ThePoliticalConsequencesofThinking

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SUNYSeriesin PoliticalTheory:ContemporaryIssues PhilipGreen,editor

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ThePoliticalConsequencesofThinking
GenderandJudaismintheWorkofHannahArendt
JenniferRing
STATEUNIVERSITYOFNEWYORKPRESS

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Publishedby StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,Albany 1998StateUniversityofNewYork Allrightsreserved PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermission.Nopartofthisbookmaybestoredinaretrievalsystemor transmittedinanyformorbyanymeansincludingelectronic,electrostatic,magnetictape,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwisewithouttheprior permission inwritingofthepublisher. Forinformation,addressStateUniversityofNewYorkPress,StateUniversityPlaza,Albany,N.Y.12246 ProductionbyMarilynP.Semerad MarketingbyHannahJ.Hazen LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Ring,Jennifer,1948 Thepoliticalconsequencesofthinking:genderandJudaisminthe workofHannahArendt/JenniferRing. p.cm.(SUNYseriesinpoliticaltheory.Contemporary issues) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0791434834(alk.paper).ISBN0791434842(pbk.: alk.paper) 1.Arendt,Hannah.EichmanninJerusalem.2.Holocaust,Jewish (19391945)Influence.3.WorldWar,19391945JewsRescue Palestine.4.Holocaust,Jewish(19391945)Publicopinion. 5.PublicopinionIsrael.6.IsraelPoliticsandgovernment. 7.JewsNewYork(State)NewYorkPoliticsandgovernment. 8.Arendt,Hannah.Jewsaspariah.I.Title.II.Series. D804.3.R54 1997 940.5318dc21 9647278 CIP 10987654321

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ForNorman,Jojo,andLilly withallmylove

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Contents
Acknowledgments Chapter1Introduction HannahArendt,Judaism,andGender IdentityPoliticsandMulticulturalism AssimilationandGender RaceandGender TheContextofFeministTheory StructureandOrganizationoftheBook Chapter2ThePoliticsoftheEichmannControversy ArendtandEichmanninJerusalem TheControversy Chapter3IsraelandtheHolocaust TheDawningofReality TheStructureofDiscomfort AttemptsatRescue IsraeliAttitudesTowardtheHolocaustVictims PostwarNegotiationswithGermany The"KastnerTrial" TheTrialofAdolfEichmann Chapter4TheNewYorkIntellectualsandEichmanninJerusalem TheNewYorkIntellectualsandJudaism TheNewYorkIntellectualsandtheHolocaust PostwarPoliticsandtheNewYorkers TheNewYorkIntellectualsandHannahArendt xi 1 1 4 6 9 13 18 21 21 26 43 46 50 57 71 75 80 84 91 91 98 101 103

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Chapter5Race,GenderandJudaism:TheEichmannControversyasCase Study NazisandSexuality Racism,Sexism,andJewishMasculinity AssimilationasGendered:ThePartisanReviewCrowdRevisited JewishWomen TheEichmannControversy,Gender,andJudaism Chapter6Transition ThinkingaboutEichmann ThePoliticalConsequencesofThinking ArendtasJewishGadfly Chapter7BiblicalandRabbinicApproachestoThinking ThinkingLikeaJew TheBible Talmud Midrash TheMiddleAges Mysticism JewishHistoricalConsciousness Chapter8GreekandHebrew:TheStructureofThinking TheStructureofHebrewThoughtComparedtoGreek RabbinicThought Scaffolding Chapter9TowardUnderstandingArendtasaJewishThinker AJewishSoulinaGermanScholar ThePoliticalTroublewithPhilosophyWarmUpExercise:An ImpressionisticReadingof"TruthandPolitics"

109 112 119 131 139 150 157 157 164 166 173 173 177 179 185 186 187 188 195 196 201 205 213 213

225

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Chapter10ThePariahandParvenuinThinking SeeingandHearing ClassicalandJewishOrthodoxy SocratesasPariah TheWordlyResultsofThinking Chapter11JewishThemesinPoliticalActionandHistory JudaismandtheSpaceforPoliticalAction JudaismandArendt'sConceptofHistory CommunityinDarkTimes Chapter12Conclusion Judaism Gender AppendixReviewsofRaulHilberg'sTheDestructionoftheEuropean Jews Notes SelectedBibliography Index

231 231 238 242 247 255 255 263 270 275 275 284

289 297 337 349

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Acknowledgments
Mydeepestgratitudeisreservedformyhusband,NormanJacobson,andourdaughters,JohannaandLillian.Theirloveandsupportsustainsmealways,most recentlythroughafewdifficultyears.Iamawedbytheiradaptability,lustforadventure,andcheerfulness,whichallowedmetobelieveinthisprojectandmyself,even whenlittleelsewascertain. TsiporaPeskinremindedmethatwhenaJewwritesforonepersonshewritesfortheworld,andsharedwithmeherpersonalinsightsaboutIsraelduringthepost Holocaustyears. ClayMorganofSUNYPressandSeriesEditorPhilipGreengreetedthisprojectwithenergyandenthusiasmafterreadinganearlyexcerpt.Theirsupportand editorialadvice,alongwiththegratifyingresponsesofthereviewerswhoreadthemanuscriptforSUNYPress,ensureditstimelycompletion. Iamalsogratefulforthesupportofmysmallfamilyoffriendswhocontinuetoreadmyworkandtosetanexampleofscholarlyexcellenceandintegrity:Elisabeth YoungBruehl,ArleneSaxonhouse,EugeneVictorWolfenstein,MichaelRogin,HannaPitkin,MaryDietz,JoanBurton,RabbiJudyShanks,andmymother,Frances Ring.ThanksalsotoPeggySpaughforhelpwiththefinalmanuscriptpreparation,andtoPatHullatU.C.Berkeleyforsteppinginatthelastminutetoextricatethe manuscriptfromacomputerthatthreatenedtoeatit.Herpatienceandtenacityensuredthebook'ssafearrivalatpressaswellasthepreservationofmysanity. IwrotethisbookoutofthedeepestrespectforthememoryofHannahArendt,accompaniedbymysenseofherenergy.Ihopeitistruetoherspirit.

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Ialsoacknowledgethefollowingeditors/publishersforallowingmetoreproducematerials: ExcerptsfromTHELIFEOFTHEMINDbyHannahArendt,copyright1978byHarcourtBrace&Company,reprintedbypermissionofthepublisher. ExcerptsfromTHEBLUEANDYELLOWSTARSOFDAVIDbyDinaPorat,Cambridge,Mass.,reprintedbypermissionofthepublisher:HarvardUniversity Press,copyright1990bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege. ExcerptsfromGeorgeL.Mosse,NATIONALISMANDSEXUALITY:MIDDLECLASSMORALITYANDSEXUALNORMSINMODERNEUROPE, copyright1985byGeorgeL.Mosse.(Madison:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress)reprintedbypermissionofTheUniversityofWisconsinPress. ExcerptsfromPaulBreines,TOUGHJEWS:POLITICALFANTASIESANDTHEMORALDILEMMAOFAMERICANJEWRY,1990.NewYork:Basic BooksreprintedbypermissionofHarperCollinsPublishers. ExcerptsfromMargaretCanovan,HANNAHARENDT:AREINTERPRETATIONOFHERPOLITICALTHOUGHTreprintedwiththepermissionof CambridgeUniversityPress. ExcerptsfromHEBREWTHOUGHTCOMPAREDWITHGREEKbyThorleifBoman,copyright1960SCMPressusedbypermissionofWestminsterJohn KnoxPress. ExcerptsfromBACKTOTHESOURCESreprintedwiththepermissionofSimon&SchusterfromBACKTOTHESOURCESbyBarryHoltz,copyright1984 byBarryW.Holtz. ExcerptsfromAmosFunkenstein,PERCEPTIONSOFJEWISHHISTORY,copyright1993,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPressreprintedbypermissionof TheRegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia.

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ExcerptsfromYehudaBauer,JEWSFORSALE?NAZIJEWISHNEGOTIATIONS,19931945,copyright1994,NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress reprintedbypermissionofYaleUniversityPress. ExcerptsfromHannahArendt,THEHUMANCONDITION,1958.Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPressreprintedbypermissionofTheUniversityofChicago Press. ExcerptsfromTHESEVENTHMILLION,byTomSegev.Translation,copyright1993byHaimWatzman.ReprintedbypermissionofHillandWang,adivision ofFarrar,StraussandGiroux,Inc. H.R.TrevorRoper'sreviewofTHEDESTRUCTIONOFTHEEUROPEANJEWSbyRaulHilbergisreprintedfromCOMMENTARY,April,1962,by permissionallrightsreserved. ExcerptsfromBETWEENPASTANDFUTUREbyHannahArendt.Copyright1954,1956,1957,1958,1960,1961byHannahArendt.Usedbypermissionof VikingPenguin,adivisionofPenguinBooksUSA,Inc. OscarHandlin,forpermissiontoreprintexcerptsfromhisreviewofRaulHilberg'sbookTHEDESTRUCTIONOFTHEEUROPEANJEWS,fromAmerican JournalofSociology68,1(July1962).

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Chapter1 Introduction
HannahArendt,Judaism,andGender ThisisanotherbookaboutHannahArendt.Theperspectivethatjustifiesitswritingisdeceptivelysimple,butIhavenowherereaditbefore.MythesisisthatHannah ArendtwasaJewishwoman,twofactsaboutheridentitywhichaffectedthecontentofherscholarshipandthewayherworkhasbeenreceived.ThatJewishnessand gendermayhavecoloredbothherintellectualworkanditsreceptionhasbeenneitheracknowledgednoraccepted.Thisisnottosaythattherehasnotbeenscholarly workdoneconcerningbothArendt'sgenderandreligion.1 ThepointofthisbookistoconsidertheimpactofherJewishidentityspecificallyonherintellectualwork, andhergenderonherwork'sreception. MyunderlyingagendaistomakeitintellectuallyrespectabletobeaJewishwoman.Thismaynotsoundrevolutionary:therehavebeenmanyJewishwomen intellectuals.Jewsare,atleastaccordingtostereotype,ascholarlypeople,andsoitisnotsurprisingthatJewishwomenwouldbeamongtheprominentintellectuals. ButasIargueinchapter5,thisimpressionisfalse.WhiletherehavebeenafewprominentJewishwomenscholarsforthemostpartwritersandpoliticalactivists theirnumbershavebeeninfinitesimalincomparisonwiththe

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preponderanceofJewishmalescholars.Inaddition,theprominence,whichistosay,respectability,ofthewomenresultsfromthefactthattheirworkcanbedivorced fromJewishscholarshipperse.Theoldassimilationistadage.''AManontheStreetAJewatHome"appliesalsotopublicJewishwomen.Untilveryrecently, perhapsjustagenerationortwoofJewishfeminists,JewishwomenhaveearnedpublicrespectbecausetheirworkwasnotintellectuallyJewish.Ithasbeeneither politicalsocialistorZionist,andadheringtoamaledefinedpartylineorliteraryandartistic,butnotexplicitlyJewish. ToclaimthatJewishwomenscholarsarerespecteddespitetheirJewishness,orthatHannahArendt'slifehasbeendichotomizedintoJewishactivistandGerman scholarmayappearextravagant.Nobody,includingHannahArendt,hasdeniedthatshewasJewish,orthatherJudaismhadaprofoundinfluenceonherlife.With regardtogender,feministshavestudiedandwrittenaboutitsimpactonherlifeandwork.Mypointofdepartureissubtle,butfundamental:IbelieveArendt's "Jewishness"affectedthecontentandstructureofherscholarship,andthather"femaleness"affectedthewayherworkwasreceived,especiallywithregardtoher mostcontroversialwork,EichmanninJerusalem.Arendt's"Jewishness"isusuallydiscussedonlyinrelationtoherspecificallyJewishpoliticalwritings,whichwere composedearlyinhercareer,duringthetimeofherflightfromtheHolocaustandarrivalinNewYork.HerJewishnesshasalsobeendiscussedinrelationtothefirst booklengthmanuscriptshewroteafterherdoctoraldissertation,RahelVarnhagen:TheLifeofaJewishWoman.ItcertainlymakessensetodiscussArendt's JewishnessinrelationtohermostexplicitlyJewishwritings.ButitalsoservesthepurposeofsegregatinghermostrespectedscholarshipfromherJewishness,as thoughherculturalidentityshouldhavenoinfluencewhatsoeveruponhermostinfluentialwork.IwillnotspendmuchtimeinthisvolumeoneitherherJewishpolitical writings,oronRahelVarnhagen.2 Indeed,IconfesstoanunfashionabledisinterestinRahelVarnhagenIhavereaditseveraltimes,andsimplyfinditless compellingthanArendt'sotherwork.Iaminpretty

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goodcompanyinthisopinion.KarlJaspers,whileencouragingArendttopublishthevolume,foundita"loveless"treatmentofVarnhagen."Thisworkstillseemstome tobeyourownworkingthroughofthebasicquestionofJewishexistence,andinityouuseRahel'srealityasaguidetohelpyouachieveclarityandliberationfor yourself....Rahelseemstohavewakenedneitheryourinterestnoryourlove....NopictureofRahelherselfemergesbutonly,sotospeak,apictureofeventsthat chosethisindividualastheirvehicle...YourviewofRahelis,Ifeel,loveless."3 ArendtuseJaspers'criticismasjustificationforherinsistencethatshedidnotwantto publishthebook:"RegardlessofwhatIwillhavetosayhereinresponsetoyourletter,ouragreementremainsinforce:Iwon'tpublishthebook.''4 Thisisnottosay thattheworkanauthordoesnotwanttopublishmightnotproveanelucidatingavenuetowardunderstandingherworkonlytostateattheoutset,thatIleaveanalysis ofVarnhagentoothersmoreinterestedinprobingit. ThethemesaddressedinbothRahelVarnhagenandArendt'sJewishpoliticalwritingsareimportanttomyworkhere,butIwillnotapproachthemdirectly.Instead, IfocusuponthewritingpresumedtobefreeofJewishinfluence.Arendt'scentralJewishconcepts,forwhichIwilllookintheleastobvioussources,arethepariah andparvenu,theoutsiderandtheassimilationist.IwillseektheirpresenceinwhatisusuallyregardedasArendt'smost"ethnicfree"work:TheHumanCondition andThinking,thefirstvolumeofTheLifeoftheMind.ThelogicisthatwhileitisnotdifficulttofindJewishthemesinArendt'smostexplicitlyJewishwritings,ifthere isalsoevidenceoftheinfluenceofJudaismonevenhermost"universal"or"objective"worksinpoliticaltheory,westandtolearnsomethingabouttheroleJudaism playedthroughoutherwork,andcanbetterunderstandherasanintegratedperson.ShewasaJewishwomanscholar,ratherthananactivistJewearlyinherlife,a classicalscholarinterestedinpoliticalactionearlyinherscholarlycareerandinthinkingonlylateron,andawomanonlywhenshebakedpastriesorofferedculinary advicetoGertrudJaspers.5 Byextension,we

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standtolearnsomethingabouttheinfluenceofraceandethnicityonscholarship. IdentityPoliticsandMulticulturalism Fromthisstandpoint,then,thebookisacasestudyinidentitypoliticsandculturalpluralism.Whatinfluence,ifany,doesculturalidentityhaveuponcreativework? Thequestioniscentraltoourtime,andfreightedwithsignificance.HannahArendtandahostofseriousscholarsdenytheimpactofherJewishidentityuponher intellectualwork.Bynearlyunanimousagreement,themajorinfluencesonArendt'sscholarshiparetakentobeKant,Heidegger,Jaspers,Socrates,Aristotle,and perhapsAugustine.Bynearlyequallyunanimousagreement,thecentralinfluenceonherpoliticalconvictionsareregardedastheriseoftotalitarianisminEurope,the Holocaust,andthepoliticalrefugeArendtfoundintheUnitedStates.AntiSemitismislinkedtototalitarianism,andherJewishinterestinpreventingitsrecurrenceis acknowledgedtohavehadanimpactonherpoliticaloutlook,atleasttotheextentofshapinghersometimesidealisticfaithindemocracy,herbeliefintheimportance ofstatehoodandnationalidentity,andherdisdainforarrivistesandsocialclimbingparvenus.Tosuggest,however,thattheremayexistsome"Jewish"influenceupon herscholarshipistakenassmackingofracistessentialism. SuchresistancetoconsideringtheinfluenceofJudaismonArendt'sscholarlylifeitselfstrikesmeasaformofantiSemitism.Theassumptionthatone'slifeexperiences asanAfricanAmerican,aSpanishAmerican,anAsianAmerican,orNativeAmericanmayinfluencethewayonereads,thinks,respondspolitically,andwrites,isthe foundationofthemulticulturalprojectinAmericanacademiclife:aperspectiveIregardascompletelylegitimate.WhileIdonotbelievetheclaimsofmulticulturalism shouldbeusedasanexcusetoignoretheimportantworksoftheWesterntradition,neitherdoIbelievethatthose"classics"comprisetheexclusiveessenceofan education,northataneducationthatoverlooksrace,ethnicity,andgendercanbecomplete.Butculturalblindness

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onthepartofbothWesternEuropeanculturalchauvinistsandadvocatesofamulticulturalapproachhaveoverlookedJudaismasapartofidentitypoliticsandthe multiculturaldialogue.Defendersofthe"Westerntradition"regardJudaismasparochial,whiledefendersofmulticulturalprogressivismregarditasconservativeand "white."IthasbeenlefttoJewishfeministstoarguethatneithersidehasitright:Judaismisneither''white"nor"male,"neitherconservativenor"ethnicallycorrect," implyinginherentlyprogressivepolitics.PartofmyprojecthereistoexploretheinfluenceofJudaismuponcreativework,asonemightexploretheinfluenceofany otherculturalidentityuponone'sscholarlyorartisticperspective. RaisingthequestionoftheinfluenceofJewishidentityuponArendt's(oranyJewishscholar's)workraisesahostofquestionspertainingtomulticulturalismitself.Iwill focusontwomajorissues:(1)thetradeoffbetweenparochialismandracialexclusivity,ontheonehand,andassimilationontheotherand(2)theintersectionof racismandsexismascomponentsofthemechanismofoppression. Howdoesmembershipinanethnic,religious,racial,cultural,orgendergroupaffectone'screativityorscholarlyproduct?Someformsofcreativityareexpressive, makenopretenseat"objectivity,"andthustheinfluenceofraceorethnicityisnotregardedas"undermining"ofexcellence.Still,thereisa"Westerntradition"inart andmusicthatprivilegescertainformsofexpressionas"thecanon,"asdefininggreatness.Kant'saestheticandmoralphilosophyassumesanoumenalessenceof beautyandgoodnesswithnoacknowledgmentthatourabilityto"recognize"excellencemayverywellbeculturallydetermined.Ontheotherhand,whatisthe relationshipbetween"folkart,"forexample,and"fineart"?Doestheterminologyitselfreflectculturalbias?Oraretherevalidstandardsofevaluationthatmaybe underminedbyaglibdeferencetoculturalrelativism? Theissuethatconcernsmeisinawayevenmorecomplex,sinceithastodonotwithcreativeorartisticexpressionbutwiththenatureofphilosophicalorethical "truth."Herethenameofthegameis"universalism"or"objectivity."Tobe

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interestedintruth,orinthinking,butnotinobjectivityisregardedasacontradictioninterms.Theassumptionisthat"Jewishtruth"cannotdifferfrom"Christiantruth." Truthandthinkingtranscendparticularity.ItmightbearguedthatArendt'sprojectinTheLifeoftheMindwastoarticulateamethodforthinkingthatwouldnotdefer toamonolithicandstaticconceptionof"Truth."Wasthatprojectculturallydetermined?Istheconceptionofthinkingshesoughttoarticulate,withitsdialogicalmethod andinsistenceonlackofclosure,morecompatiblewitha"Jewish"conceptionof''truth"than,forexample,aChristianEuropeanconception?Isthereawaytodiscuss theculturaldeterminantsofherprojectwithoutreducingbothJudaismandChristianitytostereotypesandoversimplifications?Jewsadheretoamonotheistic, profoundlyacorporealimageofGod,whileChristianityadherestoaTrinitarianviewofGodandbelievesinJesusastheincarnationofGod:bothcorporealand visible.DoesthataffecteithertheJewishorChristianconceptionoftruth?Thesearejustthemostobviousdifferencesthatsurfacewhenonethinksofcomparing ChristianandJewishphilosophy.Obviously,ChristianityandJudaismaremorecomplexthancanbereducedtoeventhesimplestformulaesuchasthese.Butdoes thatcomplexitymakeitimpossibletoaddresstheroleofreligiousbackgrounduponaphilosopher'sapproachtotruth? Ontopofthiscomplexityisthequestionofwhetherreligion,conceivedmorebroadlyasculturalHeritage,hasaneffectuponintellectualswhoarenotparticularly religious.ArendtwasunquestionablyJewishindeed,beingJewishinatimeandplaceofantiSemiticgenocidedeterminedthecourseofherlifeandwork.Butshe wasbynobody'saccountareligiousperson.Sowhatdoesitmeantoidentifyheras"Jewish"inrelationtoherscholarlywork? AssimilationandGender HannahArendtwrotepowerfullyonthedangersofassimilation,ofherdisrespectforparvenus,forthoseJewswhosoughttoescapetheirJewishness,whothought theycouldbe"AMan

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intheStreetandaJewatHome."Sheregardedthemassocialclimbers,arrivistes,"inauthentic"andbynomeansbenign.Theirbetrayalofthemselvesthrough escapefromJudaismfedantiSemitism.However,whenitcametoherintellectuallife,Ishallargue,Arendtherselfsoughttoassimilatetotherespectabilityofthe classicaltradition:standardsoftruthandexcellencedefinedbyGreek,Roman,Christian,andWesternEuropean(particularlyGerman)influences.Thuswhileshe proudlylaidclaimtoherclassicalscholarlybackground,shedidnotperceivethatclaimasassimilationist.ShewrotetoGershomScholemin1963,inresponsetohis criticismofEichmanninJerusalem,inwhichheaccusedherofbeing"fromtheGermanLeft,"''Iamnotoneofthe'intellectualswhocamefromtheGermanLeft... .'IcamelatetoanunderstandingofMarx'simportancebecauseIwasinterestedneitherinhistorynorinpoliticswhenIwasyoung.IfIcanbesaidto'havecome fromanywhere,'itisfromthetraditionofGermanphilosophy."InthesameletterArendtalsoidentifiedherselfasaJew,"asamatterofcourse":"Well,inthissenseI donot'love'theJews,nordoI'believe'inthemImerelybelongtothemasamatterofcourse,beyonddisputeorargument."6 Thetwononintegratedaspectsofher identityareexperiencedunproblematically.ShesawherselfasaGermanphilosopherandaJew,butinseparateaspectsofherlife. IfArendtherselfsawnoprobleminkeepingthemainpartsofheridentityseparate,onwhatgrounds,then,canIsuggestthatshewasaJewishwomanparvenuina Christianmaleintellectualworld?DoesidentifyingaJewishstraininArendt'sscholarshipwhensheidentifiedherselfonlyasaEuropeaneducatedscholarbetray arroganceanddetachmentonmypart?AmIsuggestingthatshesufferedfrom"falseconsciousness,"performingacrudesortofpsychologicalreductionism, pretendingtobeabletoprobeHannahArendt'sunconscious?IdonotintendtostandinjudgmentofHannahArendt'srelationshiptoherJudaism,buttouseherto explorethetemptationsofassimilation,andthelimitationsofexclusionism,inmyself,asanotherJewishwomanscholar,andbyimplicationinallofuswhoconsider ourselvesoutsiders.

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WhetherIsucceedinstrikingthepropertonerespectful,neitherarrogantnoroverlydeferentialisofcourselefttothejudgmentofthereader. Thesequestionsarecomplicatedbythefactthatassimilationitselfisaterminneedofdefinition.Itisunlikelythatassimilationisaonewaystreet,with"dominant society"definingthetermstowhichnewcomersoroutsidersmustconform.Chancesarethereissomemutualityofinfluence.TheculturalstandardstowhichJews soughttoconforminEuropeandtheUnitedStateswerenotmonolithicandstaticbut,likeeverythingelse,responsivetohistoricalandeconomicinfluences,including thearrivalofnewcomersintotheirmidst.Whenwediscussassimilationasembodyingthedangersoflossofculture,whenorthodoxJews,forexample,fearthatany minglingwiththegoyimwillresultincontaminationandlossofJudaism,weassumethatassimilationdemandsrelinquishmentofacultureconceivedinstaticterms,a moldingofthecommunityofoutsiderstothedominantculture,alsoperceivedinstaticterms.Surelythisisanextremeandsomewhatdistortedpicture. Still,amoremoderatefearoflossofidentitythroughassimilationcontinuestocharacterizeeveryethnicgroupseekingtoenteranexistingsociety.Ontheonehand, thereisthedesiretofit,toparticipateintheadvantagesandprivilegesavailablefromsociety.Beyondtheinstrumentaladvantages,thereexistinherentbenefitsto experiencingmoreoftheworld:parochialismisbydefinitionlimiting.Itmayoffersecurity,butcanalsobeexperiencedasconfining,suffocating.Ontheotherhand,no groupissofilledwithselfloathingthatitwelcomesitsowndissolutionintoanothergroup.One"assimilates"attheriskoflosingauthenticityandselfknowledge.The completelyassimilatedpersonmaypossesslessofhimorherselfthantheunassimilatedoutsider. Addingtothecomplicationsofassimilationisafactthathasbeenlargelyneglectedbyscholars:assimilationisgendered.Thepathwaystowardassimilationformen andwomenaredifferent.Menareoftenexpectedtobeassimilatedfirstandmorefully.Thedefinitionofassimilationoftenpresumesthatthegrouptobeassimilated aremen.TheprimarymodelofJew

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ishassimilationinWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStatesismalewomenweregiventhetaskofpreserving,totheextentpossible,Judaisminthehome.Thisis discussedinchapter5.7 WithregardtoHannahArendt,Ishallarguethatsheretainedherdisdainforsocialassimilationism,butwasoblivioustothedangersofscholarlyassimilation.Butthere isacomplicatingfactor:hervulnerabilitytotheGreekandChristianstandardsofWesternEuropeanscholarshipwas,Ibelieve,shapedbyhergender.Jewishmale intellectualsmayalsobesusceptibletothebeliefthatJewishscholarshipisparochialinamannerantitheticaltothepursuitof"classical"truthor"objectivity."However, scholarshipissuchadearlyheldculturalpriorityforJewishmenthatbecomingasecularEuropeanorAmericanscholar,ratherthanamoretraditionalTalmudic scholar,wasoneoftheacceptablepathsofJewishmaleassimilation.NosuchpathwasopentoJewishwomen. AJewishwomanscholarwas,tobeginwith,neverascholarofJudaism.ForamodernwomantochooseascholarlylifewasitselfabreakwithJewishtradition,and soitispossibletoseethatArendtwasneverawareofthe"choice"ofbeingeitheraJewishoranassimilatedscholar.Ifsheweretobeascholar,shehadtobea European"universalist"scholar,whichmakesitmorecomprehensiblethatshewouldhaveneglectedJewishsourcesinherintellectualwork.Still,Iwillraisethe questions,inchapters9,10,and11,ofthetenacious,ifsometimesunconscious,influenceofherJewishheritageuponthecontentofherwork.Iwillattributeto Arendt's"Jewishsoul"questionsraisedasshesoughttoarticulateaworldlywayofthinkingavailabletoallpeople,notjustexperts.AndIwillarguethatArendtthe GermaneducatedscholarcouldnotrespondadequatelytothequestionsraisedbyherJewishsoul.ThediscordbetweenherJewishselfandherGermanscholarly personaaccountsforalackofresolutioninherfinalintellectualproject. RaceandGender Alsoaddressedinthisvolume:therelationshipbetweenrace,orethnicity,andgenderinthemodernworld.Thefirstpartofthebookisadiscussionoftheresponseto Arendt'smost

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controversialwork,EichmanninJerusalem.IarguethattheragedirectedatherreportinTheNewYorkeranditssubsequentpublicationasabookwasexcessive, reflectingsomethingdeeperthanrationallybasedobjectionstoherobservationsandconclusions.ThevitriolicnatureoftheresponsefromprominentJewsinthe UnitedStatesandIsraelwasaffectedbythefactthatArendtwasaJewishwoman,theonlyJewishwomanwithapublicfollowingtospeakoutagainsttheentirely maleleadershipoftheEuropeanandIsraeliJewishcommunitiesduringtheHolocaust.Holocaustsurvivors,IsraeliZionists,andAmericanJewishintellectualshadvery littleincommon,andfewpointsofagreementonanythinghavingtodowiththeHolocaust.Ineffect,theywereallpreparedtoaccusetheothergroupsofcowardice, incompetence,andfailuretorespondadequatelyandappropriatelytotheNazimenace.Buttheyreachedanuncharacteristicconsensusonwhattheyconsideredthe inappropriatenessofArendt'sresponse,whichinpartaccusedtheJewishleadershipofcowardice,incompetence,andfailuretorespondadequatelyandappropriately totheNazimenace. ThebookopenswithadetailedaccountoftheresponsetoArendt'sEichmann,andworksitswaytoasystematicanalysisofgenderasadeterminingdimension,in chapter5.Inbrief,myargumentisthatJewishmeninAmerica,Europe,andIsraelhaddifferentbutrelatedreasonstofeel"unmanned,"inaspecificallysexualway,by theHolocaust.ButtheHolocaustwastheculminationofatleastacenturyofantiSemiticracism,inwhichJewswereaccusedofbeingsexuallydebased,withJewish menlabeled"feminine"andJewishwomen"masculine."GeorgeMosse'ssuperbstudyoftherelationshipbetweennationalism,racism,sexism,andhomophobiais discussedinsomedetailinthiscontext.8 ImplicitinMosse'sanalysisistheinterdependenceofracismandsexism.Racismisanextensionofnationalism,withsexisma centralcomponentofthemechanismofracialprejudice.ItwasnoaccidentthatJewswereassociatedwith"abnormal"sexuality,albeitinahailstormofcontradictions: Jewishmenwereeffeminate,hadhomosexualproclivities,andwerealsolas

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civious,lustingaftergentilewomen.Bylabelingthem"Other"sexually,theNazissoughttoprovokeenoughfearto"justify"theirplantoannihilatetheJews. Nazigenocidemayhavebeentheextremeexampleoftheconvergenceofracism,sexism,andhomophobia.However,sexistimageryisapartofeveryformofracism. ThepertinentcorrelateforcontemporaryAmericansisthehistoryofantiblackracismintheUnitedStates.PrevailingraciststereotypesofAfricanAmericanmenalso presentthemassexualpredators,libidinous,violent,outofcontrol.Simultaneously,opponentsofracismclaimblackmenhavebeen"emasculated"byahistoryof slaveryandracistoppression.Whileracistsandprogressivesargueoverthenatureofblackmalesexualidentity,blackwomendisappearfromthedialogue,thefocus ofnobody'sconcernabouteitherracistorsexistoppression.BlackfeministshavearguedthatamoreaccuratereadingofAfricanAmericanhistoryisthatblack womenhavebeen"masculinized,"turnedintoworkanimalsandidealizedastowersofstrength,regardedassexual,whichistosaysexuallyavailabletoanymanwith theinclination,butnotfeminineatraitreservedforwhitewomeninAmericansociety.BellhooksarguesthatAfricanmen,whileenslavedbyAmericans,were encouragedtodominatetheirownwomen,andfellintothetrapofimitatingwhitepatriarchalcustoms,aformof"identificationwiththeoppressor"thatcontinuesthe cycleofracialandsexualoppressioninAmericatoday.9 Theblackfeministargumentholdsforallraciallyoppressedgroups,includingJews.AEuropeanChristianmodelofmasculinityhasbeensoldtomenthroughoutat leasttheWesternworld,perhapsalloftheworldthathasbeencolonializedorfallenundercontrolofEuropeanimperialism.Thesexual"ideal"ofaggressive, combative,domineeringmasculinityhasservedtokeepbothracialandsexualhierarchiesinplace.Oneformthisoppressiontakesisthatwomenofracialorcultural minoritieswhopubliclyobjecttodominationfromthemenoftheirowngroupruntheriskofbeingaccusedof"racebetrayal"bytheircommunities.HannahArendtdid notspeakoutpubliclyonissuesthatcouldinanywaybedefined

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as"feminist."ButshedidpubliclycriticizeJewish"patriarchs,"theJewishmaleleadersofthemidtwentiethcentury.Thatthesemenweretheintendedvictimsnotonly ofNazigenocide,butofworldwideconcensusontheirlackofmasculinityastereotypethatmayhavearisenasrecentlyaswiththeriseofnationalism,ormaygo backasfarastherabbinicagemadehercriticismunbearabletomuchoftheJewishcommunityaftertheHolocaust.TheJewishresponse,andespeciallythe responseoftheJewishleadershipinAmericaandIsraeltoArendt'soutspokenness,wassuitablycrazed. Iriskarousingsimilarobjectionstomyargumentinthisbook,thatJewishwomenhaveaproblemnotonlywithantiSemites,butwithcertainJewishpatriarchal attitudes.Inchapter5Idiscussthe"problem"ofthecontemporarygenerationofJewishmalescholarswhoareattunedtofeministissueswithinsight,conviction,and sophistication.Theproblemis,withsomanyhelpfulJewishmeninthecommunity,onwhatgroundscanIcriticizetheirresistance,aswellastheresistanceofmanyof theirfeministfriendsandcolleagues,toseeingthelinksbetweenantiSemitismandJewishsilencingofJewishwomenwhobreakrankswithprevailingscholarly norms?AntiSemitismnotonlyvictimizesJewswithitssexualslander:theaccusationthatJewishmenare(horrors!)feminine.AntiSemiticsexism,andbyextension anyracistsexism,worksbecauseJewishmenactincollusionwithitwhentheysilenceanddominateJewishwomeninthenameofnotembarrassingtheJews.They tacitlyaccepttheantiSemiticimagethatJewishmenareeffeminateifthey"allow"theirwomenapublicandcriticalvoice. HannahArendtspokeoutpubliclyandcriticallyaboutJewishleadershipduringtheHolocaustandwasaccusedofbetrayingtheJewishpeople.AnitaHillwaspublicly criticalofaprominentblackmanandwasaccusedofbetrayingtheAfricanAmericancommunity.Butthatisanotherissue.MenwhoregardthemselvesasJewish feministsshouldlookattheirownneedswhentheyparticipateinsettingtheJewishfeministagenda:presentationofthemselvesasunimaginablyunderstandingmen effectivelysilencesfemalecriticismyetagain,thistimebycooptingit.Thesemenmighttakeaturnatjustlistening.

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So,ofcourse,mighttheJewishmenwhoarenotfeminists,andwhobelievethatanycriticism,especiallypublic,fromaJewishwomanisunforgivable.So,too,should nonJewishmembersofculturalminoritieswho,inupholdingmaledomination,inadvertentlystrengthenitscorrelate,racialdominance,bysilencingthewomenoftheir owncommunities.10 TheContextofFeministTheory Amethodologicalnoteisimportanthere,andsoislocatingthisworkinthecontextofFeministTheory.Ihavewrittenelsewhere,andmoreextensively,onthesubject ofepistemologyandfeministtheory,andwillnotdigressonthatsubjectatanylengthhere.11Still,twothingsshouldbenoted:(1)manyoftheaspectsofmyargument inthisvolumearenotamenabletotheconventionalstandardsofpositivist,empiricalproof,and(2)thereexistsextensiveliteraturediscussingthehiddengenderbiases insocalledobjective,empiricalscientificstudies. Theargumentaboutracebetrayalisagoodexampleoftheinappropriatenessofconventionalempiricalevidence.Womenwhoprovokethechargeof"racebetrayal," suchasAnitaHillwhenshecameforwardwithaccusationsofsexualmisconductagainstJusticeClarenceThomas,orHannahArendt,whenshecameforwardwith criticismoftheEuropeanJewishleadershipduringtheHolocaust,areunlikelytobedirectlyaccusedofmakingthemenoftheracelookbad.Nobodyisabouttosay, "ThedignityofJewish(orAfricanAmericanorHispanicorAsianAmerican)menismoreimportantthan,andindeedincompatiblewith,publiclyexpressedfemale criticismofanysort!"Wearebeyondthepointofsayingdirectly,"BeSilent,Woman!"alongwithSophocles,orAristotlequotingSophoclesinhisPolitics:"A modestsilenceisawoman'scrown."Ibelievesomethingsimilartothatsentimentisstillpervasive,butitwillnolongerbestateddirectly,anymorethanracist sentiments,especiallyamongtheintelligentsia,areexpressedasexplicitlyastheywerethirtyorfortyyearsago.Morelikely,insteadofsaying,''ThedignityofJewish

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(orAfricanAmerican,orHispanicorAsianAmerican)menmustbeprotected,"thestatementisphrased,"ThedignityoftheJewishpeopleisatstakehere!"never acknowledgingthattheparticularethnicgroupisbeingdefinedexclusivelybyitsmen.Asblackfeministsknow,whenthequestionarises,asithasfromtimetotime throughouthistory,ofwhoseneedsshouldtakeprecedence"BlacksorWomen?"Blackwomendisappearfromthediscourse.The1869Congressionaldecisionto giveblackmenthevotewasreferredtoas''TheNegroes'Hour"(althoughAngelaDavis,inWomen,RaceandClass,believesitshouldmoreaccuratelyhavebeen referredtoas"TheHouroftheRepublicanParty"),thoroughlyoverlookingtheexclusionofblack,aswellaswhiteandother,womenfromtheenfranchisement. Oneaspectofthedifficultyof"proving"thatgenderinfluencesacontroversy,isthatpublicdisplayoffemaleangeristaboo.Thetabooitselfishidden,perhaps becauseevenacknowledgingwomen'sanger,unlessitisintheserviceofsexualdevotiontoaman,issofrighteningthatwecannotfaceitlongenoughtoperceivethe prohibitionagainstit.12Whenwomen'sangerisacknowledged,itistamedbythemodifier"irrational."Sheisnotrighteouslyangry,asastrong,intelligentmanmight be:sheiscrazy.Asbellhooksnotes,"Madness,notjustphysicalabuse,wasthepunishmentfortoomuchtalkifyouwerefemale."13 ThusIwillnotbeabletopointtoaninstanceofoneofHannahArendt'scriticsduringtheEichmanncontroversystatingdirectly:"Underlyingmyobjectiontowhat ArendtwroteisthatIcan'tabidewomen'scriticalangerdirectedatrespectedpublicmen."TheresponseofArendt'scritics,bothduringthe1960sandtoday,has moreoftenbeen:"GenderhadabsolutelynothingtodowithwhatwasoffensiveaboutEichmanninJerusalem.Thecriticismstemmedfromthefactthatshebetrayed theJewishcommunity,anditmadenodifferencewhatsoeverthatshewasawomanmakingtheargument." Thereisabundantfeministliteratureonthedifficultyof"seeing,"orfindingevidenceforgenderbiasintheworld,aswellasontheengendermentofpublicdiscourse.In Talking

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Back:ThinkingFeminist,ThinkingBlack,forexample,bellhooksdiscussesthepervasive,andcrossculturalpenchantforsilencingwomen.Shereferstoyoung girls'habitofkeepingdiariesassymptomaticof"thefearofexposure,thefearthatone'sdeepestemotionsandinnermostthoughtswillbedismissedasmere nonsense...holdingandhidingspeech."Withregardmorespecificallytoadultwomen'spublicvoices,hooksnotes"Formanywomen,itisnotasimpletasktotalk aboutmenortoconsiderwritingaboutmen.Withinpatriarchalsociety,silencehasbeenforwomenagestureofsubmissionandcomplicity,especiallysilenceabout men.Womenhavefaithfullykeptmalesecrets,havepassionatelyrefusedtospeakonthesubjectofmen."14 CarolGilligan'sInADifferentVoice(1982)isawidelyrespecteddiscussionoftheunacknowledgedengenderednessofscholarlydiscourse.15Gilligananalyzes hiddenmalebiasesinthewellrespectedstudiesonmoralreasoningofHarvardpsychologistLawrenceKohlberg.Kohlbergandhisassociatesdevelopedascaleof rankedhierarchiesofcomplexityofmoralthinking.Gilligandemonstratesthatthescaleassumesamaleperspective,rankingthegirlswhoparticipatedinthestudiesat a"lower"levelofreasoningthantheboys,yetnotperceivingthatthetestresultsreflectedagenderbiasthatremainedunexploredandunaccountedfor.Theoverall "higher"scoresachievedbytheboyswereassumedtohavebeenobjectivelymerited.Malemoralreasoning,atleastasexemplifiedbyourculture,involvesthe capacityto"individuate,"tocreatedistancebetweentheselfandthemoralproblem,andthecapacitytothinkabstractly,intermsofimpersonalrights.Analternative, whichGilliganarguesismorecharacteristicofgirlsandwomen,andwhichwasconsideredbyKohlbergtobelesssophisticatedthantheboys'abstractreasoning,is theabilitytobecomeinvolved,toreasonintermsofresponsibilitytoanotherpersonratherthanabstractrights.Sinceinourculturetheabilitytoreasonabstractly,to differentiateoneselffromothers,isdefinedasadulthooditself,themalesstudiedbyKohlbergappearedmoreadvanced,notonlyintermsoftheirabilitytothink throughamoraldilemma,butalsointermsofbasic

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"maturity."Thegirlsofthetest,andwomeningeneral,wereperceivedasmorechildlike,unabletodifferentiatebetweenthemselvesandanotherhumanbeing. Anunbiasedperspectivewouldhavetakenintoaccountnot"natural"diffencesinmalesandfemales,butsufficientlydifferentculturalexperiencestoaccountfor alternativemodelsofadulthood,notrankedhierarchically.WhatevertheflawsofGilligan'sstudy,itwasapathbreakingworkinarticulatingtheinvisibilityofmalebias uncriticallyacceptedas"objective"andshoweredinscholarlyrespectibility. Onamoreabstractlevel,CatharineMacKinnon,inanumberofworks,discussesgenderpoliticsandmalebiasattheverycoreoftheconceptofobjectivity."The maleepistemologicalstance,whichcorrespondstotheworlditcreates,isobjectivity:theostensiblyuninvolvedstance,theviewfromadistanceandfromnoparticular perspectiveapparentlytransparenttoitsreality.Itdoesnotcomprehenditsownperspectivity,doesnotrecognizewhatitseesassubjectivelikeitself....Whatis objectivelyknowncorrespondstotheworldandcanbeverifiedbypointingtoit(assciencedoes)becausetheworlditselfiscontrolledfromthesamepointofview" 16Thepenchanttoregardobjectivityastheiconoftruthisitselfgendered,andnotrecognizedassuch.Manyaspectsofwomen'sexperiencecannotbeidentifiedby pointingtothem. MacKinnoniswellsupportedbyfeministphilosophersofscienceandknowledge.Prevailingpublicsentimentmayregardthe"truths"of"hard"sciencephysics,for exampleassimplyunarguable.Butthereremainissues,addressedbySandraHarding.EvelynFoxKeller,AnneFaustoSterling,andothers,abouthowthe questionsthathavecometodefinephysicsbecameparadigmaticinthefirstplace.Whosetstheagendafortheprioritiesinscientificinquiry?Whyisthephysicalworld definedasmore"real"thanthelesstangibleworldsofcultureandexpression?Howisitthatthemethodologiesofthephysicalandbiologicalsciencesaremorehighly respectedthanthemethodologiesofthehumanitiesandthearts?Thatis,theentitlementandprivilegingofagivenepistemology(empiricism,positivism)isitself culturallydetermined,andgendered

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byvirtueofthegenderofthemajorityofitspractitioners.Hardingremarks,"Ihavebeensuggestingreasonsforreevaluatingtheassumptionthatphysicsshouldbethe paradigmofscientificknowledgeseeking.Ifphysicsoughtnottohavethisstatus,thenfeministsneednot'prove'thatNewton'slawsofmechanics,orEinstein's relativitytheoryarevalueladeninordertomakethecasethatthesciencewehaveissuffusedwith...gender."17 Feministtheoristshavealsoidentifiedhithertounrecognizedmalebiasesineventhemostprogressiveorradicalsocialtheories.ConsiderNancyHartsock'scritiqueof traditionalMarxisttheoryinheressay"TheFeministStandpoint"18The"standpointposition"asdefinedbyHartsockisnotsimplyan"interested"position,butalsoan engagedone.Thisisobviouslyantitheticaltothe"scientific"neutralityorobjectivitypreferredbyconventionalscientistsofallstripes,butalsoadeparturefromthe ''engagement"ofMarx's"scientificsocialism,"hishistoricalmaterialiststance.Forwhiledialecticalmaterialismdoesacknowledgethelimitsofpositivistobjectivism,itis alsocharacterizedbytheconceitthatitembodiesthe"onetrue"stancetowardhistory.Incontrast,Hartsocksuggests,"Aspecificallyfeministhistoricalmaterialism might...enableustoexpandtheMarxianaccounttoincludeallhumanactivityratherthanfocussingonactivitymorecharacteristicofmalesincapitalism"(158).The differencebetweenthisandthestancethatpresumesitsownobjectivityisthat"Theconceptofastandpointstructuresepistemologyinaparticularway.Ratherthana simpledualism,itpositsadualityoflevelsofreality"(160). ThusIamhardlythefirsttheoristtoarguefortheengenderednessofapubliccontroversythathasnotbeforebeenseenasgendered.Isuggestnotthatgenderisthe onlylensthroughwhichtoviewtheEichmanncontroversyanditsreception,butthatitisaplausibleandpowerfulinterpretation,givingusinsightintohowgender works,andmakingsenseofanotherwisesomewhatmysterioushostilitytowardArendt.Inthissense,Iwouldargue,alongwiththepsychologists,thatthetotaldenial oftheroleplayedbygenderinthecontroversyissuspect,andmaypointtoanimportantdimensionof

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resistancetoseeinggenderaspervasivelyatworkasitisintheworld.InmydiscussionoftheEichmanncontroversy,andArendt'sscholarshipwritteninits aftermath,Idonot"apply"feministtheoryinanovertway.Rather,myworkingassumptionsarefeministinthatIbelievethatmanythings,includingpublicdiscourse, aregenderedwhilenotacknowledgedtobe,andIlookforthatdimensioninthedetailsthatunderlaymanifestsocialdata. StructureandOrganizationoftheBook HavinginsistedthatHannahArendtwasonewoman,aJewishscholar,educatedintheGermanclassicaltraditionbutencounteringlifeexperiencesthatimposedboth herJewishnessandhergenderuponherscholarlylife,InowconfessthatthebookIhavewrittenisdividedintotwoparts,onedealingwiththeJewishpoliticsofthe controversyoverEichmanninJerusalemandtheotherdealingwithArendt'sintellectualprojectthatgrewoutofthecontroversy.WhileIdonotintendthisdivision tosignalmyacquiescencetodividingArendtintoaJewishpoliticalwriterandaEuropeanphilosophicalscholar,Iintendthediscussionasacarefulexaminationof whathappenedtoturntheresponsetoEichmannintothetraumathatitwasforArendt,andhowtheunexpectedforceofcriticismresultedinhereffortstoexpand uponherclaimthattheabsenceofthinkingissufficienttocreatepoliticalcatastrophes.Thethemesthatunitethepoliticalcontroversyandthescholarlyprojectare Judaismandgender. Thefirstpartofthebook,ontheEichmanncontroversy,considersbothJewishandgenderpolitics.JewishpoliticsareconsideredfromthestandpointoftheIsraeli responsetoEichmann,aswellastheresponseoftheNewYorkJewishintellectualswholedtheAmericanattackonArendt.TheEichmanntrialwasaloaded politicalissueinIsrael,thefocalpointofadecadeslongbattlebetweenLaborZionistsandConservativeZionistsintheYishuv,overtheproperrelationshipbetween IsraelandGermanybefore,during,andaftertheHolocaust.Tiedinwiththiswasthecomplicatedhistoryofattitudesto

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wardDiasporaJews.DavidBenGurionandtheMapaipartyhadaparticularstakeinclaimingresponsibilityforcapturingandprosecutingEichmann,sincetheyhad bornethebruntofconservativecriticismthattheirpragmaticpoliticalstancehadamountedtocollaborationwiththeNazis.TheyalsohadaparticularstakeinHannah ArendtnotremindingtheworldoftheIsraelipoliticalbattlesthathadprecededEichmann'scapture.TheysoughttoprosecuteEichmanninthenameofWorldJewry, nottheLaborZionistparty. TheNewYorkIntellectuals,assimilationistswhohadreasontobeembarrassedbytheiravoidanceoftheirJewishidentitiesthroughouttheirlives,includingduringthe Holocaust,andwhohadrecentlyundergonearemarkablepoliticalodysseyfromsocialismtoconservatism,alsohadastakeinnotbeingremindedoftheirlessthan satisfactoryresponsetoEuropeanJewsduringtheHolocaust.TherethusexistedrelatedbutnotidenticalreasonsforprominentJewsinIsraelandAmericatohave beenupsetbyArendt'sreport.Whatbroughtthetwosidestogetherwasthegenderdimension,therelationshipbetweenantiSemiticracismandsexism,discussedin detailinchapter5. ThesecondpartofthebookisthediscussionofJewishthemesinArendt's"nonJewish"writings:theessaysdealingwiththenatureoftruthandcommunityfrom BetweenPastandFutureandMeninDarkTimes,andThinking,inwhichshesystematicallyattemptstofindinthehistoryofphilosophy,andarticulateforworldly use,anapproachtothinkingthatwouldbeapplicabletoworldlyconcerns,firmerthan"opinion,"lessmonolithicthan"Truth,''openendedanddialogical,andavailable toallpeople,notjust"professionalthinkers"andphilosophers.Myargumentisthatthesortofthinkingshesoughtcloselyresemblesarabbinicstyle,althoughshewas unawareofthatfact.ArendtwasthusmoreofaJewishthinkerthanshekneworacknowledged,andlessthansheneededtobetosuccessfullyaccomplishher purposeinTheLifeoftheMind. Inordertomakemycaseconvincingly,Ineedtopresentacoherentdescriptionof"Jewishthinking,"whichIofferinchapters7and8.Chapter7dealswiththe historyofJewish

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thoughtfromBiblicalandTalmudictimes,tomodernconceptionsofthemeaningofhistorytoJewschapter8isastructuralandepistemologicalanalysisofJewish thinking,incorporatingacomparisonofGreekandHebrewthought,fromthestandpointofThorliefBoman'sclassicmonograph,andMaxKadushin'straditional Jewishdiscussionofthestructureofrabbinicthought,aswellasadiscussionofcontemporaryscholarshiponthecharacteristicsofrabbinicthinking.Inthefinalthree chapters,IattempttoapplytheaccumulateddiscussionofthenatureofJewishthinkingtoArendt'squestinThinking,culminatinginherpresentationofSocrates,and finallytotheconceptofpoliticalactionandpublicspaceinTheHumanConditionandBetweenPastandFuture. Theeffortthus,istodeterminehowthefemaleandJewishaspectsofHannahArendt'sexistenceexertedinfluenceuponherworkanditsreception,withoutreducing herinanywaytoaprefabricated,cookiecutterimageofa"JewishWoman."Alongtheway,weshouldlearnsomethingabouttheimpactofidentitypoliticson intellectuallifewithitspresumptiontobeaboveitall.

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Chapter2 ThePoliticsoftheEichmannControversy
ArendtandEichmanninJerusalem ThatEichmanninJerusalemrepresentsacriticalturningpointinArendt'slifeandworkiswidelyacknowledged.Thecontroversygreetingitspublicationisinfamous, andwasprofoundlydisturbingtoArendt.Herbiographerbelievesitscarredandshortenedherlife,asshefeltmisunderstood,betrayed,andabandonedbyoldfriends andcolleagues.IntermsofArendt'sownappraisal,aswellashercommentators,EichmanninJerusalemwasaworkthatpresentedherwiththeprojectthatlasted untiltheendofherlife.AsElisabethYoungBruehlreports:"ThecontroversyprecipitatedbyHannahArendt'sseriesintheNewYorkerragedfornearlythreeyears, anditcontinuestosimmerevennowwhenthebookmadefromthearticlesisinitstwentiethreprinting.AlmosteverystudyoftheHolocaustpublishedsince1963has explicitlyorimplicitlyacknowledgedthecontroversyandthefierceemotionsthatflowedthroughit."YoungBruehlalsoattributesthebookwithpromptingArendt"to writeherpoliticalmorals....WhatsheaimedatwasapoliticalCritiqueofJudgment."1 IthasbeenobviousfromArendt'snotes,innearlyeverythingshewroteafter EichmanninJerusalem,thatEichmannimpresseduponhertheimportanceofarticulatingaworldlywayofthinkinginordertoprevent

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therecurrenceofthoughtlessevil.From"TruthandPolitics":"ThisessaywascausedbythesocalledcontroversyafterthepublicationofEichmanninJerusalem."2 From"ThinkingandMoralConsiderations'':"TotalkaboutthinkingseemstomesopresumptuousthatIfeelIoweyouajustification.Someyearsago,reportingon thetrialofEichmanninJerusalem,Ispokeof'thebanalityofevil'andmeantwiththisnotheoryordoctrine,butsomethingquitefactual,thephenomenonofevildeeds, committedonagiganticscale,whichwouldnotbetracedtoanyparticularityofwickedness,pathology,orideologicalconvictioninthedoer,whoseonlypersonal distinctionwasperhapsextraordinaryshallowness."3 FromTheLifeoftheMind:"Actually,mypreoccupationwithmentalactivitieshastworatherdifferentorigins. TheimmediateimpulsecamefrommyattendingtheEichmanntrialinJerusalem...theonlynotablecharacteristic...inhis[Eichmann's]behavior...wasnot stupiditybutthoughtlessness....Couldtheactivityofthinkingassuch,thehabitofexamining...beamongtheconditionsthatmakemenabstainfromevildoingor evenactually'condition'themagainstit?"4 TwodimensionsofArendt'sEichmannargumenthaveupsetoroffendedaprimarilyJewishaudienceofhercontemporaries.5 First,washerargumentthatEichmann wasnomonster,harborednoextremeantiSemiticviews,butwasnonethelesscapableofsendinghundredsofthousandsofJewstotheirdeaths.Whatappalledher washowsuchevilcouldbevisitedupontheworldintheabsenceofexplicitevilintent.Notthewillfuldesiretomurder,butthethoughtless,almostpassivedesireto pleasehissuperiors,toperformwellonthejob,iswhataccountedforthedestructionofinnocentlife.Inarguingthatevilcanbecommittedthoughtlessly,Arendt threatenedandoffendedmanyintelligentpeoplewhoregardthemselvesasthinkingbeingsandgoodpeople.Arendtimpliedthatallmightbevulnerabletofailureto think.Thisassertionisunpleasantenough,butherassociationoftheabsenceofthinkingwiththecapacityformassmurderwastooprofoundlyupsettingformany peopletobear. ClaimingthatEichmannwasnotsoexceptional,butinfactdangerously"ordinary"wasmuchmoredisturbingthan

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acquiescinginhisexceptionality.Thoseofuswhowouldliketobelievethatwearenotexceptionallybadmighthaveamoredifficulttimeacceptingthatwedon't alwaysthink,ifabstainingfromthinkingisenoughtocreatecatastrophes.Indeed,thepeoplewhothinkmostaretheonesmostlikelytobeupsetbysuchatheory.Itis thegoodpeoplewhocouldnotbelievethatEichmannmightnothavebeenunusuallybad,anditwaspreciselythosegoodpeopleinwhomHannahArendtplacedher hopeforthefuture.ArendtnotesthattheJerusalemjudgesdidnotbelieveEichmannwhenhesaidhedidnothateJews,because"theyweretoogood,andperhaps alsotooconsciousoftheveryfoundationsoftheirprofession,toadmitthatanaverage'normal'person,neitherfeeblemindednorindoctrinatednorcynical,couldbe perfectlyincapableoftellingrightfromwrong"(Eichmann26). AseconddimensionofherargumentthatarousedangerwasArendt'scontentionthattheJewishleadership'sdesiretokeeptheircommunitytogetherledthemto negotiatewiththeNazisandmayactuallyhavecontributedtotheslaughterofJews.Bysodoing,theJewishleadershiptacitlyacceptedtheinsaneNazifictionabout theJewsinsteadofrejectingallpremisesofNaziideology.TheJewishleadership,inherterms,shouldhaveprecededfromastateofmindthatdeniedthatthereeven wasa"JewishProblem."TheJewshadaNaziproblem,andneededtosavethemselvesasexpedientlyaspossible.SheclaimedthattheJewishleadersweredrawn intoacceptingNazipremisesandrespondingtothemasthoughtheywererational.ManyJewstookoffenseatstatementssuchas:
Inthematterofcooperation,therewasnodistinctionbetweenthehighlyassimilatedJewishcommunitiesofCentralandWesternEuropeandtheYiddishspeakingmassesofthe East.InAmsterdamasinWarsaw,inBerlinasinBudapest,Jewishofficialscouldbetrustedtocompilethelistsofpersonsandoftheirproperty,tosecuremoneyfromthe deporteestodefraytheexpensesoftheirdeportationandextermination,tokeeptrackofvacatedapartments,tosupplypoliceforcestohelpseizeJewsandapartments,andtoget themontrains,until,asalastgesture,theyhandedovertheassetsoftheJewishcommunityingoodorderforfinalconfiscation.6

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Thetwoaspectsofherargumentarenotentirelyseparable.ThebeliefthatArendtmeantthatEichmann,asopposedtohisactions,wasnotexceptionallyevilseemed tobetheothersideofthecoinfromtheimplicationthattheJewishleadershiphadnotbehavedinanexceptionallyvirtuousmanner.ArendtarguedthatEichmanndid notneedtohavebeenademonforhisactstohavebeendemonic,andthattheJewishleaderswerenotentirelyanduniversallyinnocentvictims.Bothsidesofthe argumenthurt,andthehurtwasamplifiedbecausefewofherreadersnoticedthatshemadeadistinctionbetweenJewishleadersandtheJewish"masses."She seemedtobesayingonlythattheNazisweren'tsobadandtheJewsweren'tsogood. Thesubtitleofthebook,"AReportontheBanalityofEvil"wasregardedasareflectionofnihilism,ofabeliefthatthereisnosuchthingasevil.Arendtcounteredthis misinterpretationofthetitlewiththestatementthatevildoesexistintheworld,andthatthetaskistounderstandhowtopreventitsoccurrenceonsuchamassive scale.Sheconsistentlyrefusedthesolaceofdoctrines,ideologies,orevencatchphrases.Shereiterated,regardingthe"banalityofevil":"Behindthatphrase,Iheldno thesisordoctrine,althoughIwasdimlyawareofthefactthatitwentcountertoourtraditionofthoughtliterary,theological,orphilosophicaboutthephenomenon ofevil"(Thinking3).Butshedoeschallengetheunquestionedassumptionthatevildeedsareperpetratedonlybyevilpeople,andmanywereunwillingtoletthat statementgo. ProminentJewschargedArendtwithairingdirtylineninpublic:ifshehadcomplaintsagainstJewishbehaviorduringtheHolocaust,sheshouldhavetakenthemupina privatemannerwithintheJewishcommunityitself.Fromoneperspective,Arendtwasaccusedofacolossallackofgoodtaste,orjudgment.Ibelievethatshedidnot wishtoindicttheJewishpeopleasawhole,buthadgravedoubtsaboutthejudgmentoftheJewishleadershipofEurope.ShementionsLeoBaeckspecificallyinthis regard,whichwasreceivedasabetrayalborderingonheresy.Barnouwnotes,inherexcellentchapterontheEichmanncontroversy,"Arendtdoesnotsayso explicitly

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buttheimplicationsareclearandtheyaredeeplydisturbingmoresothanthefactthattherewillalwaysbeselfish,cruelmenandwomenamongeverypeople,and thatsituationsofextremestressbringouttheworstaswellasthebestinaperson.TheimplicationsweredisquietingbecausetheysuggestedthattheJewishleaders, too,caughtinthetotalitariansystem,sufferedfromanimpairedmoralfaculty."7 Arendtwasconcernedthattheleadershadmisledtheirfollowersbyfailingtotreat themasadultsandencouragingthemtothinkforthemselves.InsteadtheJewishmasseshadbeentreatedlikechildrenbytheirownleaders,whohadthemselvesfallen victimtotheinsanityoftheenvironmentcreatedbytheNazis."ThewholetruthwasthatiftheJewishpeoplehadreallybeenunorganizedandleaderless,therewould havebeenchaosandplentyofmiserybutthetotalnumberofvictimswouldhardlyhavebeenbetweenfourandahalfandsixmillionpeople"(Eichmann125).8 IncontrasttowhatIbelievewasArendt'sdifferentiationbetweentheJewishleadersandmasses,Barnouwandothersarguethatwhileshedidnotintendtoindictthe Jewishmasses,shebelievednobodyescapedresponsibilityfortheeventsoftheHolocaust:

ThetrulyprovocativeelementofArendt'sanalysiswasherinsistencethatthequestionsposedbytheEichmanntrialhadtobedealtwithinthecontextofmodernpolitical experienceandthatIsraelshouldconductitselfinconductingthetrialofEichmannasamodern,secularstateamongotherstates.Indoubtingthewisdomoftheleadersand, aboveall,thewisdomofthevictimsinfollowingthemsoblindly,Arendtimplicitlymeasuredthemagainstapossiblydifferentkindofbehaviordescribedbypoliticalspeechand action....Arendtattemptedtoshowthatitwasinthenatureofthisparticularcrimeagainsthumanitythatthedistinctionbetweencriminalandvictimwasnotalwaysclear. [Gershom]Scholemsimplyrejectedthisattemptwiththecomment,"Whatperversity!"9

ThisisnottheonlytimeinherlifethatArendtwasthoughttohavebeentoocriticalofthe"goodguys,"whenshemayonlyhavebeencriticizingtheleadershipofthe "goodguys"andnotthefollowers.10ButevenifArendtbelievedthatthe

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JewishleadershipinEuropeduringtheHolocausthadactedunwisely,shemakesitclearthattherealblamelieswiththeNazisandnobodyelse."Ihavedweltonthis chapterofthestory,whichtheJerusalemtrialfailedtoputbeforetheeyesoftheworldinitstruedimensions,becauseitoffersthemoststrikinginsightintothetotality ofthemoralcollapsetheNaziscaused(emph.mine)inrespectableEuropeansocietynotonlyinGermanybutinalmostallcountries,notonlyamongthe persecutorsbutalsoamongthevictims"(Eichmann12526). Likewise,shemakesclearearlyinthevolumethattheJewsdidnothavetheoptionoforganizedresistance.Inthis,Jaspersdisagreedwithher,andsheultimatelywas morepreciseindefiningthenatureofresistance,admittingthattherehadindeedbeenresistanceofdifferentsorts.11Shehadnoalternativeplanofactionforthe Jews.InresponsetothequestionputcontinuallybeforetheJewsbythecourtinJerusalem,"Whydidyounotresist?"Arendtstates,"Thecourtreceivednoanswerto thiscruelandsillyquestion,butonecouldeasilyhavefoundananswerhadhepermittedhisimaginationtodwellforafewminutesonthefateofthoseDutchJews whoin1941,intheoldJewishquarterofAmsterdam,daredtoattackaGermansecuritypolicedetachment.FourhundredandthirtyJewswerearrestedinreprisal andtheywereliterallytorturedtodeath....Thereexistmanythingsconsiderablyworsethandeath,andtheS.S.sawtoitthatnoneofthemwaseververyfarfrom theirvictims'mindsandimagination"(Eichmann12).HerargumentinEichmannisthatanearlyuniversalfailuretothinkonthepartofbothoppressorsandvictims allowedthedestructionoftheJewstoproceed. TheControversy IntheUnitedStates,thecontroversyoverEichmanncenteredonaseriesofarticlesandreviewsofthebookinPartisanReviewin1963,additionalarticlesin Commentary,TheNewRepublic,andDissent,forumsandmeetings"alloverNewYork,"where"the'collectivepsychoanalysis'wenton..."12includingaforum sponsoredbyDissent.Thegeneralprofileofthecontro

