprecedented prosperity, we can be the generation to make that difference, to actually ensure the rights enshrined in our constitution are delivered, that words like equality actually mean something, and that all children actually get an education. We can be the first generation to actually say No to child labour to stop children being exploited or die of hunger. The choice is ours. q
(Email : s.miller@savethechildren.in) 11

Far fewer children missed school in 07

The report, which concentrates on education in rural India, says the number of children in rural India who are going to private schools is increasing. While it was 18.7 per cent in 2006, it increased to 19.3 per cent in 2007. But Pratham says this is related more to affordability rather than the quality of education in government schools. There is an increasing trend here but we cannot say this is a failure of the government machinery. The tendency among the parents is to send their children to private schools as there is a perception that they deliver more, he said. The quality of education is also encouraging. The report says the percentage of children in Class I and II who can read letters, words or more in their own language in 2007 is 78.3 per cent. This was just 73.1 per cent in 2006. Pratham says states like Himachal Pradesh have performed remarkably, which has led to the overall increase. In some states like Himachal Pradesh, the percentage of government school children taking private tuitions has come down in a major way, Chavan said. H o w e v e r, t h e l e v e l o f mathematics education is coming down.The percentage of children from Class III to V who can do simple mathematics like subtraction was 65.2 per cent in 2006. This plunged to 59.4 in 2007. There is still a need for further improvement, says Pratham. The SSA should concentrate on teacher attendance, which has been ignored till now. In Bimaru states, the attendance of children is still very low. This year, much of the time was wasted by states and the Centre in deciding the funding q pattern of the SSA.

he number of children between the age of six and 14 who are out of school is coming down steadily. It was 6.6 per cent in 2006 and has come down to 4.2 per cent in 2007. This is one of the findings of the Annual State of Education Report 2007 released by NGO Pratham. The positive trend can be attributed to some states like Bihar, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh which were performing badly some years back. Now, winds of change are sweeping these states, said Madhav Chavan, director, Pratham. The survey, which covered 267 districts and 16,000 villages, indicates the attendance of chldren and teachers is up. So is the teacherstudent ratio. The positive trends can be attributed to the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), which has focused on building schools and recruiting teachers, Chavan said.

LESS Dropouts, better english

The Annual Status of Education Report 2007
l

59% Class V students in rural Kerala can read simple sentences in English, the survey says, adding that from the Hindi-speaking belt, Himachal Pradesh matches Kerala...while Haryana andBihar also perform relatively well with 47.9% and 41.2%. The dropout rate has dropped to 4.2% from 6.6%, but still only 74% of children on the roster are attending classes 89% of class VIII students in government and private schools in rural areas of West Bengal attend tuition classes. The national average is about 25% 83.3% of class V students in West Bengal took private tuitions. Orissa was next with 50.9%. Less than 5% of the students took tuitions in Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Himachal. But on the flipside, 58% of Class V children cannot divide a three digit number by a one digit number. Maths learning continues to provide bad news, the report says, adding that maths learning ability of students in rural areas is not improving 40% of children in Class II cannot recognise numbers beyond 10 28% rural schools do not have water, 45% dont have toilets
q

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YOJANA May 2008

Child labour
No More Tools in Tiny Hands

analysis

Kailash Satyarthi

hink about a child - dont give her the responsibility to earn a living for her family, dont punish her for being born into poor illiterate family, try not to strangle her freedom with the rope of underdevelopment and poverty, this is not her fault. In 1986, the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act came into force, establishing the awaited framework to abolish child labour in India. Eleven years later, the issue remains unsolved, the legal framework that has been created is openly overlooked by the employers and the enforcement apparatus is still inexistent. The government, in the last notification only recognized 6669 child labourers against the 12.67million child labourers in India. This situation unfolds a series of questions that demand urgent explanations for understanding the gap between

regulation enforcement, poverty and child exploitation. How to address the child labour causes so as to eradicate that practice in India? To what extent legislation can be recalled by the stakeholders, and to what extent can the child current situation be reversed? India has been implicitly recognized as the worlds safe haven for child labour, which is wrongly justified by one of the most recurrent myths behind this problem that falls blindly on the poverty and the underdevelopedc o u n t r y a rg u m e n t , w i t h o u t acknowledging the entangled dynamics surrounding the child labour problem. Some of the misguided justifications for child labour include the idea that poor families need children to contribute economically to their survival, since it may be a priority to have something to eat before even thinking on investing in education or that the cheaper

We have to provide children with an environment for their full and harmonious development
YOJANA May 2008

The author is President, Bachpan Bachao Andolan. 13

cost that child labour implies for employers may contribute for the economic growth of the country. Uttar Pradesh and Kerala are two such states in which percentage of people falling under poverty line is same. But than also, Kerala have 100% literacy and Uttar Pradesh is lacking behind.

as part of the process for policy change. The aforementioned vicious circle interconnects poverty, lack of education and abandonment of human development-led policies, being the last element one of the least understood concepts. The line between poverty and child labour is not direct neither proportional, but certainly important. In this sense, the fact that a big percentage of the population remains under the poverty line certainly increases the propensity to employ children whose parents cannot find jobs because of the lack of opportunities and the lack of professionalization, but it is not exclusive of poor countries but associated to low human development, since education is not widespread, not even in the elementary level, sanitary facilities are limited, opportunities restricted to portion of the population and policies are favouring other priorities which respond to traditional economic development paradigms such as economic growth rates. At the policy making level, the lack of understanding, compromise and connectedness in addressing education, poverty alleviation and child labour is a top-down matter. It starts with intergovernmental organizations and reaches all the way down to local selfgovernance. In policy making, regarding programme delivery, poverty alleviation is now dealt with largely under the umbrella of the Millennium Development

Goals. This work is officially facilitated by the World Bank and the UN Development Programme (UNDP). The World Bank also leads the Education For All Fast Track Initiative, facilitating additional resource mobilization to fill financing gaps for developing countries. Secondly, there is the overall Dakar Education For All (EFA) goal, with UNESCO the lead agency. UNICEF is also undertaking major initiatives to bring girl children into school. Thirdly, the International Labour Organization (ILO) is involved in putting an end to the worst forms of child labour through its Convention 182. H o w e v e r, c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d integration among the three processes are very rare. In relation to multilateral and bilateral aid, developing countries are supposed to implement Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and country plans. Ironically, child labour eradication hardly figures in the PRSP of any country. For the implementation of Education for All, each country is supposed to make concrete and time-bound national action plans to achieve the goals by 2015. But poverty reduction programmes in most countries do not have strong linkages with EFA. he same applies to the work of many civil s o c i e t y o rg a n i z a t i o n s and government institutions at national level. They tend to
YOJANA May 2008

oday six crores children are working. One child labourer is earning approximately Rs 10 per day which means that they all are earning Rupees 60 crore which is just one fifth of GDP of our country. On the other hand if an adult is working than he would be earning six to eight times more. With which he will be able to fulfill his familys needs and send his children to school. This will help our country to be free from unemployment, illiteracy and poverty. This will bring not only social justice and peace in the country but will make it child friendly too. On the other hand we can find some other arguments that in addition to poorly analyzing the problem, they support the child labour as a right under the specific conditions of being well paid and avoiding hazardous situations, claiming that children need some specialized training before becoming active members of the national unprofessional labour force. Each of these statements fails to notice the underlying problem, which is not unidirectional but multilayered, and implies a vicious circle that can derive into a virtuous one if and only if coordination, conceptualization and proper acknowledgment is internalized

14

run projects on child labour with a narrow vision, whereas this work should be located within the broader economic environment affecting families and communities, the state of labour markets, poverty-related policies, existing development paradigms, and processes of trade liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation. However this vicious circle can be reversed by the triangular paradigm, which involved in a horizontal effort, poverty alleviation, education and child labour eradication. Those who believe that the problem of child labour can be solved merely by the enforcement of laws should know that it is not so simple. Free, quality, meaningful and compulsory education is one of the most effective (preventive, curative, rehabilitative) and sustainable strategies for the eradication of child labour. The situation therefore demands that we build a triangular development paradigm and translate it into action. All agencies, governments and ministries need a better understanding of the push-pull factors that link child labour, education, and poverty. We need systematic approaches to addressing all three issues together through a range of models and schemes. In addition to suffering severe economic hardships, families are disintegrating. The outcome

includes increased child labour, rising drop-out rates and even juvenile delinquency. These issues are not fully captured in the poverty alleviation strategies. An anti-poverty, child-friendly strategy must pay greater attention to converge with other policies on education and the elimination of child labour. Education For All and the elimination of child labour should find a prominent focus in poverty alleviation programmes. A multi-dimensional approach consisting of awareness building and consciousness raising, community participation, alternative and viable social economic rehabilitation, and enforcement of national and international legal instruments in relation to children and other similar plans is needed for linking the elimination of child labour with the overall poverty alleviation and education strategies. There is need for a synergy in policy planning and programmes that addresses these three vital issues that affect the lives of millions of children for a sustainable development. Bachpan Bachao Andolan after its inception in 1980 has rescued more than 75,000 child and bonded labourers through the most dangerous and life threatening raids and are in close contact hundreds of thousands of children. The clear response from these children and their families

has been No more child labour. Look at 14-year-old Bunty who won the Pogo Amazing Kids Leadership Award 2007, which was awarded to him by Hindi Film Superstar Aamir Khan. This former child labourer had worked in a brick kiln in Tirasi village, Madhepura district, Bihar and was rescued in 2001 by BBA activists at the tender age of seven. After having been rehabilitated in Bal Ashram he went back to his village and helped enrol 60 children in Government school, Madhepura. For this and other work, he was awarded the Pogo Amazing Kids Leadership Award. The award carries a citation and the award money of Rs. 500,000. During the award ceremony, he won the hearts of the children, audience and the celebrities present with his innocent yet precocious words, parents give birth, but it is each one of us who carves our space in this world with our deeds; the fruits of good work are always good. As Bunty says the focus will also be to promote a better cooperation and understanding between policy planners, children and advocacy groups working on childrens behalf. We adults have a commitment to provide all children of this world with an environment for their full and harmonious development to lead a life in the spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance, freedom, equality and solidarity. q
(Email : kailashsatyarthi@gmail.com)

Due to unavoidable reasons, the column Economic Indicators is suspended for the time being. Chief Editor
YOJANA May 2008 15

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YOJANA May 2008

YE-5/08/10 (DCA-1/12)

One of the children rescued from a sweatshop in a colony in Delhi

Expenditure between 2005-07 under The National Child Labour Project (NCLP)
In Rs. States AP Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana J&K Jharkhand Karnataka M.P. Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu U.P. Uttarakhand West Bengal Total
YOJANA May 2008

2004-05 2,32,220,831 6,86,500 2,82,05,834 2,308,0814 5,92000 21,53500 4,58,500 4,58,500 19,285,773 33,101,388 44,521,226 16,848,418 131,264,355 18,404,902 44,303,713 72,462,692 70,736,376 61,368 74,236,099 813,082,789

2005-06 2,11,610,829 1,246,8000 4,338,6910 36,857,738 0 44,04,800 171,8000 5,92000 37,280,078 50,651,674 36,826,745 19,255,655 134,419,118 15,528,577 68,613,939 98,404,201 15,189,2537 t59,2000 83,128,311 100,763,1112

2006-07 1,41,635,611 1,240,3500 14,267,9960 31,107,540 0 15,549,200 0 0 18,382,939 52,567,717 29,409,567 27,828,784 110,792,590 90,20,900 11,626,9919 62,730,916 18,664,7881 0 99,140,687 105,616,7711
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CHILD LABOUR
Problems and Solutions

view point

Meghnad Desai

he q uestion o f child labour in India is a complex one. At one level, there can be no excuse for employing children who should be enjoying the normal pleasures of a childs lifeschooling, playing, friendships and their parents company. India is far short of guaranteeing all its children that ideal first best situation. Some people may argue that children not working is not at all natural or even desirable. They consider the criticism of child labour as a Western fashion adopted by the developed countries who have had the benefits of child labour during their growing period and are now acting holier than thou. I do not agree with this perspective at all. It may be good for children to combine education with work. After all Gandhijis Basic Education Scheme required this. It may also be that there is an element of putting non-tariff barriers on the part of rich countries when they object to child labour.

Better it is to focus on the deprivation of education and health and fix that
18

The issue is whether we can give children a choice whether to work or not, and also as to the conditions under which they work. The tragedy of child labour is that children are compelled to work, due to poverty mainly, but also because some craftsmen families routinely induct children into work which they carry out at home. This work in zari production or carpet weaving or bidi making is hazardous and may permanently maim a child or make him/her myopic. Thus, while work may be good for all, it has to be asked whether the work is voluntary, and whether it is harmless. There are enough laws on the statute book to prevent exploitation of children. But we all know that child labour is a reality. It is also true that as far as many employers are concerned, there is no shame in employing children. We use them as domestic labour, often saying proudly how well we take care of them, and how we help them out with extra money for special

The author is emeritus Professor at the London School of Economics and a member of British House of Lords. YOJANA May 2008

occasions. We argue that if children dont work they would starve . Hence by employing them, we are preventing starvation and poverty.

he answer to the problem of child labour is not easy. This is because not only is there no widespread feeling that it is illegal or even immoral, but many applaud it as good in itself. Of course, children work because they come from poor families. Of course, they could starve if they did not work. It is also true that despite the best intentions on part of the government, prevention will be difficult. The answer in my view is to turn the question on its head. Let us not ask whether children should work or not. We should ask what are the things that a working child is deprived of ? The most important things in view of his/ her future life are health and education. Working from a young age could be harmful to health, and it takes a child away from school. A child, who is deprived of these things, will grow up to be an adult, ill-equipped to earn a decent living. Thus, while current poverty may drive children to work, it does nothing to cure their future poverty. Thus, the first guideline about child labour is to ask if we can ensure that whether in work or not, a child gets schooling and that the child gets a health check regularly. Both these things are easier said than done since primary schools often dont have teachers and primary health centres are understaffed. My proposal is to make it worthwhile for the employers of children to seek these things. Every child who works should get a health check every fortnight from a certified primary health care centre

or equivalent, and for doing that the employer should be paid a sum of money. Similarly, employers should be encouraged, either to provide itinerant teachers at workplace or if they employ enough children, they should provide schooling facility on the premises. For doing these things, employers should be paid a subsidy per child educated. It may sound shocking to say that employers of children should be subsidised. But the subsidy is not for employing them, but for filling the gaps which are there in the childs life, and which will affect its future development. Paying sums of money to ensure that these gaps are filled with proper inspection and indeed hoping it is effective gives the employers incentive to do the right things. Sticks do not work ; carrots may just work. This would require creating a special cadre of itinerant teachers and paramedics, who would visit workplaces and look after children. Yet that is the best way to deliver the education and health needs effectively at the place of work. Of course, another way is to pay the parents of working children the same subsidies for ensuring health and education. In many cases, parents are also employers . Here there is no contradiction. If a way could be found to ensure that parents will satisfy their childrens health and education needs , such a supplement is the best of both worlds. Poor parents dont need to take children away from work, and, at the same time, they are encouraged to look after the needs of their children. What I propose above is not the first best which is to take all children away from work. It accommodates itself to the problem. A better way in the same spirit would be to create

child benefits, which will be paid only if children are in school, and if they receive regular health check ups ( at school if possible ). This would be a payment per child to a family. To make it effective and cheat proof, it should be paid to all parents, rich or poor. Rich parents may not claim it, but middle income and poor parents will claim it. A child benefit can be calibrated to compensate parents to keep their children away from work and in schools. There are no free lunches in economics; there is not even fast food. Thus, the proposals will have side effects which are negative. The costs of employing children will go up, and some firms may go out of business. While this may be welcomed by some, many employers of children are themselves small firms struggling to stay in business. If the subsidy is paid to them, then this negative impact is avoided. If parents are paid, then there may be a withdrawal of labour. This situation should be foreseen, and some alleviation formula should be found for the employers. It is a fallacy to think that the employers of child labour are invariably fat cats who make hugh profits from employing children. f course the subsidies or benefits will have to be devised carefully, and they will take some time to work. This is where my fast food argument comes sin. There is no instant solution to the child labour problem since it is just another form of the poverty of the country. Quick fix solutions like banning child labour will not work and may cause much misery. Better it is to focus on the deprivation of education and health and fix that. q
(Email : m.desai@lse.ac.uk) 19

YOJANA May 2008

What the Constitutions says

n

Article 21A casts a duty on the State to provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six and 14 years in such manner as the State, may, by law, determine. Article 24 of the Constitution says: No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment. Article 39(f) of the Constitution says: The State shall, in particular direct its policies towards securing that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 in factories, mines and in other forms of hazardous employment.

And child labour on

Childhood Lost
Bihar Chandigarh Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Kerala Orissa Rajasthan Punjab Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

How the States fared

Inspections conducted 183 71 127 2,000 10,389 434 6,491 4,479 154 371 1,142 1,683 336 1,669 983 Violations detected 113 0 26 2 2 6 316 12 200 14 162 20 4 556 15 Action taken 20 0 12 0 0 6 19 1 0 0 23 2 0 0 6
l l

The Law: On October 10, 2006, the Centre banned the employment of all children below 14 years of age in dhabas/hotels, as domestic help in homes and in any form in the hospitability industry. A massive awareness campaign was launched with the help of NGOs.

In some states, rescued children were sent back to their parents or guardians or admiitted in government homes and schools Many states are yet to file a single case against those tho violated the law, or file a status report on the action taken
YOJANA May 2008

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YOJANA May 2008

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best practices
Children as change makers
Kiran Sharma

Taking on Responsibility : Bal panchayats have been successful in sending children from 220 villages back to school

Balpanchayats are spreading messages on environmental, health sanitation and gender equity issues

eepak, a 12-yearold from Chinchtakli village in Gangakhed block of Parbhani district (Maharashtra) had to drop out of school due to his familys poverty. Deepaks father had taken a loan for his sisters marriage and the family was deeply in debt. Deepak had to help bring in extra income by rearing goats belonging to other households, along with the familys goats. For this work, he received Rs 500 per month. In early 2007, Deepak story came to the knowledge of Datta Jadhav, a field worker of an NGO called Socio Economic Development Trust (SEDT) working in the region. SEDT has been involved with childrens issues for over 25 years. But it works in unconventional ways. Datta Jadhav did not directly appeal to Deepaks parents, to put him back into school. Instead, a subtle campaign was launched by the young members

of balpanchayats, or childrens forums, in the village. Taking turns, the balpanchayat members befriended Deepak and told him about the fun they had in school. They also spoke about the vital role of education. Enthused by their talk, Deepak borrowed the childrens text books, and started to read as the goats grazed. Then SEDT and the balpanchayat organised a school enrolment programme in the village. Deepak was asked to be present at the rally. Subsequently he and his parents were persuaded to attend a blocklevel rally held in June 2007. All this had the desired impact on Deepaks father. He decided that a long-term investment in Deepaks future was wiser than making him work. He sold the familys goats. And today Deepak is in class VI, back with his friends. In a similar way, balpanchayats have helped bring children back to school in a number of villages in Parbhani district. Under a

The author is Director, Poorest Areas Civil Society (PACS) Programme. 22 YOJANA May 2008

project of the Poorest Areas Civil Society (PACS) Programme, bal panchayats initiated by SEDT have ensured that around 220 villages in Parbhani district are `shala-bahar mukt-- all children are in school and the village is completely free of child labour. Each balpanchayat has 20-30 enthusiastic children from class V to class VII who have volunteered to work for the benefit of the village. After dialogue with the children, systematic training is undertaken. The children are informed about basic child rights--like right to education and right to play. They are also familiarised with SEDTs pivotal vision--making the child and the school the focus of the villages development. Balpanchayats along with other community bodies like mahila gathans (womens groups), village education committees and youth groups work to bring children back to school. As 10-year-old Mukta Ingle of Sategaon says, We tell parents if your child works, he or she will get only Rs 25 per day but if you send him to school, he will get the world. A future is assured. Balpanchayats along with other community bodies also help retain children in school, by making it an attractive place. With minimal funds obtained from government programmes, schools have been beautified and turned into exciting environments. Balpanchayats are also spreading messages on environmental, health and sanitation and gender equity issues in a region that has q officially been designated backward.
(Email : kiransharma@gmail.com) YOJANA May 2008 23

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CHILD LABOUR
Change of Societal Attitude Imperative

opinion

Dhurjati Mukherjee

Children are the future Torch-bearers of the country and they have to be cared and nurtured properly

hild labour represents a fundamental abuse of child rights and a violation of international and national laws. Many working children who are employed as bonded labourers or prostitutes are engaged in occupations that negatively affect their physical, mental or moral well-being and are below their countrys minimum age for employment. Meanwhile reports of rampant physical abuse of children in various ways have been received from different countries, including India. South Asia is the home to the largest number of child labourers in the world. Even the most conservative estimates suggest that there are 30 million children at work in the Regions five large countries. However the intensity of the problem is highest in the Sub-Saharan Africa where 20 to 30 per cent children under 15 are

at work compared to 19-20 per cent in Asia. Similarly within South Asia, the intensity of child labour varies with India having the largest number of such workers. But it needs to be pointed out that. most of these children work to support their families due to dire necessity. Despite legislative and policy measures and institutions geared to addressing child labour, its magnitude in the Region has not declined. This indicates that more needs to be done in making poverty-focused programmes effective as also spreading the network of basic education to the rural and backward areas of the Region, which unfortunately has not been accomplished to the extent necessary. There are powerful arguments for elimination of child labour for only then can a healthy society take shape. Not only is child labour an effect of poverty, it is also a major

The author is associated with, State Habitat & Environment Forum, Kolkata. 28 YOJANA May 2008

cause of poverty, as is indicated by the long-term inverse relationship between child labour and a countrys per capita income. In a study by the World Bank (1998), it was found that countries with an annual per capita income of US$ 500 or less (at 1987 prices) the labour force participation rate of children aged 10-14 was 30-60 per cent compared to only 10-30 per cent in countries with an annual per capita income of $ 500-1000. Another study by the International Labour Organization (!La, 2003), which was the fist integrated analysis of the economic costs and benefits of eliminating child labour, found that the benefits of such elimination in Asia would be nearly seven times greater than the costs. The reduction of child labour would also help achieve the health and education aspects of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Indian Perspective The Hindi belt, including Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, commonly known as the BIMARU states, account for a chunk of the 1.27 crore working children in the country, engaged in both hazardous and non-hazardous occupations and processes. The maximum number of over 19 lakh child labour in the 5-14 age group is Uttar Pradesh. Rajasthan accounts for over 12.6 lakh workers followed by Bihar (over 11 lakh) and Madhya Pradesh (10.6 lakh). Howeyer, according to the 2001 census, in state-wise distribution of working children in the 5-14 age
YOJANA May 2008

group, Andhra Pradesh with 13.6 lakh child labour stands second in the national list after U. P. According to a Unicef report, World s Children 2006, India has the largest number of working children and 17 per cent of them are under the age of 15 and girls aged 12-13 are the preferred choice of 90 per cent households. Noting that all children should have access to quality education, the ILO believes that universal access to schooling is a key component in ending child labour and their exposure to violence in the work place. In India, the problem has received the needed attention, specially in recent years. The Ministry of Labour has asked the Planning Commission for about Rs 1500 crores to cover all the 600 districts under the National Child Labour Project (NCLP) as against the 250 at present. It may be mentioned here that the NCLP, launched in 1988 to rehabilitate working children, has been the largest programme of the Labour Ministry. It would now be the countrys biggest project to cover 1.25 crore child labourers. According to the Ministry, children working in 57 hazardous industries and in dhabas and homes (in the 9-14 age group) would be covered under the project. Non governmental organizations (NGOs) would be authorized to open residential schools for 40 children in each district to bring them back to the mainstream. Schools are expected to be opened in most districts after a detailed survey by a district

level committee, headed by a / strict Collector, who would also monitor the scheme. The students in these schools, which would be set up near the chills endemic areas, would get stipend of Rs 100 from the government every month. They would be covered under other government schemes like the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA), the officials of the Human Resource Development Ministry pointed out. Meanwhile with effect from October 10, 2006 hospitality industry and domestic helps have been put under child labour regulations as the government is determined to check this menace. Also the recent enactment of Offences against Children Act (drawn up in 2006) is expected to help a great deal in looking at the welfare of children. In fact, the country has woken up to the need for a comprehensive strategy to tackle child labour as also deal with various types of crimes perpetrated against children. It may be mentioned that India is a signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and it had the document ratified in 1992. Article 19 of the UN Convention of the Rights of the Child mentions: State parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence including sexual abuse Such effective measures should include effective procedures
29

for the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support for the child. But it took the country 13 years to formulate a law in which sexual offences are brought to the fore and it is not known when such offences would be curbed with an iron hand. It is generally agreed that children being the most vulnerable sections of society have been the soft target for large-scale human trafficking. In fact, child trafficking is happening for different legal and illegal purposes. These children, mostly coming from poor and backward communities, have no other option but to join such work and then are exploited in different ways at the whims and fancies of the people engaged in this illegal trade. Children are forced to work in circuses, in factories, in hotels, engaged in forced prostitution or sexual exploitation, drug peddling and smuggling. Besides, they are also forced to work as bonded labourers, domestic help, agricultural labour, spot boys etc. Despite all talks to bail them out of inhuman conditions, successive governments over the years have been a mute spectator to the oppression against children. It would be interesting to know that, as per findings of the International Organization for Migration (IMO), the global human industry generates up to $ 8 billion each year. The report has further pointed out that an estimated 500070000 young girls between the 5 to 10 age group are trafficked
30

into India every year. The South Asian and the South East Asian region has been the centre for large scale trafficking of children, specially young girls for sexual exploitation. Apart from this aspect, the employment of children in hazardous industries is another cause for concern. The mining industry is one such sector as a result of which child labour is rampant in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Of course, other affected states include Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan that are traditionally the BIMARU regions of the country. Challenges It is widely felt that only legislative measures would not cut down the various offences against children. This is because not much has happened. Questions have arisen why the labour inspectors are not being stringent in bringing the violators to book. Why arent they asked to submit time-bound reports on the enforcement of the law? Child labour is not an isolated problem. Many ministries such as labour, education and women and child welfare would have to coordinate to make sense of the spirit behind the law. There is need for large-scale social infrastructure development that is, special emphasis on education and health. Moreover strong political will and involvement of the community would be greatly necessary to curb child exploitation and ensure their attendance in

school, at least till they reach the age of 14. In this regard, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs and community based organizations (CBOs) would have a vital role to play and the government should enlist their support in a bigger way to make inroads in the backward regions of the country. The Tenth Plan pledge of all children being in school could not be achieved due to various obstacles and it is expected that this would become a reality by the end of the Eleventh Plan. One may mention here that other targets of completion of five years of / schooling by 2007 and a 50 per cent reduction of the gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by 2007 could also not be achieved. Even the government has admitted to its failure in the MidTerm Appraisal and underlined the urgency of addressing violence against children and refers to major problems of childrens security, emphasizing the greater vulnerability of girls. There is no doubt an imperative need for strong political will in this regard and strong partnerships with the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and CBOs who should be given major part of the work in ensuring that children are assured of their rights. It is well known that these organizations work with the community and their ability to penetrate and carry out the desired work is well known The children are the future torch-bearers of the country and if they are not cared and nurtured properly, the future may not be all that encouraging. q
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CHILD LABOUR
Myth and Reality

view point

Subhash Sharma Devendra Mishra

The Government and all its agencies should look at child labour eradication not as sympathy but as a social necessity
The authors are senior civil servants. 32

oday at the national and international scene, the ever growing middle class in general is enthusiastic about the attractive and provocative song and dance programmes of Michael Jackson, Hritik Roshan, Rakhi Sawant and others, or is mesmerized by ads like Thanda Matlab Coca Cola, Yeh Pyas Hai Badi and so on. It is busy in watching reality shows, laughter shows, Jack pots, K.B.C., or mega serials like Kahani Ghar Ghar Ki, Kasauti Zindagi Ki, Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi, etc. on T.V. screens, or it is happy that Amitabh Bachchan was awarded a doctorate degree honoris causa (by Delhi and Leicester Universities) for his contribution to Indian cinema following which the Big B is generously handing out autographs to the crowd of teachers, researchers and students of Delhi University. It is overjoyed to see the big malls and chain of stores of international standard at various metropolitan cities of India and considers these as a yardstick of Indias prosperity.

It is delighted to note that Laxmi Niwas Steel Mitta, Tata Jindal, Azim Premji, Ambani and several others have emerged as global industrialists and their names have figured in the Fortune and Forbes. It is jubilant that Indian girls like Aishwariya Ray, Priyanka Chopra and Sushmita Sen were crowned Miss World or Miss Universe and the whole world has recognized the Indian beauty. It is proud of Indian software technology under the able leadership of Narayan Murty, is extremely happy that the sensex is constantly scaling new heights and, therefore, India would emerge as a developed country on the world map very soon. It is highly impressed with the new magic bullets of liberalization, privatization and globalisation (LPG) as a panacea for all. the ills of Indian economy and society. But unfortunately such a huge middle class, not to talk of the small but most powerful upper class, is actually a confused lot. It mistakes mineral water for purity, cold/soft drinks for healthy snacks, laughter

YOJANA May 2008

show for happiness, rise in sensex for economic development, an oasis of the well to do selected persons/ sections as social development, and virtual reality for the social reality. he conscience of the upper and middle classes is not shaken when they see children of 5 to 14 years of tender age working day and night in different activities ranging from agriculture to manufacturing and service sectors, losing out on their childhood. At first they do not even consider children working in agriculture as a form of child labour because, in their view, agriculture is the given or natural culture and context of their life or because it is not considered hazardous to them. Similarly they consider domestic child labour as non-hazardous hence it is to be continued. Further they perceive that girls are meant for doing domestic chores and taking care of their siblings. But these are myths that need to be demystified and dejargonised for calling spade a spade.

is associated with the latter. Further, it deprives children of education and restricts them to the traditional and hereditary tasks only.
=

That child labour is inevitable and irreplaceable. Such notion is blemished because many developed countries of Europe have eliminated child labour and even in Kerala (South India) the magnitude of child labour is extremely low. That child labour is essential for learning new skills and techniques and childhood the appropriate age for learning. But actually there is no fixed age for learning, rather it is a life-long process. Learning skill as a child labour at a tender age results into educational deprivation and perpetuation of low-income job forever. That child labour cannot be eliminated till the income poverty is totally eliminated. But this at best, is a halftruth. For elimination of child labour, distribution and proper management of fund as well as good governance is more important than the total eradication of poverty in one go. Kerala is a suitable example in this regard. That inequality is given and inevitable, hence child labour is essential for social cohesion, harmony and equilibrium. This is not true because inequality is more of a socio-economic and political creation than a natural one. Inequality actually leads to social tension and disharmony and child labour reflects such an inequality.

leading adult lives, working with or without wages, under conditions damaging their physical, social, emotional and spiritual development, denying them their basic rights to education, health and development. This includes children working in any sector, occupation or process, including the formal and non-formal, organized and unorganized, within or outside the family Thus we believe that any child who is deprived of school education is an example of child labour even if he/she is not working outside the family. The domestic child labour in India. Governmet. of India (Ministry of Labour) has banned the domestic child labour/servants along with child labour in teashop, dhaba, restaurant and entertainment centers with effect from 10th October 2006, through a notification (in total 15 occupations and 59 industrial processes have been declared hazardous for children below 14 years). Consequently, if child labour is found in such activities the employers will be penalized with one year imprisonment or a fine of twenty thousand rupees or both. Here domestic child labour means paid work by children for others outside the family. They are engaged in various tasks which families have to do as a routine like washing clothes and utensils, cleaning the house (including the outdoor front and toilets), fetching water, cooking, marketing, taking grains to flour mills for grinding, baby sitting, elders care, looking after the pets as well as gardens, taking children to schools, grazing and tending cattle, etc. Following characteristics of domestic child labour are notable here:
l

Social and intellectual myths

=

That

childhood is part and parcel of every individuals personality and it is not separable from adulthood. This however, is as incorrect premise because childhood is not only a separate category but also the golden period for formation of personality and children are the future citizens of every societychild is the father of man.

That child labour is necessary for the socialization of children-learning the ins and outs of new expected roles and functions with positive effect. This too, is not wholly true because there is a distinction between socialization and exploitation and child labour

Hence we tend to agree with a broad definition of child labour to include: children prematurely

Most of the activities that child labourers carry out relate to drudgery, monotony, dirt and
33

YOJANA May 2008

fiith;
l l

Domestic child labourers have to work for long hours; They get nominal or little wages for their onerous work-almost 1/3 to 1/2 of the adult wages; They are pressurized to be perfect in the work they carry out; They are invariably punished even for petty loss/damage in terms of physical torture or economic compensation or both; There is insider-outsider, privileged and deprived as well as employer-servant relationship between all the family members (including children) on the one hand and domestic child labourers on the other; They are denied access to the place of worship or rooms or valuables in the house. They take care of the requirements of children of employers family forgetting their own childhood, thus these exists a paradox for taking care of employers children the child labourers are supposed to act in matured ways like adults whereas regarding payment of wages or facilities the employers treat them as merely children. This often results in role-conflict. There is no reciprocity of trust and love between the employer and the employed child labour. Girl domestic child labourers are preferred to boys (e.g. in Kumbharwada, Bhavnagar, Gujarat more than 85% of all domestic workers are girls) because they are more docile, they are the least demanding, they can move to female members rooms, they could be

easily given the work of washing of females under garments there is no threat of sexual assault on girls of employers family, they can easily mix up with the girls of the family and so on. Such a preference is grounded in the gender division of labour in a patriarchal society.
l

l The

domestic child labourers face restrictions on dress or watching T.V., listening to radio, going out for entertainment or gossip, etc. like-in domestic child labourers get holiday only once or twice a year. monthly wages of live-in domestic child workers ranges between 500 to 1000 rupees in addition to fooding, lodging and clothes whereas that of part-time domestic child workers ranges between 100 to 300 rupees a month depending on hours of work or number of tasks performed. domestic child workers suffer from TB, cough, fever, skin diseases, back pain, burn, asthma, etc. due to the dirt, dust and unhealthy environment. of the domestic child labour belongs to the subaltern groups (lower castes/classes communities) in our society.

l The

Further among the girls tribal girls are usually preferred as they talk less and work more and are more docile and sincere. child labour-part time or non-resident child workers doing one or two hours of sweeping, washing or cooking and resident or live-in child labourers who stay at the house of the employer and get food, clothes, etc. (or inferior quality) in addition to salary. They work 12 to 16 hours daily (but are on call for 24 hours) they are overburdened with work and tend to be more victimized.

l The

l There are two types of domestic

l Many

l Most

l Often

domestic child labourers are sexually exploited by the employer or his sons/cousins/ nephews or even by others while going to shops, flour mills, fetching water and so on. are prohibited to keep child labourers as per their conduct rules, they often keep them. A study by Arunodaya in Chennai found that 26% of all the domestic child labourers in city work in Goverment employees houses despite State Govts ban on it. the employers of domestic child labour almost half are usually factory owners and businessmen, 25% Government employees, 20% professionals (like advocates, engineers and doctors) and 5% others.

l Though Government employees

The question arises whether domestic child labour can be fully eradicated, and if so, how? First and foremost it is our firm belief that all kinds of child labour can be abolished-including domestic child labour. It is no doubt a challenging task but not impossible. Following measures are required for the elimination of domestic child labour. First, advocacy and awareness generation is the beginning of the process of elimination of domestic child labour. Since it is largely the houses of the educated upper and middle class families where child labour is much in vogue, such families need to be sensitized about the ills of child labour. Second, as Rammurti Committee 1993 (appointed by the Government
YOJANA May 2008

l Among

34

of India) had pointed out, there should be focus on early childhood care and pre-school childcare through creches, Anganvadis/ Balwadis. ICDS projects should be strengthened and streamlined. In urban areas most of the domestic child labour hail from migrant families residing in slums, hence special attention is to be given to children in slums through Anganbadis and schools. Third, the quality and mode of education provided at primary and middle school levels is distractive and non-inclusive. The education system, due to its stereotype curriculum, archaic methods, lack of qualified teachers, shortage of teachers, and lack of infrastructural facilities like building, toilet, playing ground, sports facilities, black boards, drinking water and so on excludes the poor children either in the beginning itself or in the middle period as drop-outs. The education system should be made child-centered, problem posing, flexible and full of cocurricular activities so that children are liberated and consceintised. Minimum level of learning is to be ensured and instead of pass-fail, grade system should be introduced. The rescued child labourers should be admitted to the government schools in appropriate standards so that they enjoy freedom from fear from the closed formal schools. Shanta Sinha (now Chairperson, National Child Rights Protection Commission) and her MV Foundation (Andhra Pradesh) have successfully implemented this mode of mainstreaming through a bridge course for the rescued child labourers in Andhra Pradesh. This needs to be scaled up and replicated elsewhere. Fourth, the rescued domestic child labourers also have a sense
YOJANA May 2008

of freedom from family and neighbourhood, hence they should be engaged more in innovative project works in schools/alternative centres and be given opportunities to visit places of historical, cultural and social importance to get inspiration from them. Fifth, there is a need to enhance adult wages so that the children of such wage earners are not compelled to work as domestic help (or in other tasks) for additional income, It is so because child workers are cheap in comparison to adults. In the age of globalisation, liberalization and privatization, public sector jobs have drastically declined, and labour laws have been relaxed and deregulated due to lobbying from industrialists (especially to attract foreign direct investment), hence there is a tendency for informalisation and contractualisation of jobs. Therefore these anti-labour trends should be stopped by the State in the interest of the working class by providing medical, insurance, food security and social security facilities to the marginal people at large. Sixth, there should be a genuine commitment on the part of labour enforcement machinery, on the other hand, and political will, on the other, to the spirit of Indian constitution which provides under Directive Principles that children should not be forced to work hard which is against their tender age.. The officials concerned should be sensitised about the legal machinery and the practical strategies suitable to local conditions for the implementation of the law banning domestic child labour Seventh, it is also significant that land reforms should be seriously implemented in backward States like Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh etc. in letter and spirit because the

landless families migrate from these deficit rural areas due to push factors to urban areas in search of jobs and usually their sons and daughters start working as domestic helps because earning by the adults are not sufficient for the whole family basic needs. However, it is emphasized that abolition of child labour and universal school education are not dependent on the level of per capita income or level of industrialization or socioeconomic status of families as Kerala has achieved near universal schooling and a very low incidence of child labour at a relatively low level of per capita income. Finally, Article 24 of Indian Constitution says that children below 14 years of age will not be employed in hazardous works/ factories. This indirectly implies that they may be employed in nonhazardous works. But actually for children all works are hazardous if they are deprived of education, games and childhood. Hence Article 24 should be amended and for children all works be declared hazardous. Further it should be added therein that child means a person below 18 years of age. If we have clear goals, proper initiative and spirit to eradicate the domestic child labour, it can be done sooner or later as every problem has a solution, Human beings often create problems due to systemic or individual reasons but they can solve them also provided they have strong will power to so. The time has come to eradicate the stigma of child labour in all forms, from different places in the country. India cannot become a developed nation unless we remove the child labour totally. We have to expose those who have written the destiny of child labourers with thorns, thereby crushing and restraining
35

these buds from flowering and fruit-bearing. This is not wishful thinking, but it is backed by the Indian Constitution. Article 21 of Indian Constitution provides for right to life and personal liberty but unfortunately the domestic child labourers are deprived of the same. Further, Article 21A after the 86th amendment provides education of children (6-14 years) as a fundamental right but unfortunately domestic child labourers are usually literate. Further article 39(e), a Directive principle of State Policy, provides that the tender age children are not to be abused, that is, they should not be forced to do work which is against their strength and tender age. Again Article 39(f),

another Directive principle, makes it obligatory on the State to direct its policy towards securing the health and strength of children and that they are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner. But unfortunately the Government of India did not implement a rehabilitation package for the domestic child, labourers who were not to work since 10 October, 2006 as per the new provision. Actually as Supreme Court had rightly directed that the employer has to pay 20,0001rupees for engaging child labour in hazardous activities, and secondly the State Government has to provide employment to the adult member of

child labours family in nearby area and if no employment 50001- rupees be deposited in a fund maintained by the District Collector) and from its interest child is to be supported, similar provision should be made for rescued domestic child labour. It is sad that a lot of money was spend on advertisement declaring domestic child labour illegal since 10 October, 2006 but not a single raid has been conducted in this regard. Hence the Government and all its agencies should look at child labour eradication not as sympathy but as a social necessity for a better nation, q which is possible.
(Email : sush84BR@yahoo.com)

Social audit soon to check for child labour

August last year, it was possible for anyone to lodge a complaint with regard to child labour being used in an export to that country. This had obvious implications for India, as the law could be used by activists as well as commercial rivals. If a case is registered and it goes into the US legal process, it can be very time consuming. The government was also spurred into action by exposes in the British media last year of children working under abominable conditions in Delhis Shahpur Jat area for a sub-contractor to the wellknown apparel retailer Gap. There is concern that lax implementation of anti-child labour laws would leave exports vulnerable to bans. What is also worrying the government is that there are no concerted efforts to check use of children as labour. Even after adverse exposure in international media, the attitude of suppliers and sub-contractors has been unrepentant and it is also not clear to what extent exporters take the trouble of ensuring that they do not fall afoul of laws in US and other western nations. This is an era of traceability and EPCs (need) to examine supply chains in their industries. The entire process of a social audit needs to be completely transparent and be made a public document. The government has decided that the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights chairperson Shanta Sinha would interact with EPCs on a quarterly basis to monitor that action points identified are implemented. The commission will examine how plans for elimination of child labour in areas like Varanasi, Bhadohi (carpets), Jalandhar (sports goods) and Surat and Bhavnagar (gems and jewellery) are progressing. The government hopes to involve child rights NGOs in the social audit and such organizations have already been consulted. The external audits which will be set up have to work with local administration on issues arising out of employment of children belonging to migrant communities and children subjected to trafficking. q
YOJANA May 2008

oving swiftly to avoid being rapped for child labour under a US gazette notification issued last year, the government expects perspective plans covering entire supply chains in sensitive exports like gems, sports goods, apparel, carpets and handicrafts to be ready within a month. The plans aim to institute a social audit which makes manufacturing processes in industries likely to be found violative of child labour laws subject to external scrutiny, the results of which will be put up on websites of export promotion councils (EPCs). The clean certificates are seen to be a preemptive measures against action in the US. We have to look at the supply chains. This means that even if a carpet manufacturer is not using child labour, exports could be hit as the supplier of zari that goes into the product is found to be using children. The US notification had substantially expanded the area of scrutiny with regard to child labour. Under the US law, enacted in
36

J&K Window
Kashmiri women as peacemakers
efore the partition of the country in 1947, Kashmiri women had little social role to play. While those belonging to the aristocratic families would remain confined to their homes, the rural women would participate in almost every domestic and agricultural chores - working in the fields, harvesting of paddy and so on with their men. But even this active role did not give them complete economic independence and higher social status as it was predominately a patriarchal society. They always remained under-represented in political and decision-making position; hence there could not be a perpetuation of policies and practices that could serve the needs of women. After independence, Kashmiri women got a boost when reforms took place in various fields, including education, which brought women out of the shackles. Encouraged and motivated by the state government, many women took up jobs in various fields during the past 60 years. But even in these six decades, a strong womens political activism is still not visible on part of the Kashmiri women. Women in the Valley are not only underrepresented in political and social life, but the conservative Kashmiri society is the main barrier and constraint in their participation. Ironically, in the 89-member state Assembly, there are just three women members. While Ms Kanta Andotra of the Congress is an
YOJANA May 2008

Kavita Suri
elected legislator, she is in politics by virtue of being the wife of the Congress Member of Parliament, Mr Lal Singh, who vacated his seat for his wife when he won the parliamentary election. The other two, Ms khem Lata Vakhloo and Ms Shanti Devi, are nominated members. As professor Hari Om, a former head of the history department, University of Jammu, and member, Indian Council for Historical research (ICHR), puts it: The only visible face in Kashmir politics has been that of Begum Sheikh Abdullah, wife of Sheikh Abdullah who became a member of Parliament twice, but that too by virtue of being the Sheikhs wife. And now, Ms Mehbooba Mufti, MP, president of the Peoples Democratic Party and the daughter of former Jammu and Kashmir chief minister Mufti Sayeed. Prof Hari Om feels that these handful of women have been able to carve out some political space only because of their political family background. Political patronage or background may be alright but what the Kashmiri women have witnessed in the past 17 years of violence in the Valley is something different. They have not only lived through political turbulence but also negotiated and renegotiated their roles in the conflict that also does not remain static but keeps on changing. In these past few years, the women have donned a new role; they came out of their houses to work in the absence of their menfolk who became prey to the mindless violence, thus breaking the stereotypes related to women, especially in the background that they had no work experience and were forced to support their families and take over as head of the family. This clearly gives us an insight into the fact that they arent the passive recipients of conflict as most of the agencies see them to be, but have an inborn, innate resilience, the will to survive in the most challenging of situations. But then has anyone pondered over why women are not part of the dialogue processes that are now unfolding in the terrorism hit state? No Kashmiri women, except the high profile PDP president, Ms Mehbooba Mufti, has been included in Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singhs five working groups on Kashmir set up after the second Round Table Conference. Not a single woman from the state was included in the conferences. Does it mean that women are not stake holders to the peace in Jammu and Kashmir? Ask Professor Hameeda Nayeem, who teaches English at Kashmir University and is a founder-member of the Women Waging Peace, an initiative of Harvard Universitys Kennedy School, and she responds: In our society, there has been a cosmetic empowerment of women. Ours is a very parochial society. Even if we assume women have a greater
37

role, we need to know who are they representing? Only the daughters of politicians contest polls, that too if there are no sons to carry forward the legacy. Prof Nayeems passport has been confiscated by the Union government for her activism. Women in Kashmir are greatly bothered by the non-representation of women at various intra-state dialogue processes too. Mrs Seema Khajooria Shekhar, Additional Advocate General, J&K (who incidentally is the first women AAG in the history of Jammu and Kashmir) strongly believes that the absence of women in these working groups is both unacceptable and short-sighted, especially as the women and children are the worst affected by the conflict in Jammu and Kashmir. Steps should be immediately taken to address this serous gap, is she says, suggesting women of Jammu and Kashmir should throw their weight behind any initiative across the LoC that promotes better people to people interaction rather than restricting themselves to gender specific initiatives. Women who have been working at the grassroots level feel that womens equal participation in the political life, as voters,

candidates and members of electoral committees, could play a crucial role in the advancement of women and the reconstruction of violenceridden society. Professor Rita Jitendra, renowned womens rights activist who was also member of the Jammu and Kashmir State Womens Commission, believes that though women havent come forward in the political sphere in the real sense, yet for the first time in the past 27 years in the troubled history of the state, the local (civic) polls held in Jammu and Kashmir in FebruaryMarch 2005 have given us enough proof of womens activism. What else do you require? Involve women in all decision making levels as they understand about peace much better than anyone else, she advocates, adding that never before in the troubled history of Jammu and Kashmir, have women come forward and contested elections, held after a long gap of 27 years, even in the troubled Valley. If women can come out in large numbers ignoring terrorist threats, why cant they be included in the peace negotiations, ask Prof Jitendra. After all, nobody can understand the meaning of the word peace better than a woman who has lost her husband, son, brother and father in the past 17 years.

In the first civic polls in which women participated, a total of 934 women contested the elections, indeed a significant number keeping in mind the fact that women never tried to break the stereotypes and enter politics. Of these, 270 women ultimately made it to the municipal council and committees throughout the state. What surprised the world was the fact that Kashmiri women, desptie facing strong barriers in these polls due to coercion by male relatives, threats of intimidation by militant groups contested. One sixty one women contested for the Jammu Municipal Corporation, 61 for the Srinagar Corporation, 27 for Kupwara, 75 Baramulla, 51 Anantnag, nine Pulwama, 108 Kathua, 22 Budgan, 89 Udhampur, 66 Doda, 19 Poonch and 36 Rajouri. For the first time in the history of the state women got at least some say in decision making though these civic polls. Real progress towards gender equality will be seen when women have more say in the decisions that affect their lives. Even though it could be termed as beginning these elections gave an opportunity to the Kashmiri women to express newly found political impact, says Professor Rekha Chowdhary, Department of Political Science, Jammu University. Till now, local woman associated politics with fear and violence saw them as synonymous, but when some efforts where made by the government to gvie them opportunities to strengthen the democracy at the grassroots level, the women came forward enthusiastically to contest the polls. Give them some space and see how their confidence can do wonders
YOJANA May 2008

Women who have been working at the grassroots level feel that womens equal participation in the political life, as voters, candidates and members of electoral committees, could play a crucial role in the reconstruction of violence-ridden society 38

besides inspiring other local women into political activism, adds Prof Jitendra. Agreeing no less, Ms Seema Khajooria Shekhar adds that affirmative action for adequate representation of women in the state legislature should be actively encouraged. Jammu and Kashmir, she argues, has a Constitution of its own and Article 370 will give it added leverage in doing so. What the state requires is the political will of the decision makers, who are mostly men, for womens equal participation in deciding the political and economic future of Kashmir and a commitment at the governmental and administrative level. Dr Sumona Das Gupta assistant director, Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace

(WISCOMP), says that a peace process that excludes, more than half the population greatly risks the possibility of keeping several creative solutions and options out. When we talk about a gender sensitive discourse on Kashmir, we dont mean to exclude males. Its about building partnerships between men and women who agree that if conflict affects them differently its only natural that they may want to access the peace process differently, Dr Gupta adds. Empowering women would shape the path for peace and reconciliation that would organically grow out of participatory dialogue and lead to peace and development of the state, opines Professor Poonam Dhawan,

Director Centre for Women Studies, University of Jammu. Peace building attempts, in order to promote sustainable peace, need to address and transform structures which not only refer to the system of access and distribution of resources, but also social and political institutions, situations and relationships, she adds. In this process, she feels, principles of democratic participation, human rights and gender equality are crucial elements for the longer term process of building peace based on social justice and equality for women. (The author is a Special Representative of The Statesman based in Jammu. This article was written for the Charkha-Sanjoy Ghosh Media Fellowship she got for 2006-07) q

Essay Contest

ojana in collaboration with Department of Consumer Affairs, Government of India is organizing an essay competition on consumer awareness in Hindi and English. The theme is Unethical Food Marketing to Children. The prizes are sponsored by Department of Consumer Affairs. (i) First Prize Rs.5,000/(ii) Second Prize Rs.3,000/(iii) Third Prize Rs.2,000/(iv) 10 Consolation prizes Rs.l,000/(v) Annual subscription of Yojana to 50 contestants including the above prize winners The competition is open to all except officers/staff members and relatives of Yojana, Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting and Department of Consumer Affairs. Students and civil service aspirants, especially women, are encouraged to participate. Entries can be sent through e-mail, ordinary post/regd. post/speed post/courier. The words Essay Contest should be superscribed on the envelope carrying the essay. The last date for receipt of entries in Yojana Office is 15th August 08. The entries should be sent to: By Post: Editorial Office, Yojana, Room No.538, Yojana Bhavan, Parliament Street, New Delhi-110001 Through Email: e-mail address: yojanaessay@live.com
39

YOJANA May 2008

40

YOJANA May 2008

do you know ?
y the year 2005, India was to have become poliofree. Three years down the line, one of the countrys most successful immunisation campaigns is struggling to meet that goal. Not only old suspect areas but newer regions are reporting cases. Recently, Capital Delhi reported a case carrying the PV3 strain. Will India be able to eradicate polio? Are oral drops, an effective and cheap weapon against it? Or do we need to switch to the more expensive and painful injectable option? Here is a search for these probing questions. What is polio? Poliomyelitis is a highly infectious disease caused by the polio virus. It invades the nervous system, and can cause paralysis or even death in a matter of hours. How is polio transmitted? The polio virus (scientifically known as the wild poliovirus or WPV) enters the body through water or food that has been contaminated with faecal material from an infected person. The virus multiplies in the intestine. From blood it may pass to the nerves of the brain stem and spinal cord. The disease mainly affects children under five years. Only humans can catch polio. The incubation period is three-five days for minor illness and one-two weeks for paralytic symptoms.
YOJANA May 2008

what is polio?
So a large number of people may have had a minor dose of polio without really being aware of it. The more severe the original flulike illness, the more chance there is of deterioration occurring later in life (fatigue & weakness). What are the different strains of polio? Paralytic polio can be caused by any of three closely related strains (serotypes) of poliovirus PV1 (poliovirus1), PV2 and PV3. PV1 is the most virulent and produces the most servere paralysis. According to the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, one out of every 200 children in India is infected with this virus. People with PV2 are often first diagnosed as having meaningitis and may have gone into a coma, but often the paralysis is less severe. Those who have PV2 are more likely to have had encephalitic polio and possible coma. Damage to the brain can lead to poor memory, problems in keeping awake or falling and staying asleep. PV2 is a weaker virus and has been eradicated from India; the last case was reported from Aligarh in 1999. PV3 is more likely to be found where there are reports of sporadic cases, not in epidemics. The rate of infection in PV3 is one in 1,000. This strain had been confined to western Uttar Pradesh for the past two years but has now spread to other districts of the state and also Bihar. Those who have PV3 seem to be more prone to developing Chronic Fatigue or Parkinsons later in life. There are twelve other viruses that are closely related to polio and can cause paralysis. If they had been discovered before polio vaccines stopped polio they would probably have been recorded as other polio types. At present there is no vaccine for the other types as everything is geared at eliminating the three known polio strains. But people are still being paralysed by these other strains, now called acute flaccid paralysis. Is there a cure for polio? No, there is no cure for polio. Polio can only be prevented by immunisation. The oral polio vaccine (OPV) is a safe and effective protection. Given multiple times, it protects a child for life. As for fear of side-effects, OPV is one of the safest vaccines ever developed. It is so safe that it can be given to sick children and newborns. It is believed to have saved millions of children around the world from paralysis. Is injectable vaccine an option? OPV helps in mass immunication in densely populated and unhygienic conditions. Using OPV, all the countries in the world except India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Nigeria have eradicated polio. But all polio-free countries over a period of time have switched over to IPV (injectable polio vaccine). Unlike OPV, IPV gives individual
41

protection to a child against all polio viruses. Two years back the India Experts Advisory Group suggested that the Government explore the possibility of using IPV in high-risk districts of western UP to supplement OPV. But in a country like India where wild virus is still in circulation, OPV is the best means to provide mass immunity. How many doses of OPV does a child need? OPV needs to be administered multiple times to be effective. The number of doses it takes to immunise a child depends entirely on his/her health and nutiritional status, and how many other viruses the child has been exposed to. Children living

in areas that are densely populated and with poor hygiene need higher doses of OPV. Given that every time a polio case is reported there are a flurry of accusations against the immunisation drive, what needs to be realised is that until a child is fully immunised, he/she is still at risk from polio. So its important to immunise each child under five during every round and ensure that all are given the vaccine at the same time. What is the track record of the polio immunisation drive in India? The campaign has made tremendous progress. Before the

launch of the global programme in 1988, India had, on an average, two to four lakh cases every year, which has now been reduced to a few hundred. How many new cases have been reported? This year, 281 cases of polio have been reported, with Uttar Pradesh leading with 223, followed by Bihar 40, Andhra Pradesh 5, Uttarakhand 4, Haryana 3, Maharashtra 2, and one each from Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi and Orissa. q (Source : Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare)

Yojana
Next Issue on Climate Change

June 08

The Climate is Changing and the warmth of this planet is going beyond the tolerance level day by day. It is the result of climate change and global warning. Throwing light on the topic are eminent contributors: - Nitin Desai, Deputy Secretary General of the Rio, Earth Summit and Secretary General Johannesburg Summit. - Shyam Saran, special envoy of PM on climate - The issue also features on exclusive interview with R K Pachauri of TERI and Chairman, Inter governmental Panel on climate change.
42 YOJANA May 2008

News
l

News nEWS

nEWS

in the news
The Supreme Court has upheld OBC quota in central educational institutions clearing the way for reservation of 27% seats for backward castes over a period of three years from the academic year 2008-09. The five member bench unanimously decided to keep the creamy layer out of the perview of the quota and recommended review of the quota every five years. The Union Cabinet has approved the creation of farmers relief Fund with an initial release of Rs 10000 crore. This paves the way for implementation of the 60000 crore loan waiver scheme announced in the Budget 2008-09.
l

Slew of Measures to rein in inflation

reduced from 15 per cent to zero per cent under the Tariff Rate Quota for five lakh tonnes. The import of crude edible oils at zero duty and refined edible oils at 7.5 per cent customs duty would apply, among others, to palm, sunflower, soyabean, coconut and groundnut oils. Hydrogenated The government has allowed the export of castor oil, coconut oil and oils made from minor forest produce, excluding same oil. However, coconut oil will only be exported from Kochi. Mr. Chidambaram said the prices of steel and iron were discussed but a decision was deferred as Minister for steel Ram Vilas Paswan was away. He advised steel producers to observe restraint. The order on removal of stock limits under the Essential Commodities Act was kept in abeyance for edible oils, oilseeds and rice, the minister said. He urged the States to implement the order to prevent hoarding. inter-state movement and exports have been excluded from this order. So far only six States have imposed stock limits. All decisions would come into effect q from Tuesday.

n an attempt to rein in inflation, the union government has reduced the customs duty on several crude edible oils to zero and fixed the customs duty for refined edible oils at 7.5 per cent. It banned the export of nonbasmati rice with immediate effect and set the minimum export price of basmati rice at $ 1200 a tonne. The ban on export of all pulses has been extended for a year from April 1. After a marathon three hour-long meeting of the Cabinet Committee on Prices that was chaired by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, Finance Minister P. Chidambaram announced a slew of measures to impact the rising prices. The inflation rate touched 6.68 per cent in the week ending on 28th March. The customs duty on butter and ghee has been reduced from 40 to 30 per cent; the duty on maize

Beyond AAM Aadmis Reach

vegetable fats and oils can now be imported at 7.5 per cent duty. However, the tariff values will remain unchanged till further orders.

Rural job scheme now in all Districts

At a total budget outlay of Rs. 16,000 crore The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) has been extended to all 604 districts of the country from Ist April. At a Glance 3.10 Crore house-holds were geberated, Rs. 12,600 crore was the last demanded employment in 2007years budget for the scheme 27.04% was the job share of SCs, 08 and 3.08 crore of them got it STs stood at 30% and womens Rs 16,000 crore is the initial 121.61 Crore person-days share was 42.13% budget outlay for 2008-09
YOJANA May 2008 43

Cabinet okays sops for minorities, tribals

The Union Cabinet also approved a slew of welfare measures for minority communities and tribal girls, besides allocating a substantial amount to a dedicated fund to implement various social and infrastructure development schemes launched by it. The projects were cleared at a meeting of Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, chaired by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. Topping the list is a centrally sponsored scheme Multisectoral Development Programme (MSDP). As per the programme, Rs 3,780 crore will be spend for various development schemes in 90 minority concentrated districts in the country, during the Eleventh Plan. The scheme would even allow funding for critical infrastructure projects like roads, basic health facilities, ICDS centres, and skill development which are already funded through

Other Decisions
< Transfer

Rs 6,000 crore to the Social and Infrastructure Development Fund this year. < Allocate Rs 800 cr, Rs1100 cr, Rs 1100 cr and Rs 660 respectively for remaining years of 11th Plan for minorityconcentrated districts. Rs 120 crore already allocated in 2007-08 < Allocate Rs 298.79 crore for tribal girls during 11th Plan. < Establish District Education Support Agency to minimise the dropout of tribal girls from schools separate schemes. However, the release of funds to the state governments under the scheme is conditional upon the respective states commitment to constitute state and district level committees for the implementation

of Prime Ministers 15-point programme for minorities. The CCEA also approved continuation of a dedicated fund Social and Infrastructure Development Fundbeyond 2007-08, to fund Governments social sector initiatives, which include upgradation of 1,396 ITIs, training of farmers, employment of physically challenged etc. It also approved a revised scheme to ensure better education for tribal girls in 54 districts. These are districts with more than 25 per cent tribal population whose female literacy is below 35 per cent. In fact, even blocks from other districts but with above characteristics would also be covered under the scheme. The assistance per girl student has been increased from Rs 9,000 per annum to Rs 26,000 per annum recurring expenditure. The scheme will be launched from April this year. q

Pay bonanza for Central Staff

At a Glance l Pay hiked by an average 40% l To be effective from 1 Jan 2006 l To cost exchequer Rs 12,560 cr in 2008-09 l One-time burden of Rs 18,060 cr towards arrears l Minimum entry level pay Rs 6,660 l Cabinet Secretary to get Rs 90,000 l C u r r e n t a g e o f 6 0 f o r superannuation to be maintained
44
l l l l l l l

Number of grades reduced to 20 against prevailing 35 Existing parity between IAS and IFS to be maintained Defence forces at par with civilians in pay and grades Rs 6,000 allowance a month for officers up to brigadier rank 5-day work week to continue Only three national holidays allowed Other gazetted holidays to go, adjusted in restricted holiday

l l l l

l l

High performers to get 3.5% increment against normal 2.5% Enhanced pay scales for nurses, teachers and constabulary Existing rates of most of the allowances to be doubled Education allowance reimbursement at Rs 1,000 per child a month against Rs 50 now Hostel subsidy to be increased 10 times to Rs 3,000 Maximum salary at the level of Secretary to be Rs 80,000 q
YOJANA May 2008

Agni-I test-fired successfully

uclear-capable surface-tosurface missile Agni-I was successfully test-fired on 23rd March from the Wheeler Island, off Damra village, on the coast of Orissa. A significant aspect of the testfiring was that it was totally executed by the Army, user of the missile. This is the second time the Army is test firing the missile on its own. The missile soared majestically at 10.15 a.m. from a roadmobile launcher, a huge truck, on the Integrated Test Range on the island. It cut a parabolic
A Major Milestone : Agni-I blasting off from Wheeler Island, off the Orissa coast.

path across the sky, climbed into space and dived into the Bay of Bengal, reaching a distance of 700 km. Its re-entry system worked flawlessly. This is the fifth successful launch of Agni-I, a product of the Defence Research and Development Organisation. Avinash Chander, Mission Director, said from the Wheeler Island: The launch went off perfectly well and the performance of all systems has been exactly as expected. The flight duration was nine minutes, meeting all the mission objectives. q

Readers Editor
Freedom of the press is important. So is its social responsibility, which must begin with interaction with and accountability to readers. Yojana announces the appointment of Readers Editor in its 51 years of glorious past. The key objectives are to institutionalize the practice of accountability and transparency~ to create a new visible framework to improve accuracy, verification, and standards to strengthen bonds between the Yojana and its readers. We intend to create new channels of communication with and greater responsiveness to readers and to look for ways of improving the Yojana s work and performance through readers concerns, ideas, and suggestions and ways to develop Yojana for the benefit of its readers and for itself. It will also be our endeavour to correct significant errors pointed out by readers. We wish to acknowledge that Yojana has been inspired by The Hindu which in 2006 followed the exemplary practice and experience of The Guardian, U.K. The office of Readers Editor can be contacted by Telephone: e-mail : Postal Address 011-23717910, 011-23096666 Extn. 2508 (office working hours from Monday to Friday) readerseditor@yahoo.com Readers Editor, Room No.506, Yojana Bhavan, New Delhi-ll000l

Our esteemed readers are requested to use this facility and give suggestions to enrich Yojana. All communications shall carry the full postal address, telephone no. and e-mail address.
YOJANA May 2008 45

1857 1947
Azizun - The Enigmatic Courtesan of Cawnpore
n 26th May 1765 the East India Company troops had put the Maratha army to fight and set up camps on h e i g h t s o f J a j m a r, overlooking the Ganges few miles down from the hamlet of Kankapura This was to consolidate into a strategic cantonment because of its proximity to Bithur where the Marathas were stationed (and where the future and famous Rani Jhansi was born and brought up) and Lucknow (where Hazrat Mahal, a Begum of Oudh was to create history). In less than a hundred years, this area was destined not only to feel the presence and power of British might but also dissent against this very power resulting in an upheaval of such magnitude that its reverberations can be sensed in the memory, psyche and culture of this region. The name Kanhapur gradually lost its relevance as the area gained identity as Cawnpore, an urban centre, market and access point to Calcutta via the Ganges and hence to the sea and the world beyond. According to the 1849 census of Cawnpore, 6,628 persons were occupied in trade and professions. Amongst bankers, carpet makers, cotton spinners, dyers, physicians

2007

Tripurari Sharma
along with thirteen dancers are mentioned. The authorities were concerned about the well being of the soldier and yet were bound by their limitations of the situation and its implications. I believe a great deal of unhealthiness (among soldiers) arises from their being unmarried. There can be no question that marriage opposes a barrier to immorality of a certain nature But this solution had to be seen as simply a matter of finance..The condition of the public revenue will long probably ever forbid the spectacle of a standing army of married men, either in England or India Prichard Administration. So the woman. The native woman had an entry. She was permitted a place in this male world where she existed at the periphery, almost nondescript, shadowy and two dimensional. Clearly such a perception could not define her and when in 1857 the opportunity came, she stepped out and from the shadows to claim the space that the times had the potential for. It was an act of defiance an act of transformation and of transcendence, almost like moving out of one self to another destroying the self as if it were an image so as to imbibe another image and give it space in the self to move on, explore and create new possibilities. Such a woman probably was Azizuneesa , the popular courtesan, whose memory to date is cherished by the people of the city that now gets by the name of Kanpur. According to most versions, Azizun was born in Lucknow the daughter of a courtesan. She was trained as a singer and dancer, besides being a poetess of repute. While the courtesan exiled outside the circumference of domesticity, she had a reacquired place in society. The British who were the outsiders were themselves intrigued by this institution. As the courtesan existed outside the domain of marriage they termed them as women of easy nature, but could not help noticing the respect and status that they received according to custom. In a letter, P. Canneige, Deputy Commissioner, Lucknow writes, The only women on the tax register in their own right were the prostitutes classified as dancing girls. Prostitution is not a lawful trade but in Oudh we cannot be bound by regulation while by custom and by oriental consent this trade is held in estimation not only as not unlawful, but as a highly respectable one and why therefore

The author is Professor in National School of Drama, New Delhi. She has also directed a play on the life of Azizun. 46 YOJANA May 2008

should this, the most profitable of all trades in Lucknow not be taxed? When others which we hold in much higher estimation are. Oudh, then was steeped in the colourful world created by Wajid Ali Shah. Dance was a metaphor for life and many courtesans were accorded a status of wife when he wedded them by the norms of custom. For a women of Azizuns caliber, there was enough scope for acquiring wealth and fame in Lucknow. However, she decided to move to Cawnpore and set up her own base. It seems that she preferred the lanes of a crowded upcoming town to the sophisticated and luxurious corridors of Lucknow. But such was her choice. Many critics feel that the woman who participated in the upheaval of 1857 did it out of compulsion as they were bound by allegiance to men who were their husbands or masters and happened to be active participants in the revolt. This cannot be said for Azizun who was a woman unaccosted and not bound to any man by the laws of a formal contract. Once in the city of soldiers, Azizun came into close contact with them. A courtesans house by its very nature was accessible to men by all walks who could assemble there without arousing suspicion. Men from the army, Nana Sahebs courtiers from Bithur, the chieftains from villages, dealers, bankers could come and go at all times as part of a normal routine phenomena. It was probably here that Shamsudin Sewar of the 42nd cavalry frequented her and it is possible that she imbibed much of the soldiers dilemma through this close proximity.. The dancer in the city was amongst the few who were able to break out of the feudal bonds of royal servitude and set up an independent base. Both were upwardly mobile and stood to
YOJANA May 2008

gain from the Companys coffers. Yet these two were the ones to rise in revolt and confront the source of their own benefit. The paradox appears to simplify itself when the list of soldiers grievances is examined. Reasons like a demand in the salary, allowances, facilities and promotions are apparent, but what they were to bound to lose was much more than what they sought to gain. While the loyalty of the solider was with the Company, his own identity as a native probably had intense dimension within his own self. The famines, the heavy taxation, the emergence of courts and consequent litigation posed questions that he could not answer or even understand, but was bound to defend and in the process justify what he may not be in agreement with. It was a moral dilemma a moment in history when the conscience had to be heard. Those who mutinied and those who did not each had a decision to make and no way was easy. Brothers fought brothers and friends became foes overnight. By being with the Company, the soldiers fulfilled the moral obligation of being dutiful. By a protest, he could mark his disassociation with the power of the oppressor and hence shake off the hatred that had been his share and retrieve the respect and honour that he so desired from his own people. The same cartridges were used to retain the lost pride of a man bought over by outsiders. The courtesan, too could not have been free of this dilemma. Added to it must have been the humiliation and injustice received from an administration that incurred her as a prostitute and not an artist a performer and poetess of sensitivity and excellence. There are narratives of women performers abused when they went to the British quarters for the evening mujra. According to some people , some such event could have triggered off the revolt

in Azizuns case also. Even if it were not so, she had enough reason to defy a system that belittled her very existence and treated it with contempt. As Azizuns base became a centre of political activity and conspiracy, she was noticed, observed and spied up. Nanak Chand of Cawnpore who spent his time in the D.Ms anterooms, elaborates Azizuns movements in detail in his diary. Nanak Chands diary has not been treated as a serious source by many western historians and some have discredited it as being exaggeration. But he was not the only one to spy on Azizun. Deposition of Kunhye Pershad, Mahajan of Cawnpore states: I knew that many of the troopers frequented the house of a prostitute named Assessun (Azizun) and bought over her servant Emambux (Imam Baksh). She informed me that Sawars of the 2nd Cavalry were plotting with Nana and that a meeting had taken place between the parties. The deposition further states, Nanas men meddled with the Sawars of 2nd Cavalry specially Sheeba Singh and Shamsaadeen Khan and goes on to recollect the day when the latter was at her house. Being in liquor he told the girl that the Peshwas reign would soon commence and the Nana in a day or two would be paramount and that he would fill her house with gold mohurs. This statement of Shamsudin has been quoted in the depositions of several people. It created a furore in the small frightened city in the summer of 1857. Maids carried it as murmurs to the British quarters where it found mention in some diaries as well. That this one line spoken in Azizuns house has been verified by many witnesses speaks of the seriousness of the remark. It also fortifies to the extent her privacy was encroached upon. And in these
47

circumstances a conversation of such a nature between two people becomes an art of daring. The witty Azizun, however, denied having had anything to do with such an incident. The people of Kanpur remember her as a woman in a soldiers costume moving through the lanes of Kanpur on horseback. Keeping vigil. The image has been treasured by legend passed on orally from generation to generation a woman warrior, a symbol of might and courage.. What brought her here? Ghalib, the poet did not feel the need by proving himself a warrior. Why then Azizun? Was it an opportune moment for her to transcend her limits as a woman? Was it the lure of the outside or the opposite? She was not a queen fighting for the throne or kingdom a woman, now a plain soldier, devoid of frills and delicacy, aiming for strength in the brutal field of death and destruction. Azeezun chose to make one of the gun batteries her headquarters. This was the battery to the north of wheelers entrenchment between the racket court and the chapel of Ease, it fired shot and shell into the entrenchment, almost from the first day of the siege and must have killed many. There are references of Azeezun being seen in places close to where Nana resided in Cawnpore, while the revolt was in progress. Christopher Hisbert mentions that The Nana established himself in the gallery of the court and the surrounding area became a great favourite. Most of Muslim troops and of Cawnpores most celebrated courtesan, Azizun, who could often be seen there entertaining her admirers and providing them with milk etc. on the public road. The Indian side initially triumphed in Cawnpore as the British were forced to leave the city. Women and children who
48

were captured by the Indian troops were kept in Bibighar under the surveillance of Hussaini Begum, one of the courtesans connected with Baji Rao and part of Nana Sahebs household. When the British army came to recapture Cawnpore, strategy planned by Tantiya Tope did not work and defeat of Nana Saheb was imminent. Fear and frustration at the turn of events led to the massacre of the British women and children. One of the persons responsible for this act was Sarnar, who was described in a Deposition as a barrack boy, son of a Pathan prostitute who had been associated with the 87th Royal Irish regiment. The intriguing and unanswered question is had Azizun anything to say or do with this incident? Many people wonder if Hussaini and Azizun were the same person. However, it is clear from several sources the Hussaini was a different person. Hussaini was often in the service of Adila, another courtesan connected with Bithur and who was a favourite of Nana Saheb. The incident at Bibighar challenges us to reflect on history and derive different realizations to touch the layer of darkness within all of us. Could, if anything else be different? Azizun have prevented this? Had she a voice in the decision making? If asked would she have kept quiet in order to prove herself no less a man than other men in a mans world? Can a different voice be made or heard when the them and us divide categorises and defines people. Would an empowered woman within the frame of modern day governance be able to make a greater difference? Probably yes, because a womans vision has more space and acknowledgement than there was a hundred and fifty years ago. We must ask. We must learn. Not necessarily if nag.

According to Thomas Mowbray, Azizun was captured at Etawah and brought to Cawnpore. A.S. Misra adds that she was arrested by General Havelock who promised to save her life but only if she relented. But the brave Azeezun declined. And as the bullets of the firing squad pierced her body she remembered and cried Nana Sahib Ki Jai!. It took long for this region to resolve the trauma of the events that shattered the fabric of life, culture and peace. Amongst the remedial measures that were taken there was regulation which affected the survival of the kothas of the courtesans. They were subjected to humiliation clubbed with brothels and the interference of the state through policing tactics was regularized. They paved the way for the gradual decline and eventual demise of an institution that was an inherent part of the culture of the region. On the 6th December 1857, wrote William Forbes Mitchell, I advanced across the canal with Thirty Six, well served heavy rebel guns pouring shot and shell through our ranks. On the 19th August 1892, I stood on the top of the Cawnpore Woolen Mills and counted 36 chimneys ..belching smoke from more than three times that number of steam boilers And Lee mentions that the tourists find it very interesting to watch the Indian children with their parents working in the mills on English principles. The engines rolled in Kanpur with a vengeance. And yet beneath this sound, the whispers of a legend continued to float and drifting, settling in corners of peoples memory, but keeping it alive not allowing the name of Azizun to slip into anonymity, keeping it in remembrance as the courtesan much beloved by her people. q
YOJANA May 2008

Budget 08-09
Rural Development

Analysis

Ishita G Tripathy K K Tripathy

The emphasis of the Budget on social sectors is aimed at ensuring inclusive growth
YOJANA May 2008

he run-up to Union Budget 2008-09 was replete with media expectations of it addressing concerns like increasing rural infrastructure, revamping agriculture and reviving allied and non-farm activities. Rightly so, because, the most recent estimates of Planning Commission show that the incidence of rural poverty on the Head Count Ratio declined from 37.3 in 199394 to 28.3% in 2004-05, a reduction of 9 percentage points over 11 years (Table 1). Further, this years budget has stressed on rural India as reflected in various allocations. The budget provision (plan and non-plan), net of receipts and recoveries, for this sector, particularly of Ministry of Rural Development and Ministry of Panchayati Raj, is 6.3% (Rs. 47,211 crore) of the total budgetary provision for 2008-09. While the allocation of the rural sector is the third highest after Ministry of Finance and Ministry

of Defence (Figure 1), amongst the social sector ministries, this allocation is the highest. The present Budgets outlay per head for people below poverty line in rural areas works out to Rs. 2,137. This is in addition to the Rs. 6,183 that is allocated per Indian citizen (which/ includes the rural poor as well). While the share of the countrys population living on agriculture and allied activities continues to be more than 60%, the contribution of agriculture to GDP has been declining (24% in 2001-02 to 17.5% in 2007-08). In this backdrop, the commitment of Budget 2008-09 to rural employment has been a positive move. Further, rural employment has been given the largest share of 30.5% within the total allocation for rural sector, followed by rural roads and bridges (15%) and rural housing (10%) (Table 2). The proposed expansion of National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA,) to the

The authors belong to Indian Economic Service. 49

Table 1 Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line, India (1973-742004-05) S. No. Year Rural Urban Combined 1 2 3 4 5 1 1973-74 56.4 49.0 54.9 2 1977-78 53.1 45.2 51.3 3 1983-84 45.7 40.8 44.5 4 1987-88 39.1 38.2 38.9 5 1993-94 37.3 32.4 36.0 6 1999-00 27.1 23.6 26.1 7 2004-05* 28.3 25.7 27.5 8 2004-05** 21.8 21.7 21.8
Note : *As per Uniform Recall Period. ** As per Mixed Recall Period. Source : Planning Commission, Gol (2007)

remaining 266 districts indicates its popularity as well as potential to improve the lives of poor and the vulnerable. Apparently the implementation agencies would draw from the lessons in the first phase of implementation. The central outlay in BE 2008-09, for NREGA, has been increased by 33% over that previous budget outlay to Rs. 16,000 crore. The budget, prima facie, signals continued strong growth stimulus with the expansion of NREGA, providing consumption

demand. The legal right under NREGA which ensures at least 100 days wage employment marked a paradigm shift from the wage employment programmes. Yet, it is not free from implementation problems at the ground level. The desired level of success of NREGA, depends on strengthening of the existing implementation and monitoring mechanism while also ensuring financial and operational sustainability. With greater co-ordination at block/taluka level, towards resolving issues like promoting the involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions and converging the benefits of NREG Programme with various other ongoing rural development-oriented programmes would yield durable benefit in the context of poverty alleviation, gainful employment generation and social security. Next, in the context of self employment, Swarnjayanti Gram

Table 2: Total Outlay for Ministry of Rural Development and Ministry of Panchayati Raj (BE) (Rs. Crore) Components 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 % increase of 2007-08 over 2006-07 1 2 35,269 3 41,330 4 42,711 5 17.2 % increase of 2008-09 over 2007-08 6 3.3

Total Plan & Non-Plan Outlay for M/Rural Development & M/Panchyati Raj Of which Rural Employment Rural Housing Roads & Bridges

12,870 (36.5) 2,625 (7.4) 4,853 (13.8)

13,320 (32.2) 3,636 (8.8) 6,110 (14.8)

14,400 (30.5) 4,859 (10.3) 7,075 (15.0)

3.5

8.1

Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) will now have an outlay of Rs. 2,150 crore. This is an increase of 19% over that of the previous year (Rs. 1,800 crore). SGSY, launched in 1999, is based on a holistic approach covering various aspects of self-employment. i.e., organisation of the poor into self-help groups (SHGs); capacity building; provisioning market infrastructure, credit and subsidy linkage; and technology upgradation. However, studies point to various shortcomings coming in the way of effective implementation that reduces the impact of SGSY. These are mainly related to coordination amongst field level agencies, the appropriate selection of economic activities, marketing, technology and brand development and the promotion of quality SHGs. Therefore, in order to derive value for money invested into this programme the activities should be selected after careful assessment of viability of the output and also have intense forward and backward linkages. The rural housing programme, known as Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), has an allocation of Rs. 5,400 crore during 2008-09. This is an increase of 34% over that of the previous year. At the unit level subsidy has been enhanced by 40% each
YOJANA May 2008

38.5

33.6

25.9

15.8

Note : Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total outlay Source : Various Budget Documents, M/o Finance

50

in plain areas (from Rs.25,000 to Rs.35,000) and in hill/difficult areas (from Rs.27,500 to Rs.38,500). Besides, the public sector banks were urged to include IAY houses under the differential rate of interest scheme. Consequently, Rs.20,000 per unit can be lent to the client beneficiary at an interest rate of 4%. An across the board 20% enhancement of the subsidy for upgrading the house may not satisfactorily address issues relating to costs due to price variations in hilly and plain areas. The key to successful lmplementation is including bonafide targeted beneficiaries. One way to approach this problem could be through a comprehensive social audit. The Bharat Nirman programme which was implemented in 200506 for addressing infrastructure and basic amenities need in rural areas has six components of rural housing, irrigation, drinking water, rural roads, rural electrification and rural telephone connectivity. Budget outlay for 2008-09 for this programme has been hiked by 27.13 % to Rs. 31,280 crore. Further, the corpus of Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), which channels bank funds for financing rural infrastructure, is proposed to be raised to Rs. 14,000 crore. To achieve the targets of Bharat Nirman, 1,46,185 kms of road length is proposed to be constructed by 2009 which will benefit 66,802 unconnected habitations in the country. The allocation of Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana has been increased by 16% to Rs. 7,530 crore during 2008-09. A seperate window under RIDF-XIV for rural roads with a corpus of Rs. 4,000 has been proposed. An improved
YOJANA May 2008

connectivity, not only creates more opportunities for inclusive growth but also generating demand for cement etc. through backward linkages. Besides, other sectors which have a significant impact on rural development are: (i) rural water supply and sanitation, (ii) rural education, (iii) rural health and (iv) rural electrification. The total allocation of programmes dealing with these sectors, viz. Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water M i s s i o n ( R G D W M ) , To t a l Sanitation Campaign (TSC), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Integrated Child Development Scheme and Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran have been enhanced by 26% over the previous years budget to Rs. 44,250 crore. The allocation of RGDWM and TSC have been enhanced by 12.3% to Rs. 7 ,300 crore and by 13% to Rs.l,200 crore, respectively, for

in: i) reducing drop-out rates and increasing retention rates; ii) accelerating learning outcomes, and iii) ensuring sustainable funding mechanism at both Central and State levels. In this sector, the focus of the Budget has been to actualise the vision of Health for All, the NRHM and full coverage of rural unorganised workers is a must, especially taking into account the fact that the major source of financing health care is the household (Figure 2). The increased allocation and the proposed universalisation of ICDS are expected to effectively address the twin problems of maternal and infant mortality. Besides, proposals of the Budget regarding the initiation of a National Health Insurance Scheme for Unorganised sector workers living below the poverty line and a National Programme for the Elderly are welcome steps. The much-needed emphasis of the Government on rural electrification continues so as to enable rural India to reach its full growth potential. The emphasis of the Budget on social sectors is aimed at ensuring inclusive growth. In this context, the Budget entails doubling of agricultural credit flow, providing employment to the needy, empowering t h e p o o r, b r i n g i n g m o r e children under the purview of formal education, improving rural healthcare and engendering developmental initiatives. While outlays are provided by the central government, outcomes are decided by the performance of State Governments, which are required to ensure inclusive growth. q
(Email : kk.tripathy@nic.in) 51

2008-09. National Family Health Survey-3 (2005-06) indicates that the proportion of people who have at least 12 years of education ranges between 5% and 8%. Rightly then, the stress of the Budget on education is well-placed. Besides higher and technical education, the Government has emphasised on SSA. To fulfil the objectives of SSA, intervention is required

book review
Poverty and Child Labour
he twin issues of child labour and childrens right to education have become key issues in development debates internationally and have also become a matter of genuine concern globally. These issues viz., childrens needs and welfare now occupy prominence as a central issue all over the world in global debates. The adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), has set a higher rate of ratification by the nations of the world than any other convention, which marks a new global awareness of the importance of this problem. While the adoption of a rights based framework provides the basis for recognizing wide range of deprivations in relation to children, it also draws attention to the enormity and complexity of the challenges ahead. The problems of child labour and poor educational achievements have assumed central importance in social policy discussions in present world scenario. There are acknowledged problems in quantifying both phenomena because estimates of child labour tend to overlook activities in which children are disproportionately represented, while gross enrolment takes no account of dropouts, failures to complete and absenteeism. Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the sheer magnitude of both problems in South Asian region. UNICEF (1999) calculations suggest that South Asia alone accounts for nearly 50 percent of the estimated 130 million children with no access to basic education in the developing countries. Girls make up around two of every three of these children. It also accounts for largest number of children out of schools. Thus a large number of educational models for addressing the requirements of these children who are outside the conventional schooling system, has also been evolved in this region.

Child labour is widely seen as a manifestation of poverty and the childs economic contribution to the household economy. Therefore, they are seen as vital to meeting the basic needs of the poor family. Thus there is a broad relationship between poverty and children which is reinforced as well as offset by the economic and social differentiation of the poor. Factors like caste, religion, ethnicity and gender act in conjunction with poverty as well as independently of it, to explain the variations in the incidence of child labour as well as absence or irregular presence in the educational system. The poor are also economically differentiated by the security of their livelihoods. While many poor people can, and do, send their children to school when the right facilities are in place, the same is less true of the poorest. As a result, a disproportionate percentage of the child labour and out-of-school children are drawn from households characterized by irregular savings and lack of assets, savings or access to credit. The book has been written in a conventional manner dealing with various policies and measurers relating to the education of this huge reservoir of child labour in developing countries. It provides an in-depth information on this aspect citing empirical evidences from South Asia. But the language used is quite difficult to grasp and understand and thus cannot be read at a stretch. It does not comprise of any graphics such as tables and diagrams and some relevant pictures which could have made it more enthralling and interesting for the readers of any field. Thus it cannot be read by common man for gaining an insight into this serious problem. It will be mostly of use for professionals, social scientists, activists, policy makers etc who are involved in delivering education to such children who are outside the formal schooling system. Abha Agarwal YOJANA May 2008

tITLE : Child labour and the right to Education in South Asia

Author : Pages : Price

Naila Kabeer, Geetha B. Nambissan and Ramya Subramaniam412

: Rs. 365/-

Publisher : Sage Publications, New Delhi.

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