Tea Quality

Introduction
The need to understand the chemistry of tea manufacture was underscored in the early 1950s when the Tea Research Institute of East Africa was established1. The history of early work is presented in the following sections. The tea research problems were outlined by Eden in 19542 and he speculated on the morphological basis of tea quality3. The speculations formed the basis of further experiments. However, greatest effort has been put into investigations of the chemical aspects of tea quality. Parameters of processed tea quality Attempts were made to associate the chemical parameters of tea to taste 8. These studies revealed that the stimulating action of tea was due to caffeine and the strength and quality of the copper colour due to the oxidation of the catechins to theaflavin and thearubigin. Both theaflavin and thearubigin form complexes with caffeine and protein which together with the aromatic compounds define the character of tea. Theaflavins Quality is normally subjectively described by the tea trade. Producers define quality tea as that whose sale leads to higher income. Tea traders define quality tea as that which gives maximum profit, while consumers define quality tea as one with overall taste and class. Research prompted by the requirement of the tea trade has been conducted to define chemical indicators of quality. Black tea can be assessed by the eye (look), tongue (taste) and nose (smell). These factors can be due to different quality parameters. The black teas produced in most African countries are termed as "plain" i.e. lacking in aroma. These teas are normally priced for their taste and colour parameters, factors which are due to theaflavin, thearubigin and caffeine levels9. However, aroma can be an important Kenyan tea quality parameter10. Kenyan teas were noted to have very high theaflavin levels11 compared to Central African tea (234889) and the early quest for the chemical basis to Kenyan black tea quality was mainly centred on the study of these. Work in Malawi12 had shown that for Central

Chemical and biochemical aspects of tea quality

Chemistry of fresh leaves It was recognised that it is necessary to quantify the total polyphenol content and polyphenol oxidase activity in the leaf as this could be related to liquor properties of resultant black teas4. The yield of dry enzyme powder from 10 g of fresh leaf was 1.3 g to 1.4 g (13419). Total oxidisable matter had little seasonal variation while enzyme activity fluctuated more with time of the year5. The accuracy of the measurements of the parameters was however less certain. During the Second Tea Research Institute of East Africa conference, a lecture was also given on the chemistry of the tea leaf in relation to manufacture6. However early techniques for processing tea were summarised by Hainsworth in 19697.

196 African black teas, there existed a relationship between the theaflavin levels and quality as measured by sensory evaluation and/or prices. Several studies were therefore conducted to evaluate the possibility of relating Kenyan tea quality to theaflavin content13. These studies revealed that although the linear relationship between theaflavin levels and sensory evaluations and/or price of tea were positive, the regression coefficient was not significant (234889). Theaflavin content was therefore concluded to be important14 for Kenyan black tea quality, but it was not the sole objective quality indicator15. It was recognised that there were problems with the theaflavin analysis as the results were not inter-laboratory reproducible. The methods of theaflavin analysis were therefore examined16. Factors causing the non-reproducibility were investigated and were found to be related to infusion temperatures, altitude at which infusion was done, size and shape of the infusion vessel, and pH of the infusing water17. The methods of assaying theaflavin were also assessed, and aluminium chloride was developed as a cheap replacement to the Flavognost reagent method18. In the course of time more methods of theaflavin analysis have been developed. The more relevant method was developed in Central Africa using the C18 Cartridge Sep-Pack method. The method was compared with the Flavognost and aluminium chloride methods. Although the method was claimed to be faster and cheaper, it was found to be inaccurate19. Thus the SepPack method cannot be used without further modifications. Four individual major theaflavins occur in black tea with varying contributions to astringency and/or quality. The individual theaflavins levels vary in different black tea in unpredictable manner. The lack of significant relationships between Kenyan black tea theaflavin levels and sensory 196 evaluation could therefore be due to this. With the advent of the HPLC analytical procedures, it has been possible to partition the individual theaflavins and to calculate a normalising factor (theaflavin digallate equivalent) of the various black teas20. A better relationship was developed between digallated theaflavins or theaflavins digallate equivalent and sensory evaluations21. Thus the lack of significant correlation between total theaflavin content and sensory evaluation was in part due to the measurement of the wrong parameter. Volatile flavour compounds Much research has also been done on determining other reliable chemical quality parameters of tea. Flavour was known to be an important quality parameter for tea 22 but there was no quantitative method of measuring it. Owuor developed a Flavour Index by analysing the smell characteristics of all the known aroma compounds and separating them into two groups: those imparting a green, grassy, undesirable smell (Group I) and those imparting a sweet flowery aroma to black tea (Group II). A Flavour Index was then calculated as a ratio of volatile flavour compounds in Group I and Group II23. The Flavour Index ratio was found to have a significant relationship with sensory evaluation for some Kenyan black teas24. However, the index needs further evaluation as smell intensity of the various compounds are not linearly related to concentration. Further work has been done to relate lipoxygenase activity to the Group I volatile flavour compounds25. These experiments have not yielded very conclusive results. Plant pigments Further experimentation has been done with an aim of developing a quality selection criteria from single bushes. These efforts were directed towards determining

pigments which could be used to predict quality26. In these studies a negative relationship was observed between chlorophyll and some carotenoid levels in green leaf and quality (the sensory evaluation) of black tea. The model however still needs further development. Catechins Green tea leaves contain high levels of polyphenols, mainly catechins. Studies have been reported indicating that catechin levels could be related to black tea quality27. But these studies were hampered by the inability to purify the individual catechins. Recently, the work was restarted, but was aimed at relating the total polyphenols and polyphenol oxidase activity to quality28. A reasonable relationship was demonstrated between total polyphenols in green leaf and theaflavin of resultant black tea. However, it was necessary to quantify the individual catechins and relate this to theaflavin. These studies demonstrated that polyphenol oxidase activity is not a limiting factor in Kenyan clones studied for the formation of theaflavin. Experiments to develop reproducible methods of analysis of tannins started in 1954 (17723). This early work concentrated mainly on the effect of infusion time and fermentation time on non-tanning fraction i.e. that not precipitated by gelatine (17723). Further calorimetric analysis methods were explored29. It was also observed that the percentage of soluble dry matter in tea decreased with fermentation duration (17722). The main precursor to black tea quality parameters was the level of catechins. Studies on the methods of catechin analysis were therefore initiated30. These methods were based on Thin Layer Chromatography and were slow and tedious31. However, the study demonstrated the variability of catechin

levels in the various clonal tea plants. Further studies on catechins (15549) and enzymes (15551) were done later, but the results were inconclusive. Caffeine Caffeine is known to give tea its stimulatory effects. Factors causing caffeine variations in black tea have been a subject of several studies in Kenya32. These studies have shown that caffeine levels in black teas vary with agronomic practices33 and manufacturing practices34. The black tea caffeine also varied with time of the year35. Aluminium and tea quality Although aluminium has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease, it is known that black tea contains large amounts of the element. However the addition of aluminium to tea gives the tea a good colour that is perceived to improve its 'quality'36. Factors causing variations of aluminium contents in black tea have been quantified37. These studies showed that different clones have varying ability to extract aluminium from the soil38 and that increasing rates of nitrogen reduced black tea aluminium levels39. Aluminium also increased with coarse plucking standards40 and the amount infused changed with maceration method and grades (18988). More aluminium is infused from small particle size black teas. Up to 40% of aluminium in the black tea is infused into a tea brew and this is diluted by over 200%. Thus black tea is not a serious source of aluminium for humans. Adding aluminium to black tea to enhance colour was shown to reduce the total theaflavin content 41 although the detection of theaflavins could be increased by decreasing the pH of the infusion (01760). This is likely to be due to aluminium ions forming salts or complexes with the theaflavin which are not soluble in the iso-methylbutyl ketone

198 used to extract theaflavin from tea infusion. Fluorides Tea has been thought to have high levels of fluoride (241375) which could predispose drinkers to fluorosis. However, the dilution factor in tea drinking is too high for fluoride contamination. Indeed there is more fluoride in common vegetables42 than in tea infusions. Amino acids and flavour Amino acids were speculated to contribute to the aroma of black tea 43. Experimental basis of these were not given.

Quality and preharvest conditions

Agronomic and cultural practices effects Quality of black tea can be dependent on many factors. These factors include agronomic and cultural practices44. Some of the agronomic practices affecting quality are discussed below. Agronomic practices were thought to have influence on black tea quality. Experiments to establish this suggested that a coarse plucking standard was undesirable45. Seasons Although production of tea is continuous throughout the year in Kenya, it varies from month to month46. This is due to variations in the weather factors causing changes in growth patterns and plant nutrient uptake47. In several studies, it has been documented that there are also quality variations in black tea with the time of year in Kenya48 both in the East49 and West50 of the Rift Valley. Seasonal variations in all quality parameters measured were found to follow rainfall pattern. However, compared to aroma parameters, minimal variations were observed in the plain black tea quality parameters51. Thus the seasonal changes in Kenyan black tea quality were more due to aroma52 (233705; 233935) and the decline in plain black tea quality during peak periods is more attributable to other factors like inadequate factory capacities and unfavourable green leaf transport conditions leading to improper processing techniques53.

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Effects of geographical area of production Black teas produced from different parts of the world were shown to vary in quality54. Further studies have been done to determine if the same clones grown in different regions have the same quality. These studies have demonstrated quality variations. Although the agronomic recommended practices for tea production in Kenya are similar55 (245778), different factories produce black teas with different prices even when they have the same management standards. An assessment was done to evaluate if these processes reflected in tea sales were due to changing chemical composition and hence quality. The study was done using black teas from various smallholder (KTDA) factories56. Generally black teas for the East of the Rift Valley had higher TF and brightness (01777) and Flavour Index57 than black tea from the West of the Rift Valley. Such variations existed even when the comparison was done using tea materials from the same farms sampled many times58. Variations could have been due to the use of materials of different genetic make-up. Experiments using the same clones were therefore done59. These studies did not show any quality patterns with area of production. Another experiment was done within a radius of only 10 km but at varying altitudes to monitor the effect of altitude on black tea quality where environmental changes were minimal. This experiment recorded that both plain and aromatic black tea quality improved with an increase in altitude (06761; 18998; 200978; 234069). Thus high-grown teas make black teas of superior quality which explains the generally high quality of Kenyan teas as they are grown at high altitudes of over 1500 m above mean sea level. The altitude at which tea is processed caused changes in black tea quality. Manufacture at a high altitude improved

quality of resultant black tea60. Further experimentation is needed to correctly assess and confirm this observation. There were changes in black tea quality due to diurnal changes in plucking times also61. Factors causing these diurnal black tea changes need to be properly investigated and quantified. Shade trees Tea was found originally growing under shade trees. As a simulation of the natural growing environment, tea-growing was done under shade in Kenya. However, due to reduced nutrient uptake (237597), and yields62 and an increase in disease susceptibility63 shade was removed in most of Kenya's tea plantations. The effects of shade on tea quality were investigated. An improvement in black tea 'quality' was observed by sensory evaluation64. This was confirmed through chemical analysis in Kericho65 especially on the aroma of black tea. However, the plain black tea quality did not change much due to shading. This trial needs to be done again using clonal material of uniform genetic make-up to establish the apparent lack of plain tea quality parameter changes. Pruning Pruning is an essential agronomic/cultural operation in the commercial production of tea beverages from the tea plant (Camellia sinensis) (l). In Kenya, pruning is done after three to four years as the plant reaches unmanageable heights, making plucking cumbersome66 (200039). The plants grow at faster rates after pruning which could cause black tea quality changes. These effects were evaluated67 and showed that the quality of black tea improved as the tea approached the next pruning stage. In the case of lung-pruning, the lungs produced a more superior quality of black tea than tipping leaf68. Thus it is possible to produce black tea of varying quality

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without changing manufacturing techniques as long as the leaves used were growing at different rates.Planting materials (clones, cultivars, varieties) Black teas produced in different parts of the world have been shown to differ in quality69. Although the variations could in part be due to geographical and environmental conditions, they could also partly be due to the genetic make-up of the planting materials. Consequently it is a requirement that before planting material is released to farmers, that the quality is assessed by sensory and chemical methods. Several such evaluations have been done70. It has been shown that different clones71 and different varieties of tea72 produce black tea of different quality. The quality of the clones varies with geography73. It is therefore critical that for production of high quality black teas, growers are provided with materials of proven quality in the area of intended growth. So far the research has not been very comprehensive and more work needs to be done to establish suitable clones for different tea growing regions in Kenya. Some studies have been carried out to determine reliable methods of selecting clones for quality. Such methods have included polyphenol contents and enzyme activity74 , leaf pubescence (15948), leaf colour (15953), theaflavin levels75, Flavour Index (247284; 234425), theaflavin digallate equivalent76 and plant pigments77. Although some attempts have been made to use these parameters in clonal selection78, no single parameter has been successful, which is not surprising as black tea quality is attributed to numerous parameters in clonal selection79. Both the Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (China tea) and Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Assam tea) were widely grown in Kenya during the 1960s. However, the Assam tea has broad, soft and heavy shoots which are easy to pluck compared to the small, hard and difficult-

to-pluck leaves of China tea. Assam tea has become the most popular80. This change was accompanied by improvements in black tea quality81. Owuor and Odhiambo82 evaluated the response in the two different varieties. Chemical composition differences in the two varieties were observed which suggested that Assam tea had better overall "quality" than China tea. Owuor and Njuguna83 also compared the chemical composition and quality of var. sinensis and var. assamica subsp. lasiocalyx. Again black tea quality variations were exhibited; var. assamica had a higher Flavour Index compared to the other two varieties. Tasters preferred var. assamica followed by var. assamica spp. lasiocalyx, with var. sinensis being liked the least84. The replacing of var. sinensis with var. assamica on the aforementioned physical parameters was fortuitous, as it improved black tea quality in Kenya. The age of the tea bushes (18993) and grafting on rootstocks does not change the quality of the scions85. Plucking and quality Plucking is an expensive and important undertaking in tea production. Incorrect plucking reduces both quality and yields occasioning uneconomic production of tea. Several studies have therefore evaluated methods to improve both yields and quality through plucking. These studies have shown that quality of black tea improves with fine plucking standard86. The recommended plucking standard in Kenya is "two leaves and a bud"87, although some producers are known to advocate a coarser plucking standard. However there are clonal variations in response to plucking standard with some clones like S15/10 suited to coarser plucking without much decline in quality88. The rate of fermentation varies with plucking standard89. Thus for quality tea manufacture optimal fermentation

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duration should be changed to suit a plucking standard. The intervals of plucking also affects the black tea quality. If plucking standard is predetermined at two leaves and a bud, there are no drastic quality changes with long plucking intervals. In such a situation if a shoot is more than two leaves and a bud, only the two leaves and a bud are harvested for manufacture and the rest is left on the plucking table. However, in order to maintain the plucking table the extra leaves are cut back (broken back) which represents a loss of yield to the farmers. A plucking regime should be such that plucking intervals take place when the maximum number of leaves are at the correct stage for plucking. Results from the Tea Research Foundation of Kenya have shown that plucking at short plucking intervals of 6 to 7 days leads to high quality black teas90, without sacrificing yield91. Decline in black tea quality with longer plucking intervals was due to the increase of coarse leaves irrespective of nitrogen rate 92. Var. sinensis was found to be less sensitive to changes in plucking intervals compared to var. assamica93. The mode of plucking also affects quality. Due to a labour shortage, mechanical harvesters are sometimes used. A study was initiated to monitor the effects of using shear-plucking on black tea quality. Shears caused quality reduction94. Motorised, machine-plucking has also been evaluated. Compared to hand-plucking, black tea from motorisedmachine-plucking was of lower quality95. Quality decline with mechanical harvesters was made worse by longer plucking intervals. However, the quality could be improved by raising the harvesting blade by 2 cm compared to 1 cm above the previous plucking table96. It was also recognised that good black tea could only be obtained if the green leaf was properly handled post- harvesting97.

Proper leaf handling without bruising was therefore recommended. Fertilisers and quality Application of fertilisers can affect the quality of black tea. Nitrogen has been found to have the largest effect on yield and this is reflected in the number of studies to assess its effect on tea quality. Studies of the effects of fertilisers were initiated in 198698. The quality of a high yielding clone S15/10 after application of NPKS 25:5:5:5 and NPK 20:10:10 applied at 0, 100, 300, 450 and 600 kg N/ha/year were assessed. High rates of nitrogen reduced the clone S15/10 by causing decline in theaflavin levels, thearubigin levels and Flavour Index but at the same time increasing the caffeine, Group I volatile compounds (VFC) and Group II VFC99. The aroma quality declined with an increase in nitrogen rate was attributed to an increase in the levels of the unsaturated fatty acids100 which break down to produce most of the Group I VFC101. When the experiment on high yielding clone S15/10 was initiated to compare the yield and quality response to nitrogen as NPKS 25:5:5:5 or NPK 20:10:10. Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency were observed at low rates of nitrogen which led to a further experiment to monitor a split application. Fertiliser was applied as one single dose, half rates at six month intervals, or three applications at four month intervals. For the different sources of nitrogen there were seasonal fluctuations in tea quality but nitrogen continued to depress quality over control102. Indeed, splitting the nitrogen fertiliser application had no effect on tea quality but an increase in rates depressed quality103. The effects of the treatments were measured on the levels of aluminium in brewed tea and there was less aluminium after splitting the nitrogen

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application and/or increasing the rates of nitrogen104. On low yielding seedling tea, there were no effects of NPKS 25:5:5:5 fertiliser at 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 kg N/ha/year or splitting the application into single, or split using half rates at 6 month intervals or split into 4 applied after every three months, neither the rates nor the frequency of application had a significant effect on black tea quality105. In the later years, there was a decline in tea quality due to nitrogen rate but splitting application had no effect106. Further experiments were done on a low-yielding clone 11/4 tea in the Mt. Kenya area to determine the effects of NPKS 25:5:5:5 rates (0, 100, 200, 400 and 800 kg N/ha/year) either as a single dose or split into two equal doses at 6 months intervals, on quality of black tea. High rates of nitrogen reduced quality but splitting the application improved the quality of tea107. These experiments demonstrated quality benefits from splitting fertiliser application in the Eastern Kenya highlands but not in Western Kenya. The decline in black tea quality with nitrogen persisted in all clones but at different rates108 and was not affected by planting density109. Another study of fertiliser application monitored the effects of shade and nitrogen as NPKS 25:5:5:5 at 0, 90, 180 and 270 kg N/ha/year on the quality of seedling tea. Shade effects are summarised elsewhere, but nitrogen rate reduced the resultant black tea quality110. The effects of nitrogen rate and plucking intervals were measured in an experiment111 but there were no significant differences due to the treatments. The effects of plucking intervals and nitrogen were evaluated in another experiment where plucking was done at 6 or 22 day intervals while nitrogen was applied as NPKS 25:5:5:5 at 0, 100, 200 and 400 kg N/ha/year. Low rates of nitrogen and short

plucking intervals improved black tea quality112. A follow-up experiment on nitrogen and frequency of harvesting was done using the high-yielding clone S15/10. Nitrogen was applied as NPKS 25:5:5:5 at 100, 200, 300, 400 and 600 kg N/ha/year and harvesting done at 7, 14 and 21 days intervals. Again short plucking intervals and low rates of nitrogen produced higher quality black teas113. Short plucking intervals therefore improves black tea quality. The effects of rates and ratios of nitrogen and potassium on black tea quality were also assessed114 for tea grown in the Nyambeni Hills. Whereas increasing nitrogen rates reduced quality, rates of potassium had no effects on the quality of black tea115. The effects of organic fertilisers (compost manure from tea waste) and inorganic fertiliser NPKS 25:5:5:5) were compared at 200 kg N/ha/year on the quality of tea. Quality differences were observed116.

Processing and black tea quality

Withering There were early speculations that there were no benefits from withering, but it was found that the unwithered leaves were difficult to roll and ferment due to the excessive moisture117. Elementary notes on tea manufacture were published by Child118 detailing tunnel withering, chemical wither and tough withering119. The degree of wither was given as the percentage of the weight of the original leaf120. Processing of black tea starts immediately after the leaf is plucked, as soon as the leaf is detached from the plant, some chemical and biochemical changes and senescence starts121. Some of these changes cause variations in tea quality and are referred to as chemical wither. The

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changes in biochemical constituents of green leaf and black tea due to withering were recently reviewed122. However, there are also moisture losses making the leaf flaccid and easy to macerate. These changes are called physical wither. Prior to 1984, it was thought that withering was necessary only for the benefits of maceration123. Consequently early studies and literature were mainly concerned with methods of achieving physical wither124. As a result of the fast growth of Kenya's tea production, manufacturing facilities became a limiting factor because the green leaf production increased faster than factory capacity125. Withering was the stage most adversely affected as it takes the most space, labour and energy in the factory (234654; 233604). Although withering had also been known to affect black tea aroma126, it was assumed the Kenyan tea which previously had been thought to be plain would not require chemical wither. Early research therefore assessed if Kenyan tea industry could be affected by both physical and chemical wither and both were found to be positive127. Subsequent studies were geared towards methods of efficient withering without quality losses in the shortest duration using minimum factory space and energy. These studies demonstrated that it is possible to do chemical and physical wither at distinct stages 128. In that event it is important to achieve chemical wither before physical wither. Methods to process black teas using two separate withering stages (two-stage wither) were successfully developed and shown not to impair black tea quality129. Use of high temperature to achieve physical wither impaired quality of the resultant black tea130. The degree of physical wither caused changes in the quality of plain black tea. High quality plain black teas with high theaflavin and thearubigin content could be processed by

soft physical withers131, while aromatic black teas benefited from both hard physical and chemical withers132. There was no interaction between degree of physical wither and fermentation 133 duration . The duration of wither was found to have an immense impact on the quality of tea. Very short withering produced good plain black teas but with low aroma quality while a very long chemical wither reduced the quality134. Good tea quality could be obtained by withering for up to 20 hours. However it became necessary to determine the shortest chemical wither time as this could reduce the time leaf has to spend withering. These experiments demonstrated that chemical wither could be achieved in as short as 6-7-hours135. These methods of withering were determined to help reduce factory overheads136 without impairing quality137. For the processing of plain black teas the use of chemical wither alone was adequate for production of quality black teas138. Very soft withers led to a reduced density of black teas and increased shipping costs139. Soft withers also led to casehardening during firing140. Excessive build-up of heat during withering (or post- plucking) also caused quality decline141. Black teas processed using soft or chemical withers did not undergo adverse chemical changes during storage compared to hard-withered black teas142. For quality, investigations suggest that better quality tea was made from paleleafed plants than from dark-leafed plants and that an increase in pubescence lead into small improvement in the liquoring properties of tea143. Maceration The withering process ends with maceration. In this process the leaf is disintegrated into small pieces by cutting

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and/or rolling operations. The principal machines used in the tea industry are:(a) The rolling machine, which is also referred to as the orthodox process. (b) Contra-rotating pairs of serrated rollers, called CTC (Crush, Tear and Curl) machines. (c) Rotating hammer-mill disintegrator, called LTP (Laurie Tea Processor) machine. Early tea-processing in Kenya used the orthodox manufacturing method. However, this has changed with time and at present over 99% of Kenyan tea is processed by unorthodox (CTC or LTP) systems. The change has partly been due to the changing market patterns and the observation that by use of unorthodox systems, less tea could produce more cups of tea liquor. The effect of the change on black tea quality was however not studied until recently, when a comparison was done between the chemical composition after maceration by orthodox rollers and CTC machines144. These studies revealed that black teas produced by CTC had higher plain tea quality parameters i.e. theaflavin and thearubigin content, brightness and colour, while orthodox manufacture lead to the production of more aromatic black teas. Such quality variations were independent of the variety of tea used in the manufacturing process145. Other studies compared the chemical composition and/or black tea quality variations due to the use of LTP and CTC machines. These studies revealed that chemical composition did not differ provided that the degree of physical wither was maintained146. But LTP maceration need a softer wither (higher moisture), than CTC black teas. Thus differences obtained in the quality of these two methods were more attributable to changes in the degree of physical wither.

Most of Kenya's tea is processed by the rotorvane followed by three CTC in series. The extent of cell wall destruction (which allows faster and more thorough fermentation) varies with the number of CTC machines used. The effect of staggering the CTC and fermentation processes was studied. Changing the maceration-fermentation sequence was found to affect black tea quality as maceration increases the exposure of catechins to polyphenol oxidase. The plain black tea quality parameters were enhanced by having few cuts at the beginning and having subsequent cut(s) in the middle of fermentation147. It has not yet been shown how the different maceration techniques affect the individual theaflavin composition. Fermentation Although many biochemical transformations occur during the withering phase of tea manufacture, the most noticeable changes occur during fermentation. Fermentation, which involves the oxidation of catechins to theaflavins and thearubigins in the presence of polyphenol oxidase, and unsaturated fatty acids and amino acids to volatile flavour compounds, is thought to be the most critical stage in tea manufacture. Quality of brewed tea depended on the process and early experiments in tea manufacture centred on fermentation148. The importance of copper in the polyphenol oxidase enzyme activities was recognised and this prompted early studies on copper content of tea leaves149. It was recognised that low of copper content could reduce the fermentability of tea150. However, no relationship was established between copper levels in green leaf and the different oxidation ability of the different tea plants. Further tests on copper and fermentation were done by setting up field trials with copper and

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assessing fermentability of resultant tea and retention of copper in the soil (17720; 17719; 17718). Attempts were made to develop calorimetric methods of optimally and reliably assessing fermentation151. The results were promising but due to lack of technological development were discontinued. The experiments on fermentation during black tea processing were reintroduced in 1983. These experiments were based on the measurement of theaflavin content with fermentation time and showed that the inline TF analysis was not as accurate as sensory evaluation in predicting optimum fermentation time152. Use of theaflavin levels in brewed tea to assess fermentation time gave closer results to sensory evaluation. However, these methods were post-fermentation and were of little use. This led to a search for other chemical parameters to assess optimal fermentation duration. The extent of fermentation can be measured by the level of formation of the black tea quality parameters or the amount of precursor compound black tea left in the dhool or dried (fired) black tea. In subsequent studies, all black tea quality parameters and individual volatile flavour compounds were shown to vary with fermentation duration153. The aroma of black tea was found to decline with fermentation time154. The changes in all the black tea quality parameters explained why one parameter alone could not correctly assess the optimal fermentation time during processing. Fermentation is also affected by other factors such as the degree of physical wither155. In a study to determine the effect of wither on fermentation time, it was established that with hard physical wither, there was general decline in the formed plain black tea quality parameters, but there was no interaction between the degree of physical wither and fermentation

duration156 or between fermentation duration and duration of chemical wither time157. Conditions which favoured exposure to more oxygen or to easy control of temperatures favoured a more thorough fermentation158. This led into an examination of the effects of temperature on fermentation duration. The investigations showed that fermentation at high temperatures reduced black tea quality159. The fermentation duration did not affect the storage of black tea after processing160. Agronomic practices like plucking standard and genetic make-up of the material also affect the fermentation. Coarsely-plucked leaf fermented faster than finely-plucked leaf, but produced black tea of inferior quality161. Different clones ferment at different rates162. Studies were conducted to improve the fermentability of poor-fermenting clones using good fermenting ones. The results demonstrated that a poor fermenting clone brought down the good fermenter and vice versa163. The fermentability of tea can also be changed by varying the sequence of maceration with respect to fermentation. The results from all the manufacturing research in Kenya from 1982-1992 were reviewed164. Wemyss (243834; 234372) has developed on commercial methods of optimising fermenting conditions. These methods are based on use of continuous fermenters and electronically controlled temperature, airflow and humidity regulators. Green leaf from different districts fermented at different rates165. Causes of the different fermentation rates were not established. Early observations noted the need to optimise fermentation time during black tea processing and a "fermentation index" developed which was shown to be consistent and based on calorimetric methods166. These results were not adopted.

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Drying, sorting and grading Fermentation ends with firing (drying). Drying terminates the enzyme activity and reduces the moisture content to a state in which the black tea can be stored. During the process many of the volatile flavour compounds are lost167. Fortunately a higher proportion of Group I VFC which are responsible for an undesirable aroma to black tea is lost compared to the more aromatic Group II. Drying was done using a conventional drier in which drying "dhool" is put on a moving bed. However, in recent years, many fluid bed dryers have been developed. When operated under optimal conditions, there were no detectable plain tea quality changes due to the type of drier used, but the aroma and bulk density were improved by use of fluid bed dryer168. Dryer temperature settings are difficult to control in different dryers and the effects of different fluid bed driers have been the subject of study. Black tea quality can therefore vary due to variations in the temperature settings and air movement169. Even with optimal dryer settings the degree of physical wither can affect the dryer performance and resultant black tea quality170. Very soft physical withers reduce drier throughput and can result in the break-down of a fluid bed dryer. Use of solar heating can also reduce cost of drying tea in Kenya (243740), but this option has not been thoroughly investigated. The dried black teas are finally stored to remove fibre and then graded. Smaller particle grade black teas make better plain teas than large particle grades while the aromatic characteristics are better with a larger particle grades171. The quality of the black teas is routinely assessed by sensory evaluation or/and chemical analysis172. Effects of storage have also been assessed on quality173 and quality was noted to deteriorate upon storage. Recently storage was re-investigated with

respect to packing material174 and method of packaging175. For the packaging material, preliminary data showed that a tea chest lined with either a paper sack or a manilla bag were effective in storing black tea176. Packing under vacuum or nitrogen seemed to show some promise177 but the data need to be properly evaluated. Further tea-processing machinery is being developed by the Sotik Tea Co. Ltd. (234372). Taints in black tea Black tea can easily be contaminated by taints if some agronomic and processing procedures are not done correctly. Treating the tea with 2,4-D resulted in brewed black tea with taints178. Direction of use of pesticides on tea was therefore given to avoid contamination and taints (244540). It had been speculated that aerial applications of urea lead to tainting of tea but this did not seems to be the case179. Taints were later shown to be caused by contamination by airflow from rotting fuel wood180. Proper airflow into the factory is vital and if it is not correctly done, can cause fungicidal taint contaminations (242506).

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Purity For quality, the investigations suggest that better quality tea was made from paleleafed plants than from dark-leafed plants and that an increase in pubescence lead into small improvement in the liquoring properties of tea181. Storage of processed tea Child discussed moisture absorption and oven methods of determining moisture content of made tea in 1958182. It was recognised that tea undergoes deterioration upon storage, and a study was done on East African tea to monitor chemical changes due to storage post manufacture183. Although the study observed variations in the theaflavins levels, other black tea quality parameters were not studied. The purity of tea was discussed by Tolhurst184. This discussion was not based on experimentation. The role of miniature manufacturing units The use of miniature manufacturing units in experiments were initiated in 1974 to assess the effect of different agricultural practices on processed tea quality185. These experiments continued in subsequent years186. However, the results of the analysis were not given. After the initiation of the TRFK, many miniature manufacturing experiments have been conducted for plant improvement187. The results from plant improvement studies have been extensively used to form the basis of clonal selection for quality. Thus clones released from 1982 onwards were evaluated for quality using the miniature manufacture. The miniature manufacturing unit has been under continuous improvement to ensure reproducibility and reliability of generated data188. Thorough studies on the manufacture of black tea were initiated in 1982. Several miniature manufacturing experiments were

done to evaluate the possible existence between theaflavin levels and sensory evaluation as had been exhibited in Central Africa. Correlation of theaflavin levels and tasters' evaluations were however less significant189. The results from the theaflavin and sensory evaluation work have been used to establish the basis of Kenyan tea quality (see under chemical basis of quality).

Factory organisation
Principles of factory organisation were presented by Eden to the Second Tea Research Institute of East Africa conference held in 1954190. Stansell191 discussed the layout of factory as exemplified by Tagabi. The discussion was based on experience not research results.

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