Page27

versyissufficientlywelldocumentedthatIneednottakeupspacewithithere.13Ishallreviewhereonlythesubstanceoftheobjectionsexpressedbysomeof Arendt'smostprominentcriticsanddefendersasagroundworkformyargumentthatArendtnaivelymisjudgedbothheraudienceandhowshewasperceived.The mostviciousattackswerewrittenbyLionelAbelandNormanPodhoretz.MarieSyrkinwroteasharplycriticalbutthoughtprovokingessay.Arendtwasdefendedby herfriendsMaryMcCarthyandDwightMacdonald,bothofwhomwerethenattackedbyAbelinanescalationofnastiness.DanielBellwroteabalancedand thoughtfulreviewofherbookthatwasappreciativebutultimatelycriticalofherstance.GershomScholemexpresseddeepoffenseanddisappointmentinrather paternalisticterms. NormanPodhoretzwroteanexceptionallynastyreviewinCommentary.14HeaccusedArendtof"scholarlypretensions,"quotedRaulHilberg'sTheDestructionof theEuropeanJewsapprovinglyagainstArendtwhenherargumentisactuallyverysimilartoHilberg'sandinfactreliesuponHilberg'sdata.15Podhoretzwrites, "MissArendt'ssourcesareforthemostpartsecondaryones(shereliesespeciallyonRaulHilberg'sTheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews)andhermanipulationof evidenceisatalltimesvisiblytendentious"(202).WeshallseethispatterninmanyofArendt'scritics:HilbergisapplaudedforhisscholarshipwhileArendt,who makesasimilarargument(discussedindetailinthefollowingchapter)isexcoriatedforbetrayingtheJews,andforrelyingonHilberg's"superior"scholarshiptodoit. PodhoretzseemedintentuponsymbolizingexactlythesortofclosemindednessthatArendtworriedaboutinEichmannandherlaterworkonthinkingandthe absenceofit:
Murdererswiththepowertomurderdescendeduponadefenselesspeopleandmurderedalargepartofit.Whatelseistheretosay?...Foruninterestingthoughitmaybetosay so,nopersoncouldhavejoinedtheNaziparty,letalonetheS.S.whowasnotattheveryleastaviciousantiSemitetobelieveotherwiseistolearnnothingaboutthenatureof antiSemitism.(205206)

Page28

Heconcludeswithrigidhighhandedness:"ButthetruthismustbethattheJewsunderHitleractedasmenwillactwhentheyaresetuponbymurderers,nobetter andnoworse:theFinalSolutionrevealsnothingaboutthevictims,exceptthattheyweremoralbeingsandhopelesslyvulnerableintheirpowerlessness"(208).Period. Endofdiscussion. LionelAbel'sessayinPartisanReview16wasdescribedbyDwightMacdonaldas"solemnlyfoolish,"apparentlyforitspompousandpatronizingstyle,andits startlinglyobviouscontradictions,whichwereelegantlyexposedbyMaryMcCarthyandDwightMacdonald.Thetwomajorcontradictionsthatunderminethe effectivenessofAbel'scriticismarethatheusedRaulHilbergagainstArendt,whenasheknows,ArendtrelieduponHilberg'sdata,andwhenHilbergisevenmore stridentthanArendtonthesame"offensive"points.17Abel,severalmonthslater,recantedhisappreciationofHilbergattheDissentforum,whereheisreportedto have"poundedthespeaker'stableinoutrage"overHilberg'sremarks,"lamentedthathehadeveradmiredHilberg'sscholarshipandthenmadeapassionateattackon Arendt'swork,culminatingwiththebizarreopinionthatArendthadbeenrightlycalledbysomeunnamedfriedofAbel's'theRosaLuxemburgofnothingness.'"18Abel finishedhisperformancebyscreamingatAlfredKazin,whenherosetodefendArendt,"Whoaskedyoutocomeuphere?Whoaskedforyouropinion?''19 Nonetheless,inhisPartisanarticleearlierintheSpring,AbelcitedHilbergagainstArendt,statingforexamplethat"MissArendt's"analysismakesamysteryofthe reasonfortheexistenceoftheJudenratewhere"RaulHilbergmakes[it]perfectlyclear."20AbelimpliedthatArendtismoreadamantaboutthedestructiveroleofthe JudenratethanwasHilberg. AbelalsoaccusedArendtofcontradictingherearlierworkonTotalitarianism,whileatthesametimedismissingtheaccuracyofthatearlierwork."EverypointMiss Arendtmaintainedinherbookontotalitarianismshewouldtodayhavetoretractanddenyinordertoseriouslycriticizethedecisionsmadebytheleadersofthe Jewishcouncilsbetween1941and1944"(22728).ForgoodmeasureAbeladded,"ButnostatecanbeaspowerfulasMissArendtthought'theTotalitarianState' to

Page29

be"(229).WeshalldiscoverthatAbelandhiscolleagueshadaprofoundstakeindefendingTheOriginsofTotalitarianismagainstanylaterdevelopmentof Arendt'sthoughtthatappearedtocontradictthepremisesoftheearlierwork.(Seediscussioninchapter4,pp.103108.) MaryMcCarthyattemptedtountangleAbel'slogicwiththequestion"SupposingAbelisrightandthereisacontradictionbetweentheearlierbookandthepresent one,whatwoulditprove?Thatshewasrightthenandwrongnoworviceversa?Histriumphanttoneseemstoannouncethatshewaswrongbothtimes,whichis impossible,atleastinthetermsinwhichhestatesherarguments."21Afteranobleeffort,McCarthydespairs,"Asthereadercansee,theattempttocorrectAbelon onepointatoncebringsupanotherandleads,ifonewillletit,intoamaze.Itislikearguingwithahydra"(94).McCarthyandtheotherparticipantsinthis"debate" werechastisedbyPartisanRevieweditorWilliamPhillipsfortryingtoscoredebaters'pointsagainstoneanotheronanissueofsuchmoralmagnitude.22 Abel,GershomScholem,andMarieSyrkinweresooverwroughtbyArendt'sbookthattheyinterpretedArendt'sreferencetoEichmannasa"converttoZionism"as aseriousstatement,ratherthantheironysheintended.Theoffendingpassagesareonpages4042,whereArendtreferstoEichmann's"idealism,"andhissudden enthusiasmforreadingaboutZionism,whenhewasgiventheresponsibilityfordeportingJews.Arendtnotes:
Eichmann'saccountduringthepoliceexaminationofhowhewasintroducedintothenewdepartmentdistorted,ofcourse,butnotwhollydevoidoftruthoddlyrecallsthis fool'sparadise.Thefirstthingthathappenedwasthathisnewboss...requiredhimtoreadTheodorHerzl'sDerJudenstaat,thefamousZionistclassic,whichconverted EichmannpromptlyandforevertoZionism.Thisseemstohavebeenthefirstseriousbookheeverreadanditmadealastingimpressiononhim.(EichmanninJerusalem40)

Abelobserved,"Forquiteobviously,amaninchargeoftheexterminationofallEuropeanJewrycouldhardlyhavebeencommitted'forever'totheZionist ideology"(221).McCarthyisastonished:"HowcouldAbelhavemissedtheironyinMiss

Page30

Arendt'saccountofthis'conversion'?"(87).DwightMacdonaldagreedthatmissingArendt'sironytooksomewillfulblindness,althoughhenoted,ironicallyhimself, "Sheusesirony,forinstance,adangerousdeviceifthereaderfromstupidityorcalculation,insistsonreadingitstraight(Inthiscase,I'dcallitcalculatedstupidity)"(PR 31:2,268)."Mr.Abelissolemnlyfoolish,asusual:'NowMissArendt'sefforttopresentEichmannasaconvincedadherentoftheZionistideologyis,asMarieSyrkin hasshown,completelyunconvincing.ForquiteobviouslyamaninchargeoftheexterminationofallEuropeanJewrycouldhardlyhavebeencommitted'forever'tothe Zionistideology.'Obviously.OnemightevenexpectMissArendttoseethat"(268). Abel'sonepotentiallyrelevantpointisthatArendtmadeneitherapoliticalnoramoralargumentinEichmann,butanaestheticone.Bythishemeantthatherconcern wasprimarilythattheEuropeanJewsshouldhave"chosen"todieresistingtheNazis,ratherthantobeslaughteredpassively.TheimputationwasthatArendtwished fortheEuropeanJewsaprettierdeath.DanielBell,althoughhimselfcriticalofArendt,referredtothisinterpretationas"cruel."ItwascertainlynotwhatArendtwas writingaboutalthough,ironically,itwasanissueamongsomeZionistsinIsrael.23 Abel'sPartisanReviewpieceisanexampleoftheextremestowhichtheattackonArendtwent.Itismoreinstructivetofocusonthebalancedifcriticaldiscussions thatraiseseriousissues.DanielBell,DwightMacdonald,GershomScholem,andMarieSyrkinofferfoodforthought. GershomScholem,inhiswellknownlettertoArendtof23June1963(reproducedinRonFeldman'sTheJewasPariah:JewishIdentityandPoliticsinthe ModernAge),remindsArendt:
ThereisthequestionthrownatusbythenewyouthofIsrael:Whydidtheyallowthemselvestobeslaughtered?Asaquestion,itseemstometohaveprofoundjustificationand Iseenoreadilyformulatedanswertoit.Ateachdecisivejuncture,however,yourbookspeaksonlyoftheweaknessoftheJewishstanceintheworld.Iamreadyenoughtoadmit thatweaknessbutyouputsuchemphasisuponitthat,inmyview,youraccountceasestobeobjectiveandacquiresovertonesof

Page31 malice.Theproblem,Ihaveadmitted,isrealenough.Why,then,shouldyourbookleaveonewithsostrongasensationofbitternessandshamenotforthecompilation,butfor thecompiler?...Itisthatheartless,frequentlyalmostsneeringandmalicioustonewithwhichthesematters,touchingtheveryquickofourlife,aretreatedinyourbooktowhichI takeexception.24

ScholemgoesontoaccuseArendtoflackingwhatintheJewishtraditioniscalledAhavathIsrael,"LoveoftheJewishPeople,"andchastisesherforshowingno circumspectioninthepresentationofherargument:"Adiscussionsuchasisattemptedinyourbookwouldseemtometorequireyouwillforgivemymodeof expressionthemostoldfashioned,themostcircumspect,themostexactingtreatmentpossiblepreciselybecauseofthefeelingsarousedbythismatter....I regardyouwhollyasadaughterofourpeople,andinnootherway.ThusIhavelittlesympathywiththattonewellexpressedbytheEnglishword'flippancy'which youemploysoofteninthecourseofyourbook.Tothematterofwhichyouspeak,itisunimaginablyinappropriate."Likeafatherberatinghisdaughterforspeaking tohimpubliclywithlackofrespect,worse,forembarrassingthefamilyinfrontofstrangers,hecontinues,"Tospeakofallthis,however,insowhollyinappropriatea tonetothebenefitofthoseGermansincondemningwhomyourbookrisestogreatereloquencethaninmourningthefateofyourownpeoplethisisnotthewayto approachthesceneofthattragedy."25 ArendtrespondedtoScholemwitharespectfulbutwoundedletter.Afterprotestingthatshewasnot,asScholemhadclaimed,amemberoftheGermanLeft,after insistingthatonecannotloveanythingasabstractas"apeople"oranysortofcollectivity,sheremarked,"Well,inthissenseIdonot'love'theJews,nordoI'believe' inthemImerelybelongtothemasamatterofcoursebeyonddisputeorargument."ShealsoinsistedtoScholeminwhatamountedtoaneloquentandprescient attackupon"politicalcorrectness"thathewasupsetbecauseherviewsareunconventional:"Howyoucouldbelievethatmybookwas'amockeryofZionism'would beacompletemysterytome,ifIdidnotknowthatmanypeopleinZionist

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circleshavebecomeincapableoflisteningtoopinionsorargumentswhichareoffthebeatentrackandnotconsonantwiththeirideology.Thereareexceptions,anda Zionistfriendofmineremarkedinallinnocencethatthebook,thelastchapterinparticular...wasveryproIsraelasindeeditis.Whatconfusesyouisthatmy argumentsandmyapproacharedifferentfromwhatyouareusedto:inotherwords,thetroubleisthatIamindependent."26 Mosttellingforourimmediatepurposes,however,isherstatement:"Thisgrief['thatwrongdonebymyownpeoplenaturallygrievesmemorethanwrongdoneby otherpeoples'],however,inmyopinionisnotfordisplay,evenifitshouldbetheinnermostmotiveforcertainactionsorattitudes.Generallyspeaking,theroleofthe 'heart'inpoliticsseemstomealtogetherquestionable."27 ScholemwasrespondingtoherpassageonEichmann's"Zionism"withhischastisement,"IwishtosayonlythatyourdescriptionofEichmannasa'converttoZionism' couldonlycomefromsomebodywhohadaprofounddislikeofeverythingtodowithZionism.ThesepassagesinyourbookIfindquiteimpossibletotakeseriously. TheyamounttoamockeryofZionismandIamforcedtotheconclusionthatthiswas,indeed,yourintention."28Arendtretorted,withobviousexasperation,"Public opinion,especiallywhenithasbeencarefullymanipulated,asinthiscase,isaverypowerfulthing.Thus,InevermadeEichmannouttobea'Zionist.'Ifyoumissedthe ironyofthesentencewhichwasplainlyinoratioobliqua,reportingEichmann'sownwordsIreallycan'thelpit.Icanonlyassureyouthatnoneofthedozensof readerswhoreadthebookbeforepublicationhadeveranydoubtaboutthematter."29 MarieSyrkin'scriticalreview,"MissArendtSurveystheHolocaust"(JewishFrontier[May1963])isathoughtful,verycriticalanalysis,whichArendtapparently respected,andregardedas"loyalopposition."SyrkinalsobelievedthatArendtindictedthevictimsandexoneratedtheNazis."Thesmeartechniqueworksbothways. NotonlyareNaziconcentrationschemeslabeledas'Zionist'bytheauthor,butalltheagonizingeffortsoftheZioniststosavewhomevertheycouldfromGermany

Page33

beforeitwastoolatearedescribedbyMissArendtascheerycollaborationwiththeNazis"(8).Asevidencefortheseaccusations,Syrkinofferednotmuchmorethan Arendt'snowfamous"OffendingQuotation"broughtoutagainandagainbyallArendt'scritics.Arendthadwritten:
ButthewholetruthwasthatthereexistedJewishcommunityorganizationsandJewishpartyandwelfareassociationsonboththelocalandtheinternationallevel.WhereverJews lived,therewererecognizedJewishleadersandtheseleaders,almostwithoutexception,cooperatedinonewayoranother,foronereasonoranother,withtheNazis.Thewhole truthwasthatiftheJewishpeoplehadreallybeenunorganizedandleaderlesstherewouldhavebeenchaosandplentyofmiserybutthetotalnumberofvictimswouldhardly havebeenbetweenfiveandsixmillion.(Syrkin7)

Syrkin,likeAbel(atleastbeforehebecamedisenchantedwithHilbergatthemeetinginNewYork),admiredHilberg'sbook,anduseditagainstArendt.30But unlikeAbel,SyrkindidraisesometroublingquestionsaboutwhatsheconsideredtobeArendt'sselectiveuseofthedata.SheaccusedArendtofpossessingan "abilitytodisregardwhateverdoesnotsuitherthesis,"andofignorance,"notinthesenseofalackofknowledge(whowouldquestionMissArendt'serudition?)buta wilfulignoringoftheobviouslypertinentwhichwouldinvalidateherbasicposition"(14).Syrkinisstingingwhenshenotes"WhatdoesMissArendtsuggestasan alternativeto'selection'?ShouldthePalestiniansmerelyhaveannounced:'Runpellmelltotheshipsandletthefastestboard!'?"(9). WithregardtoheraccusationthatArendtjudgedpeoplewhofacedimpossiblechoices,Syrkinpoignantlyobserved,"Ineveryprocessof'selection,'lifeforonemeant deathforanother.InasenseeveryonewhoescapedfromHitler,asinallescapesfromdisasterwherethepossibilitiesofrescuearelimited,tooktheplaceofanother, ifonlybybeingoneofanimmigrationquota.Theimplicationsofguiltandinnocencebecomeincalculableandfewaremorallyentitledtopassjudgment"(12).Insum, SyrkinechoeswhatScholembelieved,thatArendtwasinsufficientlyidentifiedwiththeJewishpeople.

Page34 WhatisattherootoftheshortcomingsofMissArendt'strialofthetrialisherviewofJewishhistory,aviewcommonlyheldbyassimilationistsoftheCouncilforJudaismstripe, ontheonehand,andradicalsoftheoldschoolontheother.InthisvieweveryaffirmationofJewishnationalawarenessisculpableandtobestricturedeitherasmultipleloyalty ortreasontoalargerinternationalidea.ThatiswhyaJewishintellectualofMissArendt'scaliberisablenotonlytodistortthefactsbutmoreimportanttofailsosignallyin sympathyandimagination.(14)

TheironyhereisthatifArendthadindeedbeenascriticaloftheEuropeanJewishmassesashercriticsaccusedherofbeing,shewouldhavehadplentyofsupport amongtheIsraelisboththeleadershipandthemasses.InthefollowingchapterIshallconsiderindetailthecomplexitiesoftheIsraeliattitudestowardtheHolocaust. TherehadalwaysbeenloathingfromtheconservativeZioniststowardanynegotiationswiththeNazisbeforeandduringthewar,ortheGermansafterwards.The JudenratehadalwaysbeentheobjectofthedisdainoftheConservativeZionistsinPalestine,whosuspectedthemof"collaborating"withtheNazis.Butevenamong themoremoderateLaborZionists,includingBenGurion,theMapaiparty,andthemassesofleftleaningsecularZionistsinIsrael,therewasampleevidenceof ambivalence,andoccasionally,realdisrespectfortheEuropeanJewishvictimsandtheirleaderswhohadlackedtheforesighttoemigratetoIsrael.The"official" attitudetowardtheJudenrateandtheHolocaustvictimswas,intheyearsafterthewar,responsivetoIsraelipartypolitics,asweshallsee.31 ThequestionofwhetherArendt"should"havewrittenareportonEichmannthatselfconsciouslyrepresentedaJewishperspectivethusbecametheintellectualcoreof thecontroversy.MaryMcCarthynotedacertainbasicdivisionintheresponsetoArendt'sbook,betweenJewsandgentiles:theJewsweremuchmorecriticalof ArendtthanthenonJews.Therewas,inturn,objectiontoMcCarthy'sobservation,andalthoughcertainlythedichotomywasnothardandfast,todenythatJewish andgentileresponsesdifferedreflectsanaffected"colorblindness,"fashionableperhapsintheearlysixties,wherethedeepersignificanceofculturalandracial differenceswereall

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butdenied.TheJewishandgentileresponsestoArendtdiddiffer.Itseemedeasierforthegentilestogiveherthebenefitofthedoubt,tounderstandthatshewasnot a"SelfHatingJewess"whowrotea"ProEichmannSeries."32Macdonaldnotestheracismandthesexismimplicitinthetitlewiththeremarkthathehadnotseenthe termJewessinprint"sincethosefascistsheetsinthethirties"(262). IshallconcludemyreviewofthecontroversyoverEichmanninJerusalemwithDanielBell'sargumentthatArendtshouldhavewrittenfromamoretribalJewish, ratherthanauniversalistperspective,andDwightMacDonald'sresponse.Bellreferstotwohistoricversionsofjustice:onetribalandretributivetheothermore disinterested,"rootedinthenaturallaw,whichdemandsofmenpenaltiesforthedisruptionofthemoralorderitself."33Arendtchosetowriteaboutjusticeofthe secondsort,wheresomeinsistedthatherjudgmentwouldhavebenefitedfromastrongertribalperspective.Bell'sconcludingsection,"TheParochialandthe Universal,"comparestheJewishperspectiveandArendt'sperspective,whichherespectsintheabstract,butbelieveswasmisguidedinitsparticularcontext.

FortheIsraelis,NazismwasoneofthelongprocessionofbrutalitiescommittedwithinthetraditionofantiSemitism.ForMissArendttheNazicrimes,therationalizedmurderof entirepopulations,isthebeginningofanewsetoffearfulpossibilitiesinhumanhistory.Inshort,MissArendtinsistedthattheIsraelis,intryingEichmanninaJewishcourtand onspecificallyJewishissues,missedacrucialpointofmodernhistory.Moreover,bykidnapingEichmanninArgentinaandthusextendingtheterritorialprincipleofseizure beyonditsborders,aprecedentwascreatedforthebreakdownofinternationallawwherebyinthefuture,forexample,anAfricanstatecouldkidnapasegregationistleaderin AmericaandtryhiminGhanaorGuineaforcrimesagainsttheblackpeople.Forher,theIsraelimistakewastobeparochialatatimewhentheproblemofmassmurderhadbecome universal.(42728)

Thisreadingisfairandappreciative,althoughBellquestionswhetheritisthemostappropriatestanceunderthecircumstances."Itisthistensionbetweentheparochial andtheuniversalthatexplainsthefuriousemotionsoverMissArendt's

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book....TheagonyofMissArendt'sbookispreciselythatshetakesherstandsounyieldinglyonthesideofdisinterestedjustice,andthatshejudgesbothNaziand Jew.Butabstractjustice,astheTalmudicwisdomknew,issometimestoo'strong'ayardsticktojudgetheworld"(428). HecloseswithastoryfromtheTalmudicHaggadah,probablyincludedtogroundhisargumentforaJewishperspectiveintheJewishtext.Thestoryistouching,but revealsmorethanBellintended.Thestoryiscalledthe"AlphabetofCreation,"whichclearlyinspiredthetitleofhisreview.Itdescribesallthelettersofthealphabet competingforthehonorofbeingthefirstletteroftheTorah.Thestory,whichisintendedforchildren,concernsarabbiandtheyoungboytowhomheasksthe question:"WhydidGodbegintheworldwiththeletter'B'?"(Notetheindistinguishabilitybetweenthebeginningoftheworldandthebeginningoftheword,in Hebrewthought.BereshitisHebrewfor"IntheBeginning,"whichofcourse,openstheBible.Theanswertotheboy'squestionisthat"B"isalsothefirstletterofthe wordbaruch,orblessed.)WhatBellfailstonoticeisthattheTalmudicstory,presumablyintendedtobringArendt''back"toherJewishroots,wasinalllikelihood notavailabletoArendt.ItwaspartoftheexclusivelymalecultureoftheTalmudandTorah.FewJewishgirlswouldhavehadaccesstoitintheearlytwentieth century,orthecenturiesofitsexistencepriortothetwentiethcentury.34ItwasnotapartofArendt'sintellectualorculturalheritagebecauseshewasnotaJewish male. Macdonaldtookupthe"objectivev.tribal"justiceissueraisedbyDanielBell,butheregardedArendt'sattempttotaketheuniversalistperspectiveasadmirable."Itis aninteresting,anddepressinghistoricalexercisetoimaginewhatthereactionswouldhavebeentoabooklikethisinthethirties,whenallofus,fromMissMcCarthy toMr.Abel,despisednationalandracialfeelingsandwerehotfortruth,justice,andotheruniversals.Thesuggestionthatcertainpeopleandinstitutionsshouldbe exemptfromcriticismwouldhaveembarrassedeverybody(excepttheStalinists)"(PR31:2268).MacDonaldcontinued,"IthinkMr.BellandMr.Scholemhave madeex

Page37

plicit,becausetheirintentionwasunderstandingratherthanpolemics,theconcealed,perhapsevenunconscious,assumptionthatexplainstheviolenceoftheJewish attacksonMissArendt'sbook.BothreproachherbecauseshelacksaspecialfeelinginfavorofherfellowJews"(269). Macdonaldconcludedwithapleaformaintainingtheuniversalistperspective:

IamnotJewish,butifIwereIhopeIwouldnotagreewithMr.Bellthat"inthissituation,one'sidentityasaJew...isrelevant,"ifitmeansapplyingadifferent("weaker") yardsticktoJews.Ayardstickisnotayardstickifitismoreorlessthanthreefeetlong,andjusticeisnotjusticeunlessitisuniversalistic.Iamoldfashionedenough(asofthe thirties)tostillfindthesefavored,special,exceptionalcategoriesofraceornationmorallysuspectandintellectuallyconfusing.AndsoItakeheartinabooklikeEichmannin Jerusalem.(269)

ThemostresponsiblevoicesinthisdebateseemtometobethoseofBell,Macdonald,Syrkin,andScholem.Butasrepresentedbythesethinkers,theargumentfor thespecificallyJewishperspectiveis,inmyopinion,notaspersuasiveatleastnotintheabstractastheargumentthatArendt'sdesireforauniversalstandardis commendable.Thatis,theargumentsfromBell,Scholem,andSyrkin,theresponsiblevoicesclaimingsheshouldhavewrittenfromamoreselfconsciouslyJewish standpoint,seemdisingenuous.Macdonald'spointiswelltaken:thesesamescholarswouldmostlikelydeclinetomaketheirpointuniversal,recommendingthatall scholarshipbewrittenfromaparticularstandpoint.ThecallforJewishloyaltyisspecialpleading. Butcontrarytotheirownprofessionaladvocacyof"scholarlyobjectivity,"hercritics'insistencethatArendtarguefromamore"tribal"perspectivehasbecome emblematicofthemulticulturalissuessocentraltocontemporaryacademiclife.Thedebateinacademiaaboutwhetherthedemandfora"universal''or"objective" approachtothinking,alongwiththeprivilegingoftheWesternEuropean"canon,"revealsonlythehegemonyofWesternEuropeanmen,isatheartadebateaboutthe natureandpossibilityof"Truth"inscholarship.AJewish

Page38

standpointisusuallyneglectedbyadvocatesofculturalpluralismapointIshalladdressinduecourse.ButtheargumentforincludingtheworkofAfricanAmericans, AsianAmericans,Hispanics,women,gaysandlesbians,andsoforthinundergraduatecollegecurricularepresentsanefforttoquestiontheobjectivityanduniversality availabletothewhiteWesternmaleswhohaveuntilveryrecentlyrepresented"thecanon"innearlyeveryfieldofscholarlypursuit,andechoesthecontroversyover EichmanninJerusalem. Theinclusionof"theOther"andaquestioningofthecentralityofthewhitemaleperspectiveisanintellectualquestwithwhichIaminsympathy.Indeed,itseemsto methatthebestchancewehaveforbalanced(whichisnottosay"objective")perspectivesonmajorethicalissuesistobecomethoroughlyawareofourown standpointandhowitmaybeinfluencedbyethnicity,gender,andsoforth.Byunderstandingourownethnicandgendered"biases"westandachanceofbeing compassionateandunderstandingaboutthebiasesofothers.Philosophically,Iregardthispositionasdialectical:thoroughandselfconsciousimmersionin ''particularity"ofperspectiveisthemeansofgainingaccesstoamore"universal"perspective. SinceIholddoubtsaboutthepossibilityofobjectivity,itispuzzlingtofindmyselfdrawntoArendt'sdefendersintheEichmannmatter,whoargueforthevalidityof herquestforan"objective"understandingofjustice.WhyamIcompassionateaboutherlackofacknowledgmentoftheinfluenceofgenderandJewishnessuponher intellectualworkanditsreception?Onereasoniscertainlymydisdainfortheselfproclaimedethicalpurityofherdetractors:thedemandfora"Jewish"perspective frommenwhohadbuilttheircareersontheirabilitytobe"cosmopolitan"oruniversalthinkersisdisengenuoustothepointofbeinghypocritical,asIdiscussin chapters4and5.Yetapprovalofthe"objectivity"ofa"universal"perspectivefromArendt'ssupportersgoesagainstthegrainofwhatIbelieveabouttheundeniable influenceofspecificculture.MyhunchisthatallconcernedArendt,herdefenders,andhercriticswereengagedinamassiveactofdenial,thecritics

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demandingthatshesupportaJewishperspective,herfriendsarguingthatshesticktoheruniversalhumanquest,allofthemthoroughlyoverlookingthefactthatshe wasaJewishwoman,whichmayhaveaffectedbothwhatsheargued,andhowherargumentwasreceived. Inthelatterpartofthisvolume,Iexploreindetail,thewaysinwhichArendt'sJewishnessdidinfluenceherscholarlywork,aphenomenonthathasgoneunrecognized byArendtherselfaswellasstudentsofherwork.WithregardtothespecificcriticalresponsetoEichmanninJerusalem,itistheimportanceofhergenderthathas beenunacknowledged.Theprevailingargumentisthatobjectionstoherworkhadnothingtodowithgender,butratherwereappropriatelyfocuseduponthe substanceofherwork.Thecontroversyhadnothingtodowithwhetherawomanoramanhadmadethechargesshedid.Arendtwastreatednodifferentlythanany othercriticofJewishbehaviorduringtheHolocaust.RaulHilbergiscitedforcomparativepurposes:hewasalsoseverelycriticizedformakingmuchthesame argumentinhismonumentalstudy,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.35Moreimportantly,hertonewasoffensive:snide,cynical,irreverrent,and inappropriateforaddressingatragedyofthescopeoftheHolocaust.Shewasthusjustlychastisedforheraloofandevendisrespectfultone.That"inappropriate" tone,aswellastheoffensivesubstanceofherargument,reflectanambivalentattitudetowardherownJewishness.WhatisoffensiveaboutEichmanninJerusalemis the"Jewishselfhatred"thatitreflectswhichhasnothingtodowithherbeingawoman.Arendt'sinvolvementwithHeideggerisanexampleofthis"Jewishself hatred,"whichiswhatunderlaythefuryofthereactionoftheJewishcommunity. Alloftheseargumentswillbeaddressedinduecourse.Atleastonecanbequicklydispensedwithhere.Hilbergwasnotattackedwithanywherenearthevehemence thatArendtwas,andindeed,thereviewsofhisbook,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews,inwhichhemakesevenmoreextensiveexcoriationsoftheJewish leadershipthanArendt,indicatethathewastreatedwithrespect,eveninthemostcriticalreviews.Inspiteofthefactthathelackedtheflambouyantpublicper

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sonaofArendt,wasnotascholarwithaninternationalreputation(theresultofArendt'sOriginsofTotalitarianism),didnotpublishhisreportinthewidelyread NewYorker,andhencewaslesssignificantasatargetofcriticalattention,hisscholarshipwastakenseriously,andhewasneveraccusedofbetrayingtheJewish community,orofexhibiting"Jewishselfhatred."36 Arendtwasaccused,byaprimarilyJewishchorusofobjectors,ofhavingbeendisloyaltotheJewishpeopleinpublishingherreport.Genderwasnotevenan acknowledgedconceptduringtheheightofthecontroversyintheearly1960s,anditsroleintheresponsetoEichmannisjustasvociferouslydeniedtodayby some.37 Inasense,Arendtwasthevictimofdoublejeopardy:thetwoaspectsofheridentityaremutuallyexclusive.TheJewishperspectivehastraditionallybeenamale perspective,andtheJewishmaleperspectivehasalsonotbeenregardedas"universal,"oreven"objective,"unlesstheJewishaspectofthemaleisoverlooked.Anew generationofscholarswriteslesscriticallyaboutArendtandEichmanninJerusalem,focusing,aswehaveseen,onEichmannasthebookthatmotivatedArendtto trytobridgethegapbetweenherearlierconcernwithactionandherlaterpreoccupationwiththelifeofthemind.However,therecentwritingsonEichmannin Jerusalemstillfailtotakeintoaccounttheroleofgenderonthework'sreception,whilealsooverlookingthespecificallyJewishdimensiontothecontroversy. Althoughtheyoungergenerationisnotincensed,asthegenerationofArendt'speershadbeen,atwhattheyregardedasabetrayalofherownpeople,contemporary scholarstendtoseparateHannahArendtthebrilliantandoriginalpoliticaltheoristfromHannahArendttheJewishwoman,therefugeefromtheHolocaust,thewoman whoseverylifehadbeenthreatenedandalteredbythebiologicalfactthatshehadbeenbornJewish.Arendtherselfmayhavecontributedtothisbifurcationofher workintopoliticalandphilosophical.InhermorepoliticalwritingsuptoandincludingEichmanninJerusalem,sheunabashedlyclaimsherJewishidentity.Beinga Jewconstitutesapartofhowshelooksatthepoliticalworld.Iamthink

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ingofwritingscollectedinRonFeldman'sTheJewasPariah,EichmanninJerusalem,someoftheessaysinMeninDarkTimes,andinadifferenttone,Rahel Varnhagen.InherexplicitlyJewishpoliticalwritingssheisengaged,combative,arguingoverthedesirabilityofcoursesofactionthathavedirectimpactontheworld andspecificallyontheJewishpeople.SheisaJewinpublic.ButshekeepsthisJewishnessseparatefromherlifeasaphilosopherandpoliticaltheorist.InThe HumanCondition,OnRevolution,TheLifeoftheMind,andheressayswrittenduringthatperiod,inBetweenPastandFutureandelsewhere,shecourtsthe possibilityofphilosophical"universality,"withherfocusonGreek,German,andChristianthinkers.ContemporaryscholarshaverespondedtoArendtbyconsidering theinfluenceonherworkofPlato,Socrates,Aristotle,Augustine,DunsScotus,Vico,Kant,Heidegger,andJaspers.ToraisethepossibilitythatherJewish,letalone herfemale,identitymighthaveinfluencedherscholarlyaswellasherpoliticalwritingsamountstoaminorheresy:anapparentdiminutionofArendt'sstatusasa thinker.38 IfArendtcanbesplitintoaJewishpoliticalwriteranda"universal"(read:Westernclassicist)philosopherortheorist,howtemptingitmustbetodivideherworkinto an"early"anda"late"Arendt:theArendtpreoccupiedwithactionandtheArendtpreoccupiedwiththinking,theArendtwith"pre1971"and"post1971''ideasabout judgment.SinceIsuggestedintheintroductionthatArendt'sworkisofapiece,thatthesamewomanwrotetheearlyandthelatestuff,itseemsincumbentuponmeto arguefortheunityofHannahArendt'ssoul:shewasaJewishwoman,aclassicalscholar,aGermanrefugee,andultimatelyanAmericanacademic.Butthe developmentsofherlifethatcontributedtoheridentityasascholardonotcompletelyreplaceitsfoundationingenderandJewishidentity.AsFreudarguesin CivilizationandItsDiscontents,thelayersofthepastareburiedbeneaththepresent,muchlikethearchitecturalruinsofRomancivilizationunderlaythecitythatis contemporaryRome.39 Inthebeginning,ArendtwasJewishandfemale.Sheneverdeniedeitheraspectofherself,but,likeherfollowers,pub

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liclyclaimedtheJewishpartonlyinrelationtoherspecificallyJewishandusuallypoliticalwritings.Thefemalepartseemstohavebeenregardedascompletely private"merelybiological"carryingnoimpactforherintellectualworkatall.InArendt'sownterms,ArendtthephilosopherwasnotaffectedbyArendttheJewor Arendtthewoman.40 Meanwhile,EichmanninJerusalemhasbecomeanintellectualchallenge,itsJewishcontentallbutforgotten.Arendtandherstudentsprefertoconfineher JewishnesstoherJewishpoliticalwritings.IbelieveifweallowHannahArendttobeonewholehumanbeing,theJewishwomanalongwiththeclassicalscholar,we mayhaveaccesstosolvingtheinconvenientmysteriescreatedbythedichotomiesthathavebeenassociatedwithherwork.ThespecificallyJewishcontentofthetrial hasbecomelostintheconcernwithHannahArendt'srelationships,intellectualorotherwise,withKant,Heidegger,Camus,postmodernthought,thestructureof narrative,andadozenotherfashionableconcerns.ThisisnottodisparageArendt'sprovocativenessasathinker,andasascholarwhoanticipatedmanyofthe concernsofourage.ButwithoutunderstandingArendtasawomanandaJew,studyingherthoughtinrelationtothewritingsofnonJewishmenisboundtobe abstract.TheyoungergenerationofscholarsignoretheimpactofhergenderandherJewishidentityuponherscholarship,andinspiteoftheirappreciationofher work,hermostoutspokencritics,theoneswhoaccusedherofbetrayingherownpeople,gounanswered. Inthechaptersthatfollow,thecontroversyoverEichmanninJerusalemwillbestudiedfromtheperspectivesofJudaismandgender.

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Chapter3 IsraelandtheHolocaust
ThefuroroverEichmanninJerusalemseemsdisproportionatetotheargumentsadvancedinthebook,whichwerenotparticularlyoriginal.RaulHilberg'sthree volume,thousandpageopus,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJewshadadvancedsimilarargumentsevenmorestridently.Arendt,however,wasattackedfor manyreasonsbythe"NewYorkIntellectuals,"includingthechargethatshehad"stolen"dataandargumentsfromHilberg,whileHilberg,initiallyanyway,wasnot criticizedwithanywherenearthevehemenceaswasArendt.Infact,hisbookwasfairlywellreceived,andreviewedwidelyandrespectfully.InIsrael,bycontrast, bothHilbergandArendtweresuppressed.1 EichmannthustouchedoffdifferentJewishnervesinIsraelandintheUnitedStates,andtheferocitywithwhichArendt wasattackedreflectedthedifference.TheissueuponwhichIsraeliandAmericanJewssharedatacitagreementwasthegenderdimension,whichIshalldiscussindue course.IfwhatArendtwrotewas"nervy,"itwasevenmorejoltingbecauseshewasawoman.ThefuroroverEichmannreflectedthepoliticsofbothJudaismand gender,topicstowhichweturninthisandthefollowingchapters. NowtoarguethattheEichmanncontroversyreflectsJewishpoliticsisnotverysurprising:ittouchedupontheJewish

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issue.Butsomeexplanationiscalledfortoexplainthedisproportionatevitriolofthecontroversy.Inarecentbook,TheSeventhMillion:TheIsraelisandthe Holocaust,2 TomSegevreportsthatHannahArendtbelievedboththatBenGurionhimselfhaddemandedthatEichmanninJerusalembebannedinIsrael,andthat thebookwassimplynotimportantenoughtowarrantsuchfury.

ItsnonpublicationinHebrewrankledArendt,butthebookitself,shesaid,waslessimportantthanpeoplethought.ShehadwrittenitinangeratwhatshesawasIsrael'sattempt toexploittheEichmanntrialforpoliticalpurposes.Shetoldmethat,wereshetowriteitagain,shewouldwriteitdifferently.Itssubtitle,AReportontheBanalityofEvil,was blownoutofproportion,sheargued.Thensheadded,withthebitingironythatcharacterizedher,thatEichmanninJerusalemcouldatmostserveasaguidetoreportersonhow tocoverahistoricaltrial.3

AlexanderBloom,inhishistoryoftheNewYorkIntellectuals,concursthatthefurorcreatedbyArendt'sbookwasextraordinary."HannahArendt'swork occasionedfireworksrarelyseeninNewYorkIntellectualcircles....Arendt'sbookprovokedahailstormofcriticismandenormousdebate,wellbeyondmere politicaldiscussion."4 HereportsthatthesymposiumsponsoredbyDissentwasdescribedbyNormanPodhoretzas"akindofprotestmeetingagainstthebook,"and thatAlfredKazin,whoalsohadreservationsaboutArendt'sbook,nonethelessrosetoherdefenseatthatmeetingbecausehewasherclosefriendand"Mydefense ofherwaspersonal....Iwasoutragedbythemobspirit"(Bloom330seealso,thisvolume,chapter4,pp.100,101).Whysuchextraordinaryfury? TheIsraeliattitudetowardtheHolocaustisnotasimplematter,andArendt'soutspokenness,whichonlyreflecteddebatesthathadbeenraginginIsraelforyears,was embarrassinginthesensethatsheexposedthedebatetononIsraelis,airingdirtylinen.IsraelpreferredtopresentaunitedfronttothenonZionistworld.Party politicswerenotfortheeyesofthegoyim,norforAmericanJewseither.Nonetheless,ifArendtwasvictimizedinamannerthatotherscholarsmostnotably Hilbergwasnot,someattemptatexplanationiswarranted.

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InthischapterIshallconsidertheZionistandIsraelipoliticsthatmayhaveinfluencedthemeaningoftheEichmanntrialandtheresponsetoArendt'sreport.Idraw fromthreerecentstudiesaboutIsraelandtheHolocaust:TomSegev'sTheSeventhMillion:TheIsraelisandtheHolocaust(HillandWang,1993)DinaPorat's TheBlueandYellowStarsofDavid:TheZionistLeadershipinPalestineandtheHolocaust,19391945(Harvard,1990)andYehudaBauer'sJewsforsale: NaziJewishNegotiations,19331945(Yale,1994). TheearlyZioniststancetowardtheHolocaustisfarfromsimpleloyaltytotheJewishpeople,farfromScholem'sAhavethIsrael.Comparingthethreeaccounts providesarangeofinterpretationsoftheissuesthatconfrontedJewsinPalestineduringtheHolocaust.Fromourprivilegedhistoricalstandpointofthepresent,the Holocaustmayseemsounequivocallydemonicthatextraordinaryactionshouldhavebeenobviouslymandatedtotheentireworld,andmostcertainlytotheJewish leadershipinPalestine.AsDinaPoratobserves,"JewswhohavegrownupinIsraelfinditextremelydifficulttounderstandwhytheYishuvneverlaunchedany unconditional,extraordinaryactionoutsidetherulesofthegamesomepreemptiveoperationcommensuratewiththepainandtherage"(Porat262).Therealityof thetimewasmurkier,dominatedbythediabolicalparadoxthatthemoreunprecendentedandinhumanthedeedscarriedoutbytheNazis,themoredifficultitwasfor "ordinary"peopletoabsorb,acceptanddefendagainstthem. TheresponseofPalestinianJewstotheHolocaust,andtheIsraeliattitudetowardboththeHolocaustandtheirownresponsetoitwas(andis)notstatic.5 Tryingto describeitistantamounttodescribingariverduringanaturaldisaster:whatwasallmovementtobeginwith,althoughcontainedwithinbanks,becomesvolatile, dangerous,andunpredictable,asitrespondstoadeluge,arockslide,fallentimber,andsoforth.Thecourseoftheriveritselfisliabletochange.Sothereisno definitive"Israeliresponse"or"Zionistresponse"totheHolocaust:theresponsewasalwaysinprocess,developingthroughoutandduringtheaftermathofthe catastrophe.

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ButsincemyargumentisthattheroleoftheEichmanntrial,andtheIsraeliresponsetoArendt,wasaffectedbyIsrael'sattitudetowardtheHolocaustandtheirrole duringit,itbecomesimportanttoidentifyboththerealityofactionstakenbytheYishuvinresponsetotheHolocaustandtheIsraelireadingoftheirownactions. NothingJewsinPalestinecouldhavedonewouldhavebeenadequatetostemthetideofdisaster,andthissenseoffrustrationandpowerlessnessgaverisetopost hocguiltanddiscomfort.Butapartfromthefactthatnothingwouldhaveworked,allegationsthatZionistswereambivalentaboutrescueeffortsandambivalentabout thevictimsandsurvivorsmustthemselvesbeconsidered.ThedespairoverfailedeffortswheneverythinghasbeentriedisonethingguiltoverZionistinactionor disdainfortheHolocaustvictimsissomethingelse,andpotentiallymoreexplosive.DinaPoratnotes,"Today,therearetwolapsesinparticularthatdisturbJews:the timegapbetweeneventsinEuropeandtheresponsetothem,andtheattitudegapbetweenthenatureoftheHolocaustandtheresponseoftheYishuv"(Porat261). Whatwerethecircumstancesthatgaverisetotheselapses? TheDawningofReality PoratidentifiesthedatewhentherealityofsystematicNaziexterminationoftheJewswas"officially"acknowledgedas17December1942.Onthatdate,Anthony EdenreadastatementinParliamentwhichwascarriedinnewspapersthroughouttheworld,onbehalfoftheAlliedgovernments,makingpublictheirawarenessofthe GermanmobilizationtoannihilatetheJewishpeople.Fromthatpoint,"thepointatwhichtheexterminationwasofficiallyrecognizedforwhatitwas"(Porat52),denial oftherealitywasnolongerpubliclypossible,eventhoughthedetailsweresohorrifyingthatpeoplebothintheYishuvandthroughoutthecivilizedworld,continued perhapstotheircredittorespondwithincredulity.
TheHolocaustwasanacutedeviationfromthecollectiveexperienceofhumanity.EveninthehistoryofsuchlongsufferingpeopleastheJews,itwasunprecedentedand, therefore,unthinkable.Peoplewhomanagedtocrawloutofmassgraves

Page47 andreturntotheremnantsoftheircommunitiesencounteredtotaldisbelief....Peoplehaddifficultyinbelievingtheirowneyes,andtodaysurvivorsfinditdifficulttobelieve theirownmemories.(Porat44)

YehudaBauerechoesPorat'sperspectivewiththepleathat"Wemustdifferentiatebetweeninformationanditsinternalization,or'knowledge'andinthiscasethereis absolutelynoproofthatinformationonplannedmassmurder,asopposedtopogromlikeshootingsandotherpersecutionswasreceivedduringtheearlymonthsof deportation.Internalizationthatis,acceptanceofinformationascorrectandthinkinginaccordancewiththatinformationandlaterpossiblyactionisacomplicated process"(Bauer72).Bauerplacesthedateof"internalization,"oracceptanceoftheinformationaboutNazigenocideinthefallof1942,orperhaps"evenlaterthan that." Butaswithanyhorribletruthwithwhichonemustcometoterms,thereisrarelyamomentofunequivocalacceptance,ofrecognitionwherethefogliftsandonesees withdazzlingclaritywhathasreallybeengoingon:thefogcontinuestorollbackin.Asinpsychotherapyorpsychoanalysis,themostdifficulttruthsareapproached slowlyandcautiously,denied,creptuponagain,andoftendeniedagainandagain,untiltheyareslowlyintegratedintoone'sperspectiveonrealityinaformthatdoes notdestroythepatient.Oneprotectsoneselffromwhatonecannotabsorb. ThereisplentytoindicatethatJewishrecognitionoftheNaziplantoannihilatethemwasapproachedanddeniedthroughoutthewar.CertainlybeforeDecember 1943therehadbeenreportsfrom"reliablesources"eyewitnessesandrefugeesthatwereavailablebutnotbelieved.Andcertainlyafter1943,andwellinto1944, leadersoftheYishuvcontinuedtobeincredulous,needingtobetoldagainandagainthatitwasreallyhappening.Thereisevidencethattheimpulsetodenycontinued wellintothepostwarperiod,andthatnotuntiltheEichmanntrialitselfwasaneffortmadetoteachtheIsraelipublic,collectively,intermsthatwouldbeacceptedonce andforallandintegratedintoIsraelicivicculture,abouttherealityoftheHolocaust.

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PorattellsusthatfromSeptemberof1942on,beforeEden'sannouncement,"InformationconcerningthemethodicalexterminationoftheJewsofEurope...reached Palestine."Yet,"LeadersoftheYishuv...receivedthenewswithdisbelief.Storiesofdeathfactoriesandcommercialuseofthedeadseemedevenmoreincredible thanpreviousstoriesaboutthemonstrousmethodsemployedinmasskilling,andhadtheeffectoffurtherdiscreditingthepreviousinformation"(Porat30).Andatthe otherendofevents,inMayof1944,RabbiMichaelDovBeerWeissmandel,whowasinhidingneartheSlovokianHungarianborder,sentalettertoGeneva addressedtofreeworldJews,inwhichhedetailedthehorrorsofAuschwitz,andconcludedwithanguish,

Andyou,ourbrethren,thePeopleofIsrael,inallthefreecountries...howcanyoukeepsilentaboutthismurder....Youarecruel,youaremurderersforthiscruelsilenceof yours,foryourlackofaction....Webegandpleadanddemandofyoutotakeactionimmediately....Ourbrethren,PeopleofIsrael,haveyougonemad?Don'tyouknowwhat hellwearelivingin?(Porat216)

Evenafterdenialwasnolonger"officially"possible,mostoftheworldremainedparalyzedinthefaceofthemagnitudeoftheNazievil.TheJewsinthekillingzones andelsewhereweremostaffectedbytheparalysisandinaction,boththeirownandthatoftherestoftheworld. Topreventmisunderstandingofthediscussionthatfollows,letmestatemybeliefthatinspiteofdecisionsthatmightappearquestionablefromoneperspectiveor another,theZionistleadershipinPalestinefacedanutterlyimpossiblesituation.ThesituationwascreatedbytheNazis,andsecondguessingorjudgingthe"choices" madebytheJewishleadershipmustbeseeninthatcontext.TheleadersoftheYishuvlackedsufficientpowertosavemostoftheDisaporaJews,ortopreventthe Nazicatastrophefromoccurring.Theycomprisedatinygroupofpeople,intermsofthescaleofnationalpopulations,withliterallynopoliticalpower.Britain controlledPalestineandstoodingreaterneedofAraboilthananythingtheJewscouldoffer.WhiletheAlliedpowersspecificallyGreatBritainand

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theUnitedStatesprofessedhumanitarianhorroratwhattheyknewoftheNazisexterminationpoliciesandtactics,theirwillingnesstojeopardizeinternational politicalprioritiesinordertoactuallysaveEuropeanJewswasminimal.Withregardtorescuebypoliticalnegotiation,ransom,ordirectmilitarystrikesintheformof parachutingresistancefightersintooccupiedEurope,orexecutingbombingraidsonthedeathcamps,Alliedresponsewassluggishandburdenedbypoliticalredtape atbestnegligenttothepointofbeinglethal,atworst. Forexample,aUnitedStatesstatedepartmentofficialreportedtoMosheShertok,foreignrepresentativeoftheYishuv,inAprilof1943,thatHitlercouldnotbe approachedwithapleatoreleaseJewsbecause,asAnthonyEdenhadalreadysaid,itwas"'beneathourdignity,'and'itwillnothelpHitlerwillnotreleaseanyone.' Furthermore,'ifhedoesreleasehundredsofthousandsoramillionJewswhatshallwedowiththem,whereshallwetakethem?'"(quotedinPorat141).Shertok couldnotrespondthattheYishuvwaswillingtoabsorbanyJewstheAllieswouldassistinrescuingbecauseBritainhad,in1939,issuedthefamous"WhitePaper" limitingthepurchaseoflandbyJews,andrestrictedJewishimmigrationtoPalestineoverthenextfiveyearstoatotalof75,000.After1944,Jewishimmigration wouldbesubjecttoArabconsent.GreatBritaincouldnotaffordtoalienateArabinterests,andPoratconcludes,"AsfarastheAllieswereconcerned,Weizmann, BenGurion,andShertokwereatoleratedannoyance,ceaselesslypressing,appealing,anddemandingdespitethewarandallthedifficultiesitinvolved.Inshort,the Yishuv'spositionwasevenweakerthanithadbeenbeforethewar"(255).6 Thusinaworldthatappearedeitherindifferentormurderous,ZionistleaderscoulddoverylittletosaveEuropeanJewry.TheoverwhelmingrealityofbeingaJew anywhereintheworldduringHitler'sreignwasimpotence.Butrecognitionofone'simpotenceisnodefenseagainstguilt,overone'sinabilitytorespondtoevil,or guiltaboutwhateveronehasfailedtoaccomplish.ZionistimpotencegaverisetoIsraeliguilt,whichinturndominatedthepoliticsoftheEichmanntrial,andtookthe formofrageatArendt'sreport.

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TheStructureofDiscomfort ThelinesalongwhichthepoliticalfactionsintheYishuvdividedovertheappropriateresponsetotheHolocaustresembledpartyorfactionaldivisionsinanynationor community,exceptthatthestakesweredire.Ina"loselosegame,"tragedywasthelikelyoutcomenomatterwhatactionwastaken.Thiscontributed,perhaps,to evenmorebitterfactionalinfightingthaninaconventionalpoliticalsituation.JewishpoliticsintheYishuvdividedalonglinesrepresentedbythemorepragmatic approachofthedominantLaborZionist(Mapai)party,andthepurer"moralist"approachoftheOrthodoxreligiousJewsinPalestine.SecularpoliticalZionists differedprofoundlyfromthereligiousfundamentalists.Additionally,politicalZionistswerethemselvesdividedalongamoreconventionalpoliticalspectrum.Although theZionistpartywaspredominantlysocialist,therewasincreasingoppositionfrom"Revisionists"centrist,moreconservativeZionists,whooftenduringthecrisis sidedwithAgudatYisrael,theorthodoxreligiousgroupwhichwasnotZionistatall. Mapai,thesocialistZionistparty,controlledabout50percentofalltheinstitutionsintheYishuv,and75percentoftheworkers'union.Itsvariouscommittees discussedandlargelydetermined,thoughunofficially,thepolicyoftheYishuv.StilltherewerepoliticalstruggleswithRevisionistsontherightandwiththemoreradical partiesandgroupswithinthelabormovementontheleft(Porat11).AttheotherextremewasAgudatYisrael,theultraorthodox,antiZionistparty,whichrefusedto beincludedintheYishuv'sinstitutionalframework(Porat7). LininguponthesideofMapaibutformingindependentorganizations,weretheJewishAgencyExecutive(JAE),theoperativeorganoftheWorldZionist Organization,andtheHistadrut,orGeneralFederationofJewishWorkersinPalestine.TheJAE,Mapai,andHistadrutcomprisedthethreewingsofPalestinian Zionism."TheHistadrutgaveMapaiitsbroadsocioeconomicbaseandtheAgencyitspoliticalpower"(Porat11).TheheadofHistadrutwasDavidRemez,ofthe JAE,YitzhakGruenbaum,andoftheMapai,DavidBenGurion.

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OtherimportantactorsinthisoftenfeudinggroupofZionistleaderswereEliyahuDobkin,headoftheHistadrutimmigrationdepartment,andcohead,withMeyer Schapira,oftheJAE'simmigrationdepartment,MosheShertok(laterSharett),headoftheJAE'spoliticaldepartment,andChaimWeizmann,presidentoftheWorld ZionistOrganization. ThedivisiveissuesechoedJewishresponsestopersecutionfromthebeginningofJewishhistory:the''heroic"stanceofarmedresistancetothedeath,versusthemore passivestanceofcompromiseinanefforttosurvive.Obviously,duringtheHolocaustneitherstance"worked":Jewswerekilledwhentheyfoughtbackandkilled whentheydidnot.ThedebateintheYishuvtookplacealongacontinuumwhichatoneendarguedforheroicanddirectmilitaryintervention,nomatterhowsuicidal, andattheother,politicalnegotiationswiththeNazisandtheAlliedpowersfortherescueofhowevermanyJewsitwaspossibletorescue.Themoreorthodox religiousJewsandtheRevisionistsleanedtoward"heroic"intervention,whilethesecularZionistsleanedtowardthemorecomplexandmorallytroublesomepragmatic stance. InNazioccupiedEurope,thequestionthatconfrontedthetrappedJewswashowtomaximizewhateverslimchanceofsurvivaltheremightbe.Atthecenterofthe effortwastheresistanceleadership,whowerepredominantlyEuropeanZionists.Shouldtheyoungleaders,whenthefutilityoftheirworkintheirEuropean communitiesbecameapparent,savethemselvesbytakinguptheofferofescapetoIsrael,orshouldtheydiewiththepeopletheyhadlivedwithandstruggledtosave? TheEuropeanZionistsoverwhelminglychosetostayanddiewiththeirfriendsandfamilies,offeringwhatlastminutesolacetheycould,ratherthanabandoningtheir communitiesforthesakeofthefutureofZionism.TotheZionistsinIsrael,thisstanceseemedpassive,weak,andpoliticallyirresponsible.Thehorribletruthwasthat theZionistenterpriseinIsraelwouldmostcertainlyfailiftherewerenoEuropeanJewsleftalivetopopulatethenewJewishstate,hencetherewasno"correct" answertothequestionofwhetheritwasbetterfortheleadershipoftheEuropeanresisterstodieinEuropeorescapetoIsrael.JewsintheYishuvatfirstbelievedthat dying

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withtheircommunitiesconstitutedDiasporaweaknessand"passivity."ButfromthestandpointoftheyoungEuropeanZionists,theless"heroic"andlessmorally tolerablestancewouldhavebeensavingthemselvesandlettingtheircommunitiesperishintheHolocaust. InIsraelthedebateamongZionistsconcernedwhethertodevoteattentiontotheurgentneedsofbuildingaJewishstateortospendscarceresourcesattemptingto rescuewhatevertheycouldofthe"remnant"ofEuropeanJews.Onceagain,therewasno"correct"answer:neglectingtheneedsofbuildingaJewishstateleftthe EuropeanJewswithnoplacetoescapeto,whilefailingtorespondtotheperishingmillionsthreatenedtoleaveaJewishhomelandbereftofapopulation.The ultraorthodoxJews,representedbyAgudatYisrael,madethemostextremeargumentsforamorallypurestance:acttosavetheJewsoftheDiasporaatallcosts, sparenothingtointerveneonbehalfofDiasporaJews,butundernocircumstancesthinkofnegotiatingwiththeGermans. Ultimately,neitherstance"worked"inthesenseofprovidinganeffectiveguidetoaction.AsDinaPoratsuccinctlyremarks,"Theirachievementswereminutein proportiontotheHolocaust"(136).BenGurionhimselfsadlyobserved,"Itwouldbeimpossibletosaythatourworkmetwithevenasmallmeasureofsuccess''(in Segev89).SegevprovidesthestatisticstoconfirmthevalidityofBenGurion'sobservation:
TherehadbeenaboutninemillionJewsinEuropeontheeveofthewaraboutsixmillionwerekilled,leavingthreemillionalive.MostofthemweresavedbyGermany'sdefeatin thewar.SomeweresparedthankstohelptheyreceivedfromvariousgovernmentsandorganizationssuchastheJointDistributionCommitteeandfromthousandsofgood heartedpeopleinalmosteverycountrythe'righteousgentiles.'ThereweredramaticrescueoperationssuchastheflightacrossthePyreneesfromFrancetoSpainandthe convoysofJewsthatsailedfromDenmarktoSweden.OnlyafewsurvivorsowedtheirlivestotheeffortsoftheZionistmovement.(Segev96)

ItwasthefailedZionisteffortsthathauntedtheIsraelisduringtheEichmanntrial,andwhichIbelievehadanimpact

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upontheIsraeliresponsetoArendt'sbook.ThespecificsofZionistawarenessabouttheHolocaustandtherescueoperationsattemptedbecomeimportantinenabling ustoassessIsraeliattitudestowardtheadequacyorinadequacyoftheirresponse. PoratarguesthatwhileinformationwasavailabletoleadersintheYishuvbefore1942,itwassimplynotcomprehendedfullyortakenseriously."Massmurders"were stillthoughtofintermsof"hundreds"ofdeaths,Yishuvleadersstillbelievedthat"thesufferingsoftheJewswereincidentaltotheGermanoccupation"(Porat22),and "thegapbetweenwhatwasactuallyhappeningandwhattheYishuvperceivedtobehappeninghadbecomeabysmal"(Porat20). InFebruaryof1942,theSSStruma,aleakyoldboatpackedwith770Jewishrefugees,wasrefusedentryintoPalestine,undertermsoftheBritish"WhitePaper." Theimmigrantshadhoistedasignpleading"SaveUs,"buttheboatwasturnedbackintotheopensea.Itsank,drowningallaboardexceptone.Therewasoutrage amongtheIsraelisthattooktheformoffuryatBritain,butwemayunderstandtheragewasalsoabouttheincreasingawarenessofthepowerlessnessoftheYishuv. Poratobserves,"ThisincidentillustratednotonlythegravityofthesituationinEurope,butalsotheYishuv'shelplessness"(24). Still,newspapersintheYishuvcontinuedtobecautiousintheirreportingofeventsinEurope,andregardlessofpoliticalaffiliation,warnedtheirreadersthatreportsof exterminationbymethodsotherthanshootingwereprobablyexaggerated.Throughout1942,increasinglydetailedandaccuratenewsofmethodicalNazi exterminationofJewscontinuedtobegreetedwithincredulity.AlloftheJewishleadersGruenbaum,BenGurion,Dobkin,andothers,participatedinthisdisbelief. ArefugeefromPoland,Ya'acovKurtz,reported,"Peopledidnotbelieveme.TheysaidIwasexaggerating.IwasinterrogatedasifIwereacriminaltryingtoput somethingoveronpeople.TheyaskedmehowIcouldknowwhatwashappeninginsomeplacewhileIwaslockedintoaghetto"(Porat3637).WhenDobkin askedawomanwhohad

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escapedfromthesameghettoasKurtzwhethershewasperhapsexaggerating,sheslappedhisfaceandlefttheroom.
EvenDobkin,whodevotedalotoftimeandenergytodealingwiththenews,wasincapableofacceptingformsofhumanbrutalityforwhichhehadnoexistingframeofreference. Itwasespeciallyhardtobelievethatthefirsttobemurderedwerealwayschildren,theelderly,andtheinfirm."Iadmit,"ShertokcabledtoLondoninNovember,"thathadInot hearditmyselffrompeoplewhohadbeenthere,Iwouldnothavebelievedit."BenGurionexpressedasimilarfeeling.(Porat37)

Evenafter17December1942,whentheexterminationwasofficiallyacknowledgedasaverifiedfact,"verylittlechangedinthewayinwhichthenewswasreceived andprocessedinPalestine"(41).BothPoratandSegevreportaninitialpublicresponsetothenews,butafterafewmonths,"Afterthespringof1943...lesstime andspaceweredevotedtoit.LikethedisasterthatbefellPolishJewrywiththeoutbreakofthewar,theexterminationceasedtocommandspecialattentiononcethe detailshadbecomefamiliar"(Porat41).Segevreports,"'Weread,wesigh,andgoon,'wroteaJewishAgencyleader.'Everyoneknowsthattheyshouldget emotionalovernewsoftheHolocaust,Katznelsonsaid.Everyoneknowsthatthesituationishorrible,butpeoplehavetroubleunderstandingthosestoriesaspartof theirpersonalexperience'"(Segev77).Forthesecondhalfof1943onwardtheHolocaustwas,inthewordsofSegev,"nobignews"(Segev76). TheYishuvfeltremovedfromevents,andbelievedin1943thattheystilllackedanaccurateandcomprehensivepictureofthesituation.Aslateas1944,morethana yearlater,BenGuriontoldtheJAEthat'wedon'tknowwhattherealsituationinPolandis'"(Porat41).Porat,referringtocontemporaryIsrael,describes"theissueof theYishuv'sorganizedpublicreactiontotheannihilationofEuropeanJewry"as"stillanopenwound."InPalestine,dailylifecontinued,"scarcelyaffectedbythewar." Indeed,economicgrowthwasacceleratedbythewarastheBritisharmyplacedlargelocalorders,soldierspassingthroughspentmoneyinPalestine,construction boomed,businesswasconducted,and"therewereevencelebrations''(Porat6263).

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MeanwhilewheninmidMayof1944,430,000HungarianJewsweresenttoAuschwitz,"theYishuvstoodbyhelplessly,stunnedattherateofthetransports,the efficiencyoftheexterminationapparatus,andthenumberofvictims"(Porat62). ItwasnotamatterofablanketdenialofrealityonthepartoftheYishuvleaders,butratheracombinationofincredulityandhelplessness.Thefrustrationandfeeling ofimpotencemanifesteditselfintheformofbickeringandinfightingamongpeoplewhowereessentiallyallies:theJAE,Histadrut,andMapai.Inmid1943,"theJAE wassharplycriticizedforitslackofrealinitiative,itsfailuretoconductathoroughdiscussionofthetaskofZionisminsuchtimes,anditsfailuretoallocatemoneyfor largescalerescueoperations"(Porat75).JAEheadGruenbaumstatedpubliclythatallocatingresourcesintheYishuvshouldtakeprecedenceoverrescue operations,whichheregardedatthetimeasfutile.7 AJointRescueCommitteewasconstitutedinordertocoordinateeffortsamongthevariousorganizationsinthe Yishuv.Butinsteadofrisingabovefactionalsplits,itfellintothecracksbetweentheorganizations,whichincludedanincreasinglywidecrevicebetweenBenGurionof theMapai,andGruenbaumoftheJAE.Bothmenregularlyoverlookedtherescuecommittee'ssuggestions,inparttotheextentthateachbelieveditreflectedtheideas oftheother.BenGurion'spowerbasewastheLabormovement,andthepioneeringsettlementmovement,inwhichhehadbeenactiveforalmostthreedecades. GruenbaumbelongedtothecentristGeneralZionistparty,hadcometoIsraelfromPolandonlyin1933,andwascutofffromhisPolishpowerbase.BenGurion despisedparliamentarymannerismsandhyperboleandfaultedGruenbaumforhispenchantforthem.Poratreportsthat"peoplewhoworkedcloselywithbothwere unequivocalintheirviewthat'BenGurioncouldnotstandGruenbaum'"(Porat70). IncontrasttoGruenbaum,BenGurionbelievedtherescueoftheEuropeanJewswasimportantmorallyaswellasfinancially."Itisnotmerelyaquestionofhelpingthe JewsofEuropeitisraisingthestatureofPalestineandtheZionistfunds.ThefactthatPalestinianJewryhastakentheleadin

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rescueoperationsisanimportantZionistasset,"heclaimed(Porat85).Thisisthepragmaticperspectiveofaprofoundlypoliticalman.BenGurionwasalsoreluctant toalienatetheBritishorAmericansbyinsistingonthemoreaggressiverescueoperationssuggestedbysome.WhenheadvocatedapproachingtheAmericanJoint DistributionCommitteeforhelpfinancingpossiblerescueoperations,theJDCandtheIsraeliJAEbecameembattledoverwhoactuallyrepresentedworldJewry, whatthedivisionoflaborbetweentheorganizationsshouldbe,whencemoneyfromrescueoperationsshouldcomeand,whenitwasclearthattheAmericanshad moremoneythantheIsraelis,whoshouldbeinchargeoftherescueeffort.AdditionalstrainsinthealreadytenserelationshipbetweenBenGurionandGruenbaum resultedwhenBenGurionsoughtassistancefromtheJDC,theveryoutfitthatchallengedGruenbaum'sclaimtoleadershipoftheworld'sZionists.TheJAEandthe JDCquarreledaboutwhowouldrepresentDiasporaJewrybeforeEuropeanandinternationalauthoritiesandwhowouldgetcreditfortherescueefforts.Thestakes werenotinsignificant:"ZionistsandnonZionistswerecompetingforthesupportofJewsduringthewarandnotlessimportantafterward"(Porat99). Meanwhile,theHistadrutwasnowopenlycriticaloftheJAEforwhatitregardedasitsinactionoverrescueeffortswhichmaynothavebeensoinappropriatea stance,sincetheJAEunderGruenbaumcontinuedtoinsistthatitwasnotthebodyresponsibleforrescue,eventhoughitclaimedtorepresentZionismintheworld. Manypeopleagreedwiththem,andtheHistadruttooktheinitiativeforrescuefromtheYishuv.TheJAEwasforcedtofollowitsleadinordertosaveface.Porat sumsupthedelicatepoliticalsituation:
Mostcritics...werewaryofdiminishingtheZionistbudgetorofeatingintofundsfordefense.NordidtheywantanopenconfrontationwiththeJAEwhichtheyconsideredto bethesupremepoliticalauthority,entrustedwithcarryingoutZionistpolicy.TheresultwasthattheharshestcriticsoftheJAEbecameitspropellingforce.[TheHistadrut]did theZionistmovementandZionistExecutiveagreatservicebytakingtheinitiativeandforcingtheAgencyExecutivetofollowsuit,theHistadrutExecutivesavedtheAgency's honor.(Porat93)

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RelationsbetweentheJAEandtheCentralCommitteeoftheMapaicontinuedtobestrained,undoubtedlybecauseBenGurionandGruenbaumhatedeachother. "ThefeelingwaswidespreadthattherewasnorealdialoguebetweentheCentralcommitteeandtheJAEonsuchcrucialissuesastheHolocaustandrescue.The MapairepresentativesintheJAE,especiallyBenGurion,werenotsharingtheirinformationandcalculationswiththetopechelonoftheirparty"(157).Aprolonged efforttorescue29,000childrenfromtheHolocaustfellthrough,whichwasadeepdisappointmenttoBenGurion.Thetroublewasreallylackofinternationalsupport, andtheplansfounderedontechnicaldetailsoversafepassageforthechildren.ParentsinEuropewerestillnotconvincedthatannihilationwasimmanent,andrefused toputtheirchildrenonunsafeboats.ButgettingtrainloadsofJewishchildrenacrossbordersinEuropetoIsraelwouldhavecalledforinternationalpoliticalwizardry. Andtherehadalsobeenbitter,andasitturnedoutfutile,quarrelingamongJewishleadersintheYishuvoverwhatsortofeducationthechildrenwouldreceive:Zionist orOrthodoxreligious?Intheend,thechildrenneverarrivedandthepointofdebatewasmoot,butitwasnottheonlytimethatthepartiesbecameembattledover whatsortofJewstorescuefromtheHolocaust,orofwhattodowiththemafterwards.Therewasa"partykey,"usedbyalloftheleadersatdifferenttimes,targeting forrescueJewsofpoliticalpersuasioncompatiblewithwhomeverthoughttheyweremakingdecisionsatthetime.8 InspiteofbothdomesticandinternationaldivisionamongtheJews,theattemptsatrescuetookmanyforms,fromdirectmilitaryintervention,tonegotiatingwiththe Nazis.TheissuethatreturnedtohaunttheMapaiandtheJAEwaswhethernegotiatingwiththeNazisforreleaseofJewswhetherchildrenoradultswasin keepingwiththeJewishtraditionofsurvival,orwastantamounttodealingwiththedevil. AttemptsatRescue Attemptsatrescuestumbledalong,hinderedbydisbeliefoverthenatureoftheHolocaust,politicalbickeringandlackoffunding,andoccasionalseriousmoral debatesoverthetradeoffs

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betweensurvivalandresistance.Contemporarysourcesdifferaboutthewholeheartednessoftherescueefforts.Ofthethreescholarswerefertohere,TomSegevis themostskeptical,believingthatPalestinianJewswereneverfullycommittedtorescue,andindeed,didnotdoeverythingtheycouldhavedonetointerveneonbehalf ofJewstrappedintheHolocaust.HeemphasizesadeepZionistambivalencetowardDiasporaJews:almostasthoughtheHolocaustwaswhatyoucouldexpectif youwerefoolishenoughtobelieveitwaspossibleforJewstoliveinEuropeansociety,awayfromaJewishhomeland.Andindeedtherewere,asweshallsee, profoundculturaldifferencesbetweentheJewswhosurvivedtheHolocaustandimmigratedtoPalestineandtheJewsoftheYishuv.DinaPoratandYehudaBauer focusmoreontheeffortsthatweremadebythePalestinianJewsonbehalfoftheEuropeans. ButevenDinaPorat,whoseworkisthemostbalancedandsubtleofthethree,betraystheseamsthatshowedthroughtherescueefforts.Althoughshechroniclesat lengththevariouseffortstosaveEuropeanJews,whichincludedpoliticalnegotiationswithAlliesandNeutralcountries,ransomplans,andplansfordirectmilitary intervention,shealsoadmitsthat

Thetotalamountspentforrescue(fromtheYishuv)in1943wasabout320,000pounds(theequivalentofabout$8.6millionin1989).TheJewishNationalFundspentmorethan threetimesasmuchthatyearforreforestationandlandpurchase,asdidtheJewishAgencyforitsownrangeofactivitiesinPalestine.TheMRFspent500,000poundsfordefense purposesandforthesupportofsoldiers'families.(87)

BauerclearlywouldliketopresenttheJewsoftheYishuvasunequivocallyinfavorofrescue.HeisdisdainfulofSegev'sbook,referringtoitas"averycleverly written'liberal'historicalrevisionistthesis"(Bauer82,fn.60).HearguesthatJewsbegantoactassoonastheywereawareoftheHolocaust,andthattheactivists wereindeedheroes:"Yetheroestheyallare.TheirattemptstosaveJewsinvolvedtremendousselfsacrifice,courageanddevotion"(Bauer259).Fortheirefforts theyweregreetedwithmisunderstandingandingratitude,theresult,Bauer

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states,offrustrationattheinevitablefailureoftheirattempts."ThewrathandfrustrationoftheJewishpeoplefinallyturnedagainstitself.EversincetheHolocaust,an increasingnumberofbooksandarticleshaveaccusedtheJewishwartimeleadershipoffailingtorescue,ofnegotiatingwiththeenemy,ofpanderingtohostile 'Allies'"(Bauer258). However,inspiteofhisintentions,Bauer'sbookalsorevealsmomentsofambivalenceaswellaspowerlessnessonthepartofJewsintheYishuv.Heclaims,for instance,that"ItisfairlyclearnowthatBenGurionreceiveddetailedinformationthemomentitbecameavailable.Heappearstohavegraspedfullytheimplicationsof theNazimurderplansand,contrarytoestablishedviews,hebecameextremelyactiveinpromotingapproachestotheAlliestopersuadethemtointerveneinfavorof EuropeanJews"(Bauer82).Yetafewpageslater,BenGurionsoundsmorelikeapragmaticpoliticianthananidealistichero:"ItseemsfairlyclearthatSchwartz,Ben Gurion,Shertok,andevenMayersent[ransommoneytotheAllies]notbecausetheybelievedthatsucharescuewaspracticalbutbecausetheydidnotwanttobe accusedafterthewarofmissinganopportunitytorescueJews,eveniftheschemewasverydoubtful"(Bauer90).BenGurionhimselfdidnotbelievethatclaiming ignoranceofNazigenocidewasanexcuseforinaction.Heremarked,''NooneneededofficialannouncementstoknowthatHitlerhadintendedtoexterminatethe JewsitwasallinMeinKampf"(Segev79).Yetaswehaveseen,acceptanceofthatknowledgewasslowtospread,andthecapacityoftheYishuvtorespondtoit washamperedbyreluctancetoacceptthetruth,battlesoverwhatshouldbedone,aswellasthecapacitytoexecuteplans. Hereweshallconcentrateonthethreemostdramatic,andmostproblematic,rescueattempts:(a)theearlynegotiationswiththeNazisforthereleaseofJews,called "Haavara,"ortransfer(b)theefforttosendparatroopersfromtheYishuvbehindNazilinesintooccupiedterritory,tohelpwithresistanceeffortsand(c)the infamous"TrucksforBlood"deal,whereinthemidstoftheHolocaust,effortsweremadetotrade10,000trucksforanumberofJews.

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Haavara Asearlyasthe1930s,PalestinianZionistshadnegotiatedwiththeNazisunderwhatwasreferredtoashaavara("transfer"inHebrew).TheHebrewtermwasused intheGermandocumentstorefertothenegotiationsbetweenZionistsandNazistotransferselectedJewstotheJewishhomeland.Segevnotes,"Thehaavara ("transfer")agreementtheHebrewtermwasusedintheNazidocumentsaswellwasbasedonthecomplementaryinterestsoftheGermangovernmentandthe Zionistmovement:theNaziswantedtheJewsoutofGermanytheZionistswantedthemtocometoPalestine.Buttherewasnosuchmutualityofinterestsbetweenthe ZionistsandGermanJewry.MostGermanJewswouldhavepreferredtostayintheircountry"(Segev20).TheagreementwaspossibleonlywhenGermanZionists begantorespondtoHitlerandtheantiSemitismhewhippedup.ButthisearlyrecognitionofantiSemitismwasstillalongwayfromanticipatingthefullhorrorofthe Holocaust. Bauernotes:

GermanZionistssawtheriseofNazismasconsistentwiththeirpessimisticviewofgentilesociety.NobodyforesawtheHolocaustandalthoughtheZionistdreamofemigrating toPalestineremainedtheoreticalbefore1933thenumberofGermanJewswhoemigratedtherewasverysmalltherealizationnowspreadthattherevocationofJewish emancipationinGermanywasfinalandthatJewswouldhavetoemigrate.(Bauer7)

ZionistsinPalestinewereinterestedinencouragingmigrationfromGermanyespeciallyofJewswithsomecapitaltoinvestinthehomeland.Thiswasattractivetothe GermanJewsonlyaftertheybecamewereworriedthattheNazismightconfiscatetheirproperty. Intheearly1930stheBritishalsolookedfavorablyuponincreasingimmigrationtoPalestine,ifitmeantatransferofcapitalaswell,andifjobscouldbefoundforthe immigrants.NonZionistandantiZionistJewsoutsideGermanyalsowantedGermansandGermanJewstoreachsomeagreementsinceanincreaseofantiSemitism theremightprovokeafloodofim

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migrantstotheircountries,andincreaseantiSemitismthere.Meanwhile,ZionistsinPalestinesoughtaslow,orderlyexodusfromGermany,inordertoavoidsocial andeconomicdislocations,andtohelpbuildthehomeland.Bauerobserves,"Theobviousanswerforboth,butespeciallyfortheZionists,wastonegotiatewiththe Nazis.TheNaziswantedtogetridoftheJews,didn'tthey?AndtheZionistswantedtoabsorbthemgraduallyinPalestine,asmoneyedsettlers,notimpoverished refugees....TheresultwasnegotiationsovertheorderlyexitofJewswithcapitalfromGermany"(Bauer8).TheJewishAgencybecameinvolvedintryingto convincetheNazigovernmentto"permittheexportofJewishcapitalinawaythatwouldbeattractivetotheGermans"(Bauer10). Butitwasnotsosimple.JewishagenciesthroughouttheworldbegantorespondinprotesttotheantiSemitismofthenewlyensconcedNazigovernment,andthe weaponofchoicewasthethreatofaworldwideJewishboycottofGermangoods.Theboycottundoubtedlywouldnothavebeeneffective:inspiteofantiSemitic fantasies,Jewssimplydidnothaveenougheconomicpowertomakeadentoninternationalpolitics.9 ButthethreatapparentlyhadsomeimpactontheNazis, preciselybecauseoftheirantiSemiticparanoia:theywereconvincedthataJewishboycottcouldbeorganizedandwouldbeeffective,becausetherewasaJewish conspiracycontrollingworldfinance.Thethreatofaboycottthus,ironically,promptedtheNazistocooperatewiththeZionistnegotiatorsforHaavaraandtouched offabitterdebateamongJewsaboutwhetherZionistsshouldbenegotiatingwithNazisatall,foranything,underanycircumstances.Theboycott,atthisstage,was themoremilitantresponsetogrowingNazipower.TheAmericanJewishCongress,chairedbyRabbiStephenWise,hadcomeoutinfavorofaboycott,although Wisehadbeenreluctant,andmanyofthewealthierJewishmerchantsinAmericahadalsobeenresistant.PopularsentimentintheUnitedStatesandinIsrael supportedtheboycott.HaavarawasobjectedtobyWiseandthe"mainstreamZionists"ofAmerica,ontheonehand,andtherightwingRevisionistZionistsin Palestineontheother.Theadvocatesofboycottarguedthat"Ha'avarahwasanagree

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mentwithenemiesoftheJewishpeople,thateveryeffortshouldbemadetotoppletheNazigovernmentthroughaneconomicboycott,andthatthemassesofthe JewishpeoplewerepreparedtofighttheNaziseveniftheofficialleadershipoftheZionistmovementwasnot"(Bauer11). ThedebateoverHaavarareflectedanageolddebateamongJewsabouttacticsforsurvival:compromisemorallybymeetingtheenemyonhisownterms,and enhancechancesforsurvivalorchooseisolation,militantresistancewhenpossible,maintainmoralpurity,butriskslaughteratthehandsoftheinvariablymore powerfulenemy.Thechoice,intermsofJewishhistory,isbetweentheMaccabeesor"JeremiahtheProphet,forexample."10 FindinganycommongroundwiththeGermansbothduringandaftertheHolocaustthus"ledtocollectivesoulsearchingamongtheJewsinPalestineandtoacrisisof identity.Whoarewe,theyaskedhumans,Jews,orZionists?"(Segev28).Someargued"thattherewasnoreasonnottonegotiatewithAdolfHitlertosaveGerman JewsandbringthemtoPalestineafterall,MoseshadhadnoqualmsaboutnegotiatingwithPharaohtotakethechildrenofIsraeloutofEgypt"(Segev29).The negotiationswithNaziGermanyalsoincludedselectingthebest"humanmaterial"fromamongtheJews,tobringtoPalestine."ThelaborZionistswhodominatedthe agencybelievedthatanewsocietyneededtobecreated....Inparcelingouttheimmigrationcertificates,they...gavepreferencetothosewhocouldplayarolein theirprogramforbuildingthecountry.TheypreferredhealthyyoungZionists,ideallywithagriculturaltrainingoratleastawillingnesstoworkontheland"(Segev42). ThiswasthepositionoftheJAE,orlaborZioniststheorthodoxJewsinPalestine,aswellastheRevisionist(conservative)Zionistsregardedanynegotiationswiththe Nazisasanabomination.Inanyevent,thepossibilityofnegotiationscameonlybeforetheexterminationprogramwasputintoeffect,whilefartoomanyGermanJews stillbelieveditwaspossibletoremaininGermany.Atthatstage,manyGermanJewsweresimplynotinterestedinimmigratingtoPalestine,astancethatfedlater IsraelidisdainformanyofthesurvivorswhoreachedtheHolyLandonlywhenitwasnolongeramatterofchoice.This,in

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turn,complicatedrelationsbetweensurvivorsandSabraswithsometimestragicconsequences. Bauer,whohasprofounddisagreementswithSegevonanumberofissues,indirectlyconfirmsSegev'sreading.HeshowsthattheGestapo,andespeciallyEichmann, werehelpfulinarrangingforthe"transfer"ofJewsevenaftertheKristallnacht,"whichwasintendedtopushtheJewsintoahelterskelterflightfromtheReich."That is,BauerconfirmsthatJewswerereluctanttoleaveGermanybeforetheyweresuretheyhadto,ratherthanconstitutingareadyandwillingbodyofpotentialZionists, heldagainsttheirwillinGermanybyNazis.HethusavoidstheissueofJewishNazinegotiationswiththerejoinderthatitcannotproperlybecalled"negotiations."

WecanhardlytalkofNaziJewishnegotiationsinthiscontextthecooperationwasbetweenpersecutor,whoatthatstagewantedtoridhimselfofthevictim,andthe representativesofthegroupsofvictims,whoweretryingtoescapehisclutches....Therewas,ononeside,brutaldirectpressure...and,ontheotherside,thedesperateefforts ofJewishgroupsandtheirleaderstoescapefromatraptheywerecaughtbetweentheNazis,aninhumaneBritishpolicy,neutralindifference,andapowerlessJewishZionist leadership.(Bauer5354)

WhileBauer'sefforttodemonstratehowtheYishuvwasnotreally"negotiating"withNazisistopresenttheJewishleadershipasinnowaymorallycompromisedby theirchoice,hisinformationdoesconfirmwhatwilllaterbeimportantforSegev'sargument:thatmostoftheGermanJewsdidnotwanttoemigratetoPalestine,were notZionists,andcamelateandunderduress,causingdeeptensionsbetweenEuropeanrefugeesandPalestinianZionists,andaggravatingthesenseofguiltamongthe YishuvthatperhapstheyhadnotdoneeverythingtheymighthavefortheHolocaustvictims. MilitaryIntervention Thereweretwomajorattemptsatmilitaryrescue:oneinvolvedbombingthekillingcenters,theothersendingparatroopersfromtheYishuvtooffermoralsupportand assistancetotheresistorsinHungaryandPoland.Withregardtotheideaofbombing

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Auschwitz,itwasGruenbaum'sturntotaketheinitiative.InlateMayof1944,theJewishAgencyofficesinJerusalemwerecontacted,andMosheShertokwasasked toapproachtheAlliedgovernmentswiththerequesttobombrailwaystationsleadingfromHungarytoPoland,inorderstopthetransportoftheJewstothekilling centers.GruenbaumtookituponhimselftoapproachtheAmericanconsulgeneralinJerusalem,LowellC.Pinkerton,onhisowninitiative,beforemeetingwiththe JAEaweekorsolater.Tohissurprise,boththeJAEandDavidBenGurionobjectedtobombinganyplaceswheretheremightbeJews.Itwasapparentthatneither BenGurionnortheJAEwereawareofthefacttheAuschwitzandBirkenauwerenotlaborcamps,butexterminationinstallations.When,amonthorsolater,refugees reachedPalestineandmadeafullreportonAuschwitz,therewasamoreunifiedZionistefforttopersuadetheAlliestobombthekillingcenters. AlthoughthestrategicvaluetotheAlliesmightbeopentodebate,thesymbolicvaluetotheJewswasnot:

Itsmainvaluewouldbeitslongrangeinfluence.ItwoulddemonstratethattheAllieshaddeclareddirectwarontheNaziexterminationitwoulddiscreditGermanpropaganda claimingthattheAllieswereactuallysatisfiedwiththekillingofJewsitwouldremoveonceandforallanydoubtsstilllingeringinAlliedcirclesabouttheauthenticityofthe informationaboutthemassmurderitwouldgiveweighttothethreatsofretaliationagainstthemurderersandthusserveasadeterrentand,finally,itmightcreatedomestic pressureinGermanyagainstthecontinuedextermination.(Porat217)

Thebombingnevertookplace,andPoratnoteswithdisgust,"AlthoughChurchillandEdenagreedtothebombinganditwasoneofthefewplans,ifnottheonly one,thatEdenapparentlyagreedtotheydidnotexertanyrealpressureontheirsubordinatestocarryitout.ThereisnowaytoavoidtheconclusionthattheAllies didnotbombAuschwitzbecausetheyweresimplyindifferenttothefateoftheJews"(Porat219). TheefforttodropresistancefightersbehindNazilinesbyparachutewouldundoubtedlyhaveservedanevenmoredubiousstrategicpurpose,andthereisdivided opinionaboutitssymbolicvalue.Reportsofhorrorsintheghettoeswere

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reachingtheYishuv,andinlate1942,MosheShertokapproachedBritishintelligenceinCairowiththerequestforassistanceintrainingonethousandZionist commandosandsponsoringaparachutedropintoPoland.ThecommandoswouldcrossintoHungarytohelpwiththeresistancemovementthere.TheBritish,who didnotwantalargegroupofparatroopersintheYishuvtrainedbythemselves,withthepotentialtoactagainstthemafterthewar,agreedtoamuchmoremodest plan.Itresultedinthirtytwoparatroopersmakingthemissioninmid1944.Ofthethirtytwo,twelvewerecaptured,sevenwereexecuted,andtherestreturnedtotell thetale. ThetrainingprogramwasastrainonallconcernedbecausetheIsraelicommandoshad"informalattitudes"comparedtothedemandsoftheBritisharmyofficerswho weretrainingthem.TheBritishbelievedtheZionistswereexploitingtheprogramfortheirownpoliticalpurposes(whichmaynothavebeensofarfromthetruth, althoughtherelevanceofthatobservationisquestionable)andthevolunteersmadeitclearthattheyregardedtheirdutytotheJewishpeopleasmoreimportantthan theirmilitaryobligationstotheAllies."MostofthemhadrefusedtopledgeallegiancetotheBritisharmyorwearitsuniformeventhoughtheirchancesofsurvivalwere clearlymuchbetteriftheywerecapturedwearingBritishuniforms"(Porat223). TheparachutistsdidnotreceivespecificoperationalguidelinesfromeithertheBritishortheZionistleaders,partlybecausethesituationinEuropewassovolatilethatit wasimpossibletogivespecificinstructions,andpartlybecausethegoalsofthemissionwereobviouslysymbolic.Dobkintoldtwoofthevolunteers,"Ifyoudeliver greetingsfromPalestinetotheDiaspora,youwillhavefulfilledyourmission"(Porat226).Segevreportsthatwhen,beforethemission,thevolunteersaskedfor operationalinstructionsfromtheYishuvleaders,"BenGuriontoldthemtomakesure'thattheJewishpeoplerecognizetheLandofIsraelastheirlandandfortress'so thatafterthewartheywouldcomebythethousands.EliahuGolomb,aleaderoftheHaganah,Mapai,andHistradrut,and"unofficialdefenseministerintheprestate decades"(Porat310),toldthemthatthegoalwas"toshowtheJewishpeoplehowto'stand

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proud.'OneJewishAgencyofficialtoldthemtobringthe'Messiah'totheJewsoftheExileGoldaMeirjustwept"(Segev87). SegevalsoclaimsthatwhiletheymayhavebeensentoffonagloriousmissionasasymbolofZionistspirit,theywerereceivedwithincredulitybytheEastern Europeans.Itlookedalittletoomuchlikeapoliticalgambit,apublicrelationsployonthepartoftheZionists,whichmayhaveactuallyjeopardizedtheworkofthe resistancemovementinEasternEurope.EgonRott,aJewishrebelleaderinSlovokia,beratedthem:"'Really,whydidyoucome?Didyouthinkthiswasachild's gamehere?Youwantedtobeheroes?...Youcameheretoplaysoldiers....Didn'tyouthinkoftheresponsibilityyouweregivingus?Untilnowwewere responsibleonlyforourownlives,butnowyouareweighingonourconsciences.'HetoldthemtogetonthefirstflightoutandreturntotheHolyLand"(Segev88). ButDinaPoratoffersadifferentperspective.Shebelievesthattheparatrooperscouldhaveservedamuchmoreimportantpurposeiftheyhadnotwaitedfortraining andauthorizationfromtheBritish,buthadjustgone,thewayresistancefightersalwaysgo:"WhydidtheYishuvsendnoemissariesinthewaythemovementsof Europesenttheirownemissariesfromoneghettotothenext,independently,withoutthesupportofoutsidebodies,JewishornonJewish?"(Porat228).Thissurely wouldhavebeenlessdramaticthandroppingfromtheskiesintoEurope,andlendssomecredencetothosewhobelievethattheZionistswereexploitingadramatic gesture,ratherthaneffectivelygettinginvolvedintheEuropeanresistance.Buttheyoungvolunteersthemselvesweresurelyidealists,eveniftheirleadersweremore jaded."Theparachutistswerefromthesamemoldastheyouthwhofoughtintheghettos,whocrossedborders,whotookcareoforphansandforgeddocuments. TheyhappenedtohaveimmigratedtoPalestineearlierthantheirEuropeancounterparts,buttheycamefromthesamebackground...tomanyJewsinEuropethey representedthespiritoftheYishuv,andassuchtheyhelpedrenewfaithinPalestineandZionismduringtheHolocaust"(Porat228). HannahSenesh,oneoftheparachutistswhowascapturedwhenshecrossedtheborderintoHungary,tortured

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forfivemonthsandfinallykilled,becameaheroineforJewsintheDiasporaandinIsrael,andlentsomecredibilitytotheargumentthataconcernforZionismin PalestinewascompatiblewithconcernforJewsoftheDiaspora.SheurgedhercomradeswhowerereluctanttocrossintoHungary,"Wedidnotcomehere'on condition,'thatwewouldcrosstheborderonlyifeverythingwasassuredbeforehand...wehavetoactwithoutcalculationsorunnecessarydeliberations.Wemust notbelate.IfHitlersucceedsinannihilatingalltheJewsofEurope,thereisnofutureforusinPalestine,either"(Porat227).Still,Poratwonders,"Whydidnoone leaveGeneva,Istanbul,orSwedenonfoottoserveas'agesture,asign,ahandextendedasatokenofsharingourfate'?"(228). FromSegevandPoratwederivedramaticallydifferentinterpretationsoftherescueeffort.Wasitacynicalpoliticalgesture,oragesturethatwassymbolically important,evenifinadequatelyorhalfheartedlyexecuted?Eitherway,theconclusionwasthesame:theeffortsoftheZionistswereperceived,bythemselvesaswell asothers,asinadequate. TrucksforBlood Perhapsthemostinfamousrescueeffortofallwastheillfated"TrucksforBlood"venture,whichsealedthefateofRudolfKastnerinIsrael,andbyextension determinedthepoliticalsignificanceoftheEichmanntrialforBenGurionandtheMapai.IfKastnerhadnotbeeninvolvedinnegotiatingwithNazisoverthisdeal,the Eichmanntrialmostcertainlywouldhavebeenconducteddifferently,HannahArendtwouldprobablyhavewrittenadifferentreportofthetrial,whichwould,perhaps, havebeenreceiveddifferently.TheIsraelipoliticalcontextforthetrialofAdolfEichmanninJerusalemwas,fromacertainperspective,adramaticsequeltoatrial involvingRudolfKastnerin1954. RudolfKastnerwasaHungarianJew,alawyerandajournalist,whohadbeenaZionistfunctionaryinBudapestassociatedwithMapai(BenGurion'sparty).Afterthe warheemigratedtoIsrael,workedintheMinistryofCommerceandIndustry,andheldambitionsforaseatintheKnesset.WhileinHungaryduringthewar,hehad headedtheHungarian

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RescueCommittee,whichhadinvolvednegotiatingwithEichmann. The"TrucksforBlood"dealwasapparentlyEichmann'sbrainchild,anditinvolvedfromtheJewishside,HungariansRudolfKastnerandJoelBrand,andinPalestine, GruenbaumandtheJAE.JoelBrand,bornin1906inHungary,waseducatedinGermany,wherehisfamilyhadmoved.HelaterbecameaCommunistagent,working fortheCominternasasailor,andamiddlerankCommunistfunctionaryuntilhewasarrestedwhentheNaziscametopower.Hewasreleasedin1934,returnedto Hungary,andbecameaZionist,joiningthelaborZioniststhere,whichwasalsothepartyKastnerhadjoined.Bauertellsus"Hetriedtotrainforemigrationto Palestine,buthewasnotofthestuffthatpioneersaremade:hehadarestlessnature,lovedthecity,withitscafesandbars,andwasknowntodrink."WhenKastner cametoBudapesthemetBrand,andapparentlyfoundinhimakindredspirit.AlthoughBrandwasanadventurer,andKastneramuchmorerespectablepolitical functionary,thetwobecamefriends.Bauernotes,"FromaHungarianJewishpointofview,peoplelikeKastnerandBrandweremarginaltheyweretotallyunknown inthecommunity,andtheywereforeigners....Inaddition,theywereZionists"(Bauer152). InmidAprilof1944,notlongaftertheNazishadoccupiedHungary,EichmannapproachedBrandwithanoffertoreleaseonemillionJewsfor10,000trucks,and otheritems:eightytonsofcoffee,twentytonsoftea,twentytonsofcocoa,andtwomillionbarsofsoap.Eichmannwouldrelease100Jewsforeachtruckdelivered. TheproposalwasdeliveredtoBrand,whogaveittoVeniaPomerantzinIstanbul,whopresentedit,concealedinatubeofshavingcream,totheJAEinJerusalem. HedidnottelltheJerusalemgroupthattheresponsetotheproposalinIstanbulhadbeen"adesiretogetupandcry'Alllies!'Adeceptive,villainousproposal"(Porat 189).TheJAE'sresponsewasnotsodifferent:theyhadspentyearstryingtonegotiatewithEichmanntoransomJews.Intheirexperience,theusualoutcomewasthat Eichmann'ssubordinatestooktheirmoney,andsentthevictimstotheirdeaths.ButKastner'sresponsewas"Wasthere

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anythingelseleftforustodo?Didanyonesuggestother,betterrescuepossibilities?''(Porat190). Buttheresimplywerenotthe10,000trucks,aswellastheothergoods,inIsrael.SegevcitesBenGurion'ssuccinctexplanationforthefailureofthePlan:"Where werewegoingtogettenthousandtrucks?"TheAllieshadtobeapproachedtohelpcomeupwiththegoods.BenGurionwasconvincedthatnothingwouldhappen withoutAlliedassistance.Predicably,GruenbaumandBenGuriondiffered:GruenbaumbelievedthattheAllieswouldnotgoalongwithit,sinceitinvolvedtransferring goodstotheGermansthatwouldstrengthentheirwareffort."Gruenbaum...wascertainthattheBritishwouldsimplyobstructthewholematterastheyhadother plans.BenGurionandKaplan,however,wereconvincedthat,withouttheAllies'cooperation,asBenGurionsaid,'wewillnotbeabletomove'"(Porat191).Most oftheothersagreedwithBenGurion,andtheAllieswereapproached.Poratbelievesthat"actingalone,BritainwouldhaverejectedtheGermanproposaloutrighton itsownmerits.ButbecauseitsoverallpolicyrequiredcooperationwiththeUnitedStatestocheckSovietexpansioninEasternEurope,ithadtoshowwillingnessto accommodateanyAmericaninterestinsavingJews,especiallyontheeveofpresidentialelectionsintheUnitedStates"(Porat196). Thenegotiationsboggeddownininternationalintrigueandbureaucraticredtape.Gruenbaumsuggestedthatnegotiationscontinueonlyontheconditionthatthe deportationstothedeathcampsbestopped,andobservedthathehadbeenrightinobjectingtodisclosingthedetailstotheBritishbythetimetheAllied governmentswerereadytonegotiate,therewouldbenoJewsleftinHungarytonegotiateabout.ButitwasalsotruethatEichmannmadeitclearthattheGermans werenotpreparedtoallowtherescuedJewstoemigratetoPalestine.HedidnotwanttoangertheArabsbycontributingtoastrongJewishPalestine,andhetold BrandandKastnerthat"becauseNazisbelievedJudaismtobeamalignantdisease,theywantedtheJewsspreadthroughtheAlliedterritoriesincludingSpain, NorthAfrica,andNorthAmericainordertocontaminatetheenemy"(Porat197).

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Duringthecourseofthenegotiations,whenherealizedthatneithertheJewsnortheAlliestrustedhisproposal,Eichmannofferedasa"goodfaith"gesturetoreleasea numberofJews,tobepickedbyKastner(BrandwasbeingdetainedinIstanbulbytheNazisatthetime),placedonatrain,andguaranteedsafepassageto Switzerland.KastneragreedwhichiswhatultimatelybroughthisdownfallinIsraeland1,684personswereputonatrainthatbecameknownasNoah'sArk.It waslaterreferredtoinIsraelas"TheVIPtrain."Kastnerputhisownfamilyonthetrain,aswellasmanypeoplefromhisnativevillageinHungary.Hewaslater accusedinIsraelofsavinghisownfamilyattheexpenseofotherinnocentvictims.Bauerarguesthatthisisanunjustaccusation.Kastnerputhisfamilyonthetrainat greatrisk,sincenobodytrustedthattheNaziswouldnotsimplysendthetrainloadtoAuschwitz,afterholdingithostagetothenegotiations.

Thegamblewasatremendousone,andtoconvinceothersthatitwasworththetry,Kastnerputhisownfamilyinthetrain.AsHansiBrand[Joel'swife]saidinhertestimonyat theEichmanntrialinJerusalem:"Ifhe[Kastner]puthisownchildren[onthetrain],perhapsthesepeoplereallywillbebroughttoaneutralcountry.Thatmademecalm,becauseI hopedthatthesepeople,whomwepersuadedwithsuchdifficultytogetonthetrain,wouldbebroughttofreedomdespiteeverything."(Bauer198)

ThatKastnerhadtroubleconvincingpeopletogetonthetrainsuggeststhatpeopleinHungarystilldidnotbelieveintheimmanenceofdeportationtothekilling centers.Kastnerwasaccused,athistrialinIsrael,ofdeceivingthepeoplebynotinformingthemoftheirimpendingdoomatNazihands.Bauerinsiststhateverybody inHungaryalreadyknew:afterallthiswas1944."Tothequestionthatwasaskedin1954ofKastnerWhydidyounotwarntheJews?Thefirstanswerwasthat mostofthemalreadyhadtheinformation,andthesecondanswershouldhavebeen,Yes,aseriousattemptwasmade,anditfailed.Peopledidnotwanttolisten.But Kastner,unaccountably,didnotsaythisin1954"(Bauer159).1954

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referstothedatewhenKastnerwasfirstaccusedofbeingaNazicollaboratorbyMalchielGruenwald,themanhewouldsueunsuccessfullyforlibel. TherewereseveralmomentswhenKastnerdidnotchoosetoattempttojustifyhisactionsforthebenefitofhisaccusers,withgraveconsequencesforhimself.None ofthesourcesIhaveconsultedonthismatterbelievethatKastnerwasguiltyofanythingexceptdoinghisbesttosavewheteverJewshecould,andfailing,andthen failingto"explain"hisfailure.ItseemsunderstandablethathewouldhavefeltwearyandpessimisticabouthischancesofbeingunderstoodinIsraelin1960.Histrials wereyetanothertragedyoftheHolocaust.WeshallreturnshortlytoafullerconsiderationofthetrialofRudolfKastnerasapoliticalpreludetotheEichmanntrial, afterpausingtooutlinethepoliticalclimatesurroundingit. IsraeliAttitudesTowardtheHolocaustVictims PoliticaldebatesinIsraeloverresponsetotheHolocaustcontinuedthroughthepostwarperiod,andcentereduponthesametwodimensionsthatweretroublesome duringthewar:(a)whatcontact,ifany,IsraelshouldhavewithGermany,and(b)whattheattitudeofZionistJewsshouldbetowardthevictims/survivorsofthe Holocaust,manyofwhomturneduponIsrael'scollectivedoorstep.ThepoliticsofpostwarnegotiationswithGermanyechopreciselythepoliticallinesthathadearlier beendrawninnegotiationswiththeNazisoverHaavara.TheMapaiandBenGurion,thedominantlaborZionistpartyanditspragmaticpoliticalleader,believedthat Israelcouldnotaffordanisolationiststance,andmustjointheinternationalcommunityofnations.TheMapaibegannegotiationswiththeGermangovernmentover neededgoodssomeofthemmilitaryandoverreparationsandrestitutionforthevictimsoftheHolocaustlivinginIsrael.PoliticalconservativesandorthodoxJews inIsraelopposedanycontactwithGermany,andsoughttoavoidanymoralcompromisethatwouldderivefromcontactwiththenationthat

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hadallowedtheslaughterofsixmillionJewstoproceed.Theirsenseofoutragewasappropriate,butnotpracticalforthesurvivalofIsraelasastate. TheattitudetowardthevictimsandsurvivorsoftheHolocaustwasenormouslycomplicated.ThecomplexityisapparentinPorat'sdiscussionoftheIsraeliresponseto theEuropeanresistanceleaders'choicetodiewiththeircommunitiesatthehandsoftheNazis,ratherthanallowthemselvestoberescuedbytheIsraelisforthesake ofZionism.PoratsuggeststhatIsraeliZionistsmistookthisstanceforweaknessorcowardice,forpreferring"thelifeofabeatendogtodeathwithhonor,"asYitzhak Gruenbaumremarkedin1942.11SegevarguesthatthiswastheoperativestanceinIsraeltowardtheHolocaust.Poratbelievestherewasrecognitionandlater remorseforitsharshness.Forexample,in1944aconversationtookplaceinPalestinebetweenDavidRemezandChaikaKlinger,oftheHungarianunderground.She wasexplainingtheimportanceoftheresistanceleaders'refusingIsraelirescue,whichhadbeenconstruedbytheIsraelisaspassivityanddisloyaltytoZionism.She toldRemez,

"Thepioneeringvanguardofapeoplewithoutthepeopleisofnovalue.Ifrescueistheorderoftheday,thentheentirepeoplehastoberescued.Ifdestructionisthenthe pioneerswillbedestroyed,too."TurningtoDavidRemez,whoapparentlywasintears,shesaid,"Nowisnotthetimeorplacetolamentthefateofthemovement.Ourpeoplein themovementwenttherightwaytheonlywaytheycouldhavegonethoughtragicandterrible."Remezreplied,"Iamweepingbecauseweweretoolate,reallylate.''(Porat 242)

TheEuropeanyouthmovementmembersbelievedthattheyhadbeenprofoundlymisunderstoodbytheYishuv,andEliyahuDobkinconceded,"Iamnotsurethatwe canreallyunderstandthedepthoftheirtragedy"(Porat242).Poratremarksthatastimepassed,andmoreinformationarrivedonconditionsinEurope,Palestinian respectfortheEuropeanJewsgrew.Shegoessofarastoreferto"theYishuv'snewfoundrespectforEuropeanJewry,"althoughsheadmitsthatithadlittleimpacton immigrationpolicy,whichcontinuedtouse"thepoliticalkey"

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ofgivingpreferencetoveteranZionistsandtheirfamiliesforimmigrationpermits(Porat245). SegevbelievesthattheZionistattitudetowardtheHolocaustJewswasmoreunequivocallydisdainful.HolocaustvictimsrepresentedathreattotheZionistselfimage ofstrengthandmilitancy.Thethreatcutclosetothebone,asmanyoftheZionistshadthemselvesemigratedtoPalestinefromEasternEurope,orwerethechildrenof EasternEuropeanimmigrants.ReasonsforthedecisiontoleaveEuropeforIsraelwerenotnecessarilythevisionaryidealismZionistswouldhavepreferredasa characteristicofalltheJewishpioneers:oftenthe"voluntary"arrivalsinPalestinewerefleeingantiSemiticregimesbeforeHitlercametopower.Thedistinction betweentheDiasporaJewsnowbeingslaughtered,andthosewhohadescaped,wastoosubtletobepsychologicallysatisfying. CreditingoneselfforhavinghadtheforesighttofleebeforetheNazisarrivedatone'sdoorstepdoesn'tamounttomuchofabufferfromthediscomfortofseeing yourselfintheHolocaustvictims.OnegetsthefeelingthattheZionistsinIsraelneededtofindahandlefordistinguishingthemselvesfromthevictimstheyhadalmost become.SegevsuggeststhatthepublicattitudeoftheZionistsduringthelatteryearsofthewarvascilatedbetweenmourningforthevictimsbeforetheyweredead, andbeingdisdainfuloftheweaknessofEuropeanJewry."Therewasnoclearer,moregrotesque,evenmacabreexpressionofthetendencytothinkoftheHolocaust inthepasttense:whiletheYishuvdiscussedthemostappropriatewaytomemorializethem,mostofthevictimswerestillalive"(104).Andalternatively:"Negationof theExiletooktheformofadeepcontempt,andevendisgust,forJewishlifeintheDiaspora,particularlyinEasternEurope,whichwascharacterizedasdegenerate, degraded,humiliating,andmorallycorrupt.Intheirtragedy,DiasporaJewsseemedevenmorerepellent"(109).WeshallconsiderthefullimplicationsofSegev's interpretationinchapter5,onGenderandJudaism,whereweconsiderthepossibilitythatZionistsregardedthemselvesasmasculine(onaEuropeanChristianmodel) andhence"superior''tothe"feminine"JewsoftheDiaspora.

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WhentheEuropeansurvivorsbeganarrivingintheYishuvtheywerecomparedtoIsraeliyouth,who,havingundergonenocomparabletrauma,seemed(andwere) strongandhealthybycontrast.Oneteacherrationalizedtheessaysofhisstudents,whichlackedcompassionforIsraeliHolocaustsurvivorswiththeobservation,"Our youthareproudanduprightinstanceandspirit.Theybelieveintheirstrengthandknowitsvalue.Theylovefreedom,desirespaceandliberty,andwillnottolerate humiliationorrepression."Segevwrylyadds,"Thiswasthe'newman'thatsocialistZionismhadprophesied"(109).ThetragedyoftheIsraelisduringtheHolocaustis thatinspiteoftheirvirilestance,theirunwillingnesstoidentifywithEuropeanJewsassuredthemoftheveryineffectivenesstheysoughttoavoid."TheNewJews standingtallinPalestine,didjustwhatthepersecutedJewsoftheExilehadalwaysdone,andwereaspowerlessastheyhadbeen...theZionistJewishcommunityin PalestinecomesoutlookingjustlikeanyotherJewishcommunityintheworld.Onlytheirbetterfortuneandtheirhubrisdistinguishedthemfromtheirbrothers"(Segev 110). Israelisperhapsunderstandablyfoundthesurvivors'storiesdebilitating,depressing,andoftensimplyunbelievable.Survivors,equallyunderstandably,neededto talk,butsoongaveup.Holocaustsurvivors,especiallythechildren,wereoftensodamagedbytheexperiencethatemotionaladjustmenttoeverydaylifewasan unrealisticgoal.SegevtellsofagirlwhosurvivedBergenBelsenandwassenttoSwedentoconvalesce."Thereshesawlifeproceeding,asifnothinghadhappened: boysandgirlsherage,healthyandproperlydressed,wenttoschool.Thisthrewherintoshockagain."SherecuperatedsomewhatandwassenttoIsrael.Her "integration"intoaseriesofKibbutzimwasunsuccessful,andultimatelyshemarriedanothersurvivorandmovetoanapartmentinasmalltown.Shebecameawell knownauthorofchildren'sliteratureandhadtwodaughters."ShewritesinHebrewbuthasneverlostherPolishaccent:alwayssomethingofanoutsider,alwaysa Holocaustsurvivor"(Segev157).This,obviously,wasoneofthe"success"stories.

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Theproblemwasatleastasmuchsymbolicasitwasmaterial."TheSabrarepresentedanationalideal,andtheHolocaustsurvivoritsreverse,"Segevwrites."Each newarrivalwasareminderthattheZionistmovementhadbeendefeatedintheHolocaust....TheZionistmovementhadbeenhelpless.NotonlydidtheYishuvnot cometotherescue,butitnowfounditselfinapositionwhereitsexistenceandfuturedependedonthewillingnessoftheHolocaustsurvivorstosettleinthecountry andfortifyitsarmyagainsttheArabthreat"(181).JoelPalgi,oneoftheparatrooperswhohadbeenontheHolocaustrescuemissionwithHannahSenesh,hadtried, uponhisreturntoPalestine,toreportwhathehadseeninEurope.Hewrote,"NoonewasinterestedinaccountsofJewishsuffering.Theywantedadifferentstory, aboutthefewwhohadfoughtlikelions....Irealizedthatwewereashamedofthosewhoweretortured,shot,burned.Thereisakindofgeneralagreementthatthe Holocaustdeadwereworthlesspeople.Unconsciously,wehaveacceptedtheNaziviewthattheJewsweresubhuman"(Segev183).Thisobservationisconfirmed byacruelbutwidespreadIsraelislangusage:thewordsabon,orsoap,cametobeusedtorefertoHolocaustsurvivorsinIsrael. PostwarNegotiationswithGermany ZionistambivalencetowardtheHolocaustvictimsmanifesteditselfintheformofpostwarIsraelipartypolitics.Inthe1950sBenGurionwasPrimeMinisterandthe issuewasnegotiationwiththe(West)GermangovernmenttoacceptrestitutionandcompensationforpropertylosttoHolocaustsurvivorslivinginIsrael.Therewas alsotheissueoftradearrangementswithGermanyofeconomicbenefittoIsrael.AboycottofGermanywasregardedbysomeasthehighmoralground.Butthe survivalofIsraelasastate,anditsaspirationsforrecognitionaspartoftheinternationalcommunity,wouldbehurtbyshunningallcommunicationwithGermany.The UnitedStatesandothercountrieswereendeavoringtobringGermanybackintothefamilyofnationsandIsraelwastryingtoestablishan

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internationalpositionagainsttheeffortsofArabcountriestoisolatetheJewishstate. SomeofthesurvivorslivinginIsraelsoughttoreestablishtieswiththeoldcountry."TwelveyearsofNazirulehadnotexpungedthememoriesofchildhoodand youth"(Segev197).AnenragedisolationthatpreventedIsraelfromachievingpoliticalstability,andsurvivorsfromfacingtheirpast,mightnotbethemostadvisable pathpolitically,economically,oremotionally.Besides,itinvolvedtheimplicitindictmentofallGermans,whichconstitutedaformofracism,inspiteoftherealityof GermanresponsibilityforJewishgenocide.SomeGermansnotablyWestGermanChancellorKonradAdenauerexpressedresponsibility,remorseanda willingnesstonegotiaterestitutionforthemillionsofdollarsworthofJewishpropertyillegallyseizedbytheNazis.On27September1951,Adenauermadeanhistoric declarationintheBundestaginBonn,whichincludedthestatement:"UnspeakablecrimeshavebeencommittedinthenameoftheGermanpeople,callingformoral andmaterialindemnity,bothwithregardtotheindividualharmdonetotheJewsandwithregardtotheJewishpropertyforwhichnolegitimateclaimantsstill exist"(Segev202). TheagreementunderconsiderationbetweenIsraelandGermanywasforreparations,andconcernedonlythepropertyofGermanJewsseizedbyGermans.Butit waseasilymisconstruedtomeanthattheGermanswerewillingtopaymoneyforthebloodoftheJewstheyhadmurdered,inthebeliefthattheycould"makethings right."CentristandrightwingpoliticalleadersinIsraelemphasizedthatinterpretation.InthedebatethatensuedintheKnesset,ElimelechRimaltofthecentristGeneral ZionistpartytoldthemembersofthequestionputtohimbyhisyoungsonovertheGermanreparations:"Mylittlesoncametomeandasked,'Howmuchwillweget forGrandmaandGrandpa?'"(Segev215).BothhisparentshadbeenmurderedintheHolocaust,Rimaltadded,ashepressedforrefusaloftheGermanoffer. ThepartylinesdrawnoverreparationsreflectedthesamedivisionsinIsraelipoliticsthathadsurfacedinthedebatesover

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howtorespondtotheNazis.LaborZionistsintheMapaiwereopposedbytheOrthodoxRight,andbythecentristrevisionistZionists,whohadbynowformedtheir ownparty,Herut,undertheleadershipofMenachimBegin.BeginledthemostvociferousoppositiontoBenGurionandthe"MapaiNaziBloodMarket."WhenBen GuriondeliveredaspeechinsupportoftheagreementwithGermany,inwhichthePrimeMinisterargued,"Letnotthemurderersofournationalsobeitsheirs,"Begin stormedoutandledaprotestdemonstrationbacktotheKnesset.Thedemonstrationturnedviolent,andtheKnessetwasforcedtoadjourn,itsmembersescapingthe buildingunderpoliceprotection.Demonstratorsstruggledwiththepoliceandmanyarrestsweremade,whichgaveriseamongtheprotestorstoaccusationsthatBen GurionandhispartywerenobetterthanNaziStormtroopers. Severaldayslater,BeginaddressedtheKnessetandmadeitclearthathewouldgotoextrememeasurestopreventnegotiationswithGermany:

Nationsworthyofthenamehavegonetothebarricadesforlessermatters...we,whosawourfathersdraggedtothegaschamberswewhoheardtheclatterofthedeathtrains. ..webeforewhoseeyestheelderlymotherwasmurderedinthehospital...shallwefearriskingourlivestopreventnegotiationswithourparents'murderers?...Weare preparedtodoanything,anythingtopreventthisdisgracetoIsrael.(Segev21920)

Beginwassuspendedforthreemonthsforthreateningviolence.TheKnessetvotedinfavorofacceptingGermanrestitutionfortheillegallyseizedpropertyof Holocaustsurvivors.Thevotewassixtyonetofifty,withfiveabstentions,andfourabsentees. TherewereprofounddifferencesbetweentheexperienceoftheHolocaustsurvivors,andtheneedsoftheIsraelipoliticianswhonowcompetedforcontroloverthe institutionalizationofthememoryoftheHolocaust.AlthoughthereweremanysurvivorsintheHerutparty,Beginwasdistortingthetruthwhenhepresentedhimselfas oneofthem.WhilehehadbeenborninPoland,andwhilehisparentshadbeenkilledbytheNazis,hehademigratedtoPalestineasayouth,beforehewas endangered.Hedidnot,asheoftenimpliedinhis

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speeches,witnesshisparents'deaths.Whilehishistrionicsmaynothavebeenanexaggerationofthesufferingsofmany,theydidnotdescribehisownexperiences, andfailedtoexpressthesubjectivityofmanyofthevictims,whowereindifferenttoBegin'sefforts.Intheearly1950sthesurvivorsexperiencedtheHolocaustas
firstandforemostapartoftheindividualbiographiesofitssurvivorsitwastheirpersonalcatastrophe.Begindidnotunderstandthis.Hemayhavebeenaheadofhistimeyears latertheHolocaustdidindeeddevelopintoasortofcivicnationalreligion.Butintheearly1950'sthememoryoftheHolocaustwassharpandfresh,andbegin'soperaticanti Germanrhetoricneversucceededinexpressingtheforceofpersonalsufferingortouchingthedepthsofindividualtragedy.Forthisreasonthesurvivorshadlittledifficulty ignoringwhathedemandedofthemandacceptingtheirshareofthecompensationmoney.Themoneychangednothingwithinthem,norwasitparticularlyrelevanttotheir identityassurvivorsatmostitallowedthemtobuylargerapartments(Segev226).

TheHolocaust,atthisstageinIsrael'shistory,wasapoliticalfootball,withthevariouspoliticalpartiesvyingforaccesstothecreationofa"civicnationalreligion."The dangerinthisisthattheHolocaustwasappropriatedandexploitedforpoliticalpurposes,whiletherealityofthesurvivorswasoftenoverlooked. Notsurprisingly,theGermanadministrativeapparatussetupforrestitutionprovednearlyasinhumanasthekillingapparatushad,asHolocaustsurvivorsattemptedto establish,inGerman,theexactextentoftheirdamages.Thisrequiredfindingwitnesseswhohadalsosurvived,totestifytotheveracityofclaimsaboutone'sresidence beforeonewasdraggedfromit,thecontentsofone'shomebeforeitwasseized,theexpensesincurredintheflightfromGermany,ifflighthadbeenpossible,or witnessestoone'sspecifictreatmentbyNazisinthedeathcamps,ifflighthadbeenimpossible.Thegreateravictim'spersonallosses,intermsoffamilymembers, friends,andneighbors,themoredifficultitbecametoestablishthevalidityofone'sclaimtolostproperty.ConsiderthefollowingtwoGermanresponsestoclaims:

Page79 Wehavetakennoteofyourclaimthat,whenyouarrivedatthecamp,yousaidthatyouwereolder,inordertosaveyourselffromtheexterminationofthechildren,butyourvita indicatesthatyouwereinfact18monthsolderandasaresultitisnotcleartouswhyyouhadtogiveafalsedatewhenyouregisteredatthecamp.(Segev246).

or,
WehavetakennoteofyourclaimthattheinjurytoyourspinalcordwascausedinBuchenwaldcamp,whenanSSofficerwhosenameyoudidnotmention,becauseyouallegedly donotrecallit,kickedyouwithhisbootandallegedlyalsostompedonyou.Butitappearsfromyourcurriculumvitaethatin1951youenlistedintheIsraelDefenseForces.We thereforerequestthatyouproduceforourexaminationacopyofyourarmymedicalfile,translated...sinceifyouwerefoundfitformilitaryservice,itmaybethatthedamageto yourspinalcordwasnotsevereormayhaveresultedfromyourarmyservice.(Segev247)

Thebureaucraticlanguageandmindsetreflecteddistancefromemotionalrealityandthe"logic"ofthetechnicianinthefaceofthehumansufferingitwascausing.In thisrespect,itwasanaccuratereflectionofthesituationduringtheperiodofNazihegemonyinGermanyasdescribedbyHannahArendt.Survivorswereinterrogated andtheconditionsoftheirsurvivaldoubtedbytheGermanbureaucracy. Butcompoundingthatstance,Israelineighborsoftenregardedthesurvivors'veryexistenceassuspiciousevidencethattheyhadnotresistedtheNazis,andhad survivedattheexpenseoftheirneighbors.HansiBrand,JoelBrand'swidow,whowaslivinginIsrael,wasoftenquestionedbyherneighborsforherhusband'salleged failuretosaveJews,withthecontradictoryimputationsthatheeithercollaboratedwithNazisordidnotsuccessfullycollaboratewiththeNazis.

ThosepeoplewhoknewherstoryalwaysaskedwhysheandherhusbandhadnotdoneanythingagainsttheNazisearlyon.Andtheyalways,alwaysaskedherhowshehad beensaved,untilshebegantofeelthatshehadtoapologizeforliving.ThestoriessheandherhusbandtoldcompetedwiththestoriesoftheWarsawghettouprising,shesaid, andcouldnotwin:theyhadonlyfoughtfortheirlives,nottobeheroes.

Page80 Thecountrywantedheroes.TheBrandscouldonlyofferastoryofsurvival.(Segev271)

AnadditionalironyisthatwhilethepaymentsextractedfromGermanywerebeingtoutedbyBenGurion'spartyasavictory,ademonstrationoftheeffectivenessof theZionistsandtheprotectiveroleplayedbyIsrael,manyoftheclaimsforrestitutiononthepartoftheGermanrefugeeswerebasedupondamagesincurredbecause theyhadbeenforcedtoleaveGermanyforIsrael,whichtheyneverwouldhavedonehaditnotbeenfortheNazis(Segev244). The"KastnerTrial" WenowreturntothefinalchapterofRudolfKastner'sstory,whichsetthepoliticalstageforthetrialofAdolfEichmanninJerusalem.In1950,Israelpasseda"Nazi CollaboratorsLaw,"whichcalledfortheprosecutionofanypersonsuspectedofcollaboratingwiththeNazis.Theatmospherethatgaverisetoitwassuchthat survivorsinIsraelwhobelievedtheyrecognizedfacesofJudenratemembershadtakentoaccusingthemonthespot,publicly,oftenincitingvigilantestyleviolence.In 1946,theIsraelinewspaperHaaretzreportedthatatanintersectioninTelAviv,anagitatedcrowdhadsurroundedayoungman,whileseveralpeoplebeathimon thehead,shouting"Murderer!""Gestapo!""'Themanstoodthere,whitefaced,andthentriedtoescape,'thereporterwrote"(Segev259).Hehadbeenaccusedof beingaJewishpolicemanintheghettoatAuschwitz.The"KastnerTrial''(whichwasreallytheGruenwaldtrial)becameasymbolfortheangeratJewishofficials duringtheHolocaust. In1954RudolfKastnerwaspubliclyaccusedofbeingaNazicollaboratorbyanold,andratheraccentric,HungarianJewishrefugeenamedMalchialGruenwald,who claimedinapamphlethewroteanddistributedtovariouspublicofficials,thatKastnerwasguiltyofviolatingtheNaziCollaboratorsLaw.Infact,sincehehadbeen suchaprominentfigureinnegotiatingwiththeNazisinHungary,Kastnerhadalreadybeeninvestigatedin1950whenthelawfirstpassed.Hewasnotfoundguiltyof anyinfringement.KastnertriedtoignoreGruenwald,

Page81

butitsoonbecameapparentthathispoliticalcareerdependeduponhisresponse.HesuedGruenwaldforlibel.Atthetrial,Gruenwald'sdefenseattorney,ShmuelM. Tamir,managedtoputkastneronthedefensive,turningthetrialintoashowagainstallJewswhohad"collaborated"withtheNazis.Inessence,thiswasatrialofthe Judenrate,bypoliticalopponentsofBenGurionandtheMapai.TheJudenrate'swillingnesstocooperatewithNaziswasimplicitlybeingcomparedtoBenGurion andtheMapai,whohadbeennegotiatingwithGermanssincethewar'send.TheatmospherewasofalmostmoblikehostilityinIsraeltoanyoneassociatedwiththe Judenrate.ThatthepoliticalconsequencesforBenGurionwereenormous,creatinganeedforhimtorecouphislosseswiththeEichmanntrial,isevidencedbythe factthathewasforcedtoresignaftertheKastnertrialalthoughhewasreturnedtopowerbyanarrowmarginintheensuingelection.YehudaBauerbelievesthatthe Kastnertrial"wasthebeginningoftheendforcenterleftgovernanceinIsrael....The1977swinginfavoroftherightistLikudpartywasinsomedegreeduetothe KastnerAffair"(Bauer3). Duringhisopeningtestimony,Kastnerappearedcalmandconfidentofhisowninnocence."Kastnerspokequietly,believably,convincedhehaddoneright.Hecame acrossasaboldmanwhosavedthelivesofhundredsinhiscommunity,perhapsthousands.Heseemedmoreatragicherothanascoundrel.Whenheconcludedhis testimony,JusticeHalevysuggestedtoGruenwaldthatheretracthisaccusations.Gruenwaldrefused,andthecrossexaminationbydefenseattorneyShmuelM.Tamir began"(Segev266).KastnerbecamedefensivewhenTamirpressedhimonsomeapparentdiscrepanciesinhistestimony.ThenTamirmovedinforthekill:tomake KastnerthesymbolofallprominentEuropeanJewswhohadnegotiatedwiththeNazisinanyway.Politically,theeffortwasalsotoreopenthedebateaboutBen Gurion'snegotiationswithGermanyoverrestitution.
[Tamir]presentedthefollowingthesistothecourt:KastnerknewtheNazisintendedtoexterminateHungarianJewrybutkepttheinformationfromthemembersofhiscommunity. Hadhebutwarnedthemintime,theymighthavebeenable

Page82 tofleetoRomaniaororganizearmedresistance.Sincetheydidnotknowwhatawaitedthem,theyboardeddeathtrainswithoutresistance.(Segev271)

Aspreviouslynoted,thisseemstohavebeenbeagrossdistortionofwhatactuallyhappenedinHungary.ItislikelythatpeoplefearedgettingonKastner'strain becausetheywereawareofandfearedmurderousNazitreachery.Yet,remainingwheretheywere,refusingtoboardtheNoah'sArktrainindicatesthattheymaynot havebeenconvincedthattheirdeportationtothedeathcampswasimmanent...oritjustmaybeonemoreexampleoftheabsenceofchoicesopentotheJews.It shouldalsobenotedthatTamir'sstatementisidenticaltotheargumentArendtwasaccusedbyhercriticsof"heartlessly"making.ItwasexploitedbyherIsraeliand NewYorkdetractorsasevidenceofherdisloyaltytotheJews.ItwasarguedthatshehadunjustlyjudgedtheJudenrate.AttheKastnertrial,thesameargument usedtocondemnArendtwasputforwardbytheconservatives,whobelievedtheJudenrate,Kastner,theMapaihadbetrayedtheJewishpeoplebydealingwiththe Germans. Gruenwaldwasfoundnotguiltyofmostofthelibelchargesfiledagainsthim.Israelipoliticalpartiesandnewspapersmadethemostofit.Hugeheadlinesannounced theverdict,andnewspapersdevotedentirepagestoit.Theymademuchofthejudge'sclaimthatindealingwithEichmann,Kastnerhad"soldhissoultothedevil." Herut(Begin'sparty'snewspaper)ranKastner'spicturewiththecaption,"Eichmann'spartner,"andallofthefactionsinIsraeltookadvantageofthesituationtomake whatpoliticalcapitaltheycould.
TheCommunistKolHaamsaidthenegotiationsbetweenKastnerandEichmannreflectedtheNazicollaborationoftheentireZionistmovement,asiftherehadneverbeenaHitler Stalinpact.ThereligiouspartiessawKastnerasarepresentativeofsecularZionism,asiftherehadbeennoobservantJewsintheJudenrats.TheleftistoppositionpartiesMapam andAhdutHaavodahnowidentifiedthemselveswiththeghettorebels,thoughduringtheHolocausttheirpeoplehadbeenMapai'spartnersinrunningtheyishuvunderthe British.(Segev28586)

Page83

TheMapaiwasaccusedofhavinga"ghetto"mentality,compromisingratherthantakingamoremilitantstance,leadingwithoutanyfeelingforthehomeland,devoidof spiritualindependence.Itwasportrayedasatoddswiththespiritandlifeofthenewnation,thegrowingLandofIsrael,"ofthegenerationthathadestablishedthe statewithitsbloodandthatwouldpreserveitinthefaceofthetrialsoftomorrow"(Segev286).TheMapaipresswas"paralyzed,trapped.Itdidnot,ofcourse,want toacknowledgethatthejudgewasright,butneitherdiditwanttoattacktheverdict,lestitgivetheimpressionthatthepartywasthusdefendingitsown interest"(Segev286). Kastnerappealedtheverdict,andtwoandahalfyearslatertheSupremeCourtquashedthesentence,andjustifiedmostofKastner'sacts.Butthelegalvindication cametoolateforKastner:severalmonthsbeforethedecisionwashandeddown,on3March1957,whilereturninghomefromworklateatnight,Kastnerwasshot andkilledinfrontofhishome.12 Thereareseveralpointsmadeclearbythisevent.First,theissueofJewishcollaborationwiththeNaziswasnothingnewinIsrael.HannahArendtwascertainlynot thefirsttomentionitpublicly,althoughshewasperhapsthefirstprominentperson,andcertainlythefirstwoman,towriteaboutitforanonIsraeliaudience. "Collaboration"wasavolatilepublicissue,raisingprofoundmoralquestions,aswellasbeingexploitedforpoliticalpurposes.Secondly,BenGurion"lost"the "Kastnertrial"eventhoughhetriedtokeepasafedistancefromtheaffair.13TamirwentoutofhiswaytoassociateKastnerwiththeMapai,andtodrawassociations betweenJewswhonegotiatedwiththeNazisduringtheHolocaustandBenGurion'swillingnesstoresumerelationswithGermanyafterthewar.Severalyearsbefore thetrial,TamirhadpublishedanarticleinHerutinwhichheaccusedBenGurionof"'directpartnership'intheexterminationoftheJewsofEuropeandestablishment ofrelationswithWestGermany,"andreferredtohimasthe"MinisterofTreasonandMinisterofAbomination''(Segev266).

Page84

Intheappeal,whichclearedKastner,SupremeCourtJusticeZalmanHeshinnotedthatwhileJewishhistoryhashaditsshareofrebels,martyrs,andheroes,thereis alsoanothertraditioninJudaism,ofsurvivingandsavingwhatcouldbesaved:"Jeremiahtheprophet,forexample,preachedsurrendertotheenemyandanalliance withhim,whileRabbiYohananBenZakkaichosetosavewhatcouldbesavedinatimeoftrouble.Despitethis,nooneaccusedthemofsellingtheirsoulstothe devil"(quotedinSegev307).ThequestiontormentingtheJewswasthesame,whetheraboutHaavarabefore,ransomduring,orrestitutionaftertheHolocaust:did dealingwithGermansduringandaftertheHolocaustreflectweakness,ratherthanthemorestridentstanceIsraelassociatedwithstrength? BenGurion,inspiteofdistancinghimselffromtheKastneraffair,disbandedhisgovernmentandcalledanelection.HeretainedhispositionasPrimeMinister,although hispartylostfiveseatsintheKnesset.HethenbecameinvolvedinyetanothercontroversialsetofnegotiationswiththeGermanstopurchasetwosubmarinesforself defenseagainstNassarandtheArabs,whowerethreateningtoannihilateIsrael.Hewasforcedtoresignyetagain,andwasonceagainreturnedtopower.Butasthis secondresignationandreconstitutionofhisgovernmenttookplace,BenGurionknewheheldoneaceintheholeforclearinghimselfofassociationwithKastnerand thesuspicionthathewas"softonGermans":Mossad(IsraeliSecretService)agentshadjustinformedhimthattheywouldbebringinghimAdolfEichmann. TheTrialofAdolfEichmann Fromitsinception,then,theEichmanntrialwasanintenselypoliticalevent.TherewastheobviouslyillegalmoveofkidnapingEichmannfromArgentina,which underminedthemoralcredibilityofIsraelasrepresentativeofallJewishvictims,andthreatenedtosetadangerousinternationallegalprecedent.Therewasalsothe questionofwhetherIsraelhadthe"right"totryaGermanforcrimesagainsttheJews.ArendtwasnotaloneinsuggestingthataninternationaltrialofEichmannfor crimesagainsthumanitymighthavebeenmoreinstructiveto

Page85

theworld,althoughsheandothersacquiescedinthefaceoftheimpracticalityofthatsuggestion.NahumGoldman,presidentoftheWorldZionistOrganization, suggestedaninternationaltrial,asdidseveral(nonIsraeli)newspapers.MartinBuberagreed,commentinginanewsmagazineinterview,"Idonotthinkthevictim shouldbethejudgeaswell"(inSegev329). BenGurionandGoldmandisagreedwitheachotherinanexchangeofopenletters.BenGurioncontendedthatGoldman'ssuggestionwasanaffronttoIsrael's sovereignty,andinsistedthatIsraelwastheonlynationqualifiedtojudgeunprecedentedcrimesagainsttheJewishpeople."'TheHolocaustthattheNaziswreakedon theJewishpeopleisnotlikeotherattrocitiesthattheNaziscommittedintheworld',BenGurionwrotetoGoldman,'butauniqueepisodethathasnoequal,anattempt tototallydestroytheJewishpeople,whichHitlerandhishelpersdidnotdaretrywithanothernation.ItistheparticulardutyoftheStateofIsrael,theJewishpeople's onlysovereignentity,torecountthisepisodeinitsfullmagnitudeandhorror'"(Segev329). Ashighmindedasthismaysound,thetrialservedpartisanMapaipurposes,aswellascomingatamomentwhennationalspiritinIsraelwasbeginningtoflag.There wereethnictensions,andriotsinvariousquartersinIsrael.Israelwaslosingitssenseof(Ashkenazic)unity,anditssenseofhistoricalmission.YoungIsraelisfeltno connectionwiththeHolocaustanditssurvivors,andforthefirsttimeinitsbriefhistory,theflushofitsenergeticoriginswaswearingoff.InclaimingthetrialofAdolf EichmannforIsrael,andplacingitonthepublicstage,BenGurionhadtwogoals:toremindthecountriesoftheworldthat"theHolocaustobligatedthemtosupport theonlyJewishstateonearth."Andsecondlyto"impressthelessonoftheHolocaustonthepeopleofIsrael"(Segev327). TherewerealsothepressingneedsofBenGurion'sownparty,whichhadbeenonthedefensiveinthewakeofbothitsstanceonrelationswithGermanyandthe Kastneraffair:
TheEichmanntrialwouldalsoenableMapaitoreassertitscontrolovertheheritageoftheHolocaust,whichithadlosttoHerutandthepartiesoftheleft.Thetrialwasmeant, there

Page86 fore,toexpungethehistoricalguiltthathadbeenattachedtotheMapaileadershipsincetheKastnertrialitwastoprovethatdespitethetieswithGermany,despitethe reparationsagreementsandthearmsdealstheBenGurionadministrationwasnotinsensitivetotheHolocaust(Segev328).

Indeed,noonehadtodrumupinterestintheEichmanntrial.WhentheannouncementwasmadethatEichmannwasinIsraelicustody,theentirenationwasrivetedto everywordabouttheupcomingtrial. AttorneyGeneralGideonHausnerwasfacedwithadecisionaboutwhethertolimitthechargestoEichmann'sactualdeeds,ortoletthetrialgrowintoalarge,public exposeoftheHolocaustingeneral.HausnerhadmorethanenoughdocumentationtoconvictEichmannforhisownpartinarrangingtheslaughterofhundredsof thousandsofJews:"Evenafractionofthemwouldhavebeenenoughtoconvicthimtentimesover"(Segev338).However,withtheadviceandapprovalofBen Gurion,Hausnerdecidedto"shocktheheart,"beyondsimplycarryingoutalegalmission."IwantedpeopleinIsraelandtheworldtocomecloser,throughthetrial,to thisgreatcatastrophe"(Segev338).Soheinvitedwitnessestotestify,andthenumberwhocameforthamountedtoanationalcatharsis.Infact,thetrialdidsucceedin ensconcingtheHolocaustintheconsciousnessoftheworld,aswellasIsraeliyouth,andsucceedincreatinga"civicnationalreligion''inIsrael,ensuringthatthe Holocaustwouldnotbelosttohistory.ItalsomaywellhaveservedandasemotionalcatharsisfortheHolocaustvictimslivinginIsrael,astheycouldfinally,publicly, andwiththeblessingsofthegovernmentofIsrael,telltheirstoriestotheirIsraelineighbors. Thepoliticalcapitalmadebythetrial,andthemoralcompromisesofallconcerned,seeminevitableinanyworldlessthanperfect.Theypaleintheshadowofthehell thattheNazisactuallyimposedupontheworld,andwithwhichtheIsraelisandtheHolocaustsurvivorswereattemptingtocometoterms. Inlettingthetrialdevelopintoanexposeoftheentireexterminationcampaign,Hausner,withBenGurion'sblessing,presentedallHolocaustvictimsasZionists,which waspatently

Page87

untrue.ManyofthevictimsperishedpreciselybecausetheywerenotZionists,andhadremainedinEuropeuntilitwastoolatetoescapetoIsraeloranywhereelse. TheironyisthattheIsraeliprosecutionwentoutofitswaytopresentthevictimsoftheHolocaustinpreciselythemannerinwhichtheyhadbeenincapableoftreating themasarrivalsinIsrael.InsteadoftheusualcontrastbetweentheEuropeanvictimsandstalwartIsraelis,whosurelywouldhavefoughttothedeathratherthan allowedthemselvestobeledtoslaughter,HausnernowportrayedtheHolocaustvictimsthemselvesasbraveresisters.Exaggeratedpolarizationstilldominatedthe scenariopaintedbytheprosecutionintheEichmanntrial,onlynowthe"weakanddegenerateJews"wereplayedbytheJudenratelikeKastnerwhohadbeen attackedbytheIsraeliconservatives,anddefendedbyMapai.NowMapaiassumedastanceresemblingthatoftheconservatives,castigatingtheJudenrateas representingthe"spiritualdegeneracyandtheJewishsubmissivenessoftheExile,"whiledefendingthebraveryofthevictimsandsurvivors(Segev360). Arendt'sargumentthattheJudenratecontributedtotheslaughterbyparticipatinginNazilogicthus,ironically,paralleledtheconservative,moremilitantlyZionist argument.Now,however,shewasaccusedofbeingantiSemiticbyBenGurionandotherswhosoughttodistancethemselvesfromtheaccusationthattheyhadbeen tooconciliatorytowardtheGermans.Hercriticismofexaggeratedpolarizationsofgoodandevilobscuredeffortstodrawpoliticallinesclearly.Shewasalso,by implication,criticaloftheZionists,whohadnotalwaysbeensoreadytodefinetheEuropeanJewsasmadeofthesamebravestuffasthemselves.Itisevidentthat whileArendtmayhaveoffendedmanyinIsrael,shewouldhaverunafoulofBenGurionandtheMapaimostdramatically.Theystoodmosttogainpoliticallyfrom maintainingcontrolofthemeaningoftheEichmanntrial,andtheywouldhavefeltmostbetrayedbybothaspectsofhercriticism:oftheJudenrate,andofthe Zionists. Inthefinalanalysis,Arendt'sEichmanninJerusalemwasexplosiveinIsraelbecauseitexposedtotheworlduncomfort

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ablepoliticalconflictsthattheIsraelispreferredtokeeptothemselves.Inparticular,itwasembarrassingtoDavidBenGurionandtheMapaiparty,becauseArendt tookasimilarstandontheJudenrateashisopponentshadintheKastneraffair.Thismayalsohaveseemedtoimplycriticismabouthispoliticalnegotiationswith Germanyafterthewar.However,itisunlikelythatArendtheldthatposition,anisolationismconsistentwithconservativeIsraelipolitics.Rather,sheoffendedsimply becausesherefusedtopolarizeconcernedpartiesintovictimsandvillains,orheroesandvictims,ormartyrsandvillains.Mapai,whichhadactuallyhadahistoryof pragmaticpolitics,ratherthanindulginginpolarizingextremism,hadbeenforcedintoadefensivestancebytherightwingers,andwerethemselvesindulginginthe terminologyofgoodandeviltheyhadresistedinthepast.TheMapai"partyline"duringtheEichmanntrialwasthattheJewswereentirelyinnocentashumanbeings aswellasvictims,andthatalltheNaziswereequallyevil.TheassociationofEuropeanJewishvictimswithZionistswasdisingenuousandinaccurate.Israelishadbeen contrastingtheEuropeanJewswiththemselvesnowtheyarguedfortheirsimilarity,incontrastwithboththeNazisandtheJudenrate. Arendt'sargumentswereembarrassing,simplybecauseshedidnotwriteforthebenefitofIsraelipolitics:shesought,selfconsciously,toerodethetendnecytoview eventhepoliticsoftheHolocaustintermsofgoodandevil.IsraelineglectoftheHolocaustvictims,andthedifficultiesexperiencedbetweentheSabrasandthe survivors,werealsoasorespotinflamedbyArendt'sunwillingnesstopaintaprettierpictureoftheZioniststance.Still,Ibelievethatshewasclearaboutthefactthat itwastheNaziswhoweresolelyresponsibleforcreatingtheimpossiblesituation,whichforceddecisionthatnopeopleshouldhavetomake.Shedidnotimplyany sharedguiltforthedeathcamps:theywereentirelythedoingsoftheNazis.SheonlylamentedthatthechoicesforceduponJewsandothersthroughouttheworld wereimpossible,andthattheresponsestothe

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Nazishadbeeninvariablyineffectiveandunsatisfactory,bothmorallyandpolitically. TheIsraelishadnotbehavedlikeangels,andArendthadnotexpectedthemto.Nonetheless,afterthewar,whentheywereattemptingtopresenttotheworlda somewhatsanitizedversionoftheiractualresponsetotheHolocaust,herinsightswerereceivedasdisloyalty,whereasherhopehadbeenthattheworldcouldlearn sometrulyvaluablelessonsfromthetragedy.

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Chapter4 TheNewYorkIntellectualsandEichmanninJerusalem
TheNewYorkIntellectualsandJudaism MeanwhilebackinNewYork,Arendt'scriticsintheJewishIntellectualCommunityhadtheirownreasonstobeembarrassedbyEichmanninJerusalem.Hercritics amongtheeditorsofthePartisanReviewandCommentarysharedasimilarhistory,asimilarattitudetowardtheirJudaism,andconsiderableguiltovertheirstance towardtheHolocaust. TheoriginaleditorsofthePartisanReviewwereeitherchildrenofEasternEuropeanJewishimmigrants,orimmigrantsthemselves,havingcometotheUnitedStates aschildren.AlthoughsonsofEasternEuropeanpoverty,theirattitudescloselyresembledthoseofthemoreelitegenerationofeducatedGermanandVienneseJewsof theWeimarera.1 TheyminimizedtheimportanceoftheirJewishness,andemphasizedanadherencetoBildung,abeliefinenlightenedrationalismthattranscended nationalorculturalborders.TheysoughttobreakoutoftheJewishimmigrantghetto,leaveJewishidentitybehind,andforgeanewidentityintermsofWestern culture. Theirselfconsciouslyinternationaliststanceiscapturedinthetermtheyusedtodescribetheirperspective:Cosmopolitanism.Cosmopolitanismwasaccompaniedby theinsistencethat

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theywere"genetically...onlypartlyorquestionablyJewish."2 TerryCooneynotes,"Jewishnessasanideaandsentimentplayednosignificantroleintheir expectations....Inthe30s...itwaspreciselytheideaofdiscardingthepast,breakingawayfromfamilies,traditionsandmemorieswhichexcitedtheintellectuals. Theymeanttodeclarethemselvescitizensoftheworld"(Cooney31). SometimeafterWorldWarII,theyembracedaconservative,antiCommuniststance.Scholarsaredividedaboutwhetherthenewconservatismwaspartofa belated,postHolocaustidentificationwithIsrael,orwhethertheirdisenchantmentwithStalinwasthebeginningofanestrangementfromcommunismandorganized radicalpoliticsthatledthemnotonlytoreactconservativelybuttoseekthecomfortofanotheridentity.Theyhadalwaysbeen"alienated"whetherfromJudaismor mainstreamAmericanlifebutneededthesolaceofagroupidentitytoeasethepainofthatalienation.Judaismwasavailableasanidentityforthem:indeed,the Jewishcommunityhadbeenwaitingfortheiryoungmentogrowupandreturntotheirsenses,andtheirJewishness. Cooneyarguesthattheir"cosmopolitanism"providedtheconsistentcorethatsawthegroupthroughtheirradicaldaysandintoanantiStalinist,laterantiMarxist stancethathasbecomeidentifiedas"neoconservatism."Therewasnodramaticchange,nosuddentransitionfromradicalismtoconservatism.Theyhadalwaysbeen "cosmopolitan"andantitotalitarian.ButnearlyeverybodyelsewhohasstudiedthisgroupofNewYorkJewishintellectualsbelievesthattherewasadramaticshift fromtheiryoung,radicaldays,toanolder,postwarconservatism.AlexanderBloom,asweshallsee,arguesthattheirbelatedreturntoaJewishidentitywasthe occasionofaturntowardaconservative,evenantiCommunistpoliticalstance.3 RussellJacobycomparestheJewishradicalsofthe1930swiththeirnonJewish colleagues,andfindsthatincontrasttotheirJewishcomrades,thenonJewsinvariablyclungtotheirradicalismwellintothe1960s.4
EstrangementfromaChristiancivilization,runstheusualargument,edgedJewsintoreformismorrevolution.Yetthisargumentcanbereversed,oratleastrecast:personalalien

Page93 ationdoesnotengenderahardyradicalism.Theangstthatexpressesthepainofseparationalsocravesunionoritssubstitute,recognitionandacceptance.Thesocialcritique foundedsolelyonalienationalsofoundersonit.(Jacoby89)

AlexanderBloompresentsacompatible,althoughslightlydifferentargument.BloomcontendsthattheNewYorkIntellectualsdidindeedchangetheirpoliticalstance duringthe1940s,fromtheirpreviouslyMarxistTrotskyiteradicalism,toamoreconservativesupportofAmericanpolitics.Theearlierradicalism,thewartime patriotism,andthepostwarconservatism,allderivedfromstrugglesoveralienationandassimilation,andambivalencetowardJewishidentity.ThiswastheNew Yorkers'tenderspotthatArendttouchedwithherreportonEichmann. BothBloomandCooneypresenttheNewYorkIntellectualsasthedoteduponsonsofimmigrantJewishfamilies."Parentsmeasuredsuccessbyeducational achievement,andastheyoungboysprovedprecocious,theyweresingledoutinthepublicschoolsandshoneinadults'eyes.Whilethismarkedaboyforeducational heightsatanearlyage,italsobroughtwithitpersonalpressuretosucceed"(Bloom13).ThisisconfirmedbyIrvingHowe,whodescribedimmigrantJewishculturein NewYorkas"utterlydevotedtoitssons...thesonstheywouldachievebothcollectiveJewishfulfillmentandindividualJewishsuccess."5 Cooneynotesthatthe assumptionofmaleprivilegecharacterizedtheiryoungmanhood:"Anditwasthesonswhotookcenterstage.Anairofmasculineclubbinesshangsaroundtheearly yearsoftheNewYorkIntellectuals.Youngwomenweresometimespresent,sometimesmentioned,butseldomtreatedasequals"(Cooney13).Thepreferencefor boyswascommunitywide.Thesonsmayhavefeltthepressureofexpectationsfromtheirparents,buttheentireNewYorkJewishcommunitywaspreparedto applaudtheirachievements.Incontrast,"Thosewomenwhomadetheirmarkintellectuallyintheearlyyearssucceededthroughdetermination,talent,andsometimesa husband'sorcompanion'sconnections,butnotthroughequivalentencouragementsoropportunitiessupportedbyawholeculture"(Cooney11).

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BothBloomandCooneydiscusstheyouthful"swagger"allowedthesebrightboys,athemeweshallpursueinmoredetailinthefollowingchapter."Theymightbe pishersorcocky,butbeingbrightraisedthemabovethelevelofpotential'cranks'or'eccentrics.'Youthfulswaggerwouldbetolerated.Withthesupportand toleranceofthecommunity,itcouldbeturnedintoattributeswhichwouldleadthemoutoftheghetto"(Bloom15).Bloomgoesontodiscussthespecialcloseness betweentheseJewishboysandtheirmothers,butweshallsavethatforthenextchapter,andfocushereontheJewishsons'relationshiptotheirJewishness. Theyoungmen,who,likeothersonsofAmericanimmigrants,werebeingpushedtosucceedasAmericans,soughttoleavebehindtheirpovertyandtheparochialism oftheirparents.AseculareducationreplacedthetraditionalJewisheducation,althoughtheemphasisoneducationremainedcentral,tothepointofbeingsacred. Bloomreferstoitas"thenewreligion"(28).ItwasdifficulttodistinguishthespecificsofJudaismfromtheirgeneralembarrassmentabouttheirparents'OldWorld mannerisms,andthesimplestsolutionwastodistancethemselvesfromeverythingassociatedwiththeirpast.TheinseparabilityoftheJewishandimmigrant componentsoftheiridentitiesmadeitextremelydifficultfortheyoungmentodistinguishbetweenthetwosufficientlytoretaintheJewish,whileabandoningtheir parents'povertyorprovincialism.Itwaseasiertomoveawayfromitall. Formany,theirimmigrantparentshadsetthestageforthemoveawayfromJudaismbychangingtheirJewishsoundingnamesuponarrivalintheUnitedStates. WilliamPhillips(Litvinsky),DanielBell(Bolotsky),andPhilipRahv(Greenbaum)werethreeprominentmembersofthePartisanReviewwhosemalepredecessors hadchangedthefamilyname.Wewillrefrainfromnotingtheanglicizedfirstnames:thesurfeitofPhilips,Lionels,Williams,andsoforth. LionelMordecaiTrillingisactuallyaninterestingstudyinambivalencetowardhisJewishbackground.Hewasraisedinanorthodoxhousehold,andhisBarMitzvah tookplaceattheJewishTheologicalSeminaryofNewYork,whereheled

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servicesandpresentedanoriginalspeechbeforefamilyandfriends.HewastutoredfortheBarMitzvahbyMaxKadushin,therespectedtraditionalJewishscholar, whohadbeenthediscipleofMordecaiKaplan.LionelTrilling'sfatherhadalsobeenaprecociousscholarofJudaisminhisnativeBialystock,destinedforthe Rabbinate,bychoiceofhisparents.However,hebrokedownwhenreadingtheHaftorahathisBarMitzvah,aneventthatsohumiliatedhimselfandhisfamilythathe wassenttotheUnitedStates.HisAmericanlifewasdominatedbybusinessfailureandmediocrity.YoungLionel'smotherwasdeterminedthathersonwould distinguishhimself,ifnotasarabbi,thenatleastasascholar.6 Oneneedn'tbeapsychologisttoimaginethatanamelikeLionelMordecai,andthefather'straumatichistorywithJewishstudies,wouldguaranteesomesevere tensionsinthesonwithregardtoJudaism.HebecamethefirstJewishprofessorintheEnglishdepartmentatColumbiaUniversityadistinction,sureenough,butalso onethatcouldeasilyaggravatemixedfeelingsaboutone'sJewishidentity.Hewrotein1944intheContemporaryJewishRecord:

AstheJewishcommunitynowexists,itcangivenosustenancetotheAmericanartistorintellectualwhoisbornaJew....IknowofnowriterswhohaveusedtheirJewish experienceasthesubjectofexcellentworkIknowofnowriterinEnglishwhohasaddedamicromillimetertohisstatureby"realizinghisJewishness."(Wald34)

AyearbeforehisdeathTrillingwrotethatthewordshamebestcharacterizedthewayyoungmiddleclassJewsfelt.Heremarked:"Selfhatredwasthewordthat latercameintovoguebutshameissimplerandbetter"(Wald36). TrillingmadeadistinctionbetweenthesubjectiveexperienceofJudaismandtheobjectivelabelimposedbytheworld,andbelievedtheobjectivelabelingwasthe moresignificantinhislifethatis,iftheworldhadn'timposedituponhim,hewouldhavebeenunawareofhisJewishness.Hemanagedtoprevailovertheanti SemitismatColumbiaUniversitytobecomethefirstJewishassistantprofessorintheEnglishdepartment,allthewhileclaiming,

Page96 IcannotdiscoveranythinginmyprofessionalintellectuallifewhichIcansignificantlytracebacktomyJewishbirthandrearing.Idonotthinkofmyselfasa"Jewishwriter."Ido nothaveitinmindtoservebymywritinganyJewishpurpose.(Bloom24)

ThecomplexityofthepullofJudaismmeantthateventhoughtheyoungintellectualssoughtescapefromit,theywereunablesimplytoappropriateanonJewish Americanpast.Theobviouswaytodealwiththelackofidentitywas"cosmopolitanism,"orinternationalism.DuringtheDepressionofthe1930stheinternationalist pullofMarxismprovedespeciallyattractive.Theyassumeda"universalist"attitudetowardtheirJewishness,notquitedenyingthattheywerethemselvesJewish,but rejectingthetraditionalreligiousandculturalcustoms,andinsistingthattheirJewishnesshadnoinfluencewhatsoeverupontheirintellectualwork. ThegroupthatfoundedPartisanReview,WilliamPhillips,PhillipRahv,andtheirfriends,LionelAbel,HaroldRosenberg,AlfredKazin,EdmundWilson,Dwight MacDonald,andothers,wereradicals:Marxists,Trotskyites,partofthe"OldLeft"thatwascharacteristicoftheAmericanimmigrantresponsetothedepression.A splitbetweenStalinistsandTrotskyitesresultedfromtheMoscowtrials,andwasreinforcedbytheHitlerStalinnonaggressionpactof1939.Theentiregroup remainedsteadfastlyantiwarasHitlerrosetopowerinGermanyandbeganhisassaultonEurope.EvenwhiletheUnitedStatesbegantomobilizeforwar,thisgroup heldtothebeliefthatallwarsweresymptomaticofcapitalism,andwouldbringculturalrepressionandleadtofascismathome.Theysawtheirmissionasoneof bringingacosmopolitan,Europeaninfluencedculturetouncultured,agrarian,populistAmerica.Theywere,withoutadoubt,culturalimperialistswithlittletolerancefor "lowbrow"or"mass"culture.Itneveroccurredtothemthattheywerefrightened,asmuchasdisdainful,ofwhattheyregardedastheparochialismof"American" culture,whichwasalsoprofoundlyChristian.NordiditoccurtothemthatwhiletheywereenlighteningAmericainthenameofaninternational,thatisurban,culture, theywerelikelyalsoinfluencedbyaJewishconcernwithChristianAmericanagrarianism.

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Onceoutofcollege,withtheDepressioninfullforce,PhilipRahvandWilliamPhillipsraisedenoughmoneytobuythePartisanReviewsomeindependencefromits formerTrotskyitesponsors.Itwastobeacosmopolitanliteraryandpoliticalmagazine,avehicleforpublishingtheirradicalinternationalistideas,freeofthe coercivenessofCommunistpartyinfluenceoverartandideas.Inasense,itbrokewiththeconfining''politicalcorrectness"oftheOldLeft.AsTrotskyites,theyhad brokenwiththeStalinists,andfeltvindicatedbythe1939HitlerStalinnonaggressionpact.TheywereagainstbothHitler'sandStalin'stotalitarianism,butdidnot focusatalluponNaziantiSemitism.Asstalwartinternationalists,theymaintainedastanceofunwaveringneutralityagainstinvolvementinEuropeanpolitics,against bothfascismandcapitalism.Theysoughttomaintaintheirintellectualpuritybystayingclearofcontaminatingmainstreampolitics:"Radicalintellectualshadnobusiness, PhilipRahvargued,takingsidesinthiscontestofnationalimperialism.'WhowillannihilatethepotentialGermanrevolution,ifnottheFrenchandtheBritish imperialistsoncetheyhaveremovedHitler?'"(Bloom125). EvenaswarbrokeoutinEurope,theirstanceheldsteady.Theymaintainedthat"onceintellectualsbecameinvolvedwiththeBourgeoisorder,theycouldnotescape it"(Bloom128).ThePartisanReviewpublishedapositionstatementoftheLeagueforCulturalFreedomandSocialism,whichhadbeenformedtodefendartistic independenceamongradicalsagainstthecoercivenessoftheCommunistparty.ItsattitudetowardthewarreflectedthatoftheNewYorkIntellectualsatthetime:
Ourentryintothewar,underthesloganof"StopHitler!"wouldactuallyresultintheimmediateintroductionoftotalitarianismoverhere.OnlytheGermanpeoplecanfree themselvesofthefascistyoke.TheAmericanmassescanbesthelpthembyfightingathometokeeptheirownliberties....Americanintellectualsmustnowsignalizetheir oppositionnotonlytowarintheabstractbutspecificallytoAmericanentryintothiswar.Itwouldbeabetrayalofthehumanspiritforthemtokeepsilentatthistime.(Bloom126)

OnlyaftertheJapanesebombedPearlHarboractually,notuntil1942didRahvandPhillipsmovetowardlimited

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supportofAmericaninvolvement,whichwasalreadyafaitaccompli.TheyarguedthatRooseveltandChurchillweremoretolerable(thelesseroftwoevils)than Hitler,andshiedawayfromopposingthewareffort.TheybrokewithDwightMacDonaldoverthis,leadingMacDonaldtoaccusethemofbeingtimid,fearfulofthe unpopularityofopposingU.S.involvementinthewar. ThefirststeptheytooktowardsupportoftheAmericanwareffortwasaresponseinkeepingwithAmericanoutrageovertheJapanesebombingofPearlHarbor. Thisstancepermittedthemtoavoidmakingthemselvesintopariahs,virtuallyaloneinoppositiontoUnitedStatesinvolvementinthewar,whileitallowedthemto continuetoavoidmakingadirectresponsetotheHolocaust.Perhapsunconsciously,theywereseekingrefugeinAmerica,feelingtheycouldillaffordtoaffrontso manyAmericansbytheiroppositiontothewar.Bloomidentifiestheirsupportofthewareffortas"theirfirstcommitmenttoAmericangovernmentpolicyandthe maintenanceofAmericansociety"(131).AfterthebombingofPearlHarbor,PartisanReviewpublishedaneditorialinwhichthefiveeditorsannouncedthatbecause oftheirdifferences,thejournalcouldhavenoeditoriallineonthewar,andpledgedtomaintain"culturalvaluesagainstalltypesofcoercionandrepression"(Wald 208).ButinWald'sthirtypagechapterontheNewYorkIntellectuals'attitudetowardthewar,ironicallyentitled"TheSecondImperialistWar,"thereisnomentionat alloftheeditors'responsetoHitler,theHolocaust,ortheneedsoftheEuropeanJewsforrescueandsupport.7 Indeed,andsomewhatoutrageously,theybuttressedtheirnewfound,ifcautiouspatriotismwithoptimismoverAmerica'sculturalfuture:nowthatsomany "European"(Jewish)refugeeswerearrivinginNewYork,NewYorkmightsoonreplaceParisastheworld'sculturalandliterarycenter!Still,theyrefusedpubliclyto acknowledgethatNaziantiSemitismwasthesourceofthisAmericanwindfall. TheNewYorkIntellectualsandtheHolocaust WithregardtotheexterminationoftheJews,underwayinHitler'sEurope,andobviousatleasttotheextentthatitac

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countedforthemigrationoftheEuropeanintellectualelitetoNewYork,theeditorsofthePartisanReviewmaintainedaremarkablesilence.Theynowofficially supportedtheAmericanwareffort,butstilldeclinedtomentiontheHolocaustasajustificationforAmericaninvolvement.Theircommitmenttouniversalism"leftlittle roomfortheexpressionofJewishthemesorevenformuchcommentonNaziantiSemitismbeforethewar"(Bloom138).ButknowledgeofHitler'santiSemitism abounded,evenifthegrislyextentofthehorrorwasnotcommonknowledgeuntilafterthewar.Asnoted,theNewYorkerswerealreadycelebratingthearrivalof prominentintellectualsandwriterstotheircity,andmustcertainlyhavebeenawarethattheflightofprominentJewssuchasFreudandEinsteinindicatedsomehorror forJewsinGermanyandAustria.Bloomobserves:"ItisremarkablehowrarelythepagesofPartisanReviewandthevariousotherwritingsoftheNewYork Intellectualscontainedreferencesinthe1930stothepersecutionoftheJews"(Bloom138)."ThelackofdiscussiononthetopicofJewsandtheirpersecutionstands outstarkly"(Bloom139). InNovemberof1938,SidneyHookhadpublishedanarticleintheNewLeaderentitled"TragedyofGermanJewry,"butitopenedwitha"cosmopolitan"disclaimer, inwhichheremindedthereaderthattheJewswerenottheonlypeoplesuffering:"LetusbearinmindthatinprotestingagainstHitler'santiJewishbrutalitiesweare alsoprotestingagainstthehoundingofotherreligionsandpoliticalminorities"(Bloom138).Inspiteofitstitle,thebulkofthearticleisdevotedtoanindictmentnotof Hitler,butofStalinism:"LetusalsorememberthatitwasfromStalinthatHitlerlearnedtheartofwipingoutwholegroupsandclassesofinnocentcitizens.Wecannot withgoodconscienceprotestagainstHitler'streatmentoftheJewsandremainsilentaboutthesixmillion...whofilltheconcentrationcampsinRussia"(Bloom138). Itistruethatthiswas"only"1938,hencethesystematicexterminationoftheJewshadnotbeenpubliclydiscussed,muchlessimplemented.ButHitlerhadbeenin powerforfiveyears,andhisantiSemitismwasnosecret.AmericanJews

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hadbeguntorespondtoitwiththecallforaboycott,andasDavidBenGurionhadnoted,"NooneneededofficialannouncementstoknowthatHitlerhadintended toexterminatetheJewsitwasallinMeinKampf"(Segev79).Hook'sarticleisremarkabletestimonytothetenacityofhisavoidanceofJudaism:evenwhen ostensiblytalkingaboutNaziantiSemitism,Hooksawfittodefertowhatwemaypresumeheviewedasthe"equallypressingneeds"ofothervictims.Itisasthough somemisguidedsenseofhonorpreventedhimfromdwellinguponoridentifyingwiththeneedsofhisownpeople. Notuntil1944didAlfredKazinbreakthesilencebymentioningboththeNazigenocideandtheremarkablesilenceofhiscolleaguesaboutitinanarticlepublishedin theNewRepublic.

SomethinghasbeendoneandnotbytheNaziswhichcanneverbeundone.Thetragedyisinourminds,inthebasicequalityofourpersonalcultureandthatiswhyitwillbe thetragedyofthepeace....SomethinghasbeensetforthinEuropethatissubtle,andsuspended,anddestructive....Thatsomethingisalloursilentcomplicityinthemassacre oftheJews.8

Kazinthusbecamethe"firstNewYorkIntellectualtoargueforanextendedsenseofguiltfortheNazicrimes"(Bloom139).Othersjoinedhiminthisattitudeafterthe war,butduringthewaritselfhisstatementevokedavagueembarrassmentfromtheNewRepublicandhisreaders.Kazinclaimedhewashorrifiedbytheresponseto hisarticle.Otherintellectualsstillarguedfromtheuniversalistposition,stillexpressedmoreinterestinworldtrendsongeneralthemes,or,likeSidneyHook,hidany concerntheyhadfortheplightoftheJewsunderaninternationalistumbrella,wheretheycouldexpressequalhorrorforotheratrocities,thuscontinuingtodistance themselvesfromtheEuropeanJews. InamorerecentinterviewwithBloom,Kazinadmittedthattheproblemwasfearofseeming"tooJewish,"ofundoingthosedecadesofassimilationbydenyingone's background."Let'sfaceit....IftheseintellectualshadgoneonagreatdealforstuffabouttheJewsandthewar,theway,forex

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ample,theYiddishpressdid,theywouldhaveseemedagooddealless'American,'lessassimilated."9 When,afterthewar,thefullstoryoftheNazicrimesbegantounfoldanditbecameevidentthatevenKazinhadunderestimatedtheextentoftheslaughterbyonehalf, theNewYorkersadmittedtowhattheytermeda"lowchargedguilt...aquietremorse"(Howe,inBloom140).Bloomnotes,"Havingneglectedtheirownrootsin thepursuitofintellectualprominenceandpoliticalgoals,theyfoundthemselvesfacetofacewiththeiroriginsandarealitylargerthantheycouldhave envisioned"(140).IbelievethattheirguiltwasashighlychargedastheirresponsetoHannahArendt'sNewYorkerarticles. ItisedifyingthatKazinwasamongtheveryfewNewYorkJewishintellectualswho,farfromaddinghisownbrandtothepublichumiliationofArendt,actually attemptedtodefendheragainstherinquisitors. PostwarPoliticsandtheNewYorkers Theshockandrealizationthattheywere,afterall,Jews,forcedtheNewYorkIntellectualstomakesomeadjustmentintheirstancetowardAmericanpolitics. CooneyarguesfortheconsistencyoftheirpoliticalpositionantitotalitarianisminthefaceofchangingSovietpolitics.Thecredibilityofthatperspectiveisderived fromthefactthattheIntellectualshadassociatedmuchearlierHitlerwithStalin,regardingbothastotalitarian,whilesupportingTrotsky.Theyhadalsosought independencefromCommunistpartyinfluenceoverartandliterature(seepp.97,1345).Afterthewar,theirstancebecameovertlyantiCommunist,beyondmere antiStalinism,althoughthegroupdidnotwanttobeassociatedwithSenatorJosephMcCarthy.TheysoughttoopposeStalinwithoutbeingidentifiedwithMcCarthy, who,withhis"agrarianpopulistfascism"seemedanathematotheirCosmopolitanism. BloomarguesthattherealchangebetweentheearlyandlaterpoliticsofthePartisanReviewhadlesstodowithoppositiontototalitarianismthanwiththeneedofits contributorsto

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feelassimilatedintoAmericanlife.Afterthewar,JudaismandconservativeAmericanismmaynothaveappearedsoantitheticalastheyhadinthethirties.The intellectuals'belatedawarenessoftheHolocaustwasthecatalystfortheirincreasinglyconservativepoliticalstance.Theywere,asthetitleofBloom'sbooksuggests, prodigalsons,welcomedhomebyaJewishcommunitywhohadbeenwaitingtolerantlyfortheirboychikstoreturn. DanielBellacknowledgednoconflictbetweentheirnewconservatismandtheirformerradicalism."Aradicalisaprodigalson....Hemayeventuallyreturntothe houseofhiselders,butthereturnisbychoice....Aresilientsociety,likeawiseparent,understandsthisritual,andinmeetingthechallengetotradition,grows"(170 Bloom).ThisadmonitionaboutthebenefitsbestoweduponAmericanJewishsocietybythesonswhohadspentseveraldecadesavoidingtheirJewishnessisself indulgent,tosaytheleast.Itstemsfromanassumptionofprivilege,availabletofew.Buttheirexpectationsoflovingacceptancefromthecommunitywerenot unfounded.TheyweretheprideoftheJewishcommunityoftheiryouth,"thebrightpishersfromBrownsville,"andtheyfound,inthepostwarJewishcommunity,a receptiveaudiencefortheirnewlydiscoveredinterestinJudaism,peoplewhowererelievedtofindjustifiedtheirfaiththattheyoungmenwouldturnoutallright. TheIntellectualshaddiscoveredthattheywerenowexpertsontheconditionthattheyclaimedplaguedpostwarAmericansociety:Alienation.Theirreturnhomewas thusnottotraditionalJudaism,buttowhatthey,asintellectualsandsocialscientists,definedasthealienationofmodernAmericaasawhole.Theirstancewasnowto putthemselvesforwardasmenwhohadspecialexpertisetooffertothenationthathadjustdiscovereditsownalienation.Theironyisthattotheextenttheynolonger feltsoalienatedfrommodernAmerica,theynolongerhadacalltobespecialistsinmarginality,andtotheextentthattheirargumentswonacceptance,theywereno longermarginalmen.Nonetheless,Bloomassuresus,"Undauntedbytheinternalcontradiction,theystakedouttheirclaim"(Bloom151).

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Bloomisskepticalabouttheproclaimedmotivationofthosewhonowdefinedthemselvesasuniquelypositionedtocontribute"insightfulcriticismandcomment"about contemporaryAmericanlife.Heismoretemptedtopresentitasselfservingopportunism.ThisisafarcryfromCooney'smorecompassionateargumentthatthe Intellectualswerepoliticallyconsistentthroughoutthedecade,whilesocietychangedaroundthem.Rather,Bloomconcludes,"Asradicalintellectualsinthe1930s, alienatedJewsinthe1940s,andexradicalsinthe1950s,theyfrequentlydiscoveredtheirownpositionremarkablyappropriateforthecontemporarysituation.... BeginningtheirreevaluationsonpersonalgroundsshockedbytheHolocaustintoredefiningtheirownidentitiestheylaterfoundapublicapplicationfortheresults oftheseinvestigations"(Bloom155). Theirgoalseemstohavebeenfindingthegroundsuponwhichtopresentthemselvesasexperts,sages,secularrabbistoAmericansociety,therebyfulfillingboththeir parents'dreamsandtheirown.TheynowbaskedintherespectofthemosthighlyeducatedmembersofAmericansociety,andonecanalmostseethemreachingfor approvalfromthedoubterswithanincreasinglyconservativestance.Buttheyknewtheyhadtoreconciletheircurrentconservatismwiththeirpreviousradicalism.For thistheyfound"liberalanticommunism"aconvenientposition,carvingout,asitdid,aplacetostandbetweenMcCarthyism,withwhichtheydidnotwanttobe associated,andsocialistsympathies,fromwhichtheynowalsosoughttodistancethemselves. TheNewYorkIntellectualsandHannahArendt Ironically,HannahArendt'sOriginsofTotalitarianismhelpedthemtofindthismiddlegroundandtojustifyit,byassociating"radicalevil"withboththeRight(Hitler) andtheLeft(Stalin).Withherfirstmajorwork,sheappearedtoprovidescholarlyjustificationfortheirnewconservatism,andthisfromaEuropeanJew,arefugee fromtheHolocaust.TheycouldidentifywithhercriticismofHitler(wheretheyhadmissed

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theboatearlier),aswellaswithheranticommunism,necessaryfortheirnewfoundAmericanism. AlanWaldexplainsthatArendt'sbookcouldbereadasbolsteringtheantiCommunisthysteriaofthe1950s,becauseitsmethodwassuchadeparturefromtheusual MarxistclassanalysisofthehistoryoftheSovietUnion."ItsconflationofStalinismandHitlerismwasdevelopedwithoutacomparisonofclassstructuresand economicsystems,anditwasbasedonthemetaphysicalassumptionthatthemostappropriatemeasureforbelievingthatthetwosocialorderswereasinglegenus wasthedegreeof'radicalevil'thattheyembodied"(Wald269).Itthuscouldbeusedtofanthebeliefthat"theSovietUnionwastobeexpectedtobehaveasNazi Germanyhadinthe1930s"(Wald269).WaldisquicktopointoutthatthiswasundoubtedlynotHannahArendt'sintention,describingheras"amaverickthinkerof considerablecreativitywhofearedthattheUnitedStatesmightitselfmoveinatotalitariandirectionundertheimpactofMcCarthyism"(Wald269).Healsoremindsus thatshehadatleastpartlyassimilatedthetraditionofdissidentcommunismthroughherhusband,HeinrichBlucher. TheNewYorkIntellectualsseizeduponherbook,lavishinguponitsauthorextravagantpraise,suchasKazin'sdescriptionofArendt'sthinkingaspossessing"moral grandeur,"andMacDonald'sdescriptionofheras"themostoriginalandprofound...politicaltheoreticianofourtimes"(inWald269).Thegroupofformerleft wingerswasdelightedtotakeadvantageofherargumenttoformulateanantiCommuniststancethatdidnotsoundlikethesamesortofstuffuponwhichSenator McCarthywasbuildinghiscareer.Theycalledit"liberalanticommunism."Bloomsuggeststhatitservedthepurposeofofferingthem
aphilosophyoftheirown,freeofthedisquietingnotionthattheymightbeMcCarthyites,and,theyhoped,freeoflingeringsuspiciousabouttheirownpastactivities....The liberalsregardedtheirpositionasbothpersonallyfulfillingandpoliticallycorrectassatisfyingintellectualrequirementsaswellasinternationalrealities.(Bloom228)

Arendthadcoinedthephrase"radicalevil"todescribetheunprecedenteddestructivecapacityoftotalitariansystems.

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Herargumentwasthattotalitarianismwasadevelopmentofmodernitythatcouldbedistinguishedfromearlier,historicalexamplesofpoliticalevil,suchastyranny.In appearingtoequateNaziswithBolsheviksArendtprovidedpreciselythematerialforwhichantiCommunistshadwaited."Arendt'sargumentsbecamethe philosophicalcementwhichfirmlysetthisnewviewofpoliticalrealities"(Bloom220). DuringthefirstdecadeafterherarrivalfromEurope,andaftertheOriginsofTotalitarianismwaspublished,ArendtwasarespectedfigureamongthePartisan Reviewcrowd.Butshewasneverapartoftheinnercircle.Whileitsmemberstookadvantageofherscholarshiptoexplainandjustifytheircurrentconcerns,shewas neverherselfaninsider.ShehadreceivedherinitialattentionintheUnitedStatesfromthisgroup,andAlfredKazinhadbeenhelpfulinfindingapublisherforan AmericaneditionofTheOrigins.Still,anumberoffactorsdistinguishedArendtfromthePRgroup.ShehadgrownupinGermany,notNewYork,andhadreceived aclassicalGermaneducationatMarburgandHeidelberg,notCCNY.Shehadnever"passedthroughaLeninistphase"(Wald269),althoughshewasmarriedtoa Marxist.LikemanymembersofthePRcrowd,shehadlittleJewishreligioustraininginfact,probablylessthanmostofthem,becauseshewasfemaleandthe daughterofenlightenedGermanJews,notEastEuropeanimmigrantstoAmerica. TwoadditionalfactorsthatobviouslydistinguishherfromthegroupofNewYorkIntellectualsareoverlookedbytheseotherwisethoroughaccountsofArendt's relationshipwiththePartisanReview"boys"(asshereferredtothem).First,thefactthatshewasafemaleandunattachedtoamaleintheircirclecreateddistance. 10Secondly,thatshehadactuallyhadtofleetheNazistosaveherlife,aswellasthelivesofhermotherandherhusbandwasalsoamajordifferenceinherlife experience,andherrelationshipbothtotheHolocaustandJudaism.ThepriceArendtwouldhavepaidforignoringHitlerandtheHolocaustmostcertainlywouldhave beendeath.Shecouldhardlyhaveaffordedthe"cosmopolitanneutrality"assumedbythePartisanReview.11

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TherewerestillotherdistinctionsbetweenArendtandtheNewYorkIntellectuals.Inthe1930sand1940sArendthadbeenaJewishactivistmorethananemployed scholar,becauseofboththeconditionofexilethatshehadenduredforoveradecade,andbecausetheacademicworldinbothEuropeandtheUnitedStateswasnot onlyantiSemitic,asthePartisanReviewcrowdknew,butalsoexcludedwomen.Infact,onlyafterTheOriginswaspublishedin1951didshebecome,inher words,a"covergirl"appearingonthecoversofTimeandNewsweekthesameweekwhowasinvitedtoteachatthenation'smostprestigiouscampuses.She maintainedherindependencefromacademiclife,however,andnevertookafulltimepositionatauniversity. Inthiscontext,then,theemotionalresponsetoEichmanninJerusalem,whichBloomdescribesas"ahailstormofcriticismandenormousdebate,wellbeyond politicaldiscussion"(Bloom329),becomesmorecomprehensible.Onthesimplestlevel,inEichmanninJerusalemHannahArendtchangedhermindaboutthe existenceof"radicalevil."Thatiswhythesubtitleofthebook,"TheBanalityofEvil,"whichArendtclaimedwasincrediblyoverinterpreted,andwithwhichshehad meanttoimplynotheory,wassoupsetting.Arendtmeantthatgreatevilexistsintheworld,butdoesnothaveotherworldly,demonicsources:peoplecancausegreat evil,oftenwithanentirelybanalmindset.ThusEichmannmayhavebeen"banal,"butthedestructionhecausedwasnot.Nonetheless,withouttheconceptof"radical evil''tolinkStalinismwithNazism,theNewYorkIntellectualshadahardertimebelievinginthecredibilityoftheir"liberalantiCommunist"stance.Ifcommunism wasn'tasradicallyevilasHitler'sfascism,oriftheconceptofevilitselfwasmoresubtleandcomplicatedthanhadbeenpresentedinTheOrigins,theymustcometo termswiththeirownpoliticalreversal,fromleftisttoantiCommunistpolitics.Withouttheconceptofradicaleviltoenablethemtobeoutragedbybothcommunism andfascism,theNewYorkIntellectualswouldhavetofacethecomplexitiesoftheHolocaust,aswellastheirabandonmentofradicalpolitics.Theymight,afterall,be nodifferentfromtheMcCarthyites,whomtheyknewwereathreatto

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freespeech,democracy,andeverythingtheyhadstoodforthroughouttheirearlyyears. Arendt'schangedideasaboutthenatureofevilwerethusperceivedasabetrayalwhichexplainsboththeexcessiveemotionalloadingofthecriticismofherwork, and,forexample,LionelAbel'spreoccupationwiththe"contradictions"betweenTheOriginsandEichmann.Abelwastheonewhohadcontradictedindeed, reversedhimselfpolitically,ashemovedfromsocialisminthethirtiestoanticommunisminthefifties.InTheOriginsArendthadappearedtobesayingthatNazism andStalinismwerenotallthatdifferent.InopposingCommunisminthe1950s,AbelcouldbelievethathewasreallydefendingtheJews,aswellasotherAmericans, fromanothermenaceasdangerousasHitler.IfArendt,whoseauthorityresteduponactualencounterswiththeNazis,hadchangedhermindaboutthe"radicalevil"of NazismandCommunism,howwasAbeltoexplainhispoliticstohimself?Hewasleftstandingatthealtar,likeajiltedlover.Howcouldshecontradictherselflike that?ButArendtwasnotabride:shewasascholarwhoseideashadevolvedoveradecade,andhermorerecentideasweresubtlerandmorecomplexthanher earlierwork,hencepoliticallyhardertodealwith. ThereisanadditionaldimensionthataccountsfortheexcessiveemotionintheresponsetoEichmanninJerusalem,andithas,notsurprisingly,todowithJewish identity.BloomastutelycouplespublicationofEichmannwiththesimultaneouspublicationofanotherbookseldomassociatedwithArendt'svolume:NathanGlazer andDanielPatrickMoynihan'sBeyondtheMeltingPot,alsopublishedin1963.Bloomsuggeststhatbothbooks"signaledareturntoquestionsaboutJewishness andethnicidentity"(329).NotonlyherrelinquishmentoftheconceptofradicalevilbutherunwillingnesstopolarizeJewsandGermansintoinnocentvictimsand radicallyevilpredatorscausedanxietyamongtheNewYorkers.IrvingHowehimselflatersuggestedthatrepressedfeelingsthetonguetiednessofthelate1940s whichhadleftthequestionofsixmillionJewishdeathsunansweredgavewayas"thelongsuppressedgriefevokedbytheHolocaustburstout.Itwasasifher views,which

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rousedmanyofustofury,enabledustofinallyspeakabouttheunspeakable."12Onecanhardlyimagineamoreselfrevelatoryadmissionthatguiltoverone'sown behaviorwithregardtotheHolocausthadnowbeenconvertedintofuryatArendt.Bloomadds,"Theemotionswhichthedebatetapped,whetherbecauseofan outpouringofsuppressedgriefasHowesuggestsorbecauseofotherconsiderationsaboutJewishidentity,demonstratedthedegreetowhichJewishnessremaineda sensitiveissue"(Bloom331). EichmanninJerusalempulledtherugoutfromundertheNewYorkIntellectualsinatleasttwoimportantways:itrobbedthemofaneasypositionforjustifyingor rationalizingthecontradictionsintheirpoliticalodysseyfromtheTrotskyitedaysoftheiryouthtothequasiMcCarthyitedaysoftheirmiddleage.Italsorobbedthem ofeasyaccesstoasimplified,purifiedJewishgoodness:itmadethemthinkaboutthecomplexitiesandtragicchoicesfacedbyJewsduringtheHolocaust,ratherthan allowingthemtoreappropriatealesstroublesome,moreromanticversionofJewishidentity.Jewswerehumanbeingsand,assuch,flawedaswellasadmirable.Ina word,ArendtmadetheHolocaustreal,ratherthanmythicalorideological.TheNewYorkIntellectualsturnedonHannahArendtforwritingEichmanninJerusalem, becausethebookmadethemthinkabouttheirrelationshiptotheirJewishness,andtheirconservatism.Shehadacredibilitytheycouldnothavewithregardtothe Holocaust,andnowshewasnotpermittingeasyaccesstotheoversimplifiedmoralandpoliticalcategorieswhichwouldhaveenabledthem,andothers,to characterizetheirearlierbehaviorasmoral.NotalltheJewshadbehavedadmirably,shesuggested,andmanyoftheNazismayhavebeen"ordinary,"mindless bureaucrats,ratherthancrazed,antiSemitickillers.13Thecomplexityofhercategoriesprovedtoostressfulfortheseintellectuals,whowere,ineffect,"bornagain Jews,"andwhocravedsimplicityforthecategoriesofgoodandevil. ThissoundslikeenoughtoexplaintheexcessivelyvitriolicreactiontoEichmanninJerusalemCantherebemore?

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Chapter5 Race,GenderandJudaism:TheEichmannControversyasCaseStudy
IsraeliguiltandembarrassmentoverlackofactionandpowerlessnessagainsttheNazis,aswellasovertheircontemptfortheHolocaustvictimsNewYorkJewish IntellectualguiltovertheiravoidanceoftheHolocaust:thesewouldseemtobesufficienttoaccountfortheexcessiveresponsetoArendt'sEichmanninJerusalem. WhatcanadditionalprobingpossiblyaddtoanunderstandingoftheEichmanncontroversy? ImentionedpreviouslythattheNewYorkandIsraelicomplaintsaboutArendt's"betrayal"differedsomewhat.Thattheragehaddifferentsourcesisevidencedinthe differenttreatmentofHilberg'sandArendt'sbooks.TheNewYorkerswereprimarilyangryatArendt,whiletheyremainedforthemostpartrespectfulofRaul Hilberg'smonumentalTheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews,whichwaspublishedayearbeforeArendt'sreport,andmademanysimilarargumentsaboutthe Judenrate.1 TheIsraelisweremoreevenlyincensedatbothworks,squelchingtranslationofbothintoHebrew.2 ThisimpliesthattheIsraeliswereequallyupsetby Hilberg'sandArendt'sindiscretionatairingcontroversialJewishissuesoutsidethe"safe"confinesofIsraelastheJewishhomeland.Whileneitherscholarwasraising issuesthatwerenewtotheIsraelis,theywere,forthe

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firsttime,raisingthemoutsideIsrael.TheIsraelisweresensitivetothefactthattheirattitudeandresponsetotheHolocaustmaynothavebeenadequatebothHilberg andArendtaggravatedthattenderissue.TheNewYorkIntellectualsweresensitiveabouttheirJewishidentityaswellastheirbelatedandinadequateresponsetothe Holocaust.TheyhadastakeinArendt'searlierpositionabout"radicalevil,"aswesaw,butwererelativelyuntouchedbyHilberg'scriticismoftheEuropeanJewish leadership.ThustheirinitialresponsetoArendtwasmorevolatilethantoHilberg. Thereisanadditionaldimensionthatisobvious,butalsoeasytoavoidordeny.ArendtwasawomanraisingsensitiveissuesabouttheeffectivenessofIsraeliand NewYorkJewishmen.Shewasunawareofwriting"asawoman,"butIbelievethatishowheropinionswerereceived.Toclaimthatgendercannotpossiblyhave hadanythingtodowiththeresponsetoherreportonEichmannisadenialofthefirstorder.Maleoffensetakenatanoutspoken,"uppity,"or"sassy"womanis legendary,thestuffofhighandpopularculture,fromGreekandShakespeariandramatostandupcomedyandtelevisionsitcoms.Stereotypically,menwilltolerate criticismfromothermenandregardthesametalkfromawomanas"shrewishness"or''backtalk."Womenwhoarepublicly(orprivately)criticalofmen,especially prominentwellrespectedmen,riskarangeofcriticismfrom"naggingwives"to"castratingbitches."AnAmericanfirstladywithamindandopinionofherownis eitheradangerousconniver,orwearingthepantsinthefamily.Thatsuchawomanherselfmightactuallyaspiretohighofficeandpoliticalpowerisrarelyeven considered.Awomaninprivatelifewhovaluesherownideasasmuchasherhusband'smay"drivehimtodrink,"ortootherwomen. ButitisnotadequatetogeneralizefromstereotypestotheparticularcaseofHannahArendt'stroublewithJewishmeninNewYorkandIsrael.Thefactthatshewas awoman,andsofarasIknow,theonlywoman,whospokeoutcriticallyandpubliclyonthisemotionallyladenissue,wherethepartiesresponsiblefordecisionswere primarilymen,isanobviousfact.Theimplicationsofthissituationarelessobvious,andgender

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asafactorintheEichmanncontroversyneedstobecarefullyestablished.Toavoidsuspense,letmestateattheoutsetthatitismyhunchthatArendt'smoststrident critics,thePartisanReviewcrowdinNewYork,andBenGurionandtheMapaiinIsrael,feltnotonlyguiltyandpowerlessabouttheirresponsestotheHolocaust, but"unmanned"bythepoweroftheNazisandwhatappearedtobethecollusionofmostoftheWesternworldinthefaceoftheslaughteroftheEuropeanJews. WhenHannahArendt,awoman,andatoughtalking(ortoughwriting)refugeefromthehellthathadbeenEurope,seemedtobequestioningthebehaviorofthe (male)leadershipinEuropeandpostwarJerusalem,itwasasthoughshewereexposingthemeninalltheirweakness,aweaknessthatwasexperiencedbythemas impotence,asspecificallymalesexualpowerlessness.Whilethemenmayhavequarreledamongthemselvesabouthowtorespondduringandafterthewar,andhad oftenbeenunsparingintheircriticismsofeachother,bothacrossinternationalboundariesandwithintheNewYorkIntellectualandtheZionistcommunities,hearing thesamecriticismfromawomanwasintolerable,tantamounttoforcingthemtoreexperiencetheirimpotenceinfrontofa"mixed"audience. Ontheirownmerit,Arendt'sargumentsundoubtedlywouldhavedrawncriticism,evenifamanhadwrittenthem.Butthesamecontroversyinitiatedbyamanwould nothavebeensoonesided.Arendt'sJewishcriticsattackedherlikeaninfuriatedmob,whileafewgallantgentstriedtorescueher,oratleastarguethatsheshould bespared.HadamanwrittenEichmanninJerusalem,therewouldhavebeentwovolatilesidestotheissue,justastherehadbeentothemajorJewishissuesofthe previoustwodecades:negotiatewiththeNazisornot?Armedresistanceorsurvivaltactics?Thosebattleswerefierceandhardfought,buttherewasa"criticalmass" ofopiniononbothsides.ThatArendtwastheonlywomantocriticizetheentirelymaleleadershipofbothEuropeanandIsraeliJudaism,andthatshedrewsomuch universallyseverecriticismfrommenwhohaddisagreedwitheachotheronotherimportantissues,pointstoaroleforgenderincatalyzingtheirrage.

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ButwhyshouldtheJewishmeninIsraelandAmericahavebeensovulnerableastoexperiencepubliccriticismonapoliticalissueasasexuallychargedthreat?To answerthiswemustexplorethescholarshiponJudaismandsexuality. NazisandSexuality TherehavebeenseveralexcellentstudiesofJudaismandsexuality,fromavarietyofperspectives,rangingfromstudiesofBiblicalandEuropeanhistoryto contemporarygenderpoliticsandfilmstudies.Allpresupposeonsomelevelthesignificanceofthephallusassymbol,andthusaremoreorlesspsychoanalyticin approach.Weshallconsidervariousapproachestothe"problem"ofJewishmasculinityinthissectionthenlookatrecentworkonJewishwomanhoodandfinally returntobothNewYorkandIsraelforagenderedinterpretationoftheEichmanncontroversy. GeorgeMosse,inhishighlyrespectedNationalismandSexualityidentifiestheoriginsofmoderngenderstereotyping,andparticularlytheneedforamale dominatedgenderhierarchy,withtheriseofthemodernnationstate.3 Hedescribeshisprojectas"Analyzingtherelationshipbetweennationalismandrespectability. ..tracingthedevelopmentofsomeofthemostimportantnormsthathaveinformedoursociety:idealsofmanliness,whichwillloomsolargeinthesepagesandtheir effectontheplaceofwomenandinsiderswhohaveacceptedthenorms,ascomparedtotheoutsiders,thoseconsideredabnormalordiseased"(Mosse1).The nationstatewastheorderingprincipleofthe(posteighteenthcentury)modernworld,and"respectability,"whichinvolvedsexualnormsanddefinitionsof"normal'' and"abnormal"behavior,theorderingprincipleofsocietywithinthenationstate.MossefocusesmostofhisattentionupontheGermans,payingsomeattentionalsoto theEnglishandconsiderablylesstotheFrenchandItalians.Jewishmencametorepresent"abnormality"intermsoftheemergingGermandefinitionofmaleness,as didhomosexuals,andwomenwhodidnotconformtotheirprescribedroles. GermanmanlinessattheturnofthecenturywasarevivalofanidealizedprojectionaboutclassicalGreekmasculin

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ity."ThepresentdayGermansandtheancientGreekswereconsideredthetwinpillarsoftheAryanrace"(Mosse171).ButinGermanhands,theGreekidealof nudemaleyouthandbeautybecamedeeroticized,desexualized,abstractedanduniversalized.ThepassionateErosdescribedin,forexample,Plato'sSymposium hadnoplaceintheGermanconceptofmanhood.WhilewomenwereexcludedutterlyfromtheGermanideal,theexclusivelymalecompanywasnotallowedto indulgeinevenahintofhomoeroticpleasure.Manlinesswas,asanideal,atleast,abouttheabsenceofsexualpassion.4 Incontrasttothelithe,athletic,dynamicGreekmale,Europeannationalwomanhoodwasrepresentedbymediaevalimages:seatedwomen,drapedratherthannaked, bothvirginalandmaternal,piousandsedate,andnotsexual.Women"stoodforimmutabilityratherthanprogress,providingthebackdropagainstwhichmen determinedthefateofnations."5 Asthemoderneradawnedandtheworldbecamenewlyordered,"nationalismandrespectabilityassignedeveryonehisplaceinlife, manandwoman,normalandabnormal,nativeandforeigneranyconfusionbetweenthesecategoriesthreatenedchaosandlossofcontrol"(Mosse16). Theassociationofracismandoppressionwithsexualityisnotunfamiliar:literatureonwhiteChristiangenocideagainstnativeAmericans,andonantiblackracismin theUnitedStates,issuffusedwiththeoriesabouttheinseparabilityofracismandsexualoppression.ButMossearguesthattheassociationisnotsomuchuniversalas historical:asnationalismarosesodidaparticularformofgenderstereotyping,andaprescriptionforsexualitythatwouldpermittheorderingofsocietyinto respectableandunrespectablecategoriesofhumanbeings.Mosseviewsracismasanintensifiedformofnationalism,with"normal"sexualityanimportantcomponent oftheraciststance.
Thestereotypeddepictionofsexual"degenerates"wastransferredalmostintacttothe"inferiorraces"whoinspiredthesamefears.Theseraces,too,weresaidtodisplayalackof moralityandageneralabsenceofselfdiscipline.Blacks,andthenJews,wereendowedwithexcessivesexuality,withasocalledfemalesensuousnessthattransformedloveinto lust.Theylackedallmanliness.Jewsasagroupweresaidtoexhibit

Page114 femaletraits,justashomosexualsweregenerallyconsideredeffeminate.(Mosse36)

TheGermanyouthmovementspawnedin1901,startedbyagroupofBerlinschoolboys,quicklygainedpopularityasatraininggroundformannerstaat,thestateas anexpressionofmanliness.Boyswereencouragedtodevelopcloseknitgroups,toroamthecountrysidewithoutadultsupervision,andtocreatetheirownmodeof life,Wandervogelin.Encouragingteenageboystofindtheirownformsofunsupervisedamusementsmaystrikethecontemporaryadultasafoolhardy,perhapseven perversewaytobuildanation.Andindeed,Germannationalisminthetwentiethcenturymayunwittinglyprovideacasestudyofwhatmayhappenwhenadolescent boysbeingpushedtobe"manly"createaworldaftertheirownimage.Mossetellsusthat"Theoldercomradesandadultleaderspresenteditasaquestforthe 'genuine'innatureandthenationasaneliteofmalesthatwouldgiveafreshimpulsetoGermannationalconsciousness"(Mosse45). IdealizingthenudeGreekbody,andencouragingGermanteenageboystoroamthecountrysidesearchingformanhoodinthepurityofnaturewasaninvitationto trouble,iftheGermanidealofmanlinessalsoprecludedsexuality.Worshipingthenudemalebodyinnatureseemedprecariouslyclosetowhat"abnormal" homosexualsandtheurban"decadents,"artisticyoungmenandwomeninEuropeancitiesaroundtheturnofthecentury,mightbedoing. ThelinemaintainedinordertoidealizetheexclusivecommunityofGermanmaleyouthswithoutpromotingeroticismorhomosexualitywas,tosaytheleast,afineone. Itrequirednotonlytheavailabilityof"nature"asasetting,butastridentandconstantdistinctionbetweennormalmenandwomen,ontheonehand,and"abnormals," ontheother.Germanyouthsweretoenjoytheirnudityonlyinanaturalcontext,whereasthedecadentsofthe''unnatural"citiesweredefinedasabnormal."What countedintheendwasthe'framing'ofthenudebodybynature....Nudityasdistinctfrommerelackofclothesmustberepresentedaspartofthepure,reverential contemplationofnature"(Mosse57).

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MossedescribestheattempttoeaseGermananxietyaboutsexualboundariesbystressingexaggerateddifferencesbetweenthesexesandtheirintendedcontributions tothewellbeingofthenation.Predictably,themenwerepresentedasdynamic,warriors,nationbuilders,while"Germanwomanhoodwaspraised[as]...the priestessofthebattlefield,themaidenwiththeshield,thespiritthatawaitsamasculineleadernorelationtothesoldiergirlfightingwithgunandcannoninamodern army"(Mosse101).Butwithsomuchatstake,andboundariessoessentiallyshaky,simplydefiningwomenasotherwasinsufficient,givingrisetoanevenmore stridenthatredof"active"women."Thosewhodidnotliveuptotheidealwereperceivedasamenacetosocietyandthenation,threateningtheestablishedorderthey wereintendedtouphold.Hencethedeephatredforwomenasrevolutionaryfigures,almostsurpassingthedisdainwhichestablishedsocietyreservedformale revolutionaries"(Mosse90).Whatwasthreateningwasthecrossingofboundaries,andthethreateneddestructionoforder."Menwerealwaysuneasyaboutwomen whocrossedoverintotheworldofmasculinity.Thesewerethoughttobe'modernwomen'ofanindependentcastofmind"(Mosse102). ButwhatdoesthisdescriptionofChristianEuropeansexualpathologyhavetodowithourunderstandingoftheJewishmalereactiontoHannahArendtand EichmanninJerusalem?Inthemindofaparanoid,aperceivedthreatinthiscase,thethreatoflosingone'smasculinitycannotbecontainedbycontrollingonly oneportionoftheworldinthiscase,women.Themalecommunitythatwastosymbolizethenationfeltvulnerablenotonlytoassaultsfromactivewomen,butfrom othersexualdeviants.Germanmanhoodfeltthreatenedbyhomosexuals,certainly,butalsobyeffeminatemen:Jews.Racism,whichinthiscontextcancertainlybe regardedasanexaggeratedformofnationalism,needsvisibletargetsagainstwhichtodefineone'sownsenseofprivilege. Onemightbetempted,naively,towonderwhyJewishmenwhofoundthemselvesidentifiedwithwomenandhomosexualsbyracist,sexistNazis,shouldn'thave developedasenseof

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solidarity,ofsharedvictimhoodwithJewishwomenatleast.Butourcenturyofracism,sexism,andhomophobiahastaughtusthatsuchanoutcomeisunlikely.The victimsareneverentirelyfreeofthetemptationtoidentifywithoradmiretheiroppressors,asawayofescapingtheunattractivenessoftheirvictimhood.Forexample, manycontemporaryblackfeministsarguethatAfricanAmericanmenlearnedaboutpatriarchyandsexismfromtheirwhitepatriarchalslavemasters:learningto oppresswomenwasawayofidentifyingwithsomeofthepowerofthemaster,atthesametimeitmaintaininedtheorderedhierarchyoftheracegendersystem.6 Likewise,althoughtheNazisdidnotencourageJewstocolludeintheoppressionofJewishwomenindeed,theyattemptedtoemasculateJewishmeninawaythat whitemenhavebeenaccusedofattemptingtodotoblackmenforJewishmen,identifyingwiththeGermannationalisticmodelofmasculinitywasoneavenueof escapefromtheirsenseofvictimhood.

GermanJews,forexample,wereproudtobebothGermanandJewish,anduntilthevictoryofNationalSocialism,manyGermansacceptedthatclaim.Yetevenhere,therewasa priceofadmission.Asrabbispreachedthevirtuesofselfcontrol,chastity,andmanlybearing,Jewsweretobecome"respectable"andabandonanysignsoftheirghettopast.... Assimilationalwaysincludedaflightfromaformeridentity.(Mosse187)

Internalcontradictionsintheirideologywerenotaproblemfortheracists.WhileJewishmenwereregardedbytheGermansaseffeminate,likewomenor homosexuals,theywerenotusuallyaccusedofbeinghomosexuals.Instead,theywereregardedasasexualthreat,preyingupongentilewomen.Thismayhavebeen consistentwiththedefinitionoffemininityaslackingcontroloverone'spassions,butreconcilingtheaccusationsofsexualproclivitiestowardChristianwomenwiththe accusationsofeffeminacyandhomosexualitytooksomestretching.ItwasalsoinconflictwithwhateventheGermanshadtoadmit:Jewshadastrongfamilylife,and wereactually"respectable"inthemiddleclasswaysovaluedbyGermansociety.

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Themeansbywhichtoreconcilesomanycontradictionswas,perhapsnotsurprisingly,aconspiracytheory.TheJews'"uncontrolledsexualdrivedirectedagainst gentilewomen"wasaimedat"corrupt(ing)thenation'smothers,thuspreventingthebirthofhealthychildren.MoreoverJewswereaccusedofinventingbirthcontrol anothermeansofdestroyingtheAryanrace"(Mosse140).7 Jewswere,simultaneously,accusedofspreadinghomosexualitythroughoutAryansociety,asyet anotherwayofattainingculturaldominanceinGermanybydecimatingtheAryanrace. SomeofthefuelforthistheorywasprovidedbyaJew,OttoWeininger,whoseSexandCharacter(1903),oneofthemostinfluentialracialtractsofthetwentieth century,"profoundlyaffect(ed)theviewsofAdolfHitlerandmanyotherracists"(Mosse145).Weiningerwasaselfhatingracist,andaragingmisogynist.Heargued thatwomen"weretotallypreoccupiedwiththeirsexuality,whereasmenknewhowtobesocial,howtofight,howtodebateunderstoodscience,commerce, religion,andart.Womennevergrewtomaturity"(Mosse145).Jews,inWeininger'sopinion,werelikewomen,possessingnomoralsense,knowingonlysexual passion.Weiningercommittedsuicideshortlyafterhisbookwaspublished. WeiningerwasnotaGermannationalist.ButHitlerwas,andsowasHeinrichHimmler.Weininger'sviewsofthesexualdangersposedbyeffeminate,lustfulJewish men,aswellasadeepfearofhomosexuals,playedadynamicroleinNaziideology.Himmlerwasthedrivingforcebehindthepersecutionofhomosexualsduringthe ThirdReich,whichincludedthedeathpenaltyforanymanwhokissedanotherman.InNovember1937,Himmlerdeliveredaspeechonsexuality,inwhichhe advocatedexpellingmembersoftheSSwhobehavedrudelyordranktoomuch,commandedhismentomarrytoproduceAryanchildren,andadvocatedprostitution asacorrectivetotheabsenceoffemininecontactinthemilitary,aswellasanotherwayofproducingGermanchildren.Therecommendationtovisitprostituteswas actuallyinconflictwithHitler'sviews,whichtendedtowardamorethoroughrepressionofany

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sexualactivityoutsideofmarriage.Himmlerconcludedhis1937speechwithafuriousdenouncementofhomosexuals,remindinghisaudiencethat"Germanyisa masculinestate....TherehavebeenmatriarchiesandAmazonstates,but'forcenturies,yea,millennia,theGermans...havebeenruledasaMannerstaat'"(Mosse 167).Heremindedhisaudiencethat"TheconspiracyofhomosexualsmustbeviewedsidebysidewiththeworldJewishconspiracy....Botharebentondestroying theGermanstateandraceastheimplacableenemiesofGermanvirtueandpurposeofwill"(Mosse168).8 Itiseasyenoughtoseethatanationcapableofcommittingracistgenocidewouldlikelyhaveother"problem"areasincludingsexuality.Itismoredifficultto acknowledgethattheproblemsafflictingNaziGermanymightalsocharacterizesanercultures,suchasourown.AsMosseputsitintheconclusiontohisbook,"What beganasbourgeoismoralityintheeighteenthcentury,intheendbecameeveryone'smorality"(Mosse191).WhilethespecificGermandangerappearstobeover, nationalismcertainlyisnot.Andsothequestionofthelinksbetweenracism,sexism,andnationalismremain.Sexismisanessentialcomponentofracism.The accusationsthatthemenofacertaincultureareeither"notmasculineenough"orhaveexcessivesexualurges,areindispensablecomponentsofthemechanismof racism.Thecycleofoppressioniscompleted,bothraciallyandsexually,onlywhenthemenandwomenofanoppressedgrouparepittedagainstoneanotherbecause themenbelievetheyshouldbemasculineinthesamewaytheyregardtheiroppressorstobe.Thevictimsthusthemselvesbecomeoppressors,inahierarchyofsexual andracialdominationasinclusiveasthefoodchain.Removeeithersexismorracismfromtheworldandtheotherwillalsowitheranddie. TheEichmanncontroversycanteachusaboutthetragicconsequencesoftheinternalizationofracismasitconvertsfeelingsofguiltandinadequacyintorage,which eruptsintheformofsexism.SowemustturnnowtoadiscussionthatwillbemuchmoredisturbingthandiscussingtheNazis'sexualobsessions.Weconsiderthe extenttowhichJewishmenmay

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haveinternalizedideasaboutmasculinitythatcomefromaChristiannationalistculture,andtoconsiderwhetherthetreatmentHannahArendtreceivedmaybean exampleofhowracistdefinitionsofsexualityareinternalized,founddiscomfiting,andfinallyexternalizedintheformofaggressionagainst"masculine"women. Racism,Sexism,andJewishMasculinity SomescholarstreatingthethemeofJudaismandmasculinitylocatethesourcesoftheproblemdeeperinthepsyche,andfurtherbackinJewishhistory.The psychoanalyticapproachtothestudyofJewishmenandculturalmasculinityregardsJewishcircumcisionasasymboliccastration,whichhas"always"createddifficulty forJewishmeninrelationtononJewishmen.Thismayseemanesotericandessentialistapproach,perhapsnotasrelevanttoourconcernsasamorestraightforward historicaldiscussionof,forexample,politicalpowerlessnessasanundermininginfluenceforJewishmen(andwomen).Butifwewanttounderstandtherelationship betweenantiSemiticracismandthepublicdisempowermentofJewishwomenaswellasmen,aninvestigationintothehagiographyofsexualsymbolismis appropriate. Thephallusitselfisnotauniversaloressentialistimage,butrathersomethingwithitsownhistory.Yetmystificationofthephallusissopervasive,andsosymptomatic oftheproblemofaphallusworshipingculture,thatweforget,asMarxsaidinreferencetothemystificationofcapitalandfetishismofcommodities,thatweourselves createdit.9 Innature,thereisnosuchthingasa"phallus." DanielBoyarinarguesthatthroughoutJewishhistory,Jewishmenhavehadtorespondtothe"problem"ofthe"Jewascastrated":"Itiscircumcisionthatmostfully inscribesJewsasnonmale."10Thesenseofdifferentness,thespecialnessoftheJewishmalerelationshiptoGodembodiedincircumcisionmayrequiretheexistenceof goyimas"other,"butthat''other"hasalsohistoricallyhadmorepower.Howthatpowermayhavebecomeassociatedwiththepenis,therebycreatingthephal

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lus,isaquestionthatgoestotheheartofpsychoanalyticfeminism.Howdidmaleprivilegeandpowerbecomeassociatedwiththephallus?Thereisabundantfeminist literatureonthesubject.11Forthepurposesofourdiscussionhere,itwillhavetosufficethatthestartlinginsightthatnomanactuallypossessesa"phallus,"reveals ourunintentionalparticipationinperpetuatingthemythofitspower. Boyarin'sargumentisthatJewishmenparticipateinthe(gentile)mythofaphallus,andtheresultingfeelingofinadequacythattheydon'tpossessit.Theysufferfrom "phallusenvy,"muchasFreudarguedthatwomensufferfrom"penisenvy."Indeed,BoyarinwouldhaveusunderstandthatFreudcreatedthemythoffemalepenis envyasadiversionfromthemorecentralproblemhehimselfexperienced:envyofthegentilephallus,orinthepreFreudianterminologyofhisday,envyofthepower ofthegoyim.''Phallusenvy"pushesJewishmenintwodirections.First,atleastunconsciously,Jewishmendesiretobemorelikethegoyim.ModernZionismmaybe viewedastheculminationofthiswish,whichhasmanifesteditselfthroughouttheagesasinstancesofJewishmilitancyandviolentresistance.AdvocacyofJewish violenceisanimitationofnonJewishbehavior,contrarytotheteachingsofJewishtradition.Secondly,aswithanymenwhodoubttheirmasculinity,thereisadesire foreverclearerdistinctionsbetweenthemselvesandtheirwomen.IntheJewishtradition,thisneedreceivesitsultimateexpressioninthecultureofTalmudicstudy, andthecompletegendersegregationoforthodoxJewishworship.ThusfromtheverybeginningofJewishhistorylongenoughagotomakeitappearalmost essentialistJewsenviedthepoweroftheiroppressors,perceivedinexplicitlymaleterms,andsoughttocompensatebyappropriatingtheirviolentbehavior,and segregatingthemselvesasfullyaspossiblefromJewishwomen. ThecircumcisedpenisthusevokesunconsciousfearsofcastrationinJewishmen,demandscompensatorymaleactivities,andmayaccountfortheexclusionofwomen fromthemostsacredaspectsofJewishlife.Jewishmeninagentileworldneedwaysofreassuringthemselvesoftheirintactmaleness,

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andthestudyofTorah"isthequintessentialperformanceofJewishmaleness."Talmudicstudyischaracterizedbyhomosocialbondingandthe"inscriptionofsex throughgenderdifferentiatingpractice."
TheHouseofStudywasthustheJewishequivalentofthelockerroom,barracks,orthewarshipandcomparethehistoricallysimilartaboosonthepresenceofwomeninthose environments....Theperformanceofmalenessthroughstudybecameparticularlyfraught,Isuggest,preciselybecausethisperformancewasreadasfemaleinthecultural environmentwithinwhichEuropeanJewslivedfromtheRomanperiodonward.(Boyarin78)

SigmundFreud,farfromnamingJewishmalecastrationanxiety,providesfurtherevidenceofitwithhispsychoanalytictheory.Freuddidnotexposefortheworlda gentilepreoccupationwithmasculinitythatneededanemasculatedJewish"Other."Rather,hedescribedtheuniversalityofphallusworshipand"Oedipal"conflict, thusassociatingJewishproblemswithgentilemasculinity.FromFreud'sperspective,Jewsandgentilessharethesamegenderproblems!BoyarinregardstheOedipus complexas"anactofrepression/overcoming."12AtthecenterofhistheoryFreudplaced''anactive,phallic,motherdesiring,fatherkilling'normal'(thatis,gentile) man"(Boyarin311).Freud's(unconscious)wishtobelikethegoyimisexpressedinplacingaviolentgentileinsidethe"normal"unconsciousofeveryJewishman. ZionismisanotheraspectoftheJewishresponsetoenvyofthegentilephallus.Freud,Mosse,Boyarin,andasweshallsoonsee,PaulBreines,regardZionismasa psychosexualasmuchasapoliticalmovement:aneffortonthepartofJewstoregainlostmasculinityonanexplicitlyEuropeangentilemodel.AsGeorgeMosse observes"Zionistsandassimilationistssharedthesameideaofmanliness."13BoyarinconcursthatZionism"istrulythemostprofoundsortofassimilationism,onein whichJewsbecomelikeallthenations"(Boyarin368)."TheprojectoftheseZionistswaspreciselytotransformJewishmenintothetypeofmalethattheyadmired, namely,the'Aryan'male.IfthepoliticalprojectofZionismwastobea

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nationlikeallothernations,onthelevelofreformoftheJewishpsycheitwastobemenlikeallothermen"(369). TheparadoxisthatZionistsexplicitlyjustifiedtheneedforaJewishstateintermsofJewishOtherness:ZionisminsiststhatJewsareunlikegentiles,andwillneverbe acceptedingentilesociety.Butinneedingtheirownlandtodominate,ZionistsfellvictimtothedominatinginfluenceofmasculinistEuropeanbehavior.Thenationalist stancetowardterritorywas,ineffect,animitationofAryandomination.InFreudianterms,theZionistresponsetoantiSemitismwas"theerectionofastate"asan antidotetotheemasculatingwoundofcircumcision.TheextensionofthisattempttomasculinizeJewsultimatelymanifesteditselfinthecontemptuousIsraeliattitude towardthevictimsoftheHolocaustwhich,ifweremembertheinsightsofIsraeliparatrooperJoelPalgianduseof"sabon,"or"soap"torefertothevictims,came closetoidentificationwiththeoppressorinitsaffirmationofJewishweakness.Itdemandedheroicdeathratherthan''mere"survival.14 EuropeanChristianitythusmayclaimcreditfortheinventionofthephallus.InBoyarin'sterms,thephallusistheverysymbolofthemythicalpowersoftheGoyim notpartofJewishcultureandJewishmalephallusenvyisreallyawishtobeaChristian,awishforassimilation,aselfdestructiveimpulse.Inhisview,bothZionism andtheattemptto"masculinize"Jewsbybuildingmusclesaremisguidedattemptstoapeoppressivebehavior.Judaismoffersatraditionofgentle,civilizedmenwho shouldnotcompensatebyinsistinguponanexaggeratedcontrastbetweenthemselvesandwomen,orapologizefortheirgentlenessorpassivity.Boyarinvaluesthe JewishtalentforsurvivaldevelopedoverthemillenniaheregardsallresistanceandmilitancyinJewishhistoryasundesirable,attemptstoimitateJewishoppressors. Hisargumentisintriguing,althoughitrunstheriskofessentialism:areJews,in"essence"(fourmillenniaofhistoryrendersmootthedistinctionbetweennatureand history)different,morepassiveandpeaceful,thanothermen? PaulBreinesoffersadifferentperspectiveonthesubjectofJewishmasculinity,focusingonAmericanpopularculture

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inthetwentiethcentury,andZionistpoliticsinIsrael.15BreinesavoidsBoyarin'stendencytowardessentialismwithhisinsistencethatJewishmenarenotsodifferent fromothermen.Jewshaverespondedtosituationsthroughouthistorybothpassivelyandactively,andintheirhistoryhaveutilizedbothmilitancyandpassivityas meansofsurvival."Jewswilldo,sotospeak,whatamanhasgottodowhenfacedwiththeopportunityfortoughnesstheywillbeastoughastheproverbialnext guy"(Breines49).ThusforBreines,itispuzzlingthatthenonviolentimageofJewishmenistheonethathasprevailed,andthatinthepopularimagination,Jewishmen aregentleandfrail,less"masculine"thanothermen."Therehavealsoalwaysbeentough,fightingJews,''hardlyanaberrationfrom"authentic"Jewishbehavior (Breines49). Breinesdoesnotanswerthequestionwhy,withtwotraditionsofJewishmalebehavior,includingmilitancy,Jewishmenhavea"masculinity"problem:theyare perceived,andalsoperceivethemselvestobeless"manly"thanthegoyim.ButhedoesproposeatheoryforthegenderingofrecentZionisthistory.TheSixDayWar of1967,andtoalesserextent,theYomKippurWarof1973,dramaticallychangedJewishselfperceptionforthefirsttimeinrecenthistory,andmarkedadramatic reversalfromtheselfloathingcausedbytheimageoftheHolocaustvictimsinJewishconsciousness.16Thesetwowarshaveledtoarenewed"revisionist"interestin Jewishhistoryandliterature,asJewishhistoryisreinterpretedwithanemphasison"tough"Jewishimages. BothBreinesandBoyarinregardFreudasanimportantguidetounconsciousattitudesaboutJewishmasculinity,althoughnothiscelebratedpsychoanalytictheoryas such,butFreud'sowninvolvementwithJewishmalefeelingsofinadequacyanddesiretoberelievedofthem.TheyfocusuponFreud'srelationshiptohisownJudaism andmasculinity,andutilizethenowfamous"hatinthemud"storyrecountedbyFreudinhisInterpretationofDreams.WhenFreud'sfatherwasaboy,ananti Semiticbullyknockedhisnewhatintothemudandshouted,"Jew,getoffthesidewalk!"JakobFreudtoldthisstorytohisyoungsonSigmund,whodemandedto knowhow

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hisfatherhadresponded.Thefatherrecountedthathehadpickeduphishatandwalkedon,withoutdefendinghimselforconfrontingtheantiSemite.InThe InterpretationofDreams,Freudrelateshisprofounddisappointmentinhisfather'sresponse.Hewouldhavepreferredthathisfatherhadstoodupforhimselfina moremanlyfashion. BoyarinusesthestoryasademonstrationofFreud's"phallusenvy":hisunequivocaldiscomfortwithhisfather's"feminine"passivityinthefaceoftheantiSemiticbully. Incontrast,Breines,followingcloseanalysisofthelanguageofFreud'saccountoftheincidentinTheInterpretationofDreams,believesthatFreud'sresponsewas essentiallyambivalent,revealingthetensionbetweenthetwotraditions,aggressionandpassivity,thatcharacterizesJewishmasculineexperiencethroughouthistory. Freudbothwishedthathisfatherhadrespondedmoreaggressively(theassimilationiststance)andknewthatJewishteachingfrownsuponviolence,eveninresponse torude,butnotovertlydangerous,antiSemiticbehavior(the"Jewish''stance).Theassimilationistwouldhavefoughtbackthemore"Jewish"stancewastodowhat JakobFreudactuallydid,pickuphishatandwalkon,notallowingthebrutishnessoftheantiSemitetodeterminehisownbehavior. BreinesseesinSigmundFreud'sambivalence,theavailabilityofbothstances:Theemphasisonnonviolenceasthemostmoral,profoundlyJewishstance,aswellasat timesthemostprudentwayofpromotingsurvivalinahostileworldandthemoremilitantfightingstancethatJewshavehadtoassumefromtimetotimethroughout theirbeleagueredhistory.Hebelievesthereisno"essential"JewishnatureneithertoughnorgentlebutthatbothimagesofJewishmenhaveexistedsincethe beginningofJewishhistory,andthatambivalenceisthemostcharacteristicJewishstancetowardtheconflictbetweentoughnessandgentleness.Breinesdescribeshis ownambivalence:adesiretoavoidappearing"feminine,"existingalongsideareverencefortheTalmudicteachingsofnonviolence,anawarenessthatnonviolenceis "moremoral."ReferringtoFreud,andotherJewswhohavebeeninfluentialinhislife(I.B.Singer,PhilipRoth,andhisfatherarecited)Breines

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notes,"Weareall(Jewish)menwhodonotwanttoappeartobewomen"(Breines36)."Atthatverymomentwhenambivalence,basictohisJewishness,wasmost poignantlyondisplayFreudwasathismostJewish.AsImaywellbeinmakingthepoint"(Breines41). InBreines'sview,Freud'sattitudetowardZionism,andalsotowardhisfriendTheodorHerzl,isfurtherevidenceofFreud'suncertaintyabouttheaggressivemasculine stance.FreudregardedHerzlasbothadmirableanddangerous.HedistancedhisownworkfromHerzl's,asrevealedinalettertoHerzl'sson:"Yourfatherisoneof thosepeoplewhohaveturneddreamsintoreality.Thisisaveryrareanddangerousbreed.ItincludestheGaribaldi's...theHerzl's....Iwouldsimplycallthemthe sharpestopponentsofmyscientificwork"(Breines31).Thescientificworkhereferredtowastheinterpretationofdreams.Asaphysicianandanalyst,Freudstudied dreams,wheremenlikeHerzlattemptedtomakethemcometrue."Idealinpsychoanalysis,theydealinpsychosynthesis"(Breines32). BreinesremindsusthattheJewishmaledilemmaaboutmasculinitybearsconsequencesforJewishwomen.Inthepreoccupationwithdefiningmaleness,Jewish womendisappear,asdononJewishmenwhoarenotantiSemiticaggressors.Theassumptionthat"real"menarebig,strong,andcombative,andnotJewish, reducestheworldtoonly"weak"Jewsand"strong"gentiles,overlookingthepossibilityofstrongJewishwomenandnonJewishmenwhoarenotantiSemites.17 WhatwouldhavehappenedhadanonJewishpasserbywitnessedtheinsulttoFreud'sfather,pickedupandreturnedJakobFreud'shat,withapologiesforthe appallingconductoftheantiSemite,perhapsevenberatingtheaggressorforhisignoranceandboorishness?WhatifaJewishgirlhadcomealong,beratedthebully forhisignoranceandboorishness,senthimonhisway,andreturnedthehattoyoungJakobFreud?ThedichotomybetweenJewand"heman"ortoughguyinstantly disappears. BoyarinarguesthatTheodorHerzlwasdriventobecome"TheFatherofModernZionism"outofadesiretobeliketheEuropeangoyim,andregardstheargument forthe"necessity"

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ofthestateofIsraelasaresponsetoGermanantiSemitism:anopportunityforJewstohaveastateoftheirownwheretheycouldbejustasaggressiveand imperialisticastheEuropeans.Breinestoohasgravereservationsaboutthemasculine,aggressiveformZionismhastaken.BothNationalismandSocialism,thetwo componentsofthewordNazi,arepowerfulforcesinIsrael,givingsomecredencetoBoyarin'smoreextremeinsistencethatZionismisanimitationoftheworstthe WesternEuropeantraditionhastooffer:racialchauvinismandimperialism.ThesocialistaspectoftheIsraelisettlement,manifestedinlaborZionism,mayseembenign incomparisontonationalismandimperialism,butBreinesiseffectiveinidentifyingitwithmasculinistpolitics,asweshallseewhenwereturntoadiscussionofthe NewYorkIntellectuals'socialistpolitics. Breinesalsoregardsthe"need"forastateasamasculiniststance."ZionismhasbeenstraightforwardinitscontentionthataJewishstateisthekeytothenormalization oftheJewishsituationandthattheabnormalityoftheJewswasapoliticalproblemcausedbystatelessness.Andstatelessness,accordingtoZionism,isthecauseof meekness,frailty,passivity,humiliation"(Breines47).Indeed,inthetermsbeingdevelopedhere,totheextentthatHannahArendtarguesforthenecessityofthe politicalstateasavehicleforendowingtheindividualwithidentity,she,too,is"masculinist"inherthinking.BreinessuggeststhatArendt'sEichmanninJerusalemfed intothehysteriaoverwhetherJewshadbehavedinasufficientlymasculinefashionduringtheHolocaust.ArendtandBrunoBettelheim"raisedsimilarquestionsof JewishpassivityandweaknessinthefaceofNazibrutality"(Breines70).WehaveseenthatneitherArendtnorBettelheimraisedthequestions,rathertheywere alreadypreoccupationsoftheIsraelis.BreinesalsosuggeststhatsomeofthelaterrebuttalstoArendt(hecitespost1967studiesbyIsaiahTrunkandLucy Davidowicz)were''shapedbyashifttowardatoughJewishconsciousnessthathadbeensetinmotionbytheIsraelivictoryinJune,1967"(Breines81).From Breines'sperspective,bothArendt'sandBettelheim'squestionsaboutJewishresponsetotheHolocaustandthefuriousre

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sponseofJewsthroughouttheworld,wereinfluencedbyapreoccupationwithwhethertheJewishpeoplehadbehavedinasufficientlyactive,masculinefashion. ThatArendthadapenchantfortheactive"masculine"stanceinhistoryandpoliticsisnosecret.WhetherthatwaswhatwasoperativeinheranalysisoftheEichmann trialisanothermatter.ItistruethatsheadvocatedformationofaJewisharmytotakeitsplaceamongtheforcesalliedagainstHitler.InhisintriguingportraitofArendt entitled,"ISomehowDon'tFit"AnthonyHeilbrutdescribesheras"admittedlyradical,butinnowayMarxist,militantlyagitatingforaJewisharmybutwaryofa Jewishstate,shewasaEuropeanZionistrapidlydisabusedofherZionismthroughherexperienceofAmericanlife."18 TheIsraelistate,Breinesargues,actuallyembodiesthedoubleedgedJewishrelationshiptowardmilitancy.Justificationfortheexistenceofthestatecomesfromthe persecutionsufferedbytheJews.Zionism,inordertojustifyanarmed,militantstatecapableofdefendingJews,needstheimageofJewishvictimizationthroughout history,andmostdramaticallyduringtheHolocaust."ZionismisatonceadecisivebreakwiththetraditionsofJewishweaknessandgentlenessandalsonotso decisiveabreak:itrejectsmeeknessandgentlenessinfavorofthenormalcyoftoughness,whilepreservingtheoldertraditionoftheJewsasaspecialorchosen people,whichdependsonimageryofJewsasfrailvictims"(Breines50). ThusthereisscholarlyprecedentforregardingthecentralityofgenderasanissueforJewishmen."Masculinity"onagentilemodelinthetermsofthisdiscussion,isof supremevalueinWesternculture:itdefineswhatisadmirable.Mosse,Breines,andBoyarinallregardtheZioniststanceasselfconsciouslymasculinist,and unconsciouslyassimilationist.Foralltheirinsistenceonseparationfromthegentileworld,Zionistsaredefinedbythatworld,andseek,indesiringforJewstobea nation"likeallothernations,"tobe"justlikethegoyim":aggressive,selfcontained,obsessedwithdefenseandmilitarism,inaword,masculine.Masculinityis associatedwithChristianity,oratanyevent,withnonJudaism,andwecanbegintosee

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similaritiesintheproblemsfacedbyboththeZionistsandtheNewYorkIntellectuals:bothwerestrugglingwithassimilation,bothsoughttoescapethestigmaof femininityassociatedwithJewishmaleness.Assimilationwastheavenuetomalenessonagentilemodel. Assimilation,intheseterms,isgendered:itsachievementismaleness.ThemasculinityofassimilationiswhatunitesthepositionsoftheIsraelisandtheNewYorkJews andenablesustounderstandthegendereddimensiontotheattackonHannahArendtforEichmanninJerusalem. OneothersourceshouldbementionedonthesubjectofmasculinityandJudaismbeforereturningtothemanifestationofthesethemesinthebehaviorofthePartisan Revieweditors.DavidBiale'sdiscussioninErosandtheJewsof"culturalconstructions"stereotypesinIsraelandAmericafromthemidtwentiethcenturyonward willenableustofocusonmasculinityandZionismaswellasonAmericanJews.19Biale'schapteronAmericanpopularcultureandJewishsexualityfollowshis discussionof"ZionismasEroticRevolution,"soonceagainthecontrastbetweenIsraeliandDiasporaJewishmasculinityismade. ItisnosecretthatZionismintendedtobuildnewJewishbodies,andahealthierattitudetowardsexuality."Physicalstrength,youth,natureandsecularismwerethe constellationofZionistsymbolssetagainstthedegeneracy,oldage,andurbanandreligioussignsoftheexile.TobuildaJudaismwithmusclesmeanttocreatea secuallyhealthyJudaism"(Biale179).PostcardspublishedbyearlyZionistcongresses"typicallyfeaturedvirileyoungfarmersinPalestinecontrastedwitholdfrail OrthodoxJewsintheDiaspora"(Biale179).OnepopularsonginPalestineintheearlypartofthiscenturyclaimed"Wecametothelandtobuilditandbebuiltbyit," andBialeexplainsthatbeingbuiltbyitinvolvedusingagriculturallabortoreconstructbothbodyandpsyche. IfthereconstructionofmindandbodythroughphysicallaborsoundssomewhatGermanic,eveninaHegelianMarxiansense,theassociationisnotfaroff:theZionist youthmovementwasinfluencedbytheideasoftheGermanWandervogel,

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theneoromanticGermanyouthmovement,eventhoughtheWandervogelwasfrequentlyantiSemitic,andaprecursortotheNaziyouthmovement(Biale185).Itis thusalsonotsurprisingthattheprototypeofthenewbodytobebuiltbythelandwasvirileandmasculine.TheZionistrevolutionalsoproposedtocreateastronger, healthierZionistwoman,andadifferentconceptofmarriage.Butbyallaccounts,theimageofstrengthwasexplicitlymasculine,andmisogynycontinuedinitsmost conventionalandpervasiveforms."EroticZionismwasbasedonacascadeofmasculineimages,contrastedwiththe'feminine'weaknessoftheDisapora"(Biale186). Forallthedisdainofthe"weakness"and"femininity"ofDiasporaJews,theZionistsettlershadthemselvesarrivedrecentlyfromEurope,andaswemightexpect, manyofthesexualattitudesoftheEuropeanJewsremained.Indeed,totheextentthatthesettlers,oratleastthemalesettlers,soughttodistancethemselvesfromthe powerlessnessoftheirpast,theywouldseektoexaggeratethedistinctionsbetweenJewsoftheYishuvandthoseoftheDiaspora.MorevirilesexualityamongZionist Jewswasatthetopofthelistofdistinguishingcharacteristics. Zionistwomenwerenotthoroughlyconvincedthatthenewsexualideologyhadtheirbestinterestsatheart.Bialecomments,"Evenwithintheideologyitself,which wasarticulatedoverwhelminglybymen,therewasacontradictionbetweentheprincipleofequalityandthehomoeroticimageryoftheyouthmovement.Aslongas ZionismwasseenasthecreationofavirileNewManagainsttheallegedlyfeminineimpotenceofexile,womenwouldhavedifficultyfindingatrulyequalplace"(Biale 187). OnewomanwhohadimmigratedtoIsraelduringtheThirdAliyahobserved,"Inrelationsbetweenmenandwomenthereweremanyinhibitions.Ineffect,thementality oftheshtetlcontinued"(Biale197).Bialenotesthatwhilethemenbelievedtheyhadbrokenthoroughlyfromthepast,thewomen,"whowerelargelyexcludedfrom formulatingZionistideology,"werelessconvincedthatsexualmoreshadchanged(Biale197).TheZionistideologywascreatedbymen,andreflectedtheir

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wishesforanewimageoftheirsexuality.ItwasstridentlyaffirmedthattheNewManwithhisnewstrongbodyandneweroticismwastobedistinguishedfromthe sickly,effeminateJewofexile.BialealsoconfirmswhathasbeennotedbyMosse,Boyarin,andBreines:"Zionism,itseems,hasnotonlyliberatedtheJewfrom sexualneurosis,butithasturnedhimintoaquasigoy"(Biale204). InhisdiscussionofAmericanpopularculture,BialecitestheworksofPhilipRoth,WoodyAllen,andJackieMason(andwewouldcertainlyaddHennyYoungman), heirsofthe"BorshtBelt"Jewishhumor,todemonstratehowthefeelingsofJewishmaleinadequacymanifestthemselvesintheformofselfdeprecationandastrident misogynydirectedatJewishwomen.20Beyondreflectingspontaneousprojectedselfhatred,or"barelyrepressedaggression"amongmodernJewishmen,this misogynywasactuallyencouragedbytherabbisofthetime."EchoingearlierGermanZionistcritiquesofJewishwomen,aConservativeCanadianrabbi,David Kirshenbaum,writingin1958,specificallyblamedthematerialismofJewishwomenfortheincreasingrateofintermarriage.'Nowonder'Kirshenbaumwrote,'Jewish menprefergentiles!'"(Biale208). InhisdiscussionofJewishsexualityinpopularculture,from"TheJazzSinger"to"TheHeartbreakKid,""NormaRae,"''TheWayWeWere,"and"Crossing Delancey,"fromPhilipRothandSaulBellowtoAdrienneRichandIrenaKlepfisz,Bialetouchesonthesymbolismofcircumcision,sexwiththegoyim,assimilation, Jewishlesbians("YouknowofcoursethattherearenoJewishlesbiansbecausetobeginwithJewsarenotsupposedtobesexual.EspeciallynotJewishwomen." AdrienneRich,quotedinBiale225),andthesexualityofradicalpolitics.Henotesthat"theweddingofJewishpoliticalradicalismtosexualliberationisnotsimplythe creationofnostalgicfiction.EmmaGoldman...personifiedthecombination"(Biale220). ButinspiteofthefactthatBialeincludeswomen,andwelldevelopedfeministsensibilities,inhisdiscussion,heacknowledges"Likethehistoricaltraditionasawhole, mostoftheimagesofbothmaleandfemaleJewishsexualityin

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Americathatwehavediscussedsofarwereproducedbymen"(Biale224). AssimilationasGendered:ThePartisanReviewCrowdRevisited ReferencetofirstgenerationAmericanJewsalwaysassumesthemalegender:thecommunitywasfocusedonitssons.TheNewYorkIntellectualsarereferredto withaspecificallymaleterminology:"pischers"and"boychiks,"whowerewelcomedbacktothecommunityas''prodigalsons"evenaftertheyhadturnedawayfrom Judaismfordecades.Ontheonehand,theirretreatfromJudaismwassimilartotheexperiencesofthechildrenofmanyimmigrantstoAmerica:embarrassmentattheir parentswhospokeEnglishwithanaccent,ate"unAmerican"food,weretooemotional,ortraditional,orreligious,comparedtotheAnglicizedversionofthecool, rationalAmerican.ThepathsawayfromtheoldworldandintoassimilatedAmericanismhavetraditionallybeeneducation,theactivelife,andtheadaptationto "American"customsandculturalexperiences.Whatisnotusuallyrecognizedistheextenttowhichthese"traditional"pathwaystoassimilationassumethatthechild withambitionstobe"Americanized"ismale.ThetraitsdefinedasAmericanareinvariablytraitstowhichaboywouldaspire:active,resourceful,athletic,rationalin sum,a"manofaction."Quiet,bookish,sentimental,unathleticboysarenotquiteAmerican,anditgoeswithoutsayingthattheyareunmasculineaswell:"sissies." Recallthat"swagger"wasallowedthesebrightyoungJewishboysbecauseitwasregardedasaticketoutoftheghetto.ImagineaJewishgirlallowedbyherparents andcommunitytoswagger,encouragedtobebrightandoutspoken,inthehopethatsuchbehaviorcouldleadherawayfromtheJewishcommunity!AJewishgirl's tickettosuccessinAmericawasmarriagetoabright,ambitiousJewishboy. ButiftheassumptionwasthatthemalesofanygivenimmigrantcommunitywouldleadthenextgenerationtoAmericanism,howwastheJewishcommunityexplicitly affected?IfChristian(orAmerican)culturewasregardedasmasculine,

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comparedtoJudaism's"feminine,"wecanseethatbeforetheJewishboyscould,likeotherimmigrantsons,becomefullyAmericanized,theywouldneedtobecome masculinizedintheirowneyes,andintheeyesofAmericansociety.OtherEuropeanethnicgroupshadanequallygenderbiasedbutsomewhatsimplertaskinorder tobecomeassimilated.Theywerealreadyregardedasmasculine:nowalltheyneededwastobecomeAmerican.Theyweremasculine,inthisscenario,becausethey wereEuropeanChristians.AsianAmericanandAfricanAmericanmenhadtheirowngendertroublesintheUnitedStates.21ButItalians,Irish,Polish,andother Europeanimmigrantswereneverregardedasfeminine,eveniftheirCatholicismmadethemthetargetsofProtestantbigotry.Jewshadtobecomegenderedmalesin ordertobecomeassimilatedintoAmericanlife. Theymightaccomplishthistaskbybecomingathletes:baseball,football,andboxingwereavailabletoboysasfacilitatorsintheAmericanizationprocess.Ifthey succeededinphysicallybattlingtheantiSemitismoftheirteammateswithfists,athleticprowers,orboth,theymightsucceedinwinningthe(somewhatqualified) respectoftheAmericans,andbewelcomedintothebrotherhoodofAmericansports.Thelessathleticmightbecomeexpertsofthegames:sportswritersand sportscasters,readersofthesportspage,andregularspectatorsatgames.Thiswas,ofcourse,lesssatisfactory,andlessefficientasanavenueofassimilationthan actuallyestablishingone'sathleticprowess.Butthereisanentireliteraturemostlyfirstpersononthecentralityofsportsasapathwayfromtheimmigrantfamilyinto Americanlife.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthispathwayexcludedgirlsandwomen. InthefamiliesthatnurturedtheNewYorkIntellectuals,theathleticpathwasnotencouraged.Anexaggeratedclosenessbetweenthesonsandtheirmothersmadeit unlikelythattheywouldbepermittedtoriskthedangersofplayingballandroughhousinginthestreets.Whiletheambitionsoftheimmigrantfathersmightrestonthe performanceoftheirsons,thefathersremaineddistantfromtheeverydayworkingsoffamilylife.

Page133 Therelationofthemothertoherchildgrewespeciallycloseinthisatmosphere."Frominfancyon,"IrvingHowelaterobserved,"thechildispettedbyhismother.Shekeepshim inthefemininepatternaslongaspossible....Shedoesn'twanttocuthiscurls...ortohavehimenterathleticactivities,forfearhemightbehurt....Sheconstantlyhoversover him,developinginhimasifwithunconsciousskillthesenseofdependenceonherwhichheislatertofindsodifficulttoovercome."...Duringadolescentrebellionthesons foundclearertargetsintheoverattentiveandrestrictivepatternestablishedbytheirmothers.(Bloom1819)

Oneneedn'tbeapsychoanalysttoanticipatetheboys'perceivedneedtoexcludewomenfromtheir"American"adultlives.Theirmothers,andbyextensionall women,wereassociatedwiththedependencyandtheparochialismofbothchildhoodandtheghetto.PerhapsJewishnessitselfcarriedthisassociationwithfemininity, asthefathersseemedtoexcludetheirsonsfromtheirlivescompletely.Jewishimmigrantfathersspenttheirtimeworking,atthesynagogue,andperhapsalsoat politicalmeetings.Thefathersoftenfeltlikefailures,wantedtheirsonstobedifferentfromthem,andexpressedthisinarticulately,bymaintainingdistanceratherthan closeness."Disappointment,[Robert]Warshow...observed,'wasoftentheonlything[fathers]couldclearlycommunicate'"(Bloom19). Thiswasatragicsituationforbothfathersandsons,withimplicationsthatwerealsoharmfultothewomen.Contemporarypsychoanalyticfeministshavewrittenabout thereproductionthroughoutthegenerationsofpolarizedgenderroleslikelytoresultfromdistantfathersandoverinvolvedmothers.Theresultislikelytobemenwho havedifficultymakinganyemotionalconnections,andwomenwhohavedifficultywithseparationandautonomy.Thepsychodynamicsofgenerationsbroughtup entirelybymothershasbeenstudiedindetailelsewhere,byfeministpsychoanalysts,and,fromanentirelydifferentperspective,bytheNewYorkIntellectuals themselves,whowerehardlyreticentaboutwritingaboutthemselvesandtheirfathers.22 Sothecallingofthesonswasscholarly,notathletic.ThiswastraditionalenoughforaJewishboy,andsatisfiedparental

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ambitions,althoughithamperedtheassimilationprocessbecauseitwasatoddswiththeAmericanimageofmasculinity.Butasolutionwasachievedthatsatisfiedthe needto"succeed"intermsdifferentfromthatofthefathers,andwhichwouldalsoavoidthestigmaofJewishmale"sissies."InsteadofturningtoTalmudicstudy,they become"cosmopolitan"intellectuals:rational,universalist,nottriballyJewish.ThisserveditspurposeasavehicleforescapingJudaism,whilebeingrational, "universal"(nonJewish)scholarsfulfilledenoughoftherequirementsofgentileAmericanmanhood.Rationality,oruniversalistscholarship,wasstillquitemanly,in Americanterms.TheboyswerealsodrawntoradicalismMarxism,Communism,Trotskyismandasweshallsee,thisservedthepurposeofengenderingthe intellectualsasmale. Inhisdiscussionoftwentiethcentury"toughJews"ofAmerica,Breinescitesgangsters,cowboys,andradicalsaswellassoldiersandathletes,asmasculineimages withappealtoJews."ThegangsteraswellasthecowboyandleftistemergedintheeraofJewishemancipationandthus,liketheJewishsoldier,arosefromthe experienceofJewsengagedinextensiveintercoursewiththenonJewishworld"(102).23Breinesgoessofarastohintthatwithalittlestretchingofcategories,Karl MarxhimselfmightqualifyasatoughJew.Inanyevent,Trotskymostcertainlymakesthelist.
ThenotionoftoughJewswouldsurelybetooloosewereKarlMarxsqueezedintoit.Ontheotherhand,Idothinkthathisconceptofclassstrugglecanbeunderstoodasa theoreticophilosophicalformofJewishtoughness,especiallywhenseenagainstthebackdropofthemanyrabbisinMarx'sfamilytree.Andconsiderthefiguresfromthelater MarxistandthebroadersocialistanarchisttraditionswhocanmorereadilybeseenastoughJews.LeonTrotskyistheprototype.Authorofcountlessbooks(includingadefense ofrevolutionaryviolence)andorganizeroftheRedArmyintheRussianRevolutionandCivilWar,heisaJewishintellectualonhorseback.(Breines103)

ThePartisanReviewcrowdwereunabashedadmirersofTrotsky.Theyinvitedhimtocontributetotheirpublication,althoughtheyresistedadheringtothepartyline hedemandedandthe

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controlhewantedtoassumeovereditorialpolicies.TrotskybelievedthePartisanRevieweditorswereinsufficientlycommittedtorevolution,andtheliaisonnever succeeded.24ButTrotsky'sappealwasenormous,andhewaslionizedbymanyoftheintellectuals."ManyPartisanwritersfastenedontoTrotskyinanuncritical way,idolizinghisskills,overvaluinghiscontributions,andfindingreflectionsoftheirowncallinginhisactions"(Bloom112).IrvingHoweobserved,"Trotsky...was amanofheroicmold,entirelycommittedtothelifeofaction,buthewasalsoanintellectualwhobelievedinthepowerandpurityoftheword"(inBloom112).Most tellingwasTrotsky'spsychologicalappealtothePartisans,asaJewwhoappearedtobecastinanheroic(masculine)mold:

AfinalattributeofTrotsky'shelpedcementtheemotionalrelationshipbetweenhimandmanyoftheyoungradicalcriticsandwriters.HewasaJew.Trotsky,liketheyoungmen fromtheimmigrantghettos,wasnotdevoutthiswasanageofradicalcosmpolitanism.Still,childhoodintheJewishcommunitiescreatedinvisibletieswhichwouldcontinually directtheyoungradicals'lives.So,too,didtheunstatedawarenessofTrotsky'sJewishnessprovideafinalpsychologicallink.HewasalltheywereorwishedtobeayoungJew whocoupledhisradicalcommitmentwithhisintellectualabilities.(Bloom112)25

IftheNewYorkers'commitmentto"cosmopolitanism"wasawaytomoveawayfromtheparochialismandtheassociatedfemininityoftheirJewishparents,their radicalcommitmentwasawayofachievingmasculinity,activism,andeffectivenessratherthanpassivity,andvictimhood.Itwasanefficientvehiclefordistancing themselvesfromtheirfearsaboutthe"feminine"associationsofJewishmaleness.IfIsraeliZionismwas,paradoxically,assimilationistinitsmimicryofEuropeanvirility, Americanradicalismalsohadahiddenassimilationistagenda.Ironically,theyoungMarxistsutilizeditsvirileassociationsasawayofprovingtheirvirileAmericanism. Now,onemaybeinclinedtorespond,"Perhapstheirradicalcommitmenthadnothingtodowiththeirfearsofeffeminacy.Perhapsitreflectsonlyheartfeltpolitical convictions."I

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donotimplythat,atleastatthatstageoftheirlives,theNewYorkerswerenotgenuinelycommittedtoBolshevikpolitics,orthattheyassumedadisingenuousradical stanceforthesolepurposeofestablishingtheirmasculinity.However,Ibelievethattheirradicalpoliticalcommitmentalsoservedapsychologicalpurpose:soothing unconscious"Jewish"fearsthattheywereinsufficientlymasculine.AndwhiletheyleftbehindtheexclusivelymaleHouseofStudy,theysoughttoduplicatethe exclusivemasculinitybothatPartisanReviewandasradicals. Foravarietyofreasons,rangingfromapreoccupationwithmasculinityasasymbolofone'sdistancefromimmigrantJewishness,tothefamilystructureandparenting practicesofJewishimmigrantfamilies,whichwillbediscussedinduecourse,theNewYorkIntellectualscreatedanenvironmentwherewomenwere,atbest, peripheral.WehaveseenthatArendt,afterherarrivalinNewYork,wasadmiredfromadistance.MaryMcCarthyandaveryfewothertalentedliterarywomen wereincludedinthecircle,butonlyasextensionsoftheirPartisanReviewboyfriends.26 Forexample,in1937,PhilipRahvmetMaryMcCarthyatapartyatJamesT.Farrell's.Shewasnotyetthewellknownliteraryfigureshewastobecome,butshe wasclearlyabright,educatedyoungwoman.Afteratrialsummeroflivingtogetherinafriend'sborrowedapartment,RahvandMcCarthyrentedtheirownplace. Althoughshewasunknown,RahvbroughtMcCarthytoPartisanReviewasaneditorinchargeoftheatercriticism.McCarthyclaimedshereceivedtheassignment becauseshehadoncebeenmarriedtoanactorandwas"supposedtoknowsomethingaboutthetheater."Bloomnotes:"Althoughshewasclearlyawomanof intellectualskills,itisalsoclearthatherpositiononthePReditorialboardderivedessentiallyfromherrelationshipwithRahv.Whenshelefthim,sheleftthe magazine"(Bloom73). McCarthyleftRahvforEdmundWilsonafterlittleoverayear.WilsonhadbeenanintellectualmodelfortheyoungermenatPartisanReview,andthefactthathe had"takenRahv'sgirl"causedtensions,gossip,andrejectionsofbothWilson's

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andMcCarthy'swork.Wilsonscoldedtheeditorsonherbehalf:"I'vethoughttherewassomethingwronginyourshopeversinceyoupassedupthatshortstoryof Mary's.Youpeopleowedherachancetodevelop,sinceshewasoneofyouroriginalgroup"(Bloom124).Meanwhile,backattheeditorialoffices,onelong employedsecretaryremarkedtoWilliamBarrettthat"itwastoobadWilliam[Phillips]andPhilip[Rahv]werenotofoppositesex,forthentheycouldhavegotten marriedandhadbabiesinsteadofPartisanReview"(Bloom74). WhiletheeditorialofficesofthePartisanReviewthusbecameabastionofmaleexclusively,theremarkablyexplicitassociationbetweenmasculinesexuality,radical politics,andJudaismcompletedthegendertherapy.

Theideaofbrotherhoodappealedonmanylevels,combiningthehighestidealismwiththemostpracticalofneeds.Ifyoungintellectualslongedtomergewiththeinternational proletariat,theyalsowantedtogettogetherwitheachotherandhavesomefun.Inclassmateswhohadgone"proletarian,"AlfredKazinsawyouthswho"lookedasiftheyhad foundtherightanswer.Andtheywere...easywithgirls,passingthemaroundatdanceswithcomradelycontempt,asifbeingmilitantabouteverythingbrought advantages."(Cooney46)

Cooneymusesaboutwhatappealsuchcontemptcouldpossiblyhavehadforthe"girls"involved,whileitofferedtheyoungmenasenseofsocialacceptanceinthe samewayasanygangmembershipwould,evenintheabsenceoftheNewYorkIntellectuals'loftyselfimportance.WilliamPhillipsandPhilipRahv,foundersof PartisanReview,referredtotheirfundraisingdancesasthe"bestdancefloorinthecity."27 WhiletheywerebusyusingPR'sradicalcommitmentasavehicleforgivingthemgroupaccesstolocalgirls,theircommitmenttoMarxistpoliticsitselfwasexpressed intermsofvirility.SwaggeringMikeGold,CommunistandeditorofTheNewMassessince1928,challengedthePartisanReviewintellectualstomeethisstandards ofmasculinity."For[Mike]Gold,theworkerseemedalwaysvirile,masculine,andheroic,whileintellectualsremainedsomehoweffete"(Cooney33).Phillipsand RahvjoinedGold'sranksforawhile,butwhen,severalyears

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later,theysplitwiththeStalinists,Goldberatedthemforingratitude.Heimpliedthatonlyhisbrandofcommunismhadsavedthemfromeffeminacy.
Goldremembered"thesamepeopleonlyadecadeago"as"eunuchs"seekingpotency,needingsex,anddesperatelymakingthe"ivorytower...intoabedroom."Toaffirmhis ownworkingclassvirility,Golddeclaredloudly,"IwanttospitwheneverIthinkofit."(Cooney116)

ButletusassumethatMikeGoldhadsomeunusuallyintenseconflictsabouthismasculinity,notemblematicofthePartisanReviewcrowdwhowere,afterall,his rivals.WecanstillgaspwithincredulityatLionelAbel'sassociationofMarxismwithbothJudaismandmasculinity.AbeldescribedHaroldRosenberg'sviewthat
Marxismwastwothings:itwasTalmud,tobesure.ButitwasalsoCabala.Andhethoughtthattheroleoftheliterarymenshouldbetodevelopthearcane,cabalisticsideof Marxistdoctrine....IshallneverforgettheeveningwhenheprovedthatHelenofTroyhisargumentinvolvedbothwordmagicandeconomicdeterminismwasreallyaloafof bread!28

Onecoulddismissthisashighspiritedboyishness,aversionoffraternityhousemirth.Cooneyobserves:"Whenlifebrokethroughideology,theyoungintellectuals kickeduptheirheelsandreveledinusingandabusingMarxismforabitofintellectualstruttingandchicanery"(Cooney45).Butthegoodfunwasnotwithoutits misogynistside:itinvolvedassociatingthemanlyMarxismwithJudaism,andthenusingboth,somehow,toturnalegendarybeautifulwomanintoaloafofbread:good enoughtoeat!SoundslikeafrathousegangbangatHelenofTroy'sexpense.ItalsocombinedthetraditionalmaleexclusivenessofTalmudicstudywiththemore contemporaryvirilityassociatedwithradicalmilitancy,therebyretainingthebestofbothworlds:themaleworldsofJewishStudyandradicalactivism. Onemightthinkthatthesecurityofbeinglovinglysupportedbyone'scultureeveninassumingarebelliousstanceagainstone'sownculturaltraditionswouldfoster enoughselfconfidencetoforestallconpensatorydenigrationofone'ssis

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ters.Butthereisevidencethattheseyoungmen,strivingwiththehelpoftheirownJewishcommunitytoleaveJudaismbehind,founditnecessarytoassociatetheir missionwithmanliness,andtotreatwomenwithaswaggeringdisrespect.AccordingtothescholarsofJewishsexualitywehaveconsidered,totheextentthatthis particulargenerationofJewssoughttodenytheirJewishness,theywouldembracewhattheyperceivedasthedominantculture'sdefinitionofmasculinity.29 JewishWomen Thusfarwehaveconsideredprimarilymalesourcesonthe"problem"ofJewishmasculinity.AlthoughafullblowndiscussionofJewishfeministscholarshipisbeyond thescopeofthisstudy,asenseofitsparamatersisimportantforperspective.ItisalsoimportanttoconsidermoreexplicitlywhattherelationshipbetweenJewishmen andwomenhasbeen,bothculturallyandintermsofJewishlawandtradition.Thereisavastandgrowingliteratureonthesubject,too,butherewewillonlyreview conditionsduringthemodernera,whichhasbeenourfocus.30 InourdiscussionthusfarofJewishmasculinity,wehaveenlistedthehelpofmalescholarswhoappeartobeextraordinarilyawareofandsensitivetothegeneral issuesoffeminismaswellasspecificallyJewishfeminism.Mosse,Boyarin,Breines,andBialeallregardasproblematictheassociationofmasculinitywithaggression, militancy,anddomination.Theyexpressasensethatthereissomethingwrongwiththeculturalexpectationthatmen,whetherJewishornot,needtobehaveina bellicosefashion,thatmusclesandstrengthareassociatedwithmanhood,andthatgentlenessandpassivityareregarded,disdainfully,as"feminine."Theyallseekto validateonsomeleveltheJewishmalehistoryofpassivity.Paradoxically,then,whiletheseseriousscholarsraisequestionsthatarecompatiblewithafeminist perspective,aboutthedangersinherentinassociatingmasculinitywithviolenceandphysicalaggression,theyobscureJewishfeministissuesbypresentingJewishmen as"alreadyliberated"bytheJewishtraditionitself:gentle,passive,

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familyoriented.Theproblemisperceivedtobethedominanceofgentilesociety,whichmakesJewishmenashamedoftheirownculturaltraits.Thisstance perpetuatesthemyththatJewishwomenaresomehowbettertreatedbytheirmenthannonJewishwomen,andlesslikelytosuffertheworstthatpatriarchyhasto offer.ItperpetuatesthestereotypethatJewishmenactuallyaregentler,kinder,morethoughtful,studious,reliable,"goodhusbands."Howcouldsuchmenbe "oppressors,"as"angryfeminists"areperceivedtoaccuseallmenofbeing?31 Thisstanceisapreemptivestrike.Itisadefenseagainstthefearof"racebetrayal":thatincriticizingJewishmen,Jewishwomenunderminetheneedforunity, solidarity,inthefaceofamuchgreateroppression.AsCynthiaOzickconfessesaboutherownJewishfeministconcerns:"SometimesIfeelashamed.Theproblem thestatusofJewishwomenshamesmewithitsseemingtriviality,itscapacitytodistract,itsinsistentsociologicalpreoccupation,itsselfcenteredness,itscallous swerveawayfromallthosehammerblowsdealttotheJewishpeopleasawhole."32TheproblemisnotuniquetoJewishwomen.Ithasbeenfacedrecentlyand publiclybyAfricanAmericanwomenwhoobjecttothepubliccreationofaBlackPatriarchy,markedmostrecentlywiththeinstitutionofmenonlymarcheswho objecttoexcusingdomesticviolenceperpetratedbyAfricanAmericanmenwiththerationalizationthattheblackmenareoppressed(moresothanAfricanAmerican women?),whichsomehowmakestheabuseofwomenmoreacceptable.ThesefeministshavebeenaccusedofunderminingtheracialsolidarityofAfricanAmericans with"trivial,""selfish,"or"divisive''problems.Theaccusationsofracialorcommunitybetrayalleveledatwomenwhochallengemalebehaviorisusedtoundermine feministconcerns.Ittakesaparticularlytrickyturnwhenthemenofacommunitythemselvesappeartobemakingfeministargumentstheirown.WhenJewishmen objecttoJewishmaleviolence,andweappeartohaveevidenceofthe"kinder,gentler"Jewishman,itisevenmoredifficultforaJewishfeministtogetafoothold. "WhatmoredoJewishwomenwant?" Forstarters,JewishfeministsseekacknowledgmentofaninherentandpervasivemalebiasinJewishcultureandJewish

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religion.AsSusannahHeschelputsitintheintroductiontohervolume:
Theproblem,astoday'swritersseeit,runsthroughoutthecourseofJewishhistory,penetratingthebasictheologicalsuppositionsofJudaism:itsimageryofwomenandmen,its liturgy,itsconceptionsoftheJewishpeopleandcommunity,itsunderstandingofGodasFatherandKing.WomanasOtherisexpressed,forinstance,byJudaism's"purity"laws, inwhichwomenconveyimpuritynottothemselvesortootherwomen,butonlytothemenwithwhomtheycomeintocontact....Womenareplacedbehindacurtaininsome synagogues,ordeniedaliyotandpositionsofleadership,notforanyreasonsconcerningthembutbecausetheirvisiblepresencemightaffecttheconcentrationofmenatprayer. (Heschelxxii)

HeschelgoesontosuggestthatifwomanisregardedasOther"inthesynagogue,halachah,liturgyandtheology,"then"sheisboundtobetreatedasOtherinthe home,thefamilyandthecommunity."Fromthisperspective,Jewishfeministculturalandreligiousissuesareinseparable. CriticsofthefeministstancerespondthatJewishwomenarenotregardedas"Other,"implyinginferiority,butare"different,"adifferencethatisnatural,intendedby theCreator,inscribedintheTorah,andinterpretedintheTalmudwhichisassacredastheTorah.Theacknowledgementofdifferencerepresentsamarkofrespect forwomen.MosheMeiselmanstates,"Menandwomenareequallyjudgedandgivenequalrewards,butfordifferenttasksmenforthecreationofalinkinthechain ofTorahscholars,womenforthecreatingofaJewishhome."33Farfrombeingoppressed,women'sseparateexcellenceisvalorizedbytheJewishtradition.Jewish womenareparticularlywelltakencareof:exemptedfrommanyoftherigorsofcommunalreligiousworshipandthussavedfortheirownequallyimportantdutiesof raisingobservantJewishchildrenandkeepingthehomekosherprotectedbytheketubah(marriagecontract)fromthevulnerabilitythatasinglewomansuffersina maledominatedworldgivenarespitefromsexualpressuresbythelawsofniddahandmikveh,whichalsoensurethatsexualpassionispreservedinmarriage.The factthatitisextremelydifficultforaJewishwomantodivorceherhusband

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isalsoforherowngood,sinceawomanneedstheprotectionofmarriage.Theproblemsofagunahwomenabandonedbutnotdivorcedbytheirhusbandsandthus legallyincapableofremarryingareoverlookedinthisargument.Thelawsofinheritancethatseemtofavorsonsareactuallya"greatblessing"todaughters. Meiselmanremarks,"Thefactthatdaughtersdonotinheritiftherearesonsseemsprimafacietobeagrossinequity,butonadeeperinvestigationitwillbeseentobe agreatblessing"(Meiselman88).Itprotectsawifeanddaughtersfrombeingcreditorsintheeventthatthepatriarchdiesinsolvent."Thechoicerepresentsarealistic approachtotheneedsofwomen.Thelawrecognizesthatitiseasierandpreferableformentogooutandearnalivingthanforwomen"(Meiselman91).Meiselman neglectsthe''protectionracket"logicofthisarrangement:"Wehaveanobligationtoprotectyoufromthefactthatwewon'tallowyoutoearnanindependentincome." Furthermore,womenaresparedtheobligationtostudyTorah,becausetheirhouseholdandfamilydutieswouldkeepthemfrombeingabletofocuswithsufficient energyandconcentrationonthesacredtext.Maimonideswrote,"ThesagescommandedamannottoteachhisdaughterTorah.Thisisbecausewomenarenot disposedtodedicatethemselvestostudyandwillturnthewordsofTorahintofoolishwordsaccordingtotheirlimitedunderstanding[duetotheirlackofinterest]. OursagessaidthatanyonewhoteacheshisdaughterTorahistobeconsideredasifhehadtaughthertrivialandunimportantthings."34Meiselmanrephrasesthis,as partofhisexplanationthatJudaismhaswomen'sbestinterestsatheart:"OnedoesnotimposeTorahknowledgeuponwomen,asonedoesuponmen,fortheyare notrequiredtostudy"(38).However,afathermayteachhisdaughter,ifsheshowsthepropermotivation.Butbecausegirlsandwomenarenotrequiredtostudy, themitzvahofstudyingisnotasvaluableasitisforaboywhoiscommandedtostudyTorah.Sincewomen'sdomesticdutiesarecommanded,theyconstitutea morevaluedmitzvahforwomen,andTorahstudybecomes,asitwere,aless"costeffective"wayofbeingagoodJew,forwomenandgirls.

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ThesequesteringofwomeninabalconyorcurtainedsectionoftheOrthodoxsynagogueis,tothiswayofthinking,alsonotasignofwomen'sinferiorstatusinJewish worship,butreflectsdeferencetotheweaknessofmen.Menaresoincapableofresistingthesexualalluresofwomenthatthemeresightoffemalesinshulwould causethemtoloseconcentrationintheirprayers.Theexplantionforkeepingwomenoutofthesightofmen(alsocoveringthehairoforthodoxwomenatalltimeswith eitherascarforawig)isintendedtoprotectmenfromtheirowninabilitytoresisttemptation.Onefeministhassuggestedthatthisargumenthasallthelogicofa proposaltohospitalizehealthypeopletokeepthemfrombeingcontaminatedbythesick.Ifwomenaremorecapableofmaintainingspirituality,eveninmixed company,whyaretheynotgiventhemostsacreddutiesandcommandedtoworshipcommunally?Themenshouldbekeptathomeandoutofthemischieftheyseem boundtogetintowhenevertheyseeawoman. ThereisalsothepuzzleofwhyJewishorthodoxy,whichrequiressomuchrestraintanddedicationineveryaspectoflife,fromdietarylaws,tothetimesofprayers,to amonthlyprescribedscheduleofsexualintercourse,failsindemandingofmenthattheykeeptheirmindsandheartsontheirprayers,eveninthepresenceofwomen. JusthowlibidinousdoestheCreatorsupposeobservantJewishmenare?CynthiaOzickwonders,"IsthepiousJewishmalemoresubjectthanothermalestosexual arousalunderinappropriateconditions?Infact,observantJewishmenarewithoutdoubtbetterpreparedthanothersforsexualselfrestraint,anditisnotpiousJewish maleswhoareweakinthefaceofwomenonlytheirarguments"(Heschel141).TheassumptionofJewishmalesusceptibilitytosexualtemptationseemsperversely toconfirmthedeadlyracialstereotypeswehavediscussedoftheirrepressiblesexualurgesofJewishmen. TheprayerOrthodoxJewishmenreciteeachmorningincludestheverse,"BlessedartThou...whohasnotcreatedmeawoman...forwomenarenotcommanded inalloftheMitzvot,"andinspiteofMeiselman'sinsistencethatthisonly

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thanksGodfortheextradutiesofbeingaman,theprayer'sgratitudeformaleprivilegereverberatesthroughoutJewishculture.Thewoman'sequivalentprayer, blessingGodforcreatingher"inaccordancewithHiswill,"seemstobeanacknowledgmentofaconsolationprize.Imagineasituationwherewhitepeopledailythank Godfornotmakingthemblack,whileblackpeoplethankGodformakingthem"inaccordancewiththewhiteman's[theequivalentof"His"intheorthodoxJewish woman'sprayer]will"!Itisimpossibletoregardsuchaprayerasanythingotherthanbrainwashing,anapologyforracism. Temptingasthislineofinquirymaybe,furtherinvestigationwouldtakeustoofarafieldfromthespecificquestionweareconsidering:whetherArendt'streatmentby JewishmeninIsraelandNewYorkwasinfluencedbyJewishattitudestowardwomen,whetherasawoman,shewasregardedasparticularly"outofline"withher publiccriticismofJewishmaleleadership.IofferhereonlyanoutlineofthemajorquestionsofJewishfeminismandabriefreviewofgenderrelationsinmodern Jewishpractice,inordertopreparethestageforaddressingthatquestion. ThecentraldilemmaforJewishfeministsistorecasttheroleofwomeninJewishreligiouspracticeswithoutlosingthesacrednessoftraditionalJewishteachings,or relegatingwomentoamarginalstatusinthemostreveredaspectsofJewishlife.ThechallengeistochangeJudaismtoincludewomeninitsmostsacredaspects, withoutlosingtheweightoftraditionthatistheessenceofJudaism.OrthodoxJewsbelievethistobeanimpossible,indeed,hereticalundertaking:
Orthodoxy...respondstomodernitybyinsulatingitselffrommodernity'schallenges.Historicalmethodisacceptedonlywarily,andinanycase,neverappliedtothekeytexts, theBibleandtheTalmud,whichareheldtobetheliterallyrevealedwordofGodfromSinai.Anychallengetothatrevelationisnotrecognized.ToOrthodoxy,thehistorical methodsuggeststhattheTalmudicrabbiswerenottransmittingtherevealedwordofGod,butwereactuallycreatingsomethingnew.(Heschelxxv)

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Ontheotherhand,ConservativeandReformJewsregardthehistoryofJudaismasahistoryofresponseandadaptationtochangingcircumstances.Thetraditionof flexibility,ofretainingthecenterwhilerespondingtotheenvironment,isthesecretofJewishsurvivaloverthemilennia.ButHeschelarguesthat"ConservativeJudaism remainstheologicallyconfused.""Ultimately,sincetheJewishhistoryweknowisthehistoryofJewishmen,itispreciselythathistoricalconsciousnessthatisinvoked byConservativeleaderswhentheywanttoopposeanychangesinthestatusofwomen"(Heschelxxix). CynthiaOzickregardsthesilenceoftheTorahontheuniversaldenigrationofwomenasascandal.Theabusesofwomenbysocietyingeneralare"sowideflungon ourplanetthattheyseem,bytheirundeviatingpervasiveness,verynearlytohavethesanctionofnature"(Heschel146).ThemajestyofTorahispreciselythatitstands inoppositiontomany"natural"injusticesoftheworld.

IncreatingtheSabbath,Torahcamefacetofacewithanaturethatsays,"Imakenodifferenceamongthedays."AndTorahmadeadifferenceamongthedays.Ingivingthe Commandmentagainstidolatry,TorahcamefacetofacewithasocietyincompetitionwiththeCreator.AndTorahtaughttheUnityoftheCreator.InmakingtheCommandment againstdishonorofparents,Torahcamefacetofacewithmercilessusageoftheold.AndTorahordaineddevotiontoparents.IneveryinstanceTorahstrivestoteachNoto unrestraint,Notovictimization,Notodehumanization.

Theexception,Ozickwrites,iswithregardtowomen."HerealoneTorahconfirmstheworld,denyingthemeaningofitsownCovenant....TheCovenantissilent aboutwomentheCovenantconsortswiththeworldatlarge"(14950).SoexceptionalistheomissionoftheTorahwithregardtowomen,thatitbegsforthestudy ofOralLaw:"TheOralLaw,withitsrabbinicpiecemealrepairs,isthefirsttoinformusthatsuchapreceptisimplicitthoughabsentotherwisewhencewouldthe OralLawderiveitsrepairs?"(150).Ozickconcludes,"Withregardtowomen,theCommandmentseparatingTorahfromtheworldisthesinglemissing Commandment.Torahone's

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heartstopsinone'smouthasonedarestosaythesewordsTorahisinthisrespectfrayed"(150).Themissingcommandmentis"Thoushaltnotlessenthehumanity ofwomen!" CriticsofJewishfeminismwouldlikelyrespondthatrespectofwomenistakenforgrantedinJewishteachings:acommandmentisunnecessary.Butiffeminist complaintsabouthalakhaandamalebiasinJewishworshipweretrulyunfounded,Jewishpracticewouldreflecttheunspokencommandmenttorespectwomen.Is theresuchalegacyofequalityinJewishculture?AbriefsurveyoftheseparatespherestraditionallyoccupiedbyJewishmenandwomeninEuropeandAmerica leavessomedoubtaboutthematter. InherintroductiontoFoundTreasures:StoriesbyYiddishWomenWriters,35IrenaKlepfiszdiscussesYiddishasaspokenlanguageassociatedwithwomenin EasternEuropeandGermany,duringthepastfewcenturies.AlthoughmenaswellaswomenspokeYiddish,becausethelanguagewasusedinmattersofdailylife, homebusiness,andsocialrelations,itwascalledmameloshn,themothertongue,andcontrastedwiththewrittenlanguage,Hebrew,thelanguageofrabbisand scholars,oftanakhandhalakha.Hebrewwasthe"male"language,calledloshnkaydesh,theholytongue.Hebrewwasusedprimarilyinprayerandstudyinorderto preservethesacrednessoftheTorah.Thelanguagewasassacredasthetext.OnlymenreadTorah,butbothmenandwomenspokeYiddish.Yiddishspeakingmen wereprimarilyworkingclass,andtherewasthusanartificialgendersegregationassociatedwiththetwolanguagesthatalsoreflectedclassandvaluehierarchies. Duringtheeighteenthcentury,Yiddishwas"discovered"andlegitimizedbyHasidicmenasamediumforwritinginamoreaccessible,democraticlanguage.Klepfisz notes,"Early(male)HasidicattitudestoYiddishdemonstrateswhatfeministshavefoundinotherWesterncultures:women'sperspectivesandcontributionsare deemedinferiororinsignificantuntilmendecideotherwise,legitimizethemthroughdefeminizationandclaimthemastheirown"(30).ZionistsusedYiddishin newspapersandjournalstoreachDiasporaJews,but

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Hebrewwastobetheofficial(masculine)languageinthefutureJewishstate. AsamorepopularlyaccessiblelanguagethanHebrew,Yiddishbecamethelanguageofpoliticaldebate,andthemeansofexpressionofthemoreprogressiveZionists. Women'sYiddishwritingswereostensiblywelcomedintothemoreprogressivebranchoftheEuropeanZionistmovement,butKlepfiszsuggeststhat"maleYiddishists wereprobablymoreconflictedoverwomen'spresenceintheircirclesthantheywantedtoadmit,"andsoonsoughtgreaterlegitimacyforYiddishasamediumof secularartistic,moral,andintellectualexpression."Todoso,theyneededtodefeminizeit,todissociateitfromitsrecent'degenerate'historyanditsolderdemeaning connectionwithwomenandilliterates"(34). SholemAleichemandtwoearlierYiddishwriters,MendeleMokherSforimandI.L.Peretz,wroteinYiddishasa"selfconsciousandinherentlyprogressiveact:an identificationwiththemassesthroughtheirspokenlanguage"(36).Buttheseintellectualsweresomewhatambivalentaboutbeingentirelyidentifiedwiththelanguageof themasses,indeed,withalanguageassociatedwithwomen.Theysoughtmore:legitimacyforYiddishthathadbeenreservedfortheHebrewlanguage,asholy(orat least,rational)andmasculine.SholemAleichemclaimedMendeleashis"grandfather"(therewasanapproximatelytwentyyearagedifferencebetweenthem,but who'scountingwhenyou'refoundingatradition?)and"instantlycreatedamaleYiddishliterarydynastywhichmirroredtherabbinicalscholarlydynasty.Justwhen Yiddishwasbeingchampionedasanauthenticnationalmamelosh,SholemAleichemdeclaredandeveryoneagreeditsliteraturenowbelongedtothe fathers"(Klepfisz37).Yiddishhadbeenparochial,andnowthatthemenhadappropriateditforprogressivepoliticalpurposes,theywantedtoclaim"universality." Universalityhasbeenassociatedwiththemaleperspectivesincethebeginningofhistory,andwehaveseenthattheNewYorkIntellectualsclaimedaversionofit ''cosmpolitanism"asawayofavoidingtheirJudaism.36Klepfiszregardsthemoveasutterlyfalse:sheerappropriationbymenofamediumwomenhadbeenusing. The

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result,sheindicates,wasalltoosimilartowhatusuallyhappenswhenmen"discover"anddesiretoclaimsomethingthatwomenhavepreviouslyhadaccessto:the womendisappear,asthoughtheyhadneverbeenapartoftheaction.Notsurprisingly,Yiddishwomenwritershavedissappearedfrompublicawarenesstobe reclaimedbyfeministsinvolumessuchasFoundTreasures.WenowassociatethewrittenYiddish"tradition"withmen:SholemAleichem,I.B.Singer,etal.The complexpolitical,andfairlyrecenthistoryofYiddishwritinghasbeenforgottenasthoroughlyasthewomenwhofirstwroteinthelanguage. ThehistoryofthepopularizationofYiddishisanexampleofthedeeplyrootedassociationofthemasculinewiththescholarlyandlegitimate,themaleaversionto anythingidentifiedwithfemininityintheJewishtradition,andtheresistancetoassociatinganythingfemininewitheitherthescholarlyorthesacred. Inasense,ourconsiderationoftheJewishmale"problem"witha"feminine"imagegivesthegameaway.Itistraumaticforamantobeconsideredunmasculine.The reverseisnotthecase.Accusingawomanofbeing"masculine"maynotbewhatshewishesforherself,andmaybeintendedasaninsult,butitalsocarriesacertain respect:sheisawomantobecontendedwith,noteasilydismissed.A"feminine"manneednotbetakenseriously.Boyarinbelievesthatinnineteenthcentury Europeanculture,theassociationofJewishmenwithfemininityhascarriedthecorrelatingassociationofJewishwomenwithaggressivenessandmasculinity.Boyarin surmisesthatthismaybebecausesomeJewishwomenwereprovidedwithabettereducationandbettertrainingfortheworldthantheirnonJewishEuropeansisters. ThismoreworldlytrainingforJewishwomeninaVictorianworldmayhavebeentheresultofanumberofinfluences:theGermanJewishdesiretobeapartofthe Germanenlightenment,bildung,whichalsogaverisetotheReformJewishmovementthefactthattheJewishregardforTorahstudyasaman'shighestcalling necessitatedequippingJewishwomanwithgreaterskillsforoperatinginthemarketplacethefactthattraditionalJudaismforbadethestudyofTorahandTalmudto women,meantthattheeducationthey

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receivedwasmoresecularand"enlightened"thanthatoftheirbrothers. Ironicallythen,someJewishgirls,whiledeniedaccesstoTorahbyJewishlawandtradition,wereassignedmoreactiverolesthanthosesetasidefornonJewishgirls. Theywereexpectedtobecompetentenoughintheworldtosupporttheirhusbands,whoifpossible,shouldbeallowedtobereligiousscholars.Thustheywere encouragedtohaveaseculareducation,andperhapssomebusinesstraining,aswellasthetraditionaldomestictrainingreservedforJewishgirls.37WhiletheJewish girlswerethusdeniedaccesstotheexclusivelymaleHouseofStudy,andtowhatJudaismvaluedmosthighly,theyacquiredworldlyskillsandaseculareducationthat renderedthemmoreadeptatfunctioninginthegentileworldthantheirmenfolk.Theyappeared,instereotypicalcomparisontoVictoriangentilegirls,"masculine." TheremaybesometruthtothisdescriptionoftheexceptionaleducationalopportunitiesaffordedJewishmiddleclassgirls.However,thereislittleinMarionKaplan's TheMakingogtheJewishMiddleClasstoconfirmthesensethatJewishwomenexperiencedtheiropportunitiesinsuchoptimisticterms.KaplanarguesthatJewish womenwereindeedpowerfulinfluenceswithintheirfamilies,hencewithintheGermanJewishcommunity,forkeepinganidentificationwithJudaismalivealthough increasinglyintheprivacyofhomeandsynagogue,and"despitetheirrelegationtoinsignificanceinreligiousandpoliticalmatters."38 ContrarytothecontentionthatJewishwomenweremoreadeptatmovinginthesecularworldthantheirmen,Kaplanobserves,"Withfewexceptions,Jewishwomen hadlessopportunitythanmentoleavethehome,familyandimmediatecommunity,tomeetandmergewiththemajority.Conversely,theyhadmoreoccasionto cultivatefamily,friendship,andcommunalties,thefewarenasinwhichJewishnesscouldstillbeexpressedwithoutinterference.Sociallyprescribedrolesthus reinforcedtheirallegiances"(Kaplan15).DuringtheyearsoftheriseoftheJewishbourgeoisieinGermany,"morethaneverbefore,womenweredefinedthroughthe family.Avaluesystem

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whichdescribedwomenasdomestic,weak,modest,dependent,selfdenying,emotional,religious,andvirtuousgainedcurrency....Atthesametime,menunder pressuretosucceedintheoutsideworldviewedthesetraitsasencumbrances"(Kaplan16).Insum,"perchedratherprecariouslyonapedestal,marriedwomen remainedrespected,protected,andpowerless"(17).KaplanassuresusthatthishadasmuchtodowithtraditionalJudaismitself,aswiththedesiretobecomemore liketheGermans:"Jewishtraditiondefinedwomenbytheirprimarywork,childbearing.ExcludedfrommetaphysicalcovenantbetweenGodandmanaswellasfrom theearthlysynagoguecommunity,women'sonlyaccesstoGodandtotheholycommunitywasintheirfunctionasmothers"(Kaplan41). InherchapterdescribingJewishwomen'seffortstoattainahighereducationinGermany,sheoutlinestheresistanceofbothGermanacademiaandJewishparents. AmongtheJewishupperbourgeoisie,whenagirlfinishedherschoolingatagesixteen,shefaced"sixtotenyearsofuselessnessbefore[she]wouldbereadyto marry,"andsomeJewishparents,evenOrthodox,wereprevailedupontoprovidetheirdaughterswithahighereducation,atleasttoavoidthedisgraceofherearning moneyduringthoseyears.Still,daughtersfacedparentalresistance,whichoftenmadealastingimpression,andthepredictableprejudiceagainstbothJewsand womenfromtheGermanprofessoriate.39Whatevertheparticularfamilialdecision,"Girls'educationstoodinaclearlysecondarypositiontothatoftheirbrothers.In fact,inmanyfamiliesitseemstohavebeenabsolutelyacceptableforadaughtertoreplaceoneoftheservants,sothatmoneycouldbesavedfortheson's education"(Kaplan141). Jewishmanhoodwasidentifiedwithfemininitybygentilesociety,whilescholarshipwasidentifiedwithmasculinitybytheJewishtradition.Inthewingsstoodtrouble waitingtohappenintheformofaJewishwomanscholarnamedHannahArendt. TheEichmannControversy,Gender,andJudaism ArendtwasnottheonlyJewishwomanscholarintheworldwhenshewrote.Butshewasoneofthemostprominentintel

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lectualsofherdaywhenshepublishedEichmanninJerusalem,havingalreadyearnedarespectedreputationwithTheOriginsofTotalitarianism,TheHuman Condition,andscoresofscholarlyessays.Still,toreiteratethehauntingphrasequotedinHeilbut,she"somehowdidn'tfit."40Bythatphraseshemeantthatshecould notidentifyherselfbypoliticalcategory,butitalsoappliedtoherscholarship.Shewasnotacceptedbytheacademicestablishmentasarecognizedscholaruntilnear theendofherlife.Shewasregardedneitherasaphilosophernorapoliticalscientist.Shewasoftenaccusedofbeinga"journalist,"ora"commentator."ButThe Originshadearnedherfrontpagenotoriety,andshehadalargereputation.Peopleknewwhoshewas,incontrastto,forexample,RaulHilberg,whowasa respectedbutbookishacademic.Unlikeother"Jewishwomenscholars,"suchasMarieSyrkin,LucyDavidowicz,RosaLuxemburg,orevenEmmaGoldman,shedid not''fit"withanygroupthatcouldbenamed:notZionist,Socialist,orAnarchist.Thesewomen,foralltheireruditionandprovocativeness,werelessthreateningthan Arendtbecausetheybelongedto,anddidnotchallengetheleadershipof,maleledgroups.Thelattertwo,whowereindeedbigtimetroublemakers,didnotidentify themselvesasJews,andtotheextentthattheyranafoulofmaledominatedleadership,wereshotorexiled. HannahArendtwastheonlywomanwithapublicreputationwhochallengedtheJewishmaleleadershiponbothsidesoftheAtlantic,fortheirineffectivenessduring theworstcrisisinJewishhistory.Inthatstanceshewasutterlyalone.Still,whatwouldHannahArendthavethoughtoftheideathatpartofthesourceofthefury directedatheroverEichmanninJerusalemwastheresultofthefactthatsheremindedJewishmenoftheirsenseofinadequacy,inaspecificallygenderedway,in thefaceofNazipower? AftertheinitialattackinthePartisanReview,ArendtwrotetoherfriendMaryMcCarthy,"MyreasonforbreakingwiththeP.R.peoplehasnothingtodowiththe contentofAbel'sreview,butwiththechoiceofthereviewer.Whatisinvolvedis(a)thattheyknewthatAbelhadwrittenapieceagainstmebefore[anegativereview ofBetweenPastandFuture],hencewashostiletobeginwithand(b)thattheyshowedanextraordinarylackof

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themostelementaryrespectformyselfandmyworkinchoosingsomebodylikeAbelasareviewer."41 InthesamelettersheofferscommiserationtoMaryMcCarthy,whosenovelTheGrouphadreceivedsimilarlyhostiletreatmentonasomewhatsmallerscale.She referstothegroupofnegativereviewersas"theboys":"Thatthe'boys'havetriedtoturnagainstyouseemstomeonlynaturalandIthinkithasmoretodowith'The Group'beingabestsellerthanwithpoliticalmatters"(Brightman147).EditorCarolBrightmannotesthatthereferenceto"theboys"inthisletter,''alludestoalarger circleofNewYorkintellectualsthanthePartisanRevieweditors,towhomthetermboyscommonlyreferred"(Brightman148n.2). Thedisparagingreferenceto"theboys"hintsatsomeawarenessonArendt'spartthatgenderwasplayingaroleinthetreatmentsheandMcCarthywereaccorded.It isalsolikelythatreferringtotheintellectualsas"theboys"bothconfirmsthethesisthatgenderwascentraltotheiridentityandrevealsthatitwentunrecognizedinthe sensethat"boys"seemsanaturalreference.Nobodywouldassociate"thegirls"withagroupofintellectuals.ArendtsuggestedtoMcCarthythatjealousyofher successandnotorietymayhaveplayedaroleinthehostilereceptionherbookreceived.NormanMailer'shaughtydismissalofMcCarthy'sbookasa"ladybook"in theNewYorkReviewsupportsthemalejealousytheory.42McCarthy'ssuspicionthatElizabethHardwickwasresponsibleforthereviewassignmentdoesnothingto diminishthelikelihoodevenifawomancompetitorhadrelinquishedthepodiumtoaresentfulman.Besides,HardwickwasthewifeoftheeditorofTheNewYork Review. Butstill,weseemtohaveadequateexplanationsfortheattackonHannahArendt,withouttheaddedgenderfactor:embarrassmentattheinadequacyoftheir responsetotheHolocaustoftheNewYorkIntellectuals,andembarrassmentovertheIsraelisenseofhelplessnessasJewswereslaughtered.Inaddition,thereare thecomplexitiesofpartypoliticsinIsrael,andtheNewYorkers'politicalmigrationfromradicalismtoconservatism,withEichmanninJerusalemappearingto

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undeminethemoreconfirmingOriginsofTotalitarianism.Surelyanybody,maleorfemale,whoaggravatedthesetenderfeelingsorprovokedhiddenguiltand ambivalencewouldevokearagefulresponse. TheNewYorkJewsandtheIsraelishadverylittleincommonpriortotheirexcoriationofHannahArendt'sreportontheEichmanntrial.TheNewYorkershadbeen denyingJudaismalltheirlives,whiletheIsraelishadsettledalandpreciselybecausetheirJewishidentitywascentral.Butwehaveseenthatthereisanissuethatthey facedincommon:thejudgmentofthenonJewishworld,bothEuropeanandAmerican,thattheywereinsufficientlymasculine.Thesurprisingsingularityofthe agreementoftheNewYorkandIsraeliJewsoverArendt'sreportisnotsoparadoxicaloncegenderisfactoredin.Boththeofficialspokesmenfornonassimilation, theZionists,andtheradicalintellectualsofthe1930s,whowantednothingmorethantoleaveJudaismbehind,canbeunderstoodasdefendingtheirmaligned manhoodintheirfuryatHannahArendt.BoththeIsraelisandtheNewYorkerswererespondingtogentileracismthatassociatedJudaismwithfemininity,accepting thechallengetobe"real"men,andinthatsense,desiringtoassimilatetothenonJewishstandardsofmasculinedeportment.HannahArendttouchedthatnerve. Arendtwasthe"bigstrongwoman"who,inBreines'sscenario(Breines39)happenedonthesceneofantiSemiticaggression,recoveredJakobFreud'shat,and destroyedtheoversimplifiedcategoriesoftoughgentilemanandpassive,feminineJew.ShewasaHolocaustrefugeewhorefusedtobeavictim.Rememberthat IsraeliZionistshadbeenstrugglingwiththeirimageofHolocaustJews:didthevictimsdieingloriousdeathsbecausetheywerenot"tough"enoughtoresisttheNazis? Or,duringthetimeoftheKastneraffairanditsaftermathintheEichmanntrial,werethetrulydespicablevictimstheoneswhonegotiatedwiththeNazis,whilethe "innocent"Jewswhodiedweremoreheroic?Eitherinterpretationrepresentedafalsedichotomy,taintedwithgender."Good"and''bad"werepolarized,good associatedwithmasculine,badwithfeminine.TheZionists,somanyofwhomhadrecentlybeen

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diasporaJewsthemselves,weredesperatetodistinguishthemselvesfromtheweak,feminineJews:thetaskwastoidentifywhichgroupofEuropeansshouldbe labeledthatway. Fromthisperspective,whetherornotArendtwasawomanmayhavebeenofsecondarysignificancetotheIsraelisincomparisontothefactthatshewassupposed tobeaEuropeansurvivor,butrefusedtobeavictim.Instead,shewasreadingthemtheriotact,sufficientthreatinitselftothedearlyheldgenderedstereotypes.It alsomightaccountforthefactthattheirresponsestoHilbergandArendtweresimilar.Intermsofprevailinggenderstereotypes,bothscholarswere"women" challengingthepotencyoftheIsraelis. TheNewYorkIntellectuals'genderproblemtookadifferentbutrelatedform.Theythemselvesstood"accused"ofbeingemasculated,bothbyIsraelis,becausethey wereassimilationists,andbyAmericans,becausetheywereJews.AsaEuropeanJew(female)andarefugeeoftheHolocaust,Arendtremindedthemofthefalseness oftheirattemptsatassimilation.TheywereJewswhohaddeniedtheirJewishnessandsoughttoestablishtheirmuscularitybymeansofradicalpolitics.Theyhad movedawayfromradicalism,atleastinpart,outofbelatedrecognitionoftheirJewishness.Buttheytoosawtheworldintermsofpolarities,andtheirlatestonewas centeredonanexaggeratedassociationofHitler,Stalin,andEvil,whichappearedtobevalidatedbyArendt'searlierwork.Hercomplicatedmessageaboutthe HolocaustnowforcedthemtofacethecomplexityofbeingJewish,andremindedthemoftheirlessthanheroicstanceduringthewar.Sincetheiravoidanceof Judaismalltheirliveshad,Isuspect,somethingtodowithadesiretobe"masculine"onanonJewishmodel,acceptingtherealityofJewishnessratherthanan idealizedvisionofJewishgoodness,wasboundtobetroubling.ItwasevenworsebecauseArendtwasaHolocaustrefugeeherself,aEuropeaneducatedscholar, anda"bigstrongwoman."Iwilldeclineheretospeculateaboutthe"special"relationshipbetweenJewishsonsandtheirmothers,andwhatthis''bigstrongJewish woman"musthaveevokedinthemunconsciously.

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Genderalsoplayedapartinthespecificaccusationagainsther,ofbeinginsufficientlyidentifiedwiththeJewishpeople,of"blamingthevictims,"ofbeingtooshrilland angryinhertone,of,inaphrase,beingdisloyaltotheJews.Onitsmostgenerallevel,Arendtwascaughtinawebofdoublestandards.Shewasexpectedbythe Jewishcommunitytoputherloyaltytoherownpeoplebeforeher"objective"scholarshipinawaythatappearsutterlydisengenuouscomingfromagroupofmenwho hadbuilttheircareersdistancingthemselvesfromloyaltyto"theirownpeople"rightupthroughtheHolocaust.Butasawoman,shewasdeniedaccessbyJewish traditionandlawtothebasisofJewishscholarship,theTorahandTalmud.Ifsheweretobeascholar,inanimportantsenseshehadtobea"nonJewish"scholar,a classicalorauniversalscholar.But,totheextentthatshewasaclassicaloruniversalscholar,shewasusurpingtheIntellectuals'accesstoassimilation,whichwas associatedwithmasculinity. Inotherwords,ArendtwasdismantlingcategoriesfortheNewYorkersaswellastheIsraelis:fortheIsraelisshewasthe"strongJewishwoman"fromtheDiaspora, acombinationtheyhadnotbelievedpossible.FortheNewYorkers,shewasaJewishwomanwhopresentedherselfasauniversalscholar:alsotantamounttocross dressing,ifwetakeseriouslytheargumentthattheircosmpolitanism,whichwasrelatedtotheirradicalism,wasaneffortatassimilationassociatedwithmasculinity. Why,then,weren'ttheNewYorkIntellectualsenragedbyTheOriginsofTotalitarianism,whichappearedadecadeearlier,andwaswrittenbythesame universalistwomanscholar?TheanswertothatquestionisthattheOriginsconfirmedtheIntellectualsintheirturnawayfromradicalismtoanAmericanismthatwas notperceivedtobeincompatiblewiththeirnewlyacknowledgedJewishness.Incontrast,EichmanninJerusalemremindedthem,withoutthecomfortofconfirming theirpoliticalstancesonanything,thattheyhadbetrayedthemselvesduringtheHolocaustbyadheringtoa"cosmopolitan"stancethatwasindeedinsufficiently identifiedwiththeJewssufferinginEurope.TheyaccusedArendtofwhattheyfearedaboutthemselves.Hilbergwassparedthebulkoftheirragebecause

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hewaslikethem:anAmericanJewishman,ratherthanawomanfromEuropewhohadamorelegitimateclaimtoJewishheroismbyvirtueofherclassicalGerman trainingandherrealscrapewithdangerinNaziGermany.Inthegenderdistortedcurrencyoftheday,shewas"moreofaman"thananyofthem.

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Chapter6 Transition
ThinkingaboutEichmann Perhapsweunderstandsomethingmoreoftheworldandourselvesthroughthediscussion,actuallyanunmasking,ofthehiddendimensionsofgenderandJudaismin thetreatmentofHannahArendtoverEichmanninJerusalem.ButdowelearnanythingaboutHannahArendt? ThetendencyamongcontemporaryscholarsistosplitArendt'sworkintoan"early"part,concernedwithpoliticsandaction,anda"later"part,concernedwith thinkingand"thelifeofthemind,"includinghereffortstoconstructatheoryofpoliticalethics.Isuggestedearlierthattodivideherworkinthiswayistodistortitby invitinganequallyskeweddivisionintoa"Jewish"ArendtconcernedwithspecificallyJewishpolitics,totalitarianism,theHolocaustanda''universal"or"classical" ArendtconcernedwithphilosophyandEuropeanscholarship.Arendtherselfmadenosuchdistinctionbetweenherearlyandlateryears.Butsheprobablywould agreewithmuchofthecontemporaryscholarshipthatconfirmstheinsularityofherscholarlyworkfromtheinfluencesofherJewishness.Contemporaryfeministsare lesssanguineaboutherabilitytoescapetheinfluencesofgenderinherscholarlywork,butsheundoubtedlywouldhavebeenequallystridentinaffirmingherimmunity fromthatchargeaswell.1

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Paradoxically,whileArendtissupposedtohaveescaped"contamination"fromherJewishnessandherfemalenessinherscholarship,recentassessmentshave attemptedtodemonstratethatshewasunabletoescapetheinfluenceofHeidegger.HerrelationshipwithHeideggerisemployedasameansofunderminingher loyaltytotheJewishpeople:apparentlyheraffairwiththeGermanphilosophernurturedanantiSemiticstreakinherself.TheneedtodissociateArendtfromher attachmenttoJudaismisextraordinary,andmakesonewonderwhatisatstakeforthescholarsengagedinthiseffort.2 ThatshehadbeenattachedtoHeideggerin herstudentdays,andmanagedtoreachareconciliationwithhimafterthewar'sendistakenasevidencethatshewas"underhisspell,"thathisteachingshada definitiveinfluenceuponherwork,andthatshesomehowadaptedtohisantiSemitisminherscholarlyand/orpubliclife.SuchanapproachisdisrespectfulofArendt, reducinghertoawomansodependentuponherrelationshipwithateacher,lover,boyfriendwhateverthemaleinfluenceiscalledthatshewasunabletothinkfor herself,orseparateevenatroublingromanticattachmentfromherscholarlyandpoliticalconvictions.TheattempttoreduceHannahArendttoHeidegger'sinfluence andthentousethattoattackherloyaltytotheJewishpeopleresemblestheaccusationsoftheNewYorkIntellectualsthatshewasa"selfhatingJew,"aprojection perhapsoftheirownambivalencetowardJudaism. WhileArendtneverdeniedthatshewaseitherJewishorfemale,itisnonethelesstroublingtoacknowledgethatArendtherselfwouldlikelyhavedeniedtheimpactof bothherJewishandherfemaleidentityuponherscholarship.Ihavearguedfortheimpactofgenderuponthewayherhighestprofileworkdealingwithamajor Jewishissuewasreceived.ButwehaveyettoconsiderwhetherherJewishidentityorherfemaleidentityactuallyshapedthecontentofherscholarshipitself.Ishall leaveotherfeministscholarsofArendttodealwiththeissueofwhatimpacthergendermayhavehaduponherscholarship,3 andconfinemyselftotheneglectedissue ofwhetherevidenceofherJewishnessaffectedthescholarshipthatshe,aswellastherestofthescholarlyworld,regardedasimmunetotheinfluencesofethnicor culturalidentity.

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IdonotregardHannahArendteitherasanunproblematicexampleof"Jewishconsciousness"or,ontheotherhand,assufferingfromaninadequateidentificationwith theJewishpeople.IseenoevidencethatsheeverdeniedorinsufficientlyidentifiedwiththeJewishpeopleassuchindeed,sheidentifiedherselfspecificallyasaJew beforeanythingelse,tobothJaspersandGershomScholem.4 Shewasnota"selfhatingJew"wholustedafteroridentifiedwithMartinHeideggerbecausehewas anantiSemite.Isurmisethatshesufferedfromconflictsaboutherownlegitimacyasascholar,forthereasonssuggestedatthecloseofthepreviouschapter:Jewish womendidnothaveahistoryofbeingnurturedandsupportedasscholarsbytheirowncommunity,andJewishscholarsdidnothaveahistoryofbeingnurturedand supportedbynonJewishacademicsorintellectualsthroughouthistory.HannahArendtthuswasthevictimof"doublejeopardy,"similartowhatblackfeminists describeastheproblemsofbeingbothAfricanAmericanandfemale.InArendt'scase,shewouldhavestoodabetterchanceofbeingtakenseriouslyasascholarby theJewishcommunityhadshebeenaman,butevenaJewishmanwhosoughtrecognitionfromEuropeanscholarsandacademicswouldhavehadtoprovethathe wasnot"merely''aJewishscholar."Cosmopolitanism"wastheresponseoftheNewYorkJewishIntellectualstothechallengetoriseabovetheirJewishparochialism. ArendtwasonestepaheadoftheAmericanmeninthatshehadactuallyreceivedaclassicalEuropeaneducationunderthetutelageofHeideggerandJaspers.But bothherJewishandfemaleidentitieshamperedtheworld'sacceptanceofherlegitimacyasa"universal"scholar,aneglectforwhichherunconventionalcareerpath providesevidence.Academiawasanotherarenainwhichshe"somehowdidn'tfit." IfArendtwassomewhatdefensiveaboutherlegitimacyasascholar,IsuggestthatavoidanceofherJewishnessandfemaleness,atleastwhenitcametoher scholarship,waslargelyamanifestationofthatdefensiveness.Intheprecedingchaptersonrace,gender,andtheirimpactonthecontroversyoverEichmann,an importantsubstantiveissueofculturalpluralismtodayremainedunexplored:Whatimpact,ifany,doescultural

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identityorgenderhaveuponscholarshipanduponone'sabilitytoraise"universal"questionsfromanontribalperspective?Arendt'sprofessedseparationofher scholarshipfromherJewishidentityrevealsherconvictionthatbeingaJew(orawoman)hadanegligibleimpactonherscholarship.Butifwelookcloselyather work,especiallyafterEichmanninJerusalem,wefindanapproachtosocialandethicalquestionsmoreJewishthanhasbeenacknowledged.Especiallywithregard toTheLifeoftheMind,thequestionsArendtraisesareprofoundly"Jewish"instyleandcontent.HeravoidanceofJewishscholarshipasapotentialavenueto addressingtheissuessheraisedcontributedtoherlessthansatisfactorytreatmentoftheminThinking.Nonetheless,despitethefactthatshesoughtanswerstoher questionsinGreek,German,andChristiansources,completelyoverlookingJewishscholarship,thesolutionssheproposesaremore''Jewish"thansheoranybody elsehasallowedeventhoughtheyarepresentedinthewordsofSocrates. ItgoesagainstthegrainofscholarlydeferencetoGreekandEuropeanChristianinfluencestolookfortheJewishinfluencesinArendt'smostphilosophicalwork. Thinking,thefirstvolumeofTheLifeoftheMind,isfocusedsolelyuponclassicalthought:Greek,Roman,Christian,German,andeven,briefly,Chinese,butnot Jewishsourcesonethicsorthenatureofthoughtitself.ArendtwroteThinkingbecauseshehadbeensoprofoundlymisunderstoodwhenshearguedinEichmann thattheeviloftheHolocaustwasthelikelyresultofamassivefailuretothink.TheLifeoftheMind,fromthisperspective,wasaphilosophicalexplanationand justificationforArendt'sargumentinEichmann,aswellasaresponsetothecontroversy.EichmanninJerusalemmaybeunderstoodasan"actofthinking."Arendt hadriskedrevealingherselfintheprocessofthinkinginthatcontroversialbook,andTheLifeoftheMindisafullblowntheoreticalexplanationofwhatshewas thinkingabout,havingbeensoprofoundlymisunderstoodinEichmann. Unfortunately,theworldwasnomorereadyforArendtthanithadbeenforSocrates.IntheresponsetoEichmann,Arendtwasallbutinvitedtodrinkthehemlock. Jaspershim

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selfmadethecomparisonbetweenSocratesandArendtinaletterof25July1963(L.332,p.511),whenheattemptedtocomfortArendtasthefuroroverher Eichmannbookbatteredherseverely,andthelethaldimensionsofwhatsheyetfacedbecameapparent:"Becauseyouhavetouchedanextremelysorespotformany people,showntheirlivestobeinformedbyalie,theyhateyou....Whatyouhavecommunicatedwas,thoughhiddeninbooks,inlargepartalreadyknown.Your powerasawriterlikeLessing'shasmadeitwidelyknownnow.Truthisbeatentodeath,asKierkegaardsaidofSocratesandJesus.Thingshaven'tcometothat andwon'tcometothat."(512).5 WhatdidArendtmeanwhenshewrotethatafailuretothinkmightbesufficienttocausepoliticalcatastrophes?Arendtwasnottryingtoestablishapredictivelink betweenthinkingandtheavoidanceofevil.Shewasnotsonaiveastobelievethatallpeoplewouldeverthink(althoughsheheldittobeatheoreticalpossibility),or thatevilcouldactuallybeeliminatedfromtheworld.Nonetheless,contemporarycommentaryonEichmanninJerusalemprojectsaninstrumentalmentalityonto Arendt,presentingherconcernasconfinedtocriticismandjudgmentofEichmannhimself:"IfonlyEichmannhadthoughthard,hewouldnothavecommittedhis monstrouscrimes."6 ButIreadEichmanninJerusalemasitselfanexampleofArendtthinking:itisanactofthinking,orientedtowardthefuture,ratherthananexcoriationofthefailures ofthepast.ArendttookuponherselftheroleoftheSocraticgadfly,theelectricray,andshockedherreadersbydismantlingtheprefabricatedcategoriespeople believedpermittedthemtounderstandEichmann.ShedismantledtheconventionaljudgmentofEichmann.Shethoughtaboutandexaminedtheunexamined assumptionthatevildeedsmustbedonebyevilpeople."Nowthatthedevilhimselfwasinthedockheturnedouttobean'idealist,'andthoughitmaybehardto believe,itisquitepossiblethattheonewhosoldhissoulhadalsobeenan'idealist'"(Eichmann42).Thissoundsshocking,butinfactitiscompletelycompatiblewith hergeneralmistrustofdoctrinairethinkers.Thecontentofone'sideasmayormaynotbe

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dangerous,butmoreimportantly,whenonesubmergesoneselfinanidealoneinvariablystopsthinking,oratbestthinksprimarilyintermsofabstractionsand generalitiesthatisolateusfromthepluralityoftheworld.ItwouldhavebeenmucheasiertocontinuetothinkofEichmannasexceptionallybad,hatefilled,aracist, perhapsinsane,perhapsverystupid.ButArendtfoundnoneofthosetraitsinthemanshesawontrial. RatherthanbringinganestablishedperspectivetothetrialinJerusalem,Arendtlookedandlistened,andallowedherselftobesurprisedbytheunexpected.Inher reportshequotedpeopleverbatim,seemingtoassumethatanythinkingpersonwouldrecognizetheuseoflanguageshepointedtoasinstancesoftheinabilitytothink andtoquestion.Anyonewhocouldrefertokillingas"amedicalmatter"couldnotbethinking.Onpage77ofthebook,shesimplyquotesthelanguageusedbythe NazistodescribethemurderoftheJews:"thefinalsolution,""thefinalaim,"a"stage,''"physicalextermination,""evacuate,"andtheforcedemigrationofJewsasa "solution"thatwas"obsolete."Thelanguageluresusintothefalsebeliefthatrationalthoughtprocessesaregoingon.Shedemandsthatwethinkaboutourown uncriticaluseoflanguage.ThetechniquesheusedinEichmannissimilartoherapproachin"LyinginPolitics,"whereshewasdeeplyworriedaboutPresident Johnson'sandhisadvisers'departurefromrealitywithregardtotheVietNamWar.7 Hermethodisanundoing,adeconstruction:usingEichmannandZionisminthesamesentenceisprofoundlyunsettling,tosaytheleast.AssociatingLeoBaeckwith theFuhrerwastrulyaboorishmove,butprobablytheresultofoverzealousnessratherthancoldheartedness.8 BarnouwusesthetermtowhichArendtmade referenceinherlettertoScholem,todescribehermethodofdisplayingverbatimquotationsandallowingthereadertosupplytheanalysis:oratioobliqua."Byusing thenarrativestrategyoforatioobliqua,ArendtwasabletoletEichmann'svoicebeheardandjudgedthroughtheperspectiveprovidedbythecontext.Itwasan indirectwayofjudging,butaveryeffectiveone."9 Itmayhavebeeneffective,butitalsowasmisunderstood,aswehaveseen,at

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leastbyScholem,Syrkin,andAbel,whofailedtoperceiveanyironyatall. Arendt'sexhortationtorejectconventionalwisdomandreifiedideas,andtothinkcriticallyaboutouruseoflanguagewasdirectedmoretowardthe"experts"ofthe presentandfuturethantowardEichmann,forwhomitwastoolateanyway.ItisnotthatArendtrefusedtosay"Thoushaltnotkill,"butratherthatsherefusedtosay "Evildeedsarecommittedbyevilpeople.''Ifworldlyevilismadepossibleby"nothingmore"thantheunwillingnessorinabilitytothink,theneverybodywhodidnot actuallyresisttheNazisisinsomewayguiltyofcontributingtotheHolocaust.Thisplacesaharshdemanduponmostofus,whoprefernottoseetheconnection betweenpassivityandresponsibility.ArendtremarkedinherreplytoScholem,"Iunderstandthattherewasnopossibilityofresistance,butthereexistedthepossibility ofdoingnothing.Andinordertodonothing,onedidnotneedtobeasaint,oneneededonlytosay:'IamjustasimpleJew,andIhavenodesiretoplayanyother role.'"10This,sheimplied,wouldhavebeenamoreeffectiveandresponsiblestanceforLeoBaecktohaveassumed. EichmanninJerusalemwasintendedtoarousepeoplewhosmuglybelievedtheyknewexactlyhowtounderstandEichmannandhiskind.Itwasintendedto unfreezethosefrozeninterpretationsaboutthenatureofevilwithoutofferingacomfortablecategoryintowhichEichmannandotherperpetratorsofpoliticalevilwould fit.ThismetwitharesponsethatwasnotsodifferentfromtheonethatSocratesreceivedatthehandsoftherespectableAthenians. Thinkingand"ThinkingandMoralConsiderations,"theessaythatprecededandinasenseencapsulatedit,mayfromthisperspectivebeunderstoodaselaborations ofwhatArendthadintendedinEichmann.Thinkingmustbeavailabletoeverybody,andnottheprivilege(orburden)ofaselectfewitmustavoidofferinga doctrine,must"unfreeze"existingcategoriesanddogmas."Itisinitsnaturetoundo,unfreezeasitwere,whatlanguage,themediumofthinking,hasfrozeninto thoughtwords(concepts,sentences,definitions,doctrines)"

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("ThinkingandMoralConsiderations"434)."Theconsequenceofthispeculiarityisthatthinkinginevitablyhasadestructive,underminingeffectonallestablished criteria,values,measurementsforgoodandevil"(434).ArendtutilizesthelifeofSocrates,andhisownexplanationofwhathethoughthewasdoingintheApology whenhewasontrialforhislife,tohelpherdescribethetaksofthinking.11TheLifeoftheMindisArendt'sApology.12 ThePoliticalConsequencesofThinking Plato'sApologyis,ofcourse,noapologyatall.Rather,itisamagnificentportrayalofSocratesinacontrolledrageattheuncomprehendingrespectablecitizenswho areabouttosendhimtohisdeathforthecrimeofthinking.Socratesclaimstohave"nottheslightestskillasaspeakerunless,ofcourse,byaskillfulspeakerthey meanonewhospeaksthetruth."13Thefactthatheclaimstohavespenthislifespeakingthetruthwithouttheskillsofarhetoricianhasoffendedsomepeopleso profoundlythatheisontrialforhislife.Socratesguessesthathisdifficultquestionsupsetpeoplebyunderminingtheirconfidenceinwhattheybelieve.Hisdemandthat theythinkmakesthemnervousandultimatelyangryathim.Hisassaultontheircomplacencyisitselfadescriptionofthinkinganditsdangerswhenothersrespondto thechallengetothink.ItisalsoadescriptionofArendt's"crime"inwritingEichmanninJerusalem. SocrateswastoldthattheOracleofDelphihaddeclaredhimthewisestmanintheworld.Sincehedidnotexperiencehimselfaswisehesoughttoconfirmthetruthof theOracle'sproclamationbyinterviewingmenwithreputationsforwisdom:politicians,poets,skilledcraftsmen.Hisdiscovery:"WhenIbegantotrytoshowhim[the politician]thatheonlythoughthewaswiseandwasnotreallyso,myeffortswereresentedbothbyhimandbymanyoftheotherpeoplepresent.However,I reflectedasIwalkedaway:'WellIamcertainlywiserthanthisman.Itisonlytoolikelythatneitherofushasanyknowledgetoboastofbuthethinksheknows somethingwhichhedoesnotknow,whereasIamquiteconsciousofmyigno

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rance.Atanyrate,itseemsthatIamwiserthanheistothissmallextent,thatIdonotthinkthatIknowwhatIdonotknow'"(p.50,21bd). AsheinterviewedthelocalsagesSocratesdiscoveredthatordinaryfolkareprobablymoreperceptivethantheexperts."Peoplewiththegreatestreputationswere almostentirelydeficient,whileotherswhoweresupposedtobetheirinferiorsweremuchbetterqualifiedinpracticalintelligence"(51).Ofthepoets:"Itishardlyan exaggerationtosaythatanyofthebystanderscouldhaveexplainedthosepoemsbetterthantheiractualauthors"(51).Eventhecraftsmenheinterviewed,although understandingthetechnicalaspectsoftheirrespectivetrades,wereactuallyblindedbytheirlimitedexpertise."Onthestrengthoftheirtechnicalproficiencythey claimedaperfectunderstandingofeveryothersubject,howeverimportantandIfeltthatthiserrormorethanoutweighedtheirpositivewisdom"(52). Thefirststepinachievingwisdom,then,istheacknowledgmentthatonehassomethinglefttolearn.Thosewholivewiththeconceitthattheyknowsomething anythingfully,arethebiggestfools.Butofcoursetheyarealsolikelytobethemostinfluentialmeninpolitics,andsotheyarethemostdangeroustoattemptto instruct.Nevertheless,Socratesclaimsthathislifewouldbebarrenunlesshecontinuedtoplaythisdangerousgameofthinkinganddemandingthesameofothers.He proclaimsthathewillteachanybodytoraisethehardquestionswithoutfeebutthathehasnothingofsubstancetoteach.Heteacheshowtothinkheteaches "method"butthereisnogratifyingproductasrewardfortherisktaking.Asaresultofthisconventionallyunrewardingendeavor,Socratesnotes,"Ihaveincurreda greatdealofbitterhostilityandthisiswhatwillbringaboutmydestruction,ifanythingdoesnotMeletusnorAntyus,buttheslanderandjealousyofaverylarge sectionofthepeople"(59). Whenthejurydecidesforthedeathpenalty,Socratesretorts,"Itisnotalackofargumentsthathascausedmycondemnation,butalackofeffronteryandimpudence, andthefactthatIhaverefusedtoaddressyouinthewaywhichwouldgiveyoumostpleasure"(74),inthepostureofasupplicant

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beforethem.Socratesiscondemnedtodeathforchallengingpeopletothink,andforaddressingthemintermsthattheyarenotpreparedtohear.Boththetoneand thecontentofhismessagemakepeopleuncomfortable.Thinkingunfreezesfrozenconcepts,unsettlescomplacenttruths,wakensthemindfromlazyslumber.Many wouldprefertobeleftsleeping.Stillotherssleepundertheillusionthattheyareawake.JaspersdescribesSocrates'"crime"intermswhichmaybeappliedtothatof Arendt.

ThepeopleconfusedthemanwhohadtranscendedSophismwithSophismitself.Forthenewmethodbywhichherefuteditwasintolerable.Socratesquestionedunremittingly hedrovehislistenerstothebasicproblemsofman,butdidnotsolvethem.Confusion,aconsciousnessofinferiority,andthedemandsheraisedcreatedangerandhatred.14

ArendtasJewishGadfly IhavelikenedHannahArendttoaSocraticgadflyinEichmanninJerusalemandtoSocratesonceagainwithmystatementthatTheLifeoftheMindisHannah Arendt'sApology.WhathashappenedtotheJewishwomanIpromisedtopresent?Hasshedisappearedagain?TheSocraticanalogyisonewayofinterpretingwhat happenedtoArendtintheEichmanncontroversy.KarlJasperslovinglyofferedherthatimage.IbelievetherearesomegoodreasonswhyArendtcouldavailherself oftheSocraticanalogy.HerreportonEichmannwasprovocativeanddisturbing.Itwasachallengetothink,andportionsofheraudiencewerequitewillingto slaughterherforit.ButEichmanninJerusalemwasalsoaworkofastonishingpoliticalnaivete.FarfromintendingthatstatementtobeanincriminationofArendt,I believethatingeneralhernaiveteempoweredherwork,gaveherthefreedomtosaywhatshebelievedwithoutbeingshackledtoconventionalideas.Butin Eichmann,sheraredbackandletloosewithapowerfulintellectualandethicalchallenge,apparentlyoblivioustothefactthatherscholarlyJewishaudiencedidnot regardherasaGreek,orevenaGermanmale,andthereforewasloathetoacceptherchallenge.ShewasreceivedasaJewishWomanwritingaboutthingsthat wereinap

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propriateforhertoaddress,especiallyinpublic.Shedidnotperceivethesefacetsofheridentityasproblematictothewayherwritingwasreceived,andthereinlay hernaivete. Arendt'scriticsdidnotaccuseherofbeingaSocraticgadfly.ThatwouldhavebeenaremarkablecomplimentcomingfromJewishandnonJewishdetractorsalike. Indeed,JaspersofferedherthatassolaceinaletterintendedtosootheherastheattacksoverEichmannmultiplied.Instead,shewasaccusedoftalkingoutofturn, ofindiscretion.Theexplicitrationaleabout"betrayaloftheJewishpeople"waslinkedtothechargethatshehadbeentasteless,hadembarrassedtheJewsby exposing"private"Jewishmattersbeforea"public"(gentile)audience.Forexample,IrvingHowe'slamentinCommentarythatTheNewYorkerdoesnotpublish rebuttals,andthatArendt'sreportwouldthusbe"elevated''inthemindsofthe"lowbrows"whoreadthemagazinetothestatureof"literature,"canbeviewedasan expressionoffearthatwhatshewrotewouldbereadasauthoritativebynonJewsandnonintellectuals.

HundredsofthousandsofgoodmiddleclassAmericanswillhavelearnedfromthosearticlesthattheJewishleadershipinEuropewascowardly,inept,andevencollaborationist thattheJewishcommunityhelpedtheNazisachievetheirgoalofracialgenocideandthatiftheJewshadnot"cooperated"withtheNazis,fewerthanfivetosixmillionJews wouldhavebeenkilled.Nosmallmatter:andyouwillforgivesomeofusifwereactstronglytothischarge....Aterrificpiece,agreatstory:youdon'targuewithliterature.15

ThischargeofindiscretionfrommembersoftheJewishcommunityresoundswiththeambivalenceofcultured,educated,"assimilated"Jewswhenoneoftheirnumber behavesbeforenonJewsinamannerdeemed"tooJewish."EvenScholem,aZionistemigretoIsraelwhodidnotbelieveassimilationwaspossible,fearednotonly thatArendthadbetrayedtheJewishcommunity,butthatshehadactedinawayunfitforaChristianaudience."Shah!NotinfrontoftheGoyim!"underlieshis messagetoArendt. AssimilatedJewswerethemselvesawareoftheimportanceofkeepingtheirJewishlivesapart."AmaninthestreetandaJewathome"wasthecatchphrasethat capturedthedemands

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upontheJewishEuropeanbourgeois.Arendtwaswellawareof"therule,"andmadereferencetoitinherdiscussionofantiSemitisminTheOriginsof Totalitarianism.Onceagain,whatusuallygoesunrecognizedishowgenderedistheprescription.Ofcourse,itsaysexplicitly"amaninthestreet,"suggestingthat Jewishwomenwerenotexpectedtomakepublicappearances.Butbeyondthat,asMarionKaplanexplains,Jewishwomenwereassignedtheroleofmaintainingthe Jewishnessofthehomeasarefugeforthemeninthestreet. JohnMurrayCuddihydiscussesthiscultural(butnotthegendered)divisioninTheOrdealofCivility.16HearguesthatassimilationoftheJewstogentilesociety calledfor"thebifurcationofprivateaffectfrompublicdemeanor."17Thisdemandedadifficulttransitionfromthelackofdifferentiationbetweenprivateandpublicin theghettosofEasternEuropeandtheimmigrantsettledslumsofLowerEastSideManhattan,tothecivilityandmanners,andthedifferentiationbetweenmannersand morals,ofEuropeanandAmericanChristianity."JewishEmancipationinvolvedJewsincollisionwiththedifferentiationsofWesternsociety.Thedifferentiationsmost foreigntotheshtetlsubcultureofYiddishkeitwerethoseofpublicfromprivatebehaviorandofmannersfrommorals.Jewswerebeingasked,ineffect,tobecome bourgeois,andtobecomebourgeoisquickly."TheclashbetweenshtetlJewsandtheProtestantbourgeoisiecanbecharacterizedbythefamiliarityandpassionof Jewishghettolife(perceivedasplaincrudenessbyChristians)versustherefinementofmannersofthedominantChristianculture."'Niceness'isasgoodanameasany fortheinformallyyetpervasivelyinstitutionalizedcivilityexpected....Intensity,fanaticism,inwardnesstoomuchofanything,infactisunseemlyandbidsfairto destroythefragilesolidarityofthesurfacewecallcivility''(Cuddihy14). Cuddihy'sdescriptionoftherepressionofpassionandintensityneededtoassimilatetoChristiancultureechoesMosse'sdescriptionofGermanic(andEnglish) masculinityattheturnofthecentury.CuddihyoverlooksgenderinhisdescriptionofthepathwaytoassimilationofEuropeanandAmericanJews,butwecansupply themissingdimensioninamannercompat

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iblewithMarionKaplan'sreadingoftheriseoftheJewishmiddleclassifwerememberthatJewishwomenwereexpectedtoremainoutofpubliclife.Acquiring "gentility"wasamaleprojectinthesensethatitwasthemenwhoattemptedtounlearntheirJewishpassionand"crudeness"publicly.AccordingtoKaplan,while Jewishmiddleclasswomenalsosoughttoruna"respectable"(ifKosher)bourgeoishousehold,theirpassionandaffectionatedemonstrativeness,atleastfortheir children,wasawellknowntrait,sometimesdisplayedpubliclytotheembarrassmentorenvyofgentilewitnesses. Byallaccountsoftheirpenchantforinhouserivalriesandtalentforvociferouspoliticaldisputes,however,boththeNewYorkIntellectualsandtheIsraelisfailedinthe taskofleavingtheirpassionbehind.Thismayhavebeentheresultoftheirascentfromtheworkingclasses,andtheirunfamiliaritywithassimilatedJewishbourgeois mores.Forthem,aswehaveseen,masculineassimilationwasassociatednotsomuchwithrepressionofemotionassuch,aswithscholarlyobjectivityinthecaseof theAmericans,andmilitancyandphysicalprowessonthepartoftheIsraelis.Nonetheless,elementsofCuddihy'sdescriptionoftheneedforcircumspectionand indirectnessseemtoexplaintheaccusationthatArendthaddefiedthestandardsofgoodtasteaswellascommunityloyaltywithheroutspokencriticismofEuropean andIsraeliJewishmenduringtheHolocaust. Arendtdefendedherselfbyclaimingthatfarfrombeingguiltyofanunseemlydisplayofpassioninpublic,shewasadheringtoadignifiedscholarlyobjectivity.Thatis, sheacceptedtheassimilationistbifurcationofpublicfromprivatelife,insistingthatshehadbeenimpartial,ratherthanemotionalinherassessmentoftheEichmanntrial. Sherefused,sheinsisted,torevealanyengagedpartialityinherwork,becauseshewasfullyawareof"whathappenswhenemotionsaredisplayedinpublicand becomeafactorinpoliticalaffairs."18Ironically,then,bothArendtandScholemaccusedeachotherofacting"tooJewish"inpublic:hetoldhersheshouldhavebeen morecircumspectincriticizingJews,andsheinturnclaimedthatshewouldnotsacrificeherscholarlyperspectivetotriballoy

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alty.ShehadalsoadvocatedaJewisharmybeformedtojointhefightagainstHitler,therebyattachingherselftoboththeAmericanandtheIsraelimasculine assimilationistpostures.In"usurping"themasculineassimilationiststandsofboththeNewYorkersandtheZionists,Arendtprovidedfuelfortheunlikelyconvergence oftheiropinionsofherwork. ButthefuryoverherreportonEichmannwasalsofueledbyanunacknowledgedgenderfactor:asawomanwhowasmakinga"cosmopolitan"oruniversalist argumentabouttheNazis,ArendtusurpedtheNewYorkJews'masculinestance.Asawomandiscussingthelessthan"heroic"behavioroftheIsraeliZionists,she underminedtheIsraeli'sclaimtomasculinityaswell.ArendtwasassumingtheassimilatedstanceoftheJewishmen:scholarlyand"cosmopolitan."Shemightaswell havebeencrossdressing.JewishassimilationissoprofoundlyamaleprojectthatwhenArendtwasaccusedofnotwritingfromaJewishperspective,orofbetraying theJewishpeople,thehiddenmessagewasreally,"StopactinglikeaJewishmanpublicly:actmorelikeaJewishwoman!"whichwastantamounttobellowingather, "Besilent!'' TherewasthusnowayforHannahArendtpubliclytoidentifywiththeJewishpeople,aswasbeingdemandedofher,withoutrelinquishingeitherherindependent scholarlystancethatis,herabilitytosimply"thinkwhatwearedoing"orrelinquishingherJewishwomanhood.Herverypresenceembodiedthedeconstructionof acceptedcategories:aJewishwomanscholaractingpublicly,andclaimingtospeakfromauniversaliststandpoint.Nowonderhersubsequentwork,herresponseto theEichmanncontroversyinTheLifeoftheMind,wasconcernedwithdismantlingfrozencategories.Inherworkonthinking,shetookthestancethatthinkinghas nofinalproduct,isanactivitythatpreventsideasfrombecomingreifiedintoastaticbodyofrulesorethics,thatthinkingwillalwaysbeachallengetosocietybecause itquestionsallconventionalwisdom.Socrateswasanaturalspokesmanforthatposition.Whowouldlistentosuchthoughtcomingdirectlyfromthemouth(or typewriter)ofaJewishwoman?WithSocratesasfrontman,Arendtmightgetpeople

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tostopandthink,whichwasalsothesubstantivemessageofherlife'sfinalproject. EvenlessacknowledgedthanArendt'sundoubtedlyunconscioustacticofputtingherideasintothemouthofSocrateshimself,wasanotherdimensionthatalsowent unrecognizedbybothArendtandothercontemporaryscholars:howveryJewishitwastomakethedismantlingofaccepteddoctrineandconventionalwisdomthe coreofhertheoryabouttherelationshipbetweenthinkingandpreventingworldlyevil.NothingcouldbemoreJewishthanaphilosophybaseduponthesmashingof idols,evenidolsthattaketheformofreified,rigidideas.InthechaptersthatfollowIshallpresentArendt'sphilosophyasanexampleofJewishthinking, unacknowledgedasJewisheitherbyherselforhercriticsandadmirers.Thefirststepistodefine,totheextentthatitispossible,thenatureofJewishthinking.

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Chapter7 BiblicalandRabbinicApproachestoThinking
ThinkingLikeaJew ThatHannahArendtwasaJewishwomanissignificant,bothpoliticallyandintellectually.Whiledescriptionsofgroupmembership,labelsofreligion,ethnicity,gender, andracecanbeusedforracistpurposes,toreducepeopletostereotypesanddismissthem,theinfluenceofidentityuponone'sworkanditsreceptioncannotbe ignored.SearchingfortheroleplayedbyArendt'sreligionandgenderdoesnotreflecttheimpulseto"reduce"hertoaJewishwoman,withtheimplicitassumptionthat ifweknowthatmuch,weknowallweneedtoabouther.Rather,theimpulseisthereverse:canweknowenoughaboutherworkanditsmeaningifweinsistthather Judaismhadnothingsignificanttocontributetowhatshewrote? ThecontroversygeneratedoverEichmannwasinfluencedbyJudaismandgender,howeverunacknowledgedbyallconcerned.ThecontroversypromptedArendtto investigatetherelationshipbetweenthinkingandpoliticalaction,aprojectwhichwasbothacontinuationofherargumentinEichmanninJerusalem,andanemphatic statementthatshewouldcontinuebothtothinkandtoinsistthatthinkinganditsabsencebore

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worldlyconsequences,astheresponsetoherthinkingonEichmannhaddemonstrated. Paradoxically,althoughherdetractorsaccusedherof"notthinkinglikeaJew,"evenwhilesheherselfinsistedthat"thinking"couldnotbespecifically"Jewish,"shedid ''thinklikeaJew"morethansheoranybodyelsewouldadmit.Inthisandthechapterthatfollows,weshallconsiderwhat"thinkinglikeaJew"mightmean. Whatcanitmeanto"thinklikeaJew"?1 Inourageofmulticulturalawareness,itmayseememotionallyliberatingtoacknowledgetheinfluenceofhistoryandidentity uponcreativework.However,labelingatypeofthinking"Jewish"alsohasarecenthistoryofantiSemitism,enoughtomakemanyJewswaryoftheenterprise.Hitler, ofcourse,usedthelabel"Jewish"asamodifiersignifying"debased":rationaleforgenocide.ArendtandJewsofhergenerationknewalltoowellthatbeinglabeleda "Jewish"anything,thinkerincluded,waspotentiallylethal.HowcanI,morethanhalfacenturyaftertheHolocaust,andlackingdirectexperienceofthemostextensive displayofantiSemitisminhistory,nowusethetermJewishthinkingasawayofunderstanding,ratherthancircumscribingordemeaning,thesignificanceofArendt's scholarship? Beyondthepoliticaldangeroftypologizingracial,ethnic,religious,orgenderedcharacteristics,theattempttorenderinworldlytermsapproachestotruthand knowledgethatstemfromareligiousoutlookmaybeinherentlyproblematic.ContemporarywriterswhodescribeaHebrewstyleofthinkingoftenemphasizeour inherentdeferencetotheGreekclaimstophilosophyandepistemology:assecularlyeducatedWesterners,ourunconsciousapproachtounderstandingHebrew thoughtmaybe"Greek."Wearetempted,almostunconsciously,totranslateaHebrewapproachtotruth,andtoanethicunderstoodbyJewsasprocess,intothe "Western"or"classical"tradition.Thismaybeanepistemologicallyimpossibleundertaking,whichcansucceedonlybymisrepresentingthereligiouscharacterof "Jewish"thinking. Furtheraggravatingthedifficultiesofcomparingreligiousthoughttophilosophy,literature,orhistoryinanef

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forttocompare"styles"ofthinking,isthevarietyofstylesthathavecharacterizedJewishreligiousthoughtitself.Thisshouldcomeasnosurprise,giventhe extraordinarylengthofJewishhistory.Evendeprivedofthecontinuousphysicalavailabilityofahomeland,thehistoryoftheJewishpeoplespansoverfourthousand continuousyears,groundedononecentraltext,whichhas,inturn,spawnedadditionalliteratureandcommentary.Anytraditionspanningfourmillenniawouldof necessityhavehadtosustainchangesinresponsetohistoricaldevelopments,andtoexhibitflexibilityinordertosurvive. Wecananticipateaproblemindefiningnotonly"Jewishthinking"butalsoindefiningwhoisaJew,atleastinthepostenlightenmentagewhentherearethree, probablyfourmajorreligiousinterpretationsofJudaism(Orthodox,Conservative,Reform,andReconstructionist),andwheremanyJewsdonotpracticetheirreligion atall,andyetstillconsiderthemselvesJewish.Anumberofscholars,includingHannahArendt,havenotedthemodernphenomenonofthesecularJew,andit describesmanyofthelaborZionists,whoarestridentlyJewish,butnotreligiousinanorthodoxfashion.2 Indeed,difficultiesinIsraelfromitsinceptiontothepresent dayconflictoverapeacetreatywiththePalestinianArabs,involveseveretensionsbetweensecularZionistsandorthodoxJewsinIsrael. YosefHayimYerushalmioffersadescriptionofthesecularJewinhisstudyofFreud'sMoses:
ThePsychological[i.e.Secular]Jewseems,atleasttotheoutsider,devoidofallbutthemostvestigialcontentithasbecomealmostpuresubjectivity.Contentisreplacedby character.AlienatedfromclassicalJewishtexts,PsychologicalJewstendtoinsistoninalienableJewishtraits.Intellectualityandindependenceofmind,thehighestethicaland moralstandards,concernforsocialjustice,tenacityinthefaceofpersecutiontheseareamongthequalitiestheywillclaim,ifcalledupon,asquintessentiallyJewish.3

InhisintroductiontoYerushalmi'smonograph,Zakhor,ontherelationshipbetweenhistoriographyandJewishmemory,HaroldBloomgrappleswiththequestionof whoisa"Jewish"

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writer.Hesuggeststhattheremaybeareciprocalrelationshipbetweenwhoisdefinedasa"Jewishwriter"andhow"Jewishwriting"isdefined:''KafkaandFreudare sostrongandsoJewishthatweredefinetheJewishontheirbasis,butwhatisitaboutthemthatisJewish?"4 "YoucannotdecidewhethermodernJewishwriting possessescommonelementswithoutdefiningtheundecidableissueofwhoisorisnotJewish.IsProustsomehowaJewishwriter?Ifhewas,thenwhatabout Montaigne?ClearlyJewishancestryishardlyinitselfasufficientcauseofJewishwriting,norcanweassociateJewishimaginationwithnormativeJudaism"(Zakhor xxii). Bloomdefersto"commonconsent"asameansofdefiningaJewandassertsthatKafkaandFreudareprobablyregardedas"the"Jewishwritersofthemodernage. Thesearehardlythemostobviouschoices,andthedefinitionof"commonconsent"remainsremarkablyundefined.Bloomultimatelyimposeshisowndefinitionthatthe essenceofbeingaJewishwriterinvolvesanobsessionwithinterpretation.TakinghiscuefromtheomnipresentNewYorkbusandsubwaybillboardsforLevy'sRye Bread,Bloomcheerfullyobserves,"Youdon'thavetobeJewishtobeacompulsiveinterpreter,but,ofcourse,ithelps"(Zakhorxxiii).WithregardtoKafkaand Freud,
IthinkthatfinallytheirJewishnessconsistsintheirintenseobsessionwithinterpretation,assuch.AllJewishwritingtendstobeoutrageouslyinterpretive,sothatthe Nietzscheanquestionappliespoorlytothem'Whoistheinterpreter,andwhatpowerdoesheseektogainoverthetext?'"(Zakhorxxiii)

AccordingtoBloom'sperspective,Jewishwritingischaracterizedbyadialogicalstance,baseduponthiswilltointerpret,toengageindialoguewithatext.Butthe basictextforJewishwriters,arguesBloom,isalwaystheBible.ThesuggestionisthatthecentralityoftheBibleinJewishlife,orintheJewishunconscious,fuelsthe passionforwritingandinterpretation,evenfor"secular,"nonreligiousJews.TheBibleisatemplateforeveryothertext.BiblicalscholarsarguethattheJewishText possessescertainfeaturesthatmakeitdistinctamongreligioustexts.

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TheBible TheliteratureonBiblicalNarrative,aswellasonthelegalandpoeticaspectsoftheBible,isenormous,tooextensivetoaddressinanydetailhere.Still,thereare stylistictraitsthatmaybeidentifiedascharacteristic.Whenwereferto"Jewishthinking,"chancesarethatTalmudicandMidrashicthoughtiswhatwehaveinmindas thefoundationandmodel.ButtheTalmudandMidrashareintimatelyconnectedto,inseparableandindeedsometimesindistinguishablefrom,theBible.5 AuniquecharacteristicoftheJewishBibleisitsextremelysparestyle,referredtobyonescholarasits"spareandalmostcalligraphicdescriptionofevents."6 Barry Holtzremarks,"TheBibleisloathetotellusthemotivations,feelingsorthoughtsofcharacters.Rarelygivingusdescriptivedetailseitherofpeopleorplaces,itis composedinastark,uncompromisingstyle"(Holtz180).Actionisconveyedwithanabsoluteminimumofembellishment,necessitatingmanyinferencesthroughthe dialoguethatcomprisesmuchofthetext.Yetitisextremelyrarethatmorethantwopeopleconverseatonetime,andthereisnoidentifiednarrator,attributedauthor, redactor,orpatron.TheBibleishistoricallyorganized,inabasicallylinearfashion,althoughthereareinterludesinterjectedintomanystoriesthatareoutof chronologicalsequence.And,remarkably,theJewishBibledoesnotsermonize:"Itallowsitsmessagestoarisefromsilencesinthenarrative.Inasenseitisweighing messages,inthatdiscordantvoicesinthetraditionareallowedsilentlytoclash,evenasthenarrativeplungesinexorablyforward"(Holtz63).Itisalmostasthoughthe Biblewerewritteninordertobeinterpreted.Itsrichnessistheresultofitsspareness,ofitslackofexplanationorexcuseforcontradictionsandpluralaccountsofthe sameevent.Itisbothstraightforwardandenigmatic:aninvitationtothought,dialogue,andinterpretation.TheHebrewBiblewasthefirstmajorbookamongancient peoplestobewritteninprose.''Itispeculiar,andculturallysignificant,thatamongancientpeoplesonlyIsraelshouldhavechosentocastitssacrednationaltraditions inprose."7 RobertAltersuggeststhattheremustbesignificance

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tothis.Thetwoinnovationsthatresultfromthisstylearethepredominanceofdialogueastheprimarymeansofconveyingthestory,andthe"deliberateavoidanceof epic."Epicpoetrywasassociatedwithpaganismandpolytheism,andthespurningoftheepicformwasregardedasnecessaryforconveyingthemonotheismof Jewishhistory. Narrativeprose,thenewformatorgenre,wascompatiblewiththemonotheismofJewishreligion.ItwasappropriatetotheinvisibilityoftheJewishGod,aswellas theindeterminacy,orineffabilityofboththeshapeofthatGodandGod'smessages,meaning,andmorality.

Meaning,perhapsforthefirsttimeinnarrativeliterature,wasconceivedasaprocess,requiringcontinualrevisionbothintheordinarysenseandintheetymologicalsenseof seeingagaincontinualsuspensionofjudgment,weighingofmultiplepossibilities,broodingovergapsininformationprovided.(Alter12)

IhavewrittenelsewherethatthereexistsaBiblicalDialectic,contradictionsinthetext,remainingintact,tobestruggledwithbythereader.8 Someofthemore obviousmomentsarediscussedattheendofchapter8(pp.208ff.).Biblicalscholarshavenotedtensionorconflictinthetextintheformof,forexample,conflicting renderingsofthecovenantwithIsrael:isit"unconditional,"or"conditional"?BothaspectsseemtobeinevidenceinthestoryofAbrahaminGenesis15and17.Is Israel'stenureinthepromisedlandcontingentupongoodbehavior,asitwere,upontheJewssuccessfullyfulfillingGod'scommandmentstotheletter?orisit unconditional,bequeathed"foraneverlastingpossession"?WhytwoapparentlycontradictoryversionsofGod'scovenantwithAbraham,especiallyinsuchclose proximityinthetextastobevirtuallyimpossibletooverlook?JoelRosenbergsuggests,"ObviouslytheyrepresentapolaritythatliesattheheartofancientIsraelite history....bothideologiesareskillfullyinterwovenandalternatealmostinthefashionofaSonata....Ifonebelievesmoralstruggletobeeverlasting,thenthetwo covenantsarenotincontradiction"(Holtz67). TheexistenceofdualandoftenapparentlycontradictoryversionsofaccountsofeventsintheBible,aswellasthedouble

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conceptionofcovenant,issoprevalentthattheseriousreadercomestoexpectit.ItisundoubtedlytheresultoftheextremeageoftheBibleandthefactthatitwas written(orcompiled,sincetheorthodoxbelievethattheentireBiblewasactuallydictatedbyGod)bymultipleauthors,atdifferenttimes.Differingversionsofstories wereincludedsidebyside,withnoeffortmadeto"cleanup"discrepanciesoreditoutinconsistencies.Theconflictsthemselveswereassumedtohavesignificance, andtheRabbissetaboutthetaskofderivingmeaningfromtheambiguitiesandinconsistencies.Whatamodernreaderwouldregardashistoricalandliterary contradictionsbecametherawmaterialforTalmudicstudy. Talmud TheTorah,sacredcoreofJewishworship,isthefivebooksofMoses,whicharetraditionallyassumedtohavebeendictatedbyGodtoMosesonMountSinai.The Torahitselfhasthepowerofrevelation,comingdirectlyfromGod.Torahscrollsareinscribedbyhandaccordingtoancientmethods.Thescrollsareclothedinvelvet andsilverinWesternsynagogues(differentcultureshavedifferentspecificcustoms,butthescrollsarealwaysprotectedinsomedecorousandlovingmanner)and keptinaspecial"arc"inthesynagogue,takenouteachSabbathaccordingtoritual.AportionoftheTorahisreadaloudbeforethecongregationeachweek,andin somecongregationstheservicealsoincludesashortinterpretativetalk,ordrash,givenbytherabbioranadultmemberofthecongregation.Congregantsreadthe TorahportionsilentlyintheirBiblesasitisreadaloudfromthescrolltoall.TheformoftheJewishSabbathservicereenactstheemergenceofthe"oraltradition"some 2500yearsago. Theearlyrabbinicinterpretations,whicharenowreferredtoasthe"OralTradition,"emergedafterthedestructionofthefirsttempleinJerusalemin586B.C.E., althoughitscompilationintheTalmudwasn't"closed"untilthefifthcentury,nearlyonethousandyearslater.AscholarnamedEzrareturnedfromexileinBabylon, calledaconvocationoftheJewishpeoplein444b.c.e.,andreadtheTorahaloud.Asheread,others,

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hisfollowers,thesoferim("bookmen,""students,""scribes")offeredinterpretation,whichisreferredtoas"givingthesense"oftheTorah.TheexegesisofScriptureis referredtoasdrashinHebrew,andmeans''interpretation"or"translation."ItisthebasisforthewordMidrash,andhadasitspurposeoriginallytheapplicationof Torahtoeverydaylife.ThatearlymomentofpublicdiscussionandinterpretationmarksthemomentwhentheTorahwasofficiallyacceptedasthecenterofJewish life.ThesanctificationofTorahwasthusinseparablylinkedtoamomentofinterpretation,andalsoreflectedthepoliticalnecessityofkeepingtheJewishpeople togetherwhentheirphysicalcenterhadbeendestroyed.9 Forseveralcenturiestherewasonlythisoraltradition,ofdiscussion,debate,andinterpretationofGod's Torahcarriedonamongeducatedrabbis. Theimpulsetorecordtheteachingswasbornofpoliticalnecessity,forthesakeofthesurvivaloftheJewishpeopleaftertheseconddestructionoftheJerusalem templein70A.D.ButcodifyingtheteachingsoftherabbisgaverisetoquestionsaboutwhetherwhatwasbeingwrittendowncarriedthesameweightastheTorah, wasequallytheworkofGod,withthesamepowerofrevelation.Perhapstheinscribedteachingsoftheearlyrabbiswas"only"theworkofmen,evenifthosemen wererevered.Themenengagedinactuallyrecordingtheoraltradition,insistedthattheywereinscribingGod'swords,notaddingtheirown.GodonSinaihadactually spokeneverythingthatwouldbecomepartoftheoraltradition,knowingthatitwouldtakemillenniaforallofGod'steachingstobearticulatedandputtouseinthe world.Thatis,therabbinicinterpretationofGod'swordwasalsopartofGod'sword.10 WhetherinspiredbyGodormen,whatemergedwasthe"writtenTorah,"whichwasreallytheTorahitself(whichhadalwaysbeen"written"),plustheRabbinic commentary,newlycommittedtotext.RabbiAkiba,anearlyJewishmartyr,wasoneofthefirsttocompilefragmentsoftheOralTorahintoawrittencodeduringthe secondcentury.ThiscodemarkstheinitiationoftheTalmudictraditionandisreferredtoastheMishnah("Recitation,"or"Recapitulation")oftheOralTorah.The MishnahisthecoredocumentoftheTalmudic

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tradition.ItisinpartacodeofJewishlaw,rulesfordailylifeextractedfromthetextoftheBible.Butlegaldisputesareunresolvedandliberallysprinkledwithnonlegal materials,includingstoriesandinterpretationsofScripture.Ithasbeenreferredtoas"theearliestteachingtext,theoldestcurriculumofJewishlearningintheworld today"(Holtz131). TheMishnahbecamethebasisforfurtherstudy,whichcontinuedtoelaborate,expand,applyitsteachingstospecificsituations,andevencontradicttheearlier teachings,whilestillretainingasenseofthesacrednessoftheearliestMishnahcommentary.Studysessionsinwhichthecommentarywascommentedupontookplace inthehomesoftherabbisengagedinthestudy.TheRabbiswhoinscribedtheMishnahclaimedthatthelawsoftheMishnah,liketheTorahitself,wererevealedby GodtoMosesonSinai.AcontemporarypoliticalinterpretationofwhatappearstobethewillfulmuddlingofthedistinctionbetweenthewordofGodandthewords oftheRabbis,mightleadustoseethatinatimeofacutepoliticalcrisis,withtheTempledestroyedandthediasporauponthem,theRabbis,perhapsdesperately, "borrowed"theauthorityofGodandMoses,toenhancetheirownauthority,inanefforttoforgeabondcapableofkeepingtheJewishpeoplefaithfulwhenitseemed theywouldbescatteredbeforethewind.Fromacertainperspective,itworked. NotonlyistheboundarybetweenTorahandTalmudindistinct,butalsoinasensethatisdifficultforamodernreadertounderstand,theboundarybetweenthewritten Torahandtheworlditselfisindistinct.SusanHandelmanremarks,"Farfrombeingaphysicalbook,theTorah,intheRabbinicview,isablueprintofcreationand, therefore,thereisadirectcorrelationbetweentheworldandTorah.TheTorahisnotseenasspeculationabouttheworld,butpartofitsveryessence.Whereought onelooktofathomthesecretsofcreation,tocomprehendthelawsofnature?TotheText....WhileTorahisconsideredtobeablueprintoftheuniverse,itisalsoa guidetothemostminuteandmundanedetailsofdailylife."11 ThesensethattotheTalmudicRabbis,Torahisnotreallya"physical"book,isvividlyconveyedinRabbiHaninaben

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Tradyon'svisionashewasbeingburnedalivebyRomansoldierswhohadwrappedhiminaTorahbeforelightingtheflame.
RabbiHaninabenTradyonalsochosetoteachTorahinpublicinspiteofthedecree,holdingaSeferTorahinhisarms.AfterhiscapturetheywrappedhiminaSeferTorahand piledbranchesabouthim,litthem,andplacedwetwooloverhisheartsothathewouldnotdiequickly.Hetoldhisdiscipleswhathesaw:Theparchmentisburning,buttheletters areflyingfree.12

ThecumulativeanddialogicalstructureofTalmudicthought,whichiswhatmakesitsstudysodaunting,isclearlyinevidenceintheverycompositionofapageoftext, aswellasthemethodofstudy.TheoldestmomentsoftheMishnah,theearlieststagesoftheconversation,aresetinthemiddleofthepage,inlargetype.Talmudic discussion,orGemara,continuesintypesetaroundtheMishnah,withmanydigressionsuntilthenextMishnahisprinted,andisinturnrespondedto.Medieval Talmudists,mostnotablyRashi,werelateraddedtothedialogue. AsortofpluralistreadingoftheTalmudwasinthiswayencouragedindeeddemanded,ifoneweretoproceedthroughthetext.Eachpagecallsforadialogical reading. Fromthisperspective,itisclearthattheTalmudbothisandisnota"lawbook."ManyaspectsofJewish"law"arevirtuallyunenforceable:Whoreallyknowswhich kitchensinagivencommunityarekosher,orwhichmembersofthatcommunitysecretlyviolatetheSabbath?Furthermore,whiletheTalmudprovidesthebasisfor discussionanddecisionaboutthelaw,"rulingsarealwayspartofanongoingprocess,whichneedstobedeterminedaccordingtoindividualinstances."13 Whatmay,tocontemporaryWesternreaders,appeartobeaninvitationtochaosratherthanorder,isinfactaremarkablyopensystem,baseduponinterpretations organizedhorizontally,throughhistory,ratherthanvertically.Evenhistoricaltimeisgivennoautomaticdeference:earlierandlaterinterpretationsarepotentiallyequally valid.Whatappearstobedisorganization,then,reallyresemblesmorethe"disorgani

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zation"ofdemocracy:apluralityofresponsiblevoices,eachqualifiedbyvirtueofpractice,experience,andassumedresponsibilitytorenderjudgmentworthyof seriousconsideration.Placingvalueonapluralityofvoicesmaynotbethemostefficientwaytoorganizeacommunity,butitiscertainlybydefinitionlessauthoritarian thanotherpossiblesystems."IntheJewishview,everyparticularhadequalstatuswitheveryother:theliteralhadasmuchimportanceasthespiritualtherewasno hierarchyofinterpretation.Interpretationwasahorizontalprocess,wheremanymeaningssimultaneouslyexistedtogether,andtherecouldbenoendtothelaw."14 ThetechniqueforstudyingTalmudisitselfopenendedanddialogical.TheTalmudisrarely"read"inasolitarymanner,asothertextsare.Rather,itisstudiedasactive dialoguewithapartner.GoldenbergoffersadescriptionofthetypicalYeshiva.

There,studentsstudyinpairs,readingeverywordofthetextoutloud,nevergoingontothenextphraseuntiltheyhaveexhaustedthemeaningoftheoneunderdiscussion.The Talmuditself,afterall,originatedasoraldiscussion,andstillhastheformofanelaborateconversationcarriedonovercenturies.Itsstandardwayofcitinganopinionis"RabbiX says..."latergenerationsofrabbinicdiscipleslistenedtoRabbisandansweredback.Thismodeofstudy,calledinAramaichavrata("fellowship"),turnstextstudyintodialogue andmakesbooksintotoolsforovercoming,notstrengthening,isolation.Itmakesthetraditionofrabbiniclearningapowerfulsourceofcommunitycohesion,asourceofspeech ratherthansilence.Thisactivitywasusuallycallednot"study"but"learning"andineveryJewishcommunityaninvitationtofellowshipcouldtaketheformoftheproposal''let's learntogether."Thelifeofthemindandthelifeofsocietywerethusmadeone.(Holtz169)

ThisabilitytofusethelifeofthemindwiththelifeofthecommunityresembleswhatHannahArendtwassearchingforinTheLifeoftheMind,asweshallseelater on.Still,letusnotbeovercomebythisratherromanticvisionofcommunitylifeandlearning.Perhapswhatisdescribedisnomorethanacooperativeeffortatself indoctrination?Thenthe"lifeofthemind"wouldhardlybeasvitalasitseemedatfirstglance.

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OneimportantaspectofJewishtraditionmilitatesagainstuncriticaldogmaattheheartofJewishreligiousthoughtandpractice:thereistensionbuiltintotheveryactof codifyingtheBible.TheTalmuditselfreflectsaspiritoftensionandselfcriticism.AlthoughcodifyingtheOralTorahafterthedestructionofthesecondtemplein JerusalemwasnecessaryiftheJewishpeopleweretosurvive,therewere,nonetheless,profoundobjectionstosettingtheteachingsoftherabbistotext,precisely becausetheindeterminacyofdialoguewasvalued,whilethepossibilityofdogmainwrittentextwasworrisome.

Thesamecenturiesthatsawthecompositionofthesegreatcodesalsosawunendingoppositiontotheactivitytheyreflect.Therehasalwaysbeenafearamongrabbisthat codifyingpresentedadoublethreattotheauthentictradition:itcoulddistractpeoplefromstudyingthereallyimportanttexts(principallytheTalmud),andatrulyauthoritative codemightwellfreezethelawinawayeventhemosttraditionmindedleadersdidnotwishtosee.(Holtz163)

Suchfearsabouttheconsequencesofcodifyingethicaldialogue,andworryoverprovidingtooeasilyaccessibleasetofrules,shoulddispelinitialconcernsabouta doctrinaireapproachtoethicsinearlyJudaism.Conflict,dialogue,andinterpretationarebuiltintothestructureandsubstanceofJewishethicalthought.Thisdescribes acentralconcernofHannahArendt'ssearchforawordlyphilosophy.Shewasprofoundlyapprehensiveabouttheconsequencesofethicalorphilosophicalcodesand theirpenchantforclosingdownchallengeanddiscussion. Inspiteofitscentrality,bothspirituallyandintellectually,andinspiteofitssacredstatus,theTalmudasatextis"unfinished."Itdemandsdialogue,interpretation,and applicationtocontemporarysituationsifitistobefullyengaged.Itisbothapracticalguideforlivingandawayofestablishingcontactandcontinuitywiththeholiest, mostspiritualaspectsofJudaism.TheTalmudicdebatesanddialoguesoverinterpretingtheTorahareseldomresolvedwithanyfinality,andonecanimaginethatsuch indecisivenesscanbeextremelyfrustratingwhen

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itsjobseemedtobetheapplicationofBiblicallawtoeverydaylife.ButtheprimarypurposeoftheTalmudwasnottodeterminethelaw."TheTalmudisascholastic text.Itschiefpurposeistopreservetherecordofearliergenerationsstudyingtheirowntraditionsandprovidematerialsforlatergenerationswishingtodothesame.It isabookproducedbyandforpeoplewhosehighestvaluewasthelifeofstudy"(Holtz156).TheultimateuncertaintyoftheTalmudiscapturedinthefollowing description:"Itisrichwithstoriesthatmayormaynotreflectthewaycertaineventshappened,anditisfulloflegaldiscussionsthatmayormaynotreportthe actualcontentofearlyrabbinicscholarlycertainty.Everythingisfascinating,everythingispotentiallyanopenwindowonthepast,butnothingcanbetrusted"(Holtz 157). Midrash Fromacertainperspective,theTalmud,withallitsuncertainty,inconclusiveness,andintensity,isthecoreofJewishthinking.ItsapproachtothetruthoftheBiblical text,however,isneitherstraightforwardreverencenorobedience.TheTalmudutilizesadialogical,dialecticalmethod,challengingandinterpretingeverymarkinthe Torah,evenwhileregardingitasperfect,sacred,andcomingdirectlyfromGod.Thecompletenessandperfectionaresimplyunabsorbablebyhumanbeingsassuch andsowehavetoworktowardanalwaysincompleteandimperfectunderstandingofGod'sperfectionthroughengagingindialogue,questioning,challenging,and interpretingtheBible. Still,inthemorethan1500yearssinceitscompilation,therehavebeenotherkeymomentsandimportanttextstorepresentJewishthought.AftertheTalmudcame Midrash:laterinterpretationsofTorahandTalmudintheformsofsermonsandstories,whichmayberegardedaselaborationsofthesparsenessoftheBiblicaltext itself."Midrashcomestofillinthegaps,totellusthedetailsthattheBibleteasinglyleavesout....Midrashattemptstoelucidateconfusionsandharmonizeseeming contradictions"(Holtz180).

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TheMidrashimarenotregardedasanymoreconclusivethantheTalmudiccommentary,andserveequallyasinvitationstofurtherdialogue.Infact,Midrash,ofallthe rabbiniccommentary,isprobablythemostrecognizablestyletoacontemporaryreader.ItmostresemblesaliteraryinterpretationoftheBibleastext.However,the interpretationsthemselvesarethenregardedasBiblicalliterature,readassuch,andfurthercommentedupon.ThetwomajorstylesofMidrashimarehalakhic,and aggadic:legalcommentary,andnarrativesermonizing,respectively.Onceagaintheborderisnotfinite,andHoltzremindsus,"Itshouldbeobviousthattheseare ratherartificialdistinctionsandterms.Infact,thereisverylittleinJewishliteraturewhichiseitherpurehalakhaorpureaggadah:thedriestlegaltextsareoftendotted withaggadicasidestheaggadicstoriesareoftenbroughttoteachastoryaboutthelaw"(Holtz179).ThisisconsistentwithourobservationthattheTalmudisnot reallyalawbook:neitherisMidrash. TheMiddleAges Thusfar,wehavelistedthesourcesofJewishthoughtinTorah,comprisedofBiblicalnarrative,law,poetry,andinMishnah,Gemara,Talmud,andMidrashamere twothousandyearsofJewishthought,dialogue,andtext.ThisbarelybringsustotheMiddleAges.ButthereisalsoabodyofMedievalBiblicalcommentary,whose mostimportantfigureisRashi(RabbiSchlomoYitzhaki,orSchlomobenIsaac,10401105).SoimportantwasRashi'sinterpretationthatMedievaleditionsofthe BiblewereprintedwiththecommentaryofthemostreveredRashialwaysprintedinthecolumnnexttotheboundedgeofeachpage,rightatthe"heart"oftheBible. SurroundingtheBiblicaltextandRashi'scommentarywerethewritingsofother,latercommentators.ApageoftheBibleortheTalmudprovidesvividtestimonyto theroleofinterpretationanddialogueinJudaism.EachpageisanetworkoftextandcommentarieswrittenatdifferentmomentsofJewishhistory."Thearrangementin Midra'otGedolotencouragesdialecticamongthedistinguishedvoicesonthepage,confirmingthewellknown

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witticismthatwheretherearetwoJews,therearethreeopinions"(Holtz215). Themedievalcommentariesthemselvestaketwodifferentforms:DerashandPeshat.DerashreferstothestyleofBiblicalexegesisthatextractshiddenorlatent meaninginthetext,andpeshatreferstoamorecontextual,literalistapproachtotheBible.15TheMiddleAgesalsosawtheeffort,forthefirsttime,especiallyby SpanishandFrenchJews,toengageindialoguewiththinkersofotherculturesparticularlyscholarsfromArablands.Effortswerealsomade,mostnotablyby Maimonides,to"translate"theBibleintoAristoteliancategories."RationalmodesofthoughtlenttheJewishcommentatorshistoricalperspective,anappreciationof rhetoric,andaconvictionthattheBiblemustmakesense.Some,likeMaimonides,feltsuchastrongneedtoharmonizetheTorahandAristotlethattheyrevertedto themethodsofderashtoforcetheBibleintotheProcrusteanbedofAristotelianlogic"(Holtz221). Mysticism ThefinalaspectoftraditionalJewishthoughttobementionedhereisthemysticalmovement.PerhapsinresponsetotheextremerationalizationofJewishthought duringtheMedievalfascinationwithAristotle,therearoseanefforttoreturnJewishthinkingtoitsspiritualroots.Thistookthemilderformofareturntoderashasthe centralMidrashicapproach,andthedisappearanceofpeshatuntilthenineteenthcenturyenlightenmentonceagainattemptedsomesortofassimilationwithnon JewishWesternrationalism.ThereturntospiritualityinthemiddleagesalsotookthemoreradicalformofJewishmysticicism.TherearosetheKabbalists,withtheir principletextZohar(MosesbenShemtovdeLeon)andthemoremodern,eighteenthcenturyHassidism,stillapowerfulforceinJudaismtoday(Ba'alShemTov, LeviYizhak,IsaacLuria).KabbalismwasacomplicatedsystemofmysticalsymbolsthatalsobroughteroticimagerytotheJewishmalerelationshiptoGod,while HassidismwasanEasternEuropeanmovementthatsoughttobringtheaverageJewintothemovementbyapplyingamoredirectlyaccessibleemotionalism.

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LetuspausetosummarizebeforeshiftingperspectivesomewhattoconsiderJewishconsciousnessofhistory.WehavenotedtheBible'sinnovativeprosestyle,spare anddialogical,accompaniedbyaninvitationtoengageindialogueandinterpretation.Withoutattemptingtodiminishtherichnessandcomplexityof"Jewishthinking,"it maybepossibletodefineasacommonthread"toleranceforambiguity,"oreven"toleranceforcontradictions."BiblicalandTalmudicscholarsseemtohavea remarkablecapacitytoabsorb,internalize,utilizecontradictionsbothacrosstimeandinternallyonanygivenissueorquestion.Onecouldneverdescribethissort ofJewishthinkingasonedimensional,linear,orrigid. TheabilitytoabsorbandmaintaincontradictionandindeterminatenessgrowingoutofconstantinterpretationsuggeststhatTalmudicthinkingiseternallydialectical bothinternally,intheformofendlessdebateandinterpretation,andexternally,intermsoftheemergenceofthemajormomentsinthehistoryofJewishthought.The majormomentsinJewishthoughthavebeendefinedhereas(1)BibleandcommentaryontheBibleintheformofTalmudandMidrash,continuingforatleasttwo millenniauntilthetimeofthemedievalBiblicalcommentaries(2)increasingrationalizationoftheTalmudinanefforttoassimilateBiblicalthoughtwithGreek,Arabic, andIslamicphilosophyand(3)amysticaloremotiveresponsetotheextremerationalismofmedievalJewishphilosophy. JewishHistoricalConsciousness Finally,letusconsideraJewishstancetowardtimewithacomparisonofYosefHayimYerushalmi'sperspectiveontherolehistoryhasplayedinJewishthoughtwith thatofAmosFunkenstein.16ThetitleofYerushalmi'sbook,ZakhoristheHebrewcommand,"Remember!"Yerushalmiarguesthatmemoryandhistoryhavebeen bothcentralandatoddswithoneanotherinJewishconsciousness.Whilememorytheretentionofpastandidentityand,byimplicationhistoryisessential, historiographythewritingofthathistoryhasheldlittleappealtoJews.ThisrenderstheJewishconceptofhis

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toryfairlyidiosyncratic.FromearlyonJewswerepreoccupiedwiththeinterpretationandmeaningoftheirownhistory.Thispreoccupationstoodinmarkedcontrast withtheGreekfocusonnature,regardedasessentialistandarchetypal.IntheJewishBible,historyistoldforthepurposeofteachingtheJewishpeopleJudaism, keepingthemtogetherasacommunity,andprovidingthebasisfortheircontinuedfaithinGod.ThepurposeofJewishBiblicalhistoryisthusspiritualandpolitical.The accountsintheTorahareselective,recordedwithapurposebeyondthemererecountingoffacts.ThuswhiletheBibleexhortsJewstoremember,tomaintainaliving contactwiththepast,thedefinitionofthepastisnot"historical"inthemodernphilosophicalorscientificsense. OnlysincethelatenineteenthcenturywasthereamoresystematicJewishattempttowritehistory.Butthenewinterestinhistorywaspartoftheefforttoassimilate intellectuallyaswellassocially.ThewillingnesstowritehistorywastheresultneitherofanewfoundinterestonthepartofmodernEuropeanJews,norevenan assimilationistefforttomimictheintellectualstyleoftheChristians.RathertheJewswerewritinghistoryfortheChristianstoread:"Forthefirsttimeitisnothistory thatmustproveitsvaliditytoJudaism,butJudaismthatmustproveitsvaliditytohistory,byrevealingandjustifyingitselfhistorically"(Zakhor84). NowadayswewitnessaJewishpreoccupationwithhistory,andthereverseoftheJewishtendencyofthemiddleages:alackofinterestindevelopingdiscourse betweenJewish,Christian,andMuslimphilosophy.HistoryhasbecomemoreimportantasJewshavebecomeassimilated,almostasacompensationforlostfaithand knowledgeaboutJudaismitself."Inthissense,iffornoother,historybecomeswhatithadneverbeenbeforethefaithoffallenJews.Forthefirsttimehistory,nota sacredtext,becomesthearbiterofJudaism"(Zakhor86). AmosFunkensteinpresentsadifferentperspectiveontheJewishattitudetowardhistory.HebelievesYerushalmioverstatesthedistinctioninJewishculturebetween memoryandhistory,claimsthatJewshavealwaysbeenawareofandinterestedintheirhistoryassuch(i.e.,notonlyasreflectedindirectlyin

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ritual,prayer,andtradition),andthattheyarenotsodifferentfromChristiansorGreeksinthisregard."Itismycontentionthat,withorwithouthistoryproper,creative thinkingabouthistorypastandpresentneverceased.Jewishculturewasandremainedformedbyanacutehistoricalconsciousness,albeitdifferentatdifferent periods.Putdifferently,Jewishculturenevertookitselfforgranted"(Funkenstein11). EarlyJewishandGreekhistoricalconsciousnessresembledeachotherintheirawarenessofthemselvesasyoungcultures."Bothsawtheiroriginsinhistoricalrather thanmythicaltiesbothpreservedamemoryofrelativelyrecentorigins,precededbyanomadicprehistory....Awarenessoftheunityofhistoryasawholealsohas itsdualorigininIsraelandinGreece"(Funkenstein1112).Likewise,earlyChristianhistoricalwritingsborrowed,indeed,"appropriatedthehistoryofIsraeluntilthe comingofChristinthattheyvieweditasagradual'preparation'"(Funkenstein13).FunkensteinalsoarguesthattheJewishsenseoftimedoesnotdifferdramatically fromtheChristianortheGreek."ContrastingtheJewish(orChristian)andtheGreekperceptionofhistory,somescholarscharacterizetheoneas'linear'theotheras 'cyclical.'Neitheristhecase.Whereandwhendowefind,forthefirsttime,anexplicitinsistenceontheuniquenessofhistoricaleventsorontheuniquenessof historyasawhole?PerhapsnotbeforeAugustine"(Funkenstein13). Funkenstein'smissionisto"contributetothedemystificationofcollectiveentities."HeseekstoavoidanessentialistviewoftheJewsasuniqueinhistory,aswellasthe assimilationistdilemmadescribedbyYerushalmi,thattheJewishsenseof"chosenness"rendersthestudyofJewishhistoryincompatiblewithJewishspiritualism. FunkensteinacknowledgestheuniquenessofJewishhistorybutrefusestomakeanessentialistargumentaboutJewishuniqueness.HeisbothaZionistandapolitical egalitarian,apotentiallyparadoxicalpositionthatprovidesinsightaboutthepossibilityofmaintainingculturalidentityandcontinuitywithouteitherdominatingother groupsorassimilatinganddisappearingasagroup.WhileFunkensteinprofessestheinappropriatenessofJewishessential

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ism,hestresseshistoryasthebasisforunderstandingwhatisuniqueabouttheJews."Ihave...indicatedwhatIbelieveisthemainthemeofhistoricalreflection amongJews:thegroundingoftheiruniquenessinanunderstandingofhistory"(Funkenstein21).WiththisperspectiveFunkensteinovercomesthe(Greekinspired) penchantforpolarizingessentialistnaturewiththecontingencyofhistory.WithaperspectivemorecompatibletothatofKarlMarx,Funkensteinassumesadialectic betweennatureandhistoryJewsareunique,becauseoftheirspecifichistory,whichcontinuestoaffectwhotheyareaspeople.Thisdynamicdescribestheformation ofallethnic,racial,andreligiousgroups. ThusFunkensteinavoidsmystificationofJewishnessoranyotherculture.HebelievesthatoverstatingtheuniquenessofJewishhistoryhascontributedtoIsraeli politicalinjusticesinPalestine."DepersonalizationofthePalestinian,denialoftheirpersonalandpoliticalselfidentity,hasbecomeanoppressivepoliticalreality.Asa Zionistandasahistorian,Ifearthesedevelopmentsandabhortheirconsequences.Bydestroyingtheidentityoftheotherwe,too,willdestroyourown"(Funkenstein 49).NowthesearesentimentswithwhichHannahArendtwouldagree,andwithwhich,infact,shedidagree.17Theconcludingthoughtsofthiscelebratedscholar echoArendt'sfearsthattheGermanexecutionersoftheHolocaustwerenotaraceofdevils,butominouslyhuman.18
Theologiansseemtoemphasizethe"incomprehensibility"oftheHolocaustandthe"madness"ofthosewhocauseditbecausetheycannotfindanytheologicalmeaninginit.... If,however,weturnfromGodtohumankind,theHolocaustisneitherincomprehensiblenormeaningless.Itwasneitherbestialnorindeedpagan.Itwas,instead,aneminently humaneventinthatitdemonstratedthoseextremeswhichonlymanandhissocietyarecapableofdoingorsuffering.Itpointedatapossibility,perhapsunknownbefore,of humanexistence,apossibilityashumanasthemostsublimeinstancesofcreativityandcompassion.(Funkenstein337)

Incontrast,then,withYerushalmi'sreadingoftheuniquenessofJewishhistory,andthemillenniaoldJewishaversionto

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writingorrewritingtheirownhistory,FunkensteinoffersadialecticbetweenJewishmemoryandJewishhistory,developingthroughouttheages.Drawingparallels betweenthestructureofhistoricalthoughtinHegelandMaimonides,Funkensteinnotes,"JustasHegel'sobjectiveGeistusesthesubjective,egoisticfreedomofman tofurthertheobjectivegoalsofhistory...soalsoMaimonides'Godfightspolytheismwithitsownweapons....Maimonidesspokeofthe'cunningof God'"(Funkenstein144).TheanalogyistoHegel'sreferencetothe"cunningofreason,"hiswayofdescribingthe"objectivemeaning"thatemergesevenashistoryis characterizedbysubjectiveneeds,acts,andperceptions.ThedialecticbetweentraditionandchangeistheabilityofJewishlawtodevelopinoppositiontoitsown insistenceonimmutability.Thelawsaresacredandabsolute,andyetconstantlybeingreinterpretedandadaptedtochanginghistoricalcircumstances."Shouldlawsbe changed?Maimonides,wehaveseen,insistsonthevalidityofeveryiotaofthelaweveninthemessianicage"(147).Maimonideswasnodemocrat,didnotbelievein "thecapabilityofthemassestorisetothelevelofthephilosopher,''andinsistedthatthelawsmustbepresentedtothemassesasabsolute.Buthehelda"doctrineof contingency"basedupontheAristoteliandoctrineofequity,whichallowedacertainamountofflexibilityinthelaw.Insum,while"Theabsoluteimmutabilityofthelaw maybeanecessaryfictionforthemasses...thelegalexpertsofeverygenerationhavetherightanddutytoadjustthelawincausunecessitatis"(Funkenstein146 47). FunkensteinarguesforthepersistenceofaJewishhistoricalconsciousness,adialecticbetweenhistoryandmemory,stabilityandadaptibility.Thisdoesnotdescribe Jewishuniqueness,asthoughJewishculturesurvivedinisolationfromothercultureswithwhomtheJewswereincontact.Culturesinfluenceoneanother.Shapedas theywerebyhistoryandmutualinteraction,ratherthan"determined"byessentialistconceptsof"race,"culturescanbedistinguishedfromoneanother. FunkensteinthusalsonotesacertainJewishreticenceabouthistory:asenseofdetachment,orreluctancetotouchit."ThetraditionalJewishattitudetowardtimeand historywas

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neitheraffirmativenornegative,butindifferent"(Funkenstein254). BothawarenessofhistoryandabilitytochangeareverymuchapartofJewishlawandculture,althoughinexplicitly.Itisasthoughthe"trick"inadaptingtothe demandsofhistoryisnottotalkaboutwhatischanging.ThiswouldtaketheforminJewishlawofenactingachangewithoutexplicitblessingsofrabbiswhomay understandtheneedforchange,butwhohavethewisdomtoresistthetemptation,inthevernacularofthepresentday,to"maketoobigadealoutofit."19The rabbinictermfortheabilitytoembracechangewithoutbeingexplicitaboutit,thuseasingthepainofchange,andpreservingthesensethathalakhaissacred,is''a fencearoundtheTorah,"or"fencestothelaw."

NowitistruethatJewishlawthehalakhadevelopedofold,mechanismsofchangeandadjustmenttonewcircumstances.ThefamouswordpunofRabbiMosesof Pressburg"everythingnewisforbiddenbylaw"wasitself"new,"characteristicofthereactionagainstthereformmovement.Theveryterm"novelty"carried...ahighly positiveconnotationwithinlegalscholarship.Butchangesandadjustments,evenradicalones,hadtoappearundertheguiseofconservation,ofbeingmerely"fencestothe law."(Funkenstein253)

Insum,aJewishperspectiveonhistoryaccordingtobothYerushalmiandFunkenstein,whootherwisehavesignificantdisagreementsonthesubject,involvesaself consciousnessoftheimportanceofknowingabouthistorybeliefthathistoryinvolvesdiscreteevents,someofwhichare(subjectively)moreimportantthanothersand mustbeactivelyremembereddeferencetotheBibleasthemain"sourcebook"ofJewishhistory,andasimultaneousdeferencetotheinterpretationsofthescholars, therabbis,whohaveindicatedlittleinterestinwriting,butmuchininterpreting,Jewishhistory.BothFunkensteinandYerushalminoteaJewish"indifference"toward postBiblicalhistory,asensethatwhatJewsneedtoknowaboutthemselvesisindeedhistorical,butiscontainedwithintheBibletobeinterpretedbyandforlater generations. Inwhatfollows,weshallattempttobridgethemillenniaandderiveamoderndefinitionof"Jewishthinking."

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Chapter8 GreekandHebrew:TheStructureofThinking
ThorliefBoman'sHebrewThoughtComparedwithGreekisaclassicalexegesisonthedifferencesbetweenGreekideasaspresentedinPlato'sdialoguesand HebrewideassetforthintheTorah.BomanreliesheavilyonacomparisonofthestructureoftheGreekandHebrewlanguages.1 Hisapproachthushasthe advantageofbeinggroundedinspecifictexts,andishistoricallycontained.SomescholarshavesuggestedthatBomantreatsthedifferencesbetweenHebrewand Greekthoughtfromanunconsciously"Greek"perspective:statically,andtooabstractly,asthoughHebrewthoughtatleastwasn'tcharacterizedbyalivingand dynamichistoricalreality.2 Nonetheless,histreatiseisconsideredaclassic,andforgoodreason.Arendtherselfuseditasareferencewhenshesoughttounderstand thedifferencesbetweenGreekandHebrewthought,3 andifweacceptitonitsownterms,asanonJewishefforttounderstandJewishthought,anduseMax Kadushin'sdistinctlyJewishtreatmentofthesameissuesforcontrast,weshouldbeinapositiontounderstandsomeoftheaspectsthatdistinguishJewishthinking fromGreekandChristianapproachestoknowledge.4

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TheStructureofHebrewThoughtComparedtoGreek Inhisshort,elegantmonograph,BomananalyzesdifferencesinlanguagetodemonstratestructuraldifferencesintheGreekandHebrewapproachestotruth:Greek truthisstatic,whiletheHebrewisdynamic.Todemonstrate,BomancomparestheGreekandHebrewvisualworlds,differencesinGreekandHebrewconceptionsof timeandspace,andtheGreeklogicalversusHebrewpsychologicalapproachto"reality." Bomanfocusesontheuseofverbs,andparticularlytheHebrewverbhayah,tobe,incomparisontotheGreek ' asevidencethattheHebrewsconceivedofa worldinflux,whiletheGreeksregardedtheworldinmorestaticterms.AsreflectedintheHebrewlanguage,existenceisconstantlychanging,linkedinextricablytothe materialworld.Incontrast,Greekrealityresidesineternalessences,beyondappearance,regardedastransient,anunreliableindicatoroftruth.Tousemodern philosophicalvernacular,Hebrewthinkersbelievetruthisfoundinexistence,whileGreekthinkersregardtruthasessentialratherthanexistential. Forexample,theHebrewverbhayah,comparedtotheverbtobeinEnglishisa"trueverbwithfullverbalforce,"asin"Javehhurledagreatwind,andamighty tempestwas(Jonah:1.4)"(Boman38).ThisreflectstheHebrewbeliefinthegivennessofGod,incontrasttowhicheverythingintheuniverseistransient.Truthisthe powertocreate,destroy,change.FromtheHebrewperspective,statis,the"essential''beingoftheuniverse,isillusory.InstarkcontraststandstheGreekconcept, representedforBomanbyPlatonicthought.WhatPlatoseeks,ofcourse,istheeternalessence,theunchangeableuniversalbeneathfleeting,changingempirical surfaces.Heraclitusalone,ofallGreekthinkers,wasintriguedbythedynamic,changingqualityoftheworld,aninteresttowhichBomanrefersas"unGreek"(Boman 52). Static(Greek)versusdynamic(Hebrew)thinkingcanbefurthercomprehendedbycomparingthewordsdavarandlogos,bothofwhichmean"word."Buteach wordalsohasanadditionalmeaning,andthedifferencepermitsustounder

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standyetanotherdistinctionbetweenGreekandHebrewthought.InHebrew,davarmeansnotonly"word,"butalso"thing,"whileinGreeklogosor"word"means also"speech''and"reason."TheHebrewisgroundedinthematerialworld,whiletheGreektermhasamoreabstractjobdescription.Thismightseematoddswith Boman'scontentionthatHebrewthinkingisdynamic,whileGreekisstatic,buttheconclusionhedrawsisjustthereverse."Things"intheworldarerelatedtoaction andchange,sincetheworlditselfisperenniallychanging."Word"and"deed"meanthesamethingforHebrewthinkers,whereasfortheGreeks"word"associated withthoughtandreason,regardedasapproachestotheeternal. ComparingtheGreekandHebrewfor"word"revealsfurtherdifferencesinperspective.Logos,theGreekwordderivedfrom legworspeak,reallyhasmoretodo withgatheringandarrangingthanwithspeaking."Thebasicmeaningoftherootlegis,withoutdoubt,'togather,'andindeednottogatherpellmell,buttoput togetherinorder,toarrange"(Boman67).IncontrastistheHebrewdavar:

Dynamicbothobjectivelyandlinguistically...thebasicmeaningis"tobebehindanddriveforward,"hence"toletwordsfollowoneanother"...davarmeansnotonly"word" butalso"deed":Abraham'sservantrecountedtoIsaacallthe"words"thathehaddone(Gen.24.66)....thewordisthehighestandnoblestfunctionofmanandis,forthat reason,identicalwithhisaction.(Boman65)

Thustwobasicwordsteachusaboutdifferencesinwhatwasregardedasprimarydescriptionsofmentallife:fortheHebrew,dynamic,masterful,energeticforthe Greek,ordered,moderated,thoughtout,calculated,meaningful,rational. ComparisonoftheverbknowanditsassociationwithsightintheGreekandsoundintheHebrewgivesusaccesstostillanotherdistinction.TruthtotheGreekswas largelyvisualandpictorial.Thewordsknowandseearederivedfromthesameverb, ' .EvenPlato'squestforhidden,eternalessenceswasconceivedas "seeing,"onlywithaninner,deepersight,"themind'seye."WhenwecontrasttheHebrewpreferencefortheinvisible"revelation"ofthewordinsoundtotheGreek associationof

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knowledgewithlightandsight,webegintounderstandwhyGreekthoughtwasmorecompatiblewiththeChristianratherthanJewishperspective.Jewishsuspicionof pictorialrepresentationisderivedfromthebeliefthatGodcannotbeseenorevenenvisaged,henceanyattempttorenderGodinimagesisidolatrous,blasphemous. JewishdisinterestinthevisiblestemsfromtheprohibitionagainsticonicrepresentationsofGod.

IsraelitefaithpermittednobodilyrepresentationofGodeitherinsculptureorinpaintingtheDecalogue'sbanonimagescorrespondstoJewishcharacterandJewishthinking.... Wherethepaganpaintshisgodorformshimoutofstone,theJewpaintsthesymbolofGod'sword:theTorahshrineandlamporelsetheactionofhisGodandsothesacred history.HedoesnotemployGod'simage,faceandform,butatmostemploysahandofGodtoindicatehisaction....ThusthisartistrulyJewishinkindtheinvisiblebeingof hisGodismadevisibleinhisactsthroughwhichhealsospeaks.(Boman113)

Incontrast,ofcourse,istheChristianbeliefthatJesusisthevisiblemanifestationofGod.Notonlytheassociationofknowledgewithlightandspecificallywiththesun inPlato'sRepublicforexample,buttheverywordforboththeoryandGodinGreekisderivedfromtheverb, ,orbehold.TheGreekwordforGodis , alsoderivedfromtheverb ,andspecifically,Bomantellsus,fromthewordforspectator. TheGreeks,foralltheiremphasisontherelationshipbetweenseeingandknowing,distinguishedspiritualfromphysicalbeauty,elevatingthespiritualandevenarguing thatinner,"invisible,"spiritualbeautycoulddetermineitsoutwardappearance.(SeePlato'sSymposiumandPhaedrusforexamples.)Butthereisnoquestionthatthe Greeksesteemedwhatcouldbeseen,inadramaticdeparturefromtheHebrewnotionoftruth. ThustheJewishincapacitytoseeorvisualizeGodtranslatesintoatendencytomistrustvisiblerepresentationsoftruth,orthepursuitoftruthperceivedinvisibleterms. ThewordofGod,ortruthisheard,ratherthanseen.Surprisingly,BomandoesnotmakereferencetothemostimportantcalltoJewishprayer,"ShemaIsrael.. ."("HearOIsraeltheLordourGod,

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theLordisOne"),duringwhichpiousJewscovertheireyestoenhancethesenseofhearing.Instead,heleadsusindirectlytotheHebrewassociationofhearingwith Truth,throughadiscussionofTimeandSpace.Greeksthinkspatially,whileHebrewsthinktemporally."Weseethespatialandhearthetemporal"(Boman142).5 SothoroughgoingwastheGreekdisdainfortimethattimeitselfwasrenderedspatially.Ifthisshouldseemfamiliar,itisbecausetheChristianEuropeantraditionalso adoptedthiswayofconceptualizingtime.Timeisassociatedwithgeometricalshapesusuallycircularorlinearandwithwordsthatindicateaspatialconsciousness: whatisfuturelies"before"us,whatispastlies"behind."ThisisjusttheoppositeoftheHebrewconcept,whichisfocusedonhumanactionratherthangeometrical space.Thepastcame"before"(quedem)becauseourancestorslivedbeforeus,wherethefutureis''after"(ahar). Ratherthanconceivingoftimevisually,theHebrewexperienceoftimeisrhythmical:momentsorpulses."TheHebrew...orientthemselvestemporallynottowardthe circularmovementofthesun,buttowardtheregularchangeofthemoon'sphases,towardtherhythm....Linesandforms...playnoroleforthem"(Boman134). "TheshortesttimeinHebrewisnotapointnoradistance,noraduration,butabeat"(Boman136).ThedifferencetranslatesintoanemphasisinJewishthinkingon subjectiveexperience,ratherthanwhatisobjectivelyobservable.Lackinganinterestingeometricshapes,theJewsregardednumbersasrepetitionsofhumanactivity ratherthanasabstractentitiesconceptualizedvisuallyasquantities. Platobelievedthatgeometrywasthesciencethatpermittedonetoapproachessentialreality,whiletheJewsregardedform,shape,andoutlineasunreal,something thatdoesnotexistintheworld."TheHebrewlanguageformednospecificexpressionsfordesignatingtheoutlineorcontourofobjectsanddidnotevenneed them"(Boman156).Thisperspectiveisreflectedintheindefiniteandsometimesmovableboundariesbetweenpast,present,andfuturefoundinBiblicalnarrativeand Talmudicdiscourse,andinthedistinctJewishsense

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ofhistory,discussedinthepreviouschapter.EventheTorah,whichseemstobethedefined,timeboundstartingpointforJewishthoughtandethics,isitselfthestill incompletecoreofinterpretiveprocess.FortheGreeks,however,formwassuperior,closertotruththancontent. TheJewswerenotabstractthinkersatleastnotintheGreeksense.Butparadoxically,theirconceptofGod,althoughnotabstract,iscertainlyintangiblecompared tothegodsofGreekreligion,whiletheHebrewconceptoftruth,andreality,ismuchmoreworldly,tangible,andhumanthanthatoftheGreeks.However,inspiteof itsdependenceuponworldlybehaviorandthoughtforitsvitality,theTorahdoesnotleadawayfromitselfforconfirmation,astheGreektextsdo.Understandingthe Torahcallsforevermorecarefulreading,"listening"tothetextmoreintentlyGreektextspointoutwardfortheirultimatemeaning,towardvisionandabstraction. Bomanconcludeshismonographwithawonderfullyconcisesummary,leavinguswithanabstract,aswellasananimpressionisticdescriptionofthedifferences betweenHebrewandGreekthinking.Hesuggeststhatthedistinctionbetweenthetwomodesmaybeconceptualizedbyaskingthequestion,Whatdotheymeanby truth?HisansweristhattheGreeksregardedtruthasanunveiling,"thatwhichisrevealed,clear,evident,orthatwhichistobeseenclearly"(202).Thisisevidentin theGreekwordfortruth, ,whichtranslatedliterallymeans"nothidden."TruthinHebrewisexpressedbymeansofderivativesoftheverbaman,"tobe steady,faithful."Jewishtraditionasksforcertaintyinthesenseofreliability,steadiness,constancy,trustworthiness,whiletheGreeksaskforvisiblesignsand revelations. TheimpressionisticimagesBomanleavesuswithareofSocrates,standingstockstillintheagora,seizedbyaproblem,deepinthought,immovableandtheJewin prayer,rockingbackandforth,lostinspiritualdevotion."TheGreekmostacutelyexperiencesthewordandexistencewhilehestandsandreflects,buttheisraelite reacheshiszenithinceaselessmovement.Rest,harmony,composure,andselfcontrolthisistheGreekwaymovement,life,deepemotion,andpowerthisisthe Hebrewway"(Boman203).

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RabbinicThought Bomanthusoffersaclearandwellrespected"translation"ofelementsofthestructureofJewishBiblicalthoughtintotermsthatarecomprehensiblewithina frameworkof"Western"GreekandChristianthought.Wemustacknowledgetheculturallimitationsofsuchanenterprise.DoesitdistortrabbinicorTalmudicthinking whenwedistillabstractstructurefromitsreligiouscontent? Threeproblemscomequicklytomindasweattempttocomparereligiousandphilosophicalthought.Thefirst,ofcourse,isthattheBibleisthewordofGod,andtoo literalanassociationofGodwithphilosophicaltruthmaybeinappropriate.BeliefinGodisspiritual,groundedinfaithratherthanrationality.Beliefthat"truth"existsin anysortofphilosophicalsenseisusuallygroundedinamoreformalrationalstance.Althoughtheargumentcanbemadethatthesearchforphilosophicaltruthbeginsin a"leapoffaith"thattruthexists,andthatsomephilosophicalstancesmaybelikenedtoreligion,suchacomparisoncannotbeassumed. ThesecondprobleminvolvesthecontextforreligiousJudaism,indeedforallreligionswhichassumeafollowing:agroup,acommunityofthefaithful,incontrasttothe solitarypursuitofphilosophictruth,eachphilosopheronhisown. Finally,asisthecasewithmostreligions,JewishthoughtiscenteredonasacredText,theTorah,whichisacceptedasTruthabsolutely,althoughopentoinfinite interpretation.Whatiscompatiblewithphilosophy,perhaps,istheJewishrejectionofdogma,implicitinJudaism'spenchantforpluralinterpretationanditsembraceof theinfinite.Wealsofaceaproblemintryingtocomparesecularphilosophicalandepistemologicalideasabouttruth,withtruthastheJewishreligionconceivesit. Threeelements,then,areproblematicinattemptingtoextricatea"Jewishstyleofthinking"inordertoplaceitintheworldofsecularthought:(1)theinitialfaithinGod (2)theexistenceofacommunityofbelieversand(3)thecentralityoftheTorahassacredtext.Inaddition,thereistheproblem,discussedpreviously,ofdistinguishing betweenTorahandTalmud.

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Howdoes"JewishThinking"farewhendefinedbyareligiousJewishscholar,ratherthanasecularscholarsuchasBoman? MaxKadushin,theeminenttraditionalJewishscholar,comesclosetomakingtheargumentthatTalmudicthinkingcannotbecomparedtoanysortofphilosophical thought.Thedifficultyindescribingarabbinicalapproachtoconcepts,ideas,definitions,valuesassuch,heargues,liesinthefactthatthosetermshavenoabstractor independentsignificanceintheHebrewtradition.ThelackofadistinctionbetweenformandcontentinJewishthinkingiscentraltohisdiscussion.ButwhereBoman treatedthisfromtheGreekperspective,assumingboundariesasdefinitive,andthen"removing"themfromtheGreekpictureasawayofexplainingtheHebrew stance,Kadushin,groundedintheJewishstance,attemptstoexplainthelackofboundarieswithouttheaidofconventional(GreekChristian)definitions.Theresultis somewhatamorphoustothoseofuseducatedintheformalWesterntradition.HereferstothecollapseofformandcontentinJewishthoughtbythetermvalue concept,atermsovagueastodefycustomarydefinitionandverynearly,comprehension.

Anyattempttoformulaterabbinicvaluesdoesviolencetothem.Theonlyauthenticwaytoexpressabstractlyarabbinicvalueisbymeansofthetermforitfoundinrabbinic literature.Eventodefinethetermistodistortthevalue.Adefinitionwouldhavetopresentthevalueasacompleteidea,apropositionitwouldtherebychangethecharacterof thevalue.Wemaysay,therefore,thattherabbinicvaluetermsstandforideas,butnotforcomplete,fullyformulatedideas.Therabbinicvaluetermscanthusbecharacterizedas undefinedconcepts.(Kadushin2)

"Valueconcept,"asKadushinusestheterm,impliestheinseparabilityofabstractideasfromtheirconcretemanifestationinanunspoken,almostnonarticulable awarenessoftheconceptbymembersof"thegroup,"definedasmembersoftheJewishfaith.A"valueconcept"isaninexplicitbutsomewhatprescriptiveaffirmation ofthegroup'sperspectiveontheworld:somethingbetweenadefinition,orthenameofaconcept,andabehavioralrule.Itisineffablebutworldly,acon

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ceptatworkintheworldwhichcannotbewrestedfromitscontext.Thissoundslikeanefforttodefinethatintangible"something"thatdistinguishesacommunityfrom amerecrowdofpeople.Itisabstract,somewhatinarticulable,andyetvisibleintermsofitseffects:perhapssomethinglikeaSocraticwind.Kadushinendeavorsto conceptualize,withtheuseofoneawkward,inelegantterm,theconvergencebetweentheabstractandtheconcrete.Heappearsnotatallfazedorinfluencedbythe strugglesofKarlMarxandhisGermanpredecessorstounitetheoryandpracticewithelaboratephilosophicalsystems. "Valueconcept,"asKadushinusestheterm,indicatesafluidityanddynamisminrabbinicthinking,alackofboundariesatleastbetweentheoryandpracticeand acrossgenerations.Thefactthat"theconceptsarenotonlycommunicable,buttheyarecommonideas,folkideas"(Kadushin4)impliesanaccessibilityto"all"the membersofthegroup.Theconceptsarenotrarifiedphilosophicalterms,butgeneralizedperspectivesthatcometolifeintheformofworldlyactions,andare transmittedfromgenerationtogenerationbytheirunspokentangibility.They"arethemeansofrenderingtheexperienceofGodanormalelementinthelifeofevery man"(Kadushin7). Kadushinreferstothe"worldliness"ofthevalueconcepts,andbelievesthattheirrootednessindailylifepreventsthemfrombeingcomprehensibleintermsofalogical system.HereferstotheworldlinessofJewishthoughtasits"organic"quality.6 Rathercharmingly,heinsiststhatphilosophycallsfortoomuchheadbreakingexertion tobeofmuchusetoordinarypeople:"Suchsystems,requiringtremendousmentaleffortandconcentration,neverwere,andcouldbe,guidesindailyconductformost men,notevenforphilosophersintheiroffmoments"(Kadushin32).Whiletherabbinicvalueconceptsmaybecomplexanddisorganizedcomparedtophilosophy, theyaremoreavailabletoordinaryfolk,incontrastwithphilosophythatis"stiff,brittleandartificial"(Kadushin32).AlthoughgeneratedandarticulatedbyJudaism's mosteducatedrabbinicalscholars,Jewishthinkingdoesnotpresentitselfasasystemoratotalityofthought:itisresponsivetothepluralityofdailyneedsandis accessible,becauseofitsevery

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dayapplicability,toordinaryobservantJews.Whetherornotsuchadescriptionofrabbinicthoughtisanidealizationorareality,wegetasenseofwhatone respectedtraditionalscholarbelievesJewishthinkingshouldbe. Inspiteofthefactthatvalueconceptisatermalmosttooawkwardandvaguetobeusefultous,kadushin'sperspectiveconveyscertainaspectsofrabbinicthinking thatarecompatiblewithBoman'sportrayalofHebrewthought,andactuallyaddsacertaindimension:awarinessofdogma.

Thevalueconceptsaredynamic.Theycannotbeorganizedintoastaticsystem,oneneatpropositionfollowinganother,becausetheconceptsaresinglewordsorterms,not propositions....Allthiswouldbeimpossiblewerethevalueconceptscongealedinastatic,hierarchicalsystemofthought.Werethatthecase,insteadofleavingroomforthe differentiaofpersonalities,thevalueconceptswouldimposeauniformsetofideasuponeverybody,arigidstructureofdogmas.(Kadushin5)

Suchanaimis,ofcourse,notonlycompatiblewithGreekthought,atleastasexemplifiedbyPlato,butistheverypurpose,orhopeofthephilosopher.Moreover, whileKadushinreiteratestheintangibility,andalsothedynamismofJewishthoughtasdescribedbyBoman,heinadvertantlyconfirms,inmoretraditionalreligious terms,whatthesecularscholarsofthepreviouschapterdiscussedastheongoinginterpretation,thedialectic,thatformsthebasisofJewishthought:inherentlyplural, involvingacollectionofvoicesfromthegenerationsacrosstheworld. ImustadmitthatI,forone,amnotcomfortablewithKadushin'sinsistencethatthetermvalueconceptsadequatelycapturestheavailabilityofTalmudicwisdomto membersof"the"Jewishcommunity.KadushinisattemptingtorenderthereligiousandethicaldimensionsoftheTalmudintermsthatarecomprehensibletosecular scholars,withoutlosingsightofwhathetakestobetheincompatibilityofreligionandphilosophy.Jewishthoughtisprescriptivewithoutbeingcodifiedorrigiditis derivedfromaspecifictextforaspecificcommunity.Itsoundslikenothingcouldbefurtherfromadescriptionofphilosophy,whichisabstract,essentialistand universal,

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andregardedastheexclusivedomainofspecialists.Kadushinmaybetryingtohaveitbothways,withhisargumentthatthesortofthinkingheisdescribingis "rabbinic,"thatis,theworkofspecialists,fulltimeJewishscholars,andyetavailabletoallmembersoftheJewishcommunity. Scaffolding Asummation,orcodificationofthecomplexityofJewishthinkingwould,fromaJewishperspective,beaviolationofthespiritofJewishthinkingitself.However,out ofdeferencetoWesternstandardsofscholarshipwhethermodeledontheGreekornota"workingdefinition"ofJewishthinkingisinorderifwearetoreturnto thequestionoftheextenttowhichJewishthinkingeitherinfluencedorshouldhaveinfluencedHannahArendt'ssearchforaworldlyphilosophyinTheLifeofthe Mind.Tothatend,letmeattempttodrawtogethersomethreads,withthefullunderstandingthattheresultisanartifice,ascaffoldingwithwhichtocontinuework, ratherthanavainefforttoreducefourthousandyearsofhistorytoafewsuccinctthemes,orintellectualvalues,orepistemologicalrules. Thebasicfeaturesthatcharacterizea"Hebrew"orJewishstyleofthinkingare:(1)groundednessinabasictext,theTorah,whichinspiteofitscentralitytoJewish thinkingisregardedasincomplete,anddependentuponreadingandinterpretationforitsvitality(2)anunwillingnesstocodify,or"complete"theTorah,andby extension,anunwillingnesstoregardtruthasevercompleteordefinableinthewaythatGreekthoughtregardsdefinitions,categories,metaphorsas"real"(3)lackof boundednessbetweentextandlife,ideaandthing,wordandworld,pastandfuture,thatstemsdirectlyfromthecombinationofcentralityandindeterminatenessof theTorah:(4)alackofemphasisonvisualimagesasameansofaccesstotruthormeaningandfinally,(5)aworldliness,growingfromthelackofboundarybetween thewordandtheworld,andaconsequentdemocraticpotentialgrowingfromthedependenceonparticularity,peopleandtheworld,whichstemsdirectlyfromthe beliefthatabstractionandessenceareneitherprivilegednorultimatelydistinguishablefromparticularandmaterialasapproachesto"truth."

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Withtheunderstandingthattheyarenotreadilyseparable,thesecharacteristicswillnowbeelaborated,howeverbriefly.Itwillbeobviousthattheytendtoflowinto andcirclebackupononeanother.7 CentralityoftheTorah.ThereisnogettingaroundthefactthattheTorahisatthecenterofJudaism.Thespecificityofthiscircumstancemayseemtomakeit impossibletocompareJudaismtoanythingbesidesotherorganizedreligions.However,theTorahisunusualamongreligioustexts,preciselybecauseofapeculiar featureofJewishthinking,therefusaltoregardtheTorahaseithercomplete,containedwithinthephysicaltextitself,orcodifiable.Itisnot"applicable"totheworld, notahandbookfororthodoxy,butratherapartofworldlylifeitself.ItisthusalsothesourceoftheexistenceoftheJewishcommunityintheworld.Inanimportant sense,then,thecentralityoftheTorah,whiledefiningtheJewishcommunity,andcreatingitsexclusivity,isalsoamodelforflexibilitybetweenanytext,orsourceof thinking,andworldlylife.ThisisinpartduetotheindeterminacythatcharacterizestheJewishapproachtotextandlifemoregenerally,andmorespecifically,tothe explicitunwillingnessoftheearliestTalmudicrabbisto"codify"theTorah,tocreateanartifactoutofit,whichmightruntheriskofmakingitintoanidol.Thisreticence withrespecttoTorahinitiatedtheageoldtraditionofinterpretationthatkeepstheboundarybetweenTorahandworlddynamicandvital. Reluctancetocodify.InJewishthinking,bothTorahandTalmudarealwaysincomplete,alwaysinprocessofbeingunderstoodandmaderealbyhumanbeings.One "reads"theworldasonereadsatextorinthecaseoftheJews,"The"text.ThiscreatesacertaindifficultyindistinguishingmethodfromsubstanceinJewishthought. Somewhatparadoxically,theindeterminatenessoftherabbinicteachingsalsoreflectstheirinherentworldiness."WhileTorahisconsideredtobeablueprintofthe universe,itisalsoaguidetothemostminuteandmundanedetailsofdailylife"(Handelman38).Bomanattributesthistothematerialityand

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dynamismofHebrewthought:truthisreflectedinthechangingworld,ascomparedtotheGreekbeliefthattruthisessential,transcendinganymundaneembodiment. Therabbinicteachingsarenever"complete"becausethatwouldseparatethemfromtheworldandthecommunitywhichputsthemtouse:theindeterminateness ensuresinvolvementineverydaylifeandwitheverydaypeople.Eachgenerationmustthink,discuss,interpret,andimplementtheteachingsforitself.Thereisnoclosed systemthatmaysimplybeappliedtotheworld. Lackofboundedness.Jewishthinkingischaracterizedbyarejectionofclosure,whichinvolvesmanydimensions.Thelackofboundednessprobablystemsfromthe invisibilityandincorporealityoftheHebrewGod,andtheprohibitionagainstevenattemptingtorenderanimageofGod.Wehaveseenthattheboundarybetweenthe TorahandTalmudisquestionabletheboundarybetweenthetextandtheworld,orwordandworld(davar=bothwordandthinginHebrew)isquestionablethe boundarybetweenpastandpresentiswillfullytamperedwith,asmemoryismaintainedbythereenactmentofhistoryinritualsandprayers,performedbyeachnew generationofJews. RelatedtothelackofboundariesisthelackofinterestinhistoricalwritingobservedbyYerushalmiandFunkenstein.Althoughrefrainingfromhistoricalcommentaryis aphenomenonresponsivetosocialandhistoricaldevelopmentsthemselves,thereiscertainlyalongtraditionamongtheJewsofregardinginterestinanyhistoryexcept thatpresentedintheBibleassacreligious.Fromthisperspective,causality,time,materiality,allareindefinite.Thismayseemchaotic,nonsensical,"irrational":butonly ifoneinsiststhattheultimate"rational"perspectiveisGreek.MostscholarscomparingJewishandGreekthinkingdosofromaGreekperspective,translatingthe "illogic"ofHebrewthoughtintoGreeklogicalcategories.AGreekperspectivewouldgrantprimacytotheabstractlawsofnatureortheuniverse,withabook,even theBible,regardedassubordinatetothatessentialreality:atbestabook,ifaccurate,onlyreflectstheprimacyofnature.The

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Jewishperspectiveregardstheboundarybetweentextandworldasutterlypermeable. Lackofinterestinvisualimagery.Jewishthinking,reflectingitsdisinterestinvisualimagery,doesnotmakethecustomarydistinction,followingGreekthought, betweenformandcontent.Formisinseparablefromcontent,andyetthemeaningofthecontentisnotselfevidentlyempirical.Liketheinvisible,incorporealJewish God,Truthisindefinite,incapableofbeingarticulatedintheformofadoctrine.Truthandthought,ideas,arealwaysincomplete,andtheirlifeisrootedintheworld andinpeoplethinking. PerhapstheinsignificanceofvisualimageryanditsrelationtotheunacceptabilityofwrittencodificationofeventhemostsacredJewishteachingsissymbolizedmost strikinglyinMoses'ssmashingofthetabletsuponhisdescentfromSinai.Hefoundhispeopleprostratedbeforeagoldencalftheythemselveshadfashioned,and furious,hesmashedthetabletsuponwhichtheTenCommandmentshadbeeninscribedbyGod.God'sverywords,atleastintheirconcretizedform,werethevictim ofMoses'srageathispeople,whohadreifiedasymbolofagodintogold.Mosesreversedthesinsofhiscommunitybysmashingthetablets,thephysicalform containingtheteachingsoftheOneHebrewGod:smashedstonewastruertotheteachingsofthatGodthanagoldstatuetobeworshipped.Andasevidenceofthe eternalandintangiblenatureofGod'steachings,Mosesreceivedasecondsetoftablets.Tabletscanbereplacedandduplicated:onlytheteachingsarerealandthey canneverbecapturedinstone. ThisdoesnotmeanthatallJewishthinkershavesucceededinthinkingwithoutimages.Themostobviousexampleofthedifficultyofsucceedinginthismandateisthe useofthemalegenericforGod.IfGodhasnobody,whytheinsistenceonGod'smaleness?Whyisitunthinkabletoentertainuseofthefemalegenericasawayof forcingtheobservantJewtoceasethinkingofGodasaman?8 Likewise,howcouldMoseshavespokentoGodonMountSinai?HowcouldJacobhaveclaimedto haveseenGod'sfacewhenhewrestledwith

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the''angel,"andnamedthespotpeniel,or"thefaceofGod"?"AndJacobcalledthenameoftheplacePeniel:'forIhaveseenGodfacetoface,andmylifeis preserved'"(Gen.32:31).HowcanthisbereconciledwiththefactthatatExodus33:20,whereMosesasksGodto"Showme,IprayThee,Thyglory,"God responds,"ThoucanstnotseeMyface,formanshallnotseeMeandlive."GodthentoldMosesofaplacebetweensomerockswherehecouldhidehisfaceforhis ownprotectionwhileGodpassedby,presumablyintheformoffire."AndtheLordsaid:'Behold,thereisaplacebyMe,andthoushaltstanduponarock.Andit shallcometopass,whileMyglorypassethby,thatIwillputtheeinacleftoftherock,andwillcovertheewithMyhanduntilIhavepassedby.AndIwilltakeaway Myhand,andthoushaltseeMybackbutMyfaceshallnotbeseen"(Exod.33:2123). Inspiteofapparentcontradictions,orenigmas,orperhaps,intentionalpuzzlestobeinterpretedbythegenerations,inspitealsoofthefailureonthepartofeventhe mostreveredJewishthinkerstoadheretotheletterofJewishteachings,wepressonwiththeefforttodiscovertheunderlyingspiritcharacterizingJewishthought. Inherentworldlinessanddemocraticpotential.ThereisanassumptionthattheTorahisopentointerpretationnotonlybyexperts,therabbis,butbyanyJewwho givesitseriousthought,eventhesimplestperson.9 TheindeterminatenessortheinconclusivenessoftheboundariesoftheTorahimpliesadialecticalrelationship betweenthedivineauthorityoftheTorahanditsinterpreters.Theoretically,theauthorityofinterpretationisavailabletoallJews.However,Isuspectmoreproblems thanKadushinacknowledgesinlegitimatingTalmudicinterpretation.ItwouldseemtoinvolveaquestionofthepoliticsoftheauthorityofJudaism:whobelongstothe priesthood?Nonetheless,atleastintheory,thetextoftheTorahisbroughttolifeinpractice,byeventhesimplestpeople,hencethedialecticofintepretationisan opportunityextendedtoallmembersofthecommunity.Atminimum,itisanethicalapproachtolifethatinvolvesthinkingwithoutcodifiedrules.Susan

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HandelmancapturesthedifferenceinthisrespectfromGreekthought:"Theinfinityofmeaningandpluralityofinterpretationareasmuchthecardinalvirtues,even divineimperatives,forRabbinicthoughtastheyarethecardinalsinsforGreekthought"(Handelman21). Itmightberomantictoexpecteachgenerationtoperformthefunctionofprophets,tothinkabout,interpretandreapplythetraditionalteachingstoitsownworldly activitiesanditmaybenaivetoholdtheviewthataveragepeoplehavethewill,theintelligence,andthetimetoengageinsuchanundertaking.ButIamgoingto arguethatthatispreciselywhatHannahArendtsoughtinheridealisticquestforawayofthinkingaccessibleto"all."The"all"inJewishthinkingisclearlyrestrictedto theJewishcommunity,andatthat,primarilytoitsmalememberswhoarecommandedtostudyTorah,ascomparedtowomenwhoareadvisedagainstit.Sothe apparentabsenceofboundariesbetweentextandworld,andpastandpresent,is,inamannerofspeaking,assumedbecausethetextisafteralloneTorahandthe communityisonepeople.Nonetheless,thereisroomforremarkablediversity,plurality,andcontradictionwithinthatcommunityandinrelationtothattext.And perhaps,inHegelianfashion,ifweimmerseourselvesentirelyinessentialaspectsofourownparticularcommunityandtradition,wewillbeabletoemergewith recognitionabouthowsomethingsimilarbutnotidenticalmightworkforothercommunities,withothertexts.Butthatisforfuturespeculation.Intermsofwhatwe needhere,itissufficienttonotethatforallitsvitalityandincompleteness,theJewishtextpresupposesaJewishcommunity,withbothpositiveandnegativeaspects:a chanceforrealdiscourse,aswellasthepossibilityofparochialism. Thedemocraticpotentialis,ofcourse,anideal.Intermsofcomplexityandinapproachability,Talmudiclearningcertainlyrivalsthemostdifficultphilosophicalsystems inthehistoryoftheworldasanintimidatingundertaking.Still,itissignificantthatonestudiestheTalmudwithotherpeople:pairsofscholars,andundertheclose supervisionofarabbi.(Andofcoursethewordrabbimeanssimply"myteacher,"connotingnotanexpertwithadoctrine,butapersonalguidetoa

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methodandpractice.)WhileallboyswereexposedtosometraininginTorahandTalmud,onlyatinyminoritywentontobecomeTalmudicscholars.Still,onecould maketheargumentthatJewishteachingsaredemocraticinspirit,areintendedtobeavailabletotheentirecommunity,evenifinpracticetheeverydayworkofpoor peoplereducedtheirtimewiththeteachingstoafewmemorablequotationsfromtherabbis,folktales,anddailyprayer. AllofthismaybereflectedinBoman'sratherabstractrenderingofHebrewthoughtas"dynamic,"inmotion,asreflectedintheHebrewlanguageandthroughthe attitudetowardtheteachingsandprayers.Canwemove,withthisselfcontaineddescriptionoftheperspectivesofa"closed"communityintothelargerworldthat Arendtwishestoempowerwithsimilartraitsof"thinking''?Thatisthetaskathand.

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Chapter9 TowardUnderstandingArendtasaJewishThinker
AJewishSoulinaGermanScholar Arendt'sintellectualandpoliticalagendawas"Jewish"inawaythathasbeeninsufficientlyrecognized,andwhichwasneitheracknowledgednorunderstoodbyArendt herself.Iproposeadoubleedgedargument:(1)HannahArendtwasmoreofa"Jewishthinker"thansherealized,and(2)ifshehadbeenabletoembracemore explicitlysomeofthetenetsofaJewishapproachtomoralityandactingintheworld,shemighthavebeenmoresuccessfulinelaboratingupon"theEichmann problem,''hercontentionthatfailuretothinkcanresultinhistoricalcatastrophes. InordertoarguethatArendtwasmoreofaJewishintellectualthanshethought,andatthesametime,notquiteenoughofaJewishintellectual,itwillbenecessaryto establishlinksbetweenthedescriptionof"Jewishthinking"intheprevioustwochapters,andArendt'seffortstodiscussthinkinganditsrelationshiptopoliticalactionin TheLifeoftheMind,TheHumanCondition,andrelatedwritings.Nazitotalitarianism,andspecificallytheHolocaust,hadforgedinArendthercentralidentityasa Jew.AfterpublicationofEichmannshewasspurned

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byJewsinAmerica,Europe,andIsrael.ArendtrespondedbydevelopingherthinkingtowardTheLifeoftheMind.Herprojectwastoexpandupontheargument whichhadbeensoprofoundlymisunderstoodinEichmann,thattheabsenceofthinkingmaybesufficienttoallowpoliticalcatastrophestotakeplace.Shesoughtto explaintheroleofthinkinginpoliticallife,andtoarticulateaconceptionofthinkinggroundedintheworldandavailabletoeverybodynotjustto"professional thinkers."Butinthislastgreatworkofherlife,sheoverlookedtheimpactofheridentityasaJewuponherthinking,orbelievedthatasimportantasthatidentitymight be,itneednotaffectthelifeofhermind. Arendtdemonstratedremarkable,perhapspsychologicallysuspiciousoversightsinneglectingtoincludeJewishthoughtinanyofherdiscussionsofphilosophyor ethics.Apparentlyinheropinion,onecouldbeapoliticalJew,orareligiousJew,whileremainingimmunetoJewishintellectualinfluences.Fromherperspective, intellectualsarefreeofethnic,racial,orpoliticalinfluences.This"universalistperspective"onintellectuallifemaypartiallyaccountforthedifficultyArendthadin arrivingataphilosophythatwould"work"intheworld.Thismayseemcounterintuitive:anarticulationofthinkingthatwouldbeavailabletoall,andnotjustspecialists, wouldseemtodemandtheavoidanceofanyspecificculturalperspective.ArendtdidnotseekadescriptionofthinkingspecifictoJudaismorspecifictoanything elsealthoughtheEuroCentricassumptionsdominatingherworkareundeniable.Butwhilesheneededauniversallyaccessibleperspective,andwhileIbelievesuch aquestreflectshergenuinelydemocraticinstincts,avoidingthespecificityofdifferentculturalperspectiveshamperedherefforttobringthinkingintotheworld.Her discussionofthinkinginTheLifeoftheMindisnotculturallyspecificenoughtobeworldly. Thisisstrangelydiscordantwithherotherwiseparticularist,materialisttendencies.1 Philosophyinherviewisatriskofbeingirrelevantwhenitbecomesrarifiedand untouchableavailableonlytospecialistsandnotordinarypeople.HereIdonotquestionwhysheheldwhatforherwasanuncharac

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teristicallyidealistviewofintellectuallife.IdonotquestionwhythereweregapsinArendt'sclaimtoJewishidentity,nordoIjudgethefragmentationofherJudaism.I amnottryingtoargue(alongwithherEichmanncritics)thatifshehadbeena"good"or"loyal"Jew,weshouldhavebeenabletoseeherclaimingheridentityin variouspredeterminedplaces.Shewasa"goodandloyal''Jew,ifnotareligiousone,atleastintermsofclaimingthatidentitypublicly,consistently,andwithwhat oftenappearstobeacombinationofprideandstubborness.Iintendinthischapterandthetwothatfollow,onlytofillinthemissingpiecesinArendt'squestfora worldlywayofthinking.IfshehadbeenwillingandabletoclaimherJewishidentityasathinkeraswellasapoliticalactor,wouldherfinalintellectualquesthavebeen moresuccessfulthanitwas?Perhapsthisquestionwillshedlightonmoregeneralproblemsofintegratingone'sculturalorracialidentitywithone'screativeworkor publicidentityinourmulticulturalage. ThecontradictionsinArendt'sfinalprojectmayhavereflectedaconflictwithinArendt,betweenthepoliticalJewandtheintellectualGerman.PerhapsHannah Arendt'sJewishsoulwasraisingquestionsforwhichtheGermanscholarArendtcouldnotfindanswers.Butallthesemusingsaregroundedintheunderstandingthat TheLifeoftheMind,apartfrombeingunfinished,isaflawedwork:thattherearecontradictions,specificallyinThinking,thatareseriousenoughtounderminethe powerofthebook.LikeallofArendt'swork,thereisplentyinThinkingtoteachandenlighten,andtoprovokethoughtanddebate.However,Arendtdidnot succeedinarticulatingaworldlyphilosophyfreeofuniversalsorabsolutes,yetmorereliablethan"opinion,"andavailabletoanybodywiththeinclinationtothink.One mightarguethat"failing"atthattaskstillleavesherinratheraugustcompany:itisnodisgrace.Still,shemighthavegottenclosertosucceedingatherselfappointed taskhadsheconsideredtheworkofJewishthinkers,alongwithherGreeksandGermans. IdonotrefertoJudaismintheabstract,asanephemeraloressentialqualityresidinginallJewswhetherreligiousornot,determiningtheirthoughts,actions,and heroes.Ipropose

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neitheratheoryofessentialist,transhistoricalcharacteristicsoftheJewishpeopleconceivedasaracenorareductionistordeterministtheoryaboutgroup membership.Rather,myargumentisthatculturaltendencies,shapedbyhistory,existandinformanoutlookontheworld.Culturalmembershipmayinfluence,but neednotdefineordetermineaperson'screativework,politicalconvictions,orstancetowardtheworld,eitherconsciouslyorunconsciously. PreliminarytoafullydevelopeddiscussionofThinkinginthenextchapter,weconsiderhere,withthehelpofMargaretCanovan'sexcellentbook,thetensionsthat undermineThinkingandcontributetoitslackofresolution.2 InherpenetratingandthoroughanalysisofHannahArendt'spoliticalthought,Canovanarguesthatthe adventoftotalitarianismanditscontinuedthreatshapedallofArendt'spoliticaltheory.Understandingherpreoccupationwiththeproblemoftotalitarianismenablesus tounderstandthecoherenceofArendt'swork.Canovanpresentsaconvincingcase,characterizedbyameticulousanalysisofunpublishedpapersandmanuscripts fromtheArendtarchives.Onthewhole,herreadingofArendtiscompatiblewithmyown.Still,IbelievethereisamissingdimensioninCanovan'sstudy. CanovantracesArendt'slifelongattempttounderstandthephenomenonoftotalitarianism.SheaddressestheintellectualandmoralinfluencesofGreek,Christian,and Germanscholars:Socrates,Jesus,Augustine,Machiavelli,Kant,Heidegger,Jaspers,Weber,andevenMarx,uponArendt.Thechapteron"MoralsandPoliticsina PostTotalitarianAge"isalengthyandsubtleanalysisofthedisturbingseparationinArendt'sworkofpoliticsfrommorality.InthischapterCanovandistinguishestwo sortsofmoralityinArendt'swork,personalmoralityandthemoralityrequiredofthecitizen.Thepublic,morepoliticalmoralityhasachanceofpreventingpoliticalevil intheworld.PreciselythisconcernfortheworldiswhatEichmannlacked.Indeed,Eichmannthoughthewasdoingtherightthingincarryingouthisjoboforganizing themurderofJews."ItwasnotthatEichmannlackedasenseofmoralobligationhewasquiteconcernedtodotherightthingjust

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that,inthecirclesinwhichhemoved,hemetnoonewhoseemedtothinkthattheFinalSolutionwaswrong,andplentyofpeopleforwhomkillingJewshadbecome adutyunpleasant,likesomanyduties,butsomethingthathadtobedone"(Canovan160).Thustheprivatemoresorcustomsofasocietysometimesprove insufficienttopreventtheoccurrenceofpoliticalevilandhistoricalcatastrophes."Thequestion'Whatbarriersshouldhavebeenabletopreventthismonstrousevil?'at thesametimegavebackthefrighteninganswer,'Notordinarymorality,forordinarydecentmoralpeopleadaptedtoNazismwitheaseassoonasitbecamethe establishedorder'"(Canovan160). CanovanwritesthatArendtfoundthesourcesofprivatemoralitytheinternaldialogueofthephilosopherrepresentedbySocratesandChristianmoralityrepresented byJesustobeoflimiteduseintheworld.Socrates'"pure"philosophy,characterizedbyanintegraldialoguewiththeself,entailsawithdrawalfromtheworld.This canonlypreventevilinacircuitousandunreliablemanner.Socrates'injunctionthatitisbettertosufferthantodowrong,representedapersonal,butnotapolitically moralstance.3 Arendtproposedapublicmoralityrequiredofthecitizen,involvingconcernfortheworld,distinguishablefromtheprivatemoralitythathadprovensoinadequatein thefaceoftheHolocaust."Politically,onthecontrary,whatcountsisthatawronghasbeendonetothelawitisirrelevantwhoisbetteroffasaresultthedoeror thesufferer."4 "ThepoliticalanswertotheSocraticpropositionwouldbe:Whatisimportantintheworldisthattherebenowrong....Nevermindwhosuffersit yourdutyistopreventit"(Canovan178,citingArendt,"CollectiveResponsibility"[1968]).CanovansuggeststhatArendtbecamecommittedtorepublicanprinciples inthehopethattheywouldenablepoliticstoembraceapublicmorality.''ArendtemergedfromherencounterwithNazism,then,asaradicalrepublicaninthetradition ofClemenceau,theFrenchRevolutionandtheEnlightenment,convincedthatrepublicaninstitutionsandpublicspiritedcitizensprovidedthestrongestpossible defensesagainsttotalitarianism"(Canovan163).

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Iftotalitarianismwastheproblem,and"radicalrepublicanism"Arendt'ssolutionasperceivedbyCanovan,thetermpluralityinArendt'sworkisalsocentral.The importanceofpluralityinArendt'stheoryiswellknow,butfocusinguponitashercentralcontribution,anencapsulationofhercontributiontopoliticalthought,isone ofCanovan'soriginalcontributions.Bythewordplurality,Arendtmeantbothindividualismandsomethingmorethanthat.Shemeanttosignifytheunderlyingequality ofconditionthatcharacterizeshumanlifeweallhavethesamebasicbiologicalneeds,andthesamehumandignityorworthatthecoreofourexistence.Buteach personisalsoanindividual,distinctfromothers.PluralityinArendt'sterminologyreferstothispublicacknowledgmentofboththeequalityanddistinctivenessofall people. WhileCanovanmaybecorrectinherappraisalofwhereArendtheadedpoliticallywiththeexperienceoftheHolocaust(althoughthatjudgmentseemsquestionablein lightofareadingofArendt'sOnRevolution,whereshemountsaconcertedattackupontheideasoftheFrenchRevolution),Ibelieveitisnotthemostimportant aspectofherwork,andwillnotcarryusveryfartowardanunderstandingofArendt'sfinaleffort,TheLifeoftheMind.5 Tomywayofthinking,Canovanwashot onthetrailofthe"essentialArendt"untilshefollowedherdownthepathofradicalrepublicanism.Canovanlostthetrailthere,andIproposepickingmywaybackto Arendt'sawarenessthat"whenthechipsweredown,"asshewasfondofsaying,politicallyshewasaJew.ShewrotetoJaspersin1946(L.50,12/17/46). "Politically,IwillalwaysspeakonlyinthenameoftheJewswhenevercircumstancesforcemetogivemynationality."6 InheraddressacceptingtheLessingPrizeof theFreeCityofHamburgin1959,''OnHumanityinDarkTimes:ThoughtsonLessing,"sheremarked.
IsoexplicitlystressmymembershipinthegroupofJewsexpelledfromGermanyatarelativelyearlyagebecauseIwishtoanticipatecertainmisunderstandingswhichcanarise onlytooeasilywhenonespeaksofhumanity.InthisconnectionIcannotglossoverthefactthatformanyyearsIconsideredtheonlyadequatereplytothequestion,"Whoare you?"tobe:AJew.Thatansweralonetookintoaccounttherealityof

Page219 persecution....Iwasonlyacknowledgingapoliticalfact,throughwhichmybeingamemberofthisgroupoutweighedallotherquestionsofpersonalidentityorratherhad decidedtheminfavorofanonymityornamelessness.Nowadayssuchanattitudewouldseemlikeapose.7

AlistofArendt'spoliticalheroes,citedbyCanovan,consists,withthesingleexceptionofClemenceau,notofradicalrepublicans,butofJewishrebels.
Heownheroesandheroineswerefightersforprinciplesofthiskind:theheroesoftheDreyfuscase,BernardLazare,"apartisanoftheimpartialityofthelaw,"andClemenceau, defenderof"such'abstract'ideasasjustice,libertyandcivicvirtue"JudahMagnes,whostroveforjusticeforJewsandArabsinPalestineRosaLuxemburg,whofoughtfor justiceandpoliticalfreedom.(Canovan19495)

ThelistofpoliticalheroesisremarkableforthestrikingdiscorditestablisheswiththeintellectualheroesassociatedwithArendt,andregardedbyCanovanandother scholarsasthecentralinfluencesonthedevelopmentofherphilosophicalthought.Thepoliticalheroes,withtheexceptionofClemenceau,areallJews,and Clemenceau'scommitmenttojustice,liberty,andcivicvirtuewasadmirabletoArendtbecauseitinvolvedtheunpopularideaoffairnesstotheJew,Dreyfus,duringan antiSemiticrampageinFrance.ThemajorintellectualinfluencesonArendtincludeSocrates,Aristotle,Kant,Heidegger,Jaspers,andoccasionallyMarx.Incontrast tothepoliticalheroes,notoneofArendt'sintellectualheroesisaJew,exceptMarx,whoaloneamongthestellargroupcannotreallyberegardedasoneofher "heroes":Arendt'sdisagreementswithMarx'stheoryweresoprofound,thatheisbetterunderstoodasawellrespected"foil"forherowntheory. ConsideringtheuniformlyJewishidentitiesofherpoliticalheroes,Arendt'savoidanceofJewishintellectualsnotwithstanding,JudaismisthedimensionIwouldaddto Canovan'sidentificationoftotalitarianismasthecenterpieceofArendt'smoralandpoliticalconcerns.Thespecifichorroroftotalitarianismthatshockedtheworldwas theassaultontheJewsduringtheHolocaust.IfCanovaniscorrect(andIbelieveonthewholethatsheis)inidentifyingtotalitarianismasArendt'smain

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politicalandmoralpreoccupation,thespecificdimensionoverlookedinheranalysisistheattemptedgenocideoftheJewishpeople.Thisisthegrittycore,thecatalyst thatturnedArendt'sattentiontowardtotalitarianism. ThePoliticalTroublewithPhilosophy ButwhatwastheproblemwithArendt'sworkonthinking?Whattensionsounderminedherfinaleffort,TheLifeoftheMind?CanovansuggeststhatArendt's concerntounitethinkingwithpolitics,ortoarticulateaworldlywayofthinking,ledherintwoincompatibledirections.Thetensionissignifiedbyheradherencetothe influenceofHeidegger,ontheonehand,andJaspers,ontheother,echoedinherdividedloyaltytoPlatoandSocrates.HeideggerandPlatorepresentthe"purer" philosophicalthinkers,whiletoArendt,JaspersandSocratesembodiedtheefforttobringphilosophyintotheworld.Asphilosophers,HeideggerandPlatorepresent aquestfor"pure"orabsolutetruth,notcompatiblewiththeworldorwithpolitics.Thesearchforthisrarifiedsortoftruthcallsforsolitude:thephilosopherisalone, notaworldlycharacter,andsotherelationshipbetweenhistruthandtheworldremainsproblematic.Inadditiontotheisolationrequiredbytheactivityofphilosophy, thesubstantivetruthsoughtbythephilosopherisantitheticaltothedemocraticlife.Itisunifiedandabsolute,incompatiblewithdialogueandplurality.Thedangeris thatthissortof"truth''iscompatibleonlywithpoliticalcoercion:itcourtstotalitarianismwithitssingularandcoerciveworldview.Ontwocountsthen,philosophy appearstobeincompatiblewiththepluralistpoliticalworld:itsabsolutismofcontentandthesolitudeandwithdrawalrequiredbyitsactivity. However,Socrates,whomArendtconsideredthemost"political"thinkerofthefour,wasalsoinhertermsthe"purest"philosopher,becausehethoughtfortheloveof thinking,ratherthanforanyresultintheworld.Besides,asmentionedabove,hisdialogueswereofteninternal,withhimself,andthusremovedfromtheeveryday world.IncontrasttoSocrates'styleofthinking,the"greatphilosophicalsystems,"Arendtbelieved,

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"canhardlybecalledtheresultsofpurethinking,"becausetheauthorsofthesesystemshadtostopthinkingtowritethestuffdown.8 "Theactivityofthinkingisas relentlessandrepetitiveaslifeitself,andthequestionwhetherthoughthasanymeaningatallconstitutesthesameunanswerableriddleasthequestionofthemeaningof lifeitsprocessespermeatethewholeofhumanexistencesointimatelythatitsbeginningandendcoincidewiththebeginningandendofhumanlifeitself."9 Thisviewof thinkingiscompatiblewiththeproductlessactivitysymbolizedbyPenelope'sweb,animageArendtoffersinThinking."ThebusinessofthinkingislikePenelope's web:itundoeseverymorningwhatithasfinishedthenightbefore"(Thinking88). Arendtneverresolvedthesetensionsinthenatureofthinking.Theydoggedherfromherearliestwritings,rightuptoherworkonTheLifeoftheMind.Canovan capturesArendt'sdilemmathisway:

Wecanfindintheseearlyreflectionsfromthe1950stwoalternativeviewsofthepoliticalimplicationsofphilosophy,associatedwithtwopairsofopposedphilosophers,Plato versusSocratesandHeideggerversusJaspers.WhenArendtisfocusingonPlatoorHeideggersheisinclinedtofearthatphilosophyisintrinsicallysolitary,antipoliticaland sympathetictocoercionwhereas,whensheconcentratesonSocratesorJasperssheistemptedtobelievethattruephilosophymaybecommunicativeandinharmonywithfree politics.Nosoonerdoessheformulateeithersideofthedilemma,however,thanshequalifiesitandtriestofindsomewayofmediatingbetweenthetwosidesthatwillallowherto avoidhavingtochoosebetweenthem.(Canovan264)

If"truth"werenotconceivedasabsolute,woulditbemorecompatiblewiththepoliticalworld?Inhereffortstoconnectthinkingwithworldlyconcerns,Arendtalso entertainedaconceptualizationof"thinking"notinvolvedinpursuitofabsolutetruthandnottiedtophilosophy.Thislooserdefinitionofthinkingresemblesadialogue thatdoesnotend:aproductlessquest,aprocessofquestioningmorecompatiblewithaworldlywayofthinkingthatremovesPlatofromconsideration.Attimes ArendtarguedthatHeidegger'sphilosophy

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wascompatiblewiththisconceptionofdialogicalthought,therebyassociatinghimmorecloselywithSocraticthanPlatonicthought. Arendt'sinabilitytorenounceherattachmenttoMartinHeideggerwasabigproblemforherintellectually,politically,andpersonally,andwemightaswelladdressit now.ItisprobablystillthesinglemosttenaciousgrievancecitedbyJewswhobelieveArendthadtroublewithherownJewishidentity.Sheneverpubliclydenounced HeideggertheNazi.Evenifhercontortedeffortstopresenthimasa"worldlythinker"hadreflectedanaccuratereadingofhiswork,itstillleavesanenormous probleminreconcilinghowa"philosopheroftheworld"couldhavebeensuchapoliticalfool.Inotherwords,Heideggerstandsasapowerfulsymbolofthe irrelevence,perhapseventhedangerofphilosophywhenitcomestoworldlyethics.Heideggerthephilosophicalgeniusofthetwentiethcenturyneverrenouncedhis involvementwiththeNaziparty,andArendtneverpubliclyrenouncedHeidegger. Privately,inletterstoJaspersintheearlyyearsafterthewar,shewasclearandunsparinginherdisdainforHeideggerandhispolitics.Shereferredtohimasa "potentialmurderer"andaliar.10UnfortunatelyforArendt,thisclearheadednessnevermadeitintoanyofherpublicstatementsaboutherformermentorand lover.11 In1946Arendtwrote"WhatisExistenzPhilosophy"inwhichshecriticallyassociatedHeideggerwithsystembuildingandaphilosophyofegoism.Twentyfiveyears later,in"HeideggeratEighty,"shehadhim,approvingly,inKant'scamp,asoneofthegreatdestroyersofcoercivemetaphysicalsystems.Readingthetwoessays backtobackisadizzyingexperience:theyappeartocontradicteachothersoprofoundlythatonewonderswhetherArendtwaswritingaboutthesameman.Inthe 1946essayshedepictsHeideggerasathinkerwhosoughttoreconstructsystematicphilosophy,torebuildametaphysicsthathadbeenbroughtcrashingtoearthby Kant.ThisisinkeepingwiththetotalitariantendenciesthatsheassociatedwithHeideggerrightafterthewar.Inthatearlyessay,writtensoonaftershewasreunited withJaspersafterahiatus

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oftwelveyears,duringwhicheachfearedtheotherhadbeenkilled,JaspersispresentedasthetrueheirtoKant,Heideggerassomeonewhosoughttorestoretheold order:
AsopposedtoJaspers,HeideggerseekswiththenewcontenttoreviveSystematicPhilosophyinthecompletelytraditionalsense....Heidegger'sattemptdespiteandagainst Kanttoreestablishanontologyledtoafarreachingalterationofthetraditionalphilosophicalterminology.Forthisreason,Heideggeralwaysappearsonfirstglacemore revolutionarythanJaspersandthisterminologicalappearancehasverymuchinterferedwiththecorrectestimateofhisphilosophy.Hesaysexplicitlythathewishestofoundan ontologyandhecanhavenothingelseinmindthantoundothedestruction,begunwithKant,oftheancientconceptionofBeing.12

Instartlingcontrast,in"MartinHeideggeratEighty,"writtenovertwodecadesafterArendthadvisitedand"reconciled"withHeideggerin1949,shepresents HeideggeraseclipsingevenKantasthegreatestdestroyeroftheoldmetaphysicalsystems:"AstoHeidegger'sshareinthecollapseofmetaphysics,whichwas immanentanyway,whatweowehimandonlyhim,isthatthecollapsetookplaceinamannerworthyofwhathadprecededit:thatmetaphysicswasthoughtthrough toitsend."("HeideggeratEighty"297) Intheearlieressay,ArendtpresentsHeidegger'sphilosophyasfocusedonanabstract,egoistic"self"tothedetrimentofinvolvementintheparticularitiesoftheworld: "The'self'hasenteredinplaceofman....Inthisabsoluteisolation,theSelfemergesastheconceptreallycontrarytoMan....TheSelfasconsciencehasputitselfin placeofhumanity,andtheBeingoftheSelfinplaceoftheBeingofMan."Evenmoredamning:"Heideggerhasthereforeattemptedinlaterlecturestobringin,byway ofafterthought,suchmythologizingconfusionsasFolkandEarthasasocialfoundationforhisisolatedSelves.Itisevidentthatsuchconceptionscanleadonlyoutof philosophyintosomenaturalisticsuperstition"("Existenz"51) Again,incontrasttohercriticismofegoisminthe1946essay,Arendtwrotein1971:"Thethinking'I'which'standswithin'theragingstorm,asHeideggersays,and forwhichtime

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literallystandsstill,isnotjustagelessitisalso,althoughalwaysspecificallyother,withoutqualities....Thethinking'I'iseverythingbuttheselfof consciousness"("HeideggeratEighty"298).Inafinal,ratherweakefforttosaveHeideggerfromresponsibilityforhismurderouspoliticalstupidity.Arendtnotesthat hewasyoungenoughnottohaveknownwhathewasdoing(hewasinhisforties)."Everythinkerifonlyhegrowsoldenough,muststrivetounravelwhathave actuallyemergedastheresultsofhisthought,andhedoesthissimplybyrethinkingthem"("HeideggeratEighty"298).13 Arendt'sinabilitypubliclytodisavowHeideggermayreflectanidiosyncraticweaknessonherpart:she"justcouldn'tgetoverhim,"intheworstromanticway.Butthat failingisoflittleinteresttousintellectually,andprobablybettermaterialforapsychoanalystordatafortheauthorofamassmarketbookon"WomenWhoLove theWrongMen,"orsomethingofthatsort.14 WhatismoresignificantfortheargumentIammakinghereisthatArendt'sinabilityto"getover"Heideggerintellectuallymayreflectaweaknessonherpartforthe legitimacyofGermanphilosophy.ItmayrevealtoustheJewishpariahwithinherselfatwarwithwhatsheperceivedtobethegreaterlegitimacyoftheGermanscholar sheaspiredtobe.ShetriedtotwistHeideggerintoathinkerwhowouldcontributetoherownscholarlyagenda,perhapsborrowinghisnameinanefforttolend legitimacytoherownprojectofbringingphilosophyclosertothepoliticalworld.WeshallseetheseeffortsdramaticallyinevidenceinherdiscussionoftheJewish philosopherPhiloofAlexandriainThinking.Canovanalsoprovidesuswithanexample,asshenotesincredulouslythatinArendt's1954manuscript,"Concernwith PoliticsinRecentEuropeanPhilosophicalThought"(presentedatthe1954APSAmeetings),writtenalmosttwentyyearsbeforeshewrote"HeideggeratEighty," ArendthadappropriatedHeideggerinaneccentricmanner."Themostremarkablefeatureofthis1954manuscriptisthesurprising(nottosaybizarre)suggestionthat thephilosopherwhomaybeabletoshowusthewayoutofthisdifficulty[thedichotomybetweenphilosophyandpolitics]

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is,ofallpeople,MartinHeidegger.TheNazifellowtravellerwhomwehaveseenArendtdismissinginheressayon'ExistenzPhilosophy'asthephilosopherof 'egoism,'nowappearsasaguidetothinkingaboutpluralisticpolitics"(Canovan263).CanovanbluntlyaccusesArendtoftwistingHeideggertoserveherown purposes."Itseemslikelythatshewasreadingherownpoliticalphilosophyintohiswritings,revealingwhatmayseemapatheticeagernesstorescuehimfromthe politicalcompanyhehimselfhadchosen"(Canovan263).15 InCanovan'sreading,SocratesandJaspersweremorereliablefiguresthanHeideggertorepresentArendt'shopethatphilosophyandpoliticswereafterall compatible.However,thisstanceisalsonotwithoutproblems.Aswehaveseen,evenSocrates,whoinmyreadingemergesinArendt'sworkastheultimate philosopherofthepublicrealm,wasactuallymoreengagedinadialoguewithhimselfthanwithothers.AlthoughSocratesdidnotseekanendproductwithhis thinking,onemightstillarguethathewasnot,afterall,somuchengagedwithasforcedintothepublicrealm.Besides,Arendtworriedthateventhepluralismofnever endingdialogueswithothersmayleadtothepredominanceofopinion,ratherthantruth,oreventhinking,intheworld.Soagainshewasleftwiththedilemmathat dialogueisnotafterallcompatiblewithphilosophy:eitherthepersonengagedinathinkingdialoguewithselfisaswithdrawnfromtheworldasthephilosopherseeking absolutetruthortheengageddialogiancancomeupwithnothingmoresatisfyingthanopinionasaguidingprincipleforpoliticalaction. WarmUpExercise:AnImpressionisticReadingof"TruthandPolitics" Arendt'smostexplicittreatmentoftherelationshipbetweenTruth,truths,andopinionwrittenbefore"Thinking"(anditsexploratoryessay,"ThinkingandMoral Considerations")maybefoundinheressay"TruthandPolitics"16Inthatessay,Arendtdistinguishesamongthreedifferentsortsoftruths,philosophical,

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rational,andfactual,andaversthatnoneofthethreehaseverbeenwelcomedintothepoliticalrealm.Ofthethree,factualtruthismostcompatiblewithpolitics: absolutelynecessaryforpoliticalfreedom,andalsofortheformofdiscoursethatiscompatiblewithpolitics:opinion.Philosophicalaswellasreligioustruthsareno longertakenseriouslyenoughtoposeathreattoapoliticalman."Neitherthetruthofrevealedreligion,whichthepoliticalthinkersoftheseventeenthcenturystill treatedasamajornuisance,orthetruthofthephilosopher,disclosedtomaninsolitude,interferesanylongerwiththeaffairsoftheworld"(T.andP.235). Factualtruthisanotherstory.Inprinciple,factsarenecessaryfortheveryformulationofopinions.Howcanoneformanopinionwithoutfacts?However,inanage wheretheworldlessfabricationoftotalitarianismispossible,factshavecomeunderanewformofpoliticalattack.They,likephilosophicaltruth,areindangerof becomingtransformedintoopiniononcetheyenterthepoliticalrealm:"Whatseemsevenmoredisturbingisthattotheextenttowhichunwelcomefactualtruthsare toleratedinfreecountriestheyareoftenconsciouslyorunconsciouslytransformedintoopinionsasthoughthefactofGermany'ssupportofHitlerorofFrance's collapsebeforetheGermanarmiesin1940orofVaticanpoliciesduringtheSecondWorldWarwerenotamatterofhistoricalrecordbutamatterofopinion"(T.and P.236).Contributingtooursenseofinstabilityintheworld,wholesalesystematiclyingintotalitarianregimesisaccompaniedbytheconversionoffactintoopinionin the"freeworld." Atacertainpointinthisdifficultessay,Arendtturnstoadiscussionofwhatcanbedonetosafeguardfactsinthefreeworld,sincetheyareabsolutelyindispensableto theformationofopinionandtofreepoliticaldiscourse.Sheconsidersuniversitiestobeoneplacewherefactscanbesafeguarded(althoughthatstrikesoneasarather lamehope,andindeed,sheherselfacknowledgesthevulnerabilityoftheacademytopoliticalregimes).Intheend,shesuggestssafeguardingfactsintheformof stories,andthereherlanguagebecomespoignantandrevealing,reachingacrescendowithaproclamationoffaithinthepoweroffactualtruthtosurvive.While readingthecon

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cludingparagraphsof"TruthandPolitics,"Ifoundmymindslippingintoametaphoricalstate,withfactsandfactualtruthplayingtheroleofJewsendangeredbya totalitarianpolitics.Ultimately,facts(orinmyfantasydramaaboutthisessay,Jews)perseverebecausetheymust,withthepreservationoftheirstoryprovidingthe ultimateguaranteeofsurvival."Andthesurestsignofthefactualityoffacts[read:Jews]andeventsispreciselythisstubborntherenesswhoseinherentcontingency ultimatelydefiesallattemptsatconclusiveexplanation"(T.andP.257)."Truth[read:Jews],thoughpowerlessandalwaysdefeatedinaheadonclashwiththe powersthatbe,possessesastrengthofitsown:whateverthoseinpowermaycontrive,theyareunabletodiscoverorinventaviablesubstituteforit.Persuasionand violencecandestroytruth,buttheycannotreplaceit"(T.andP.259).Truthispreservedbynarrativewhenitentersthepoliticalrealm."Realityisdifferentfrom,and morethan,thetotalityoffactsandeventswhich,anyhow,isunascertainable.Whosayswhatislegeitaeontaalwaystellsastory,andinthisstorytheparticular factslosetheircontingencyandacquiresomehumanlycomprehensiblemeaning"(T.andP.262). Whatispreservedbythestorytellernolongerresemblesanythingwemightrecognizeasphilosophical,rational,orfactual.Butitisthelastresortfortruthunderfire:a hidingplaceinatimeofdireneed.Truthcanbedestroyedbybeingturnedintoopinionbut,disguisedasstory,itmayverywellsurvivetoservetheworld.Arendt concludes"TruthandPolitics"withaproclamationoffaithintruth'sabilitytosurvivetheefforttoreduceittoopinioninthepoliticalrealm,lendingaratherspiritualfeel totheendoftheessay:"Thepoliticalfunctionofthestorytellerhistorianornovelististoteachacceptanceofthingsastheyare.Outofthisacceptance,whichcan alsobecalledtruthfulness,arisesthefacultyofjudgment"(T.andP.262).Ultimatelytruthmustremainopposedtopolitics,butthankGod,thepoliticalsphereis limited:
WhatImeanttoshowhereisthatthiswholesphere,itsgreatnessnotwithstanding,islimitedthatitdoesnotencompassthewholeofman'sandtheworld'sexistence.Itis limitedbythosethingswhichmencannotchangeatwill.Anditisonlyby

Page228 respectingitsownbordersthatthisrealm,wherewearefreetoactandtochange,canremainintact,preservingitsintegrityandkeepingitspromises.Conceptually,wemaycall truthwhatwecannotchangemetaphorically,itisthegroundonwhichwestandandtheskythatstretchesaboveus.(T.andP.26364)

Thisproclamationoffaithreadslikeaprayerforthesurvivaloftruth[read:Jews],andthebeliefthatifallelsefails,itcanbepreservedintheformofagreatstory.If onesquintstoshiftfocusslightly,aswhenviewingahologram,onecanseeaparableaboutArendt'sfaithinthesurvivaloftheJews,andallpariahpeoples,by continuingtotelltheirstory.Theexistenceofacentralstory,eithertextororaltradition,thushassomethingtodowiththesurvivaloftruth.Withoutsuchatextor tradition,theprospectsfortruthsurvivinginthepoliticalrealmareratherdismal. Arendtstruggledinvaintoovercomethedilemmaposedbythesolitarynatureofthephilosophicpursuitandthepublicnatureofpolitics.Evenwhileattemptingto dampenthedangersofabsolutisminphilosophywiththeimageofaneverendingproductlessdialogue,shewasleftwithitssolitudeandworldlessness.Asfaras Arendtwasconcerned,philosophyandpolitics,truthandpubliclife,remainedincompatible.Arendtspentdecadesmaneuveringthetermsphilosophy,truth,and thinking,inanefforttofindaplaceintheworldforthelifeofthemind.Ishallarguethatthetensionsheexperiencedcanbestbeunderstoodasastrugglebetween hertrainingasaGermanChristianscholarandtheJewishaspectsofhersoul.ThatJewishsoulwasforgedbyaheritageandculturethatisextremelydifficulttoerase, andbyArendt'sownlifeexperiencesasarefugeefromantiSemiticgenocide,whichshetriedandfailedtokeepcorraledinherpoliticalideas. Intheprevioustwochaptersaconceptof"Jewishthinking"wasproposed,withdeferencetoitsvarietyandcomplexity.TheeffortwasmadetoavoidreducingJewish thinkingtoaformula.Now,tofreshenawarenessofwhatisinvolvedin"Jewishthinking"sothatadiscussionoftheJewishaspectsofThinkingmaybecomeclearer, recallthatJewishthinkinginvolves:(1)acentraltext,eventhoughthattext'sboundariesareindefinite

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(2)lackofcodification,anemphasisoncontinualreinterpretationthroughdialogue(3)lackofboundedness,andtheassumptionthatthebondbetweenpast,present, andfutureissubjective,forgedbyhumanactions(4)lackofinterestinvisualimageryasanapproachtotruthormeaning(5)andassumptionofacommunityand potentialfordemocracyinthatallthemembersofthecommunityareexpectedtoparticipatetotheextentpossible.InThorliefBoman'sterms,Jewishthinkingis dynamiccomparedtothemorestaticqualityofGreekthought. TherearefivedimensionstoArendt'sapproachtothinkingthatappearthroughoutherwritingsandwhichcanbeidentifiedasexhibitingacertainJewishstyle,interms ofthecharacteristicssetforthpreviously.Ishalldescribeinencapsulatedformthefivedimensionshere,althoughsuchaformulaicapproachisobviouslyan oversimplification.Regardthemashandles,usefulfororientationaswestepintothislabyrinthianterrain.TheJewishcharacteristicsofArendt'squestforaworldly philosophyare:(1)herrefusaltocodify,topresentformulaeforthinking,heraversiontodogmaandclosure,andherbeliefthatabsolutesanduniversalsare antitheticaltothepluralityneededinafreepublicsphere(2)heremphasisonthe"ineffability"ofthought,herbeliefthatmakingcomplexthoughtstootangibleand explicitmayresultinthembecomingreified,or"frozen"dogma(3)heremphasisonplurality,describedinTheHumanConditionastheneedforacommunityof equalindividualsinordertoensurefreedom,alsoevidentinherinsistenceuponapluralapproachtotruth,ratherthanaquestforuniversals(4)heremphasison "worldliness"ortheimportanceofkeepingthoughtgroundedintheworld,ratherthanhopingforasystematic,absolutist,oruniversalistphilosophyand(5)herideas abouttheroleofhistory,whichareremarkablycompatiblewiththeJewishapproachtohistory. ItistimetoturntoadetailedreadingoftheThinkingvolumeofTheLifeoftheMind.ThetensionsdescribedbyCanovanarecertainlyinevidence,buttheirgenesis isnotadividedloyaltyinArendt'sheartbetweenSocratesandHeidegger.Itisbroaderthanthat,adividedloyaltybetweenArendt'sJewishsoulandherGerman education.

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Chapter10 ThePariahandParvenuinThinking
SeeingandHearing IntheintroductiontoTheLifeoftheMindArendtstatesthattheimpetustobegintheprojectwasherexperienceatthetrialofAdolfEichmanninJerusalem. ''Factually,mypreoccupationwithmentalactivitieshastworatherdifferentorigins.TheimmediateimpulsecamefrommyattendingtheEichmanntrialinJerusalem."1 Shecontinues,"InmyreportofitIspokeofthe'banalityofevil.'Behindthatphrase,Iheldnothesisordoctrine,althoughIwasdimlyawareofthefactthatitwent countertoourtraditionofthoughtliterary,theological,orphilosophicaboutthephenomenonofevil"(Thinking3).Thisisanobviousreferencetotheresponseto herreport,herbookEichmanninJerusalem,andthefuroroverherphrase"thebanalityofevil,"whichwasmisinterpretedtomeanthatshedidnotregardtheNazi crimesasexceptionallyevil.Whatshemeantwasthatexceptionalevilcanpresentitselfintheguiseofordinarinessbanalitymakingitevenmoreinsidiousand dangerous.Herreferencetothecontroversialphraseandherinsistencethatsheintendednothingdoctrinaireinitsuse,alongwithherstatementthatshewas"dimly awareofthefactthatitwentcountertoourtraditionofthought..."indicatetomethatthecontroversyitself,aswellasherexperiencein

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Jerusalem,wereintheforefrontofhermindwhenshebeganworkonThinking. TheseconddimensionthatArendtidentifiesasinfluencingher"preoccupationwithmentalactivities,"alsopromptedbyherexperienceinJerusalem,wastherenewal ofherinterestin"theproblemofAction,theoldestconcernofpoliticaltheory."Shewasconcernedwiththetraditionaldichotomyinpoliticaltheorybetweenthought andaction,theoryandpractice,andasCanovanandotherArendtscholarshavenoted,shesoughttoreconcilethegapwithherworkonTheLifeoftheMind.The projectisexpressedbythequestionthatArendtclaims''imposed"itselfuponher:"CouldtheactivityofThinkingassuch,thehabitofexaminingwhateverhappensto cometopassortoattractattention,regardlessofresultsandspecificcontent,couldthisactivitybeamongtheconditionsthatmakemenabstainfromevildoingor evenactually'condition'themagainstit?"(Thinking5). Shebeginsthevolumewithanaffirmationoffaith.Acknowledgingthemodern"deaths"ofGod,metaphysics,andphilosophy,notingthattheconsequencesofthese lossesarewidespreadandconcerneverybody,sheinsiststhatpeople(men)areandalwayshavebeenthinkingbeings,whooughttobeabletothinktheirwayoutof thethreatofmeaninglessnessinmodernlife."Ourabilitytothinkisnotatstakewearewhatmen[sic]alwayshavebeenthinkingbeings"(Thinking11). Theneedtothinkisassociatedwiththequestformeaning,thoughnotnecessarilywithtruth,for"truthandmeaningarenotthesame"(15).Thequestformeaningis universal.Allhumanbeingscanthink,andallpeoplecravemeaningintheirlives."If,asIsuggestedbefore,theabilitytotellrightfromwrongshouldturnouttohave anythingtodowiththeabilitytothink,thenwemustbeableto'demand'itsexercisefromeverysaneperson,nomatterhoweruditeorignorant,intelligentorstupid, hemayhappentobe"(13).Theabsenceofthoughtisnotstupiditymanyintelligentpeoplefailtothink,orlosethe"habitofexamining." Fromtheverystartofthevolume,then,Arendtseeksaccessto"meaning"incontemporarylife,insiststhatallpeoplemustbe

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capableofseekingit,andhopesthatitwillaffectactionintheworld.Theagendaisclear,andshelaunchesuponthejourney.Shebeginswithanexplorationof "Appearance,"discussingwhattheworldisthatThinkingmightaffectit.Theworldisphenomenal:weseeit.Allexistencepresupposesaspectator,whichinturn presupposesplurality."Everythingthatis,ismeanttobeperceivedbysomebody.NotManbutmeninhabitthisplanet.Pluralityisthelawoftheearth"(19)."Our mentalapparatus,thoughitcanwithdrawfrompresentappearances,remainsgearedtoAppearance"(24).Thisemphasisonappearance,atleastinBoman'sterms, reflectsathoroughlyGreekperspective. However,whenwelookcloselyatArendt'sdiscussionofseeingandhearing,wediscoverevidenceofatroubledtensionbetweentheexplicitGreekandunconscious Hebrewinfluencesthatplaguestheentirevolume.Inherdiscussionof"MetaphorandtheIneffable"shecontraststheGreekassociationofthinkingandseeingwiththe Hebrewassociationofhearingandtruth.TheGreeksensehasdominated"fromtheoutsetinformalphilosophy."Stilltherehavebeennotableexceptions:theoristsof theWillusemetaphorstakeneitherfromtheappetitesandpassions,or,shesuggests,"fromhearing,inlinewiththeJewishtraditionofaGodwhoisheardbutnot seen"(111). Thepassagesthatfollowareremarkable.Arendtnotesthathearingishardlyeverassociatedwithphilosophy,except"inthelatewritingofHeidegger,wherethe thinkingego'hears'thecallofBeing"(111).ShethensuggeststhatthemedievalJewisheffortstoreconcileBiblicalteachingswithGreekphilosophyresultedinthe capitulationofHebrewstandardsofThinkingtotheGreek.
MedievalJewishwritingstestifytoacompletevictoryofintuitionorcontemplationovereveryformofaudition,andthisvictorywas,asitwere,foreshadowedbytheearly attemptofPhiloofAlexandriatoattunehisJewishcreedtohisPlatonizingphilosophy.HewasstillawareofthedistinctionbetweenaHebrewtruth,whichwasheard,andthe Greekvisionofthetrue,andtransformedtheformerintoamerepreparationforthelatter,tobeachievedbydivineinterventionthathadmademan'searsintoeyestopermitgreater perfectionofhumancognition.(Thinking111)

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ThefullextentofthetensionbetweenArendt'sGermanphilosophicaltrainingandthetugofherJewishheritagecanbegleanedfromthesepassages.Heideggeris presentedasthinkingmorelikeaJewthanPhiloofAlexandria.Arendt'sreferencetoPhilo'sreligioniscondescending:itisa"creed"comparedtothemorerespectful referencetoGreekphilosophy.BeingawareofthedistinctionbetweentheGreekandHebrewstancestowardtruth,PhiloreducedtheHebrewperspectivetoamere preparationfortheGreek,effectuatedbytheHebrewGod,whotransformedman'searsintoeyes,"topermitgreaterperfectionofhumancognition." IfArendt'sreadingofPhiloisaccurate,onecanhardlyimagineamoredramaticdescriptionofanassimilationistattempttofitJudaismwiththedominantculture.As wesawinchapter7,Philo,alongwithotherMedievalJewishscholars,attemptedtoreconcile,insomeway,HebrewthoughtwithGreekphilosophy.InArendt's reading,PhilousestheHebrewGodagainstthetraditionalHebrewperspectiveitself,therebysubordinatinghearingtosightasawayofgainingentreeintoGreek philosophy.OnewonderswhyArendtdoesn'tregardthisaspreciselythesortofassimilationtodominantsocietythatshewouldhavedetested,haditoccurredinthe socialrealm.Instead,sheseemsratherpatronizing,presentingPhiloasaprimitive,usingaconceptionofGodtoturnearsintoeyes.Inthediscussionthatfollows,she makesitclearthatsheregardstheprivilegingofsightasappropriate."Thereisfirstofalltheindisputablefactthatnoothersenseestablishessuchasafedistance betweensubjectandobjectdistanceisthemostbasicconditionforthefunctioningofvision"(Thinking111).Hearingcreatesdependency:"Inhearing,thepercipient isatthemercyofsomethingorsomebodyelse"(Thinking112).Sightisassociatedwithfreedom,whilehearingimpliesobedience:
TheHebrewGodcanbeheardbutnotseen,andtruththereforebecomesinvisible:"Thoushaltnotmakeuntotheemygravenimageoranylikenessofanythingthatisinheaven aboveorthatisontheearthbeneath.'TheinvisibilityoftruthintheHebrewreligionisasaxiomaticasitsineffabilityinGreekphilosophyfromwhichalllaterphilosophyderived its

Page235 axiomaticassumptions.Andwhiletruth,ifunderstoodintermsofhearing,demandsobedience,truthunderstoodintermsofvisionreliesonthesamepowerfulselfevidencethat forcesustoadmittheidentityofanobjectthemomentitisbeforeoureyes.(Thinking120)

Shegoessofarastorefertosightas"noble,"quotingapprovinglyfromtheworkofher(Jewish)friendHansJonas.Shepresentsphilosophyascompatiblewith science,baskinginthereflectedgloryofscienceastheonlyreliablemeansofachievingworldlyknowledge.WeknowthatArendtherselfentertaineddoubtsaboutthe prestigeaccordedscience,andweshallseethetroublethecentralityofsciencecreatesforhereffortstobringThinkingintotheworld.Butitisimportanttonoteher temptationtorespectphilosophyforitsrelianceuponsight,andtoregarditascompatiblewithmodernsecularknowledgeforthatveryreason."Whatrecommended sighttobetheguidingmetaphorinphilosophyandalongwithsight,intuitionastheidealoftruthwasnotjustthe'nobility'ofthismostcognitiveofoursenses,but theveryearlynotionthatthephilosopher'squestformeaningwasidenticalwiththescientist'squestforknowledge"(Thinking121).2 Arendt'sadmirationforsightasapathtoknowledgeisasignificantinconveniencewhentheattemptsinthissameworktoseparateworldlythinking,thequestfor meaning,fromtraditional"truthseeking"philosophy,whichsheherselfhasassociatedwithscience,renderingitinaccessibletomostpeople.Ifherintellectual convictionsweren'tsothoroughlypredisposedinfavoroftheGreek,"hearing"asasensemighthavebeenmoreavailabletoher,andshemighthavebeenableto utilizeittoclosethedistancefromtheworldcreatedbysight.Ifindeedhearingpromotesproximity,ratherthandistance,itmightbeofuseinbringingthelifeofthe mindclosertolifeintheworld,aswellaspeopleclosertoeachotherastheyattempttodiscussthemeaningofthings.Ifshehadbeenlesspredisposedto"sight" ratherthanhearing(exceptwhenHeideggerpresumablyembracedhearing),shemighthaveconsideredthepossibilitythathearingpromoteslistening,ratherthan obedience,whichmaybemorecompatiblewithbothcommunity

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andplurality.Infact,shedoescomeclose,whenshenotesthatthinking,asdistinctfromphilosophy,"needsspeechnotonlytosoundoutandbecomemanifestit needsittobeactivatedatall"(Thinking121). Ironically,fromacertainperspective"Hebrew"thinking,morethanGreek,trustsworldlyappearances.Forallitsemphasisonthevisible,theGreektraditionin philosophyalsoregardsphenomenalappearancesasdeceptive.Realityissomethinghiddenandessential.AsIhavearguedelsewhere,Arendthaslittlepatiencefor inwardness.3 Sheassociatesfreewillwiththecapacitytopresentoneselfasonewishestoappearintheworld."Inadditiontotheurgetowardselfdisplaybywhich livingthingsfitthemselvesintoaworldofappearances,menalsopresentthemselvesindeedandwordandthisindicateshowtheywishtoappear,whatintheir opinionisfittobeseenandwhatisnot"(Thinking34).Suchastatementisobliviousoftherealitiesofraceandgender,wherecertainappearances(white,male)are privileged,andassociatedwith,e.g.respectability,authority,rationalitywhileothers,unabletomakethemselvesappearastheywish,suffertheconsequencessociety associateswithappearance. Inherdenigrationoftheinvisible,Arendtdismissespsychologyandpsychoanalysisasdiscovering"nomorethantheeverchangingmoods,theupsanddownsofour psychiclife....Themonotonoussamenessandpervasiveuglinesssohighlycharacteristicofthefindingsofmodernpsychology,andcontrastingsoobviouslywiththe enormousvarietyandrichnessofoverthumanconduct,witnesstotheradicaldifferencebetweentheinsideandoutsideofthehumanbody"(Thinking35).Anyone familiarwithpsychologyalthoughperhapsnottheorthodoxyofFreudianpsychoanalysiscouldtestifytothefactthatthevarietyreflectedinpsychological approachestotheworldisremarkablyrich,everybitasinfiniteasthevarietyofoutwardresponsespresentedinpublic. ButArendt'smistrustofinwardnessandemotion,atleastasadeterminantofworldlyactions,isnottheissuehere.Herprojectistolinkthinkingandworldlyactivity, withoutestablishingahierarchy,oracausalchain.Theprimacyofappear

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anceisagiven,sheinsists,becausethereisnothingoutsideoftheworldthat"causes"appearances(42).Sheconcludesirreverently,andhilariously,"Ifthedivineis whatcausesappearancesanddoesnotappearitself,thenman'sinnerorganswouldturnouttobehistruedivinities"(Thinking42).Somuchforanycompatibility betweenreligionandphilosophy! Arendt'sconflictedviewsaboutthenatureofthinkingareresponsibleforherdesire,ontheonehand,tobringitintotheworldand,ontheother,forheravoidanceof someopportunitiesforachievingthatgoal.Shewillnotembraceessentialtruths,norwillsheabandonthe"superiority"oftheGreekconceptofthinking.Shegoesto somelengthstodissociatethinkingfrompursuitofabsolute,universal,oressentialisttruths.Butthealternative,"opinion,"seemsaflimsybasisforbuildingaworldly ethic,destinedtoleadtotheimpasseof"culturalrelativism."Ismurder,racism,orsexismacceptableifitisfirmlyrootedincertaincultures,andintheopinionofsome, acceptable?IthardlyseemslikelythatArendtwouldsupportsuchaposition.Shemusttakeherstandsomewherebetweenrelativismandabsolutism.Andyet,to paraphraseCanovan,nosoonerdoesanonGreek,ornonChristianpossibilitypresentitselfthanshereassertstheprimacyofsight,ormakessomesortofclaimfor universalityofthelifeofthemind:''TheThinkingegoissheeractivityandthereforeageless,sexless,withoutqualities,andwithoutalifestory"(Thinking43).She dissociatesThinkingfromGodwiththewisecrackthatifwedon'trelyonsight,butonsome"hidden,internalcauses,"wewillbeleftwithourheart,lungs,andlarge intestineas"truedivinities,"apositionevenmore"sightoriented"thantheGreeksthemselvesandshepresentsPhiloaseitheranassimilationistoraprimitiveitisnot clearwhich. IdonotintendthistobedisrespectfulofArendt,implyingthatshewas"untruetoherself"andpresumingmyownsuperiorcapacitytocometotermswith"whoIam," culturallyspeaking.ImeantotakeacompassionatelookataconflictedJewishintellectual,perhapsseeking"parvenulegitimacy"inwaysinwhichshewasunaware. Thetragedyisthatthemostpowerfulengineofherscholarlylegacywas,inmyopinion,herreal

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pariahdom:She"justdidn'tfit,"andsheknewitbothpoliticallyandintellectually.Incontextsnotsopublicasherpublishedscholarlywork,Arendtclaimedto believeinGod,andwemaybecertainthatshewasnotreferringtoherliverandpancreas.4 But,asCanovannotes,"Herreligion,whateveritwas,remainedstrictlya privatematter,showingitselfonlyinanoccasionaltellingasideinherwritings"(Canovan104).Thusshe"knew"whoshewasprivately,butinsistedthatpubliclyboth actingandThinkingwereunaffectedbythatprivateidentity. ClassicalandJewishOrthodoxy ThroughoutThinking,weseeArendtstrugglingwiththetwotendenciesidentifiedbyCanovanasastrugglebetweenallegiancetoHeidegger,the"pure"philosopher, andtoSocrates,the"philosopheroftheagora."IrecastthisasastrugglebetweenArendttheGermanintellectualandArendttheJewishpariah.Theambiguityabout Socrates,whosometimesseemsmorelikea"purethinker"thana"philosopheroftheagora,"aswellasArendt'schangingportrayalofHeidegger,frommore systematicthanKanttomore''deconstructionist"thanSocrates,issomeindicationthattheyarenotthebestsymbolsofherconflict.Inmyreading,Arendt'sproblem inThinkingreflectsthetensionwithinherselfbetweenJewandGerman. IfwemayallowourselvestospeculateforamomentonwhyshewassoaversetoJudaismintellectually,twothingscomereadilytomind.First,ofcourse,isthather formaleducationwasGermanandChristian:shesimplydidnothavemuchJewishscholarlybackground.Thiswasnotunusualforaneducated,assimilationist twentiethcenturyGermanJew.TheabsenceofJewisheducationmayhavebeenexaggeratedbecauseoftheabsenceofaJewishtraditionofeducatingdaughtersas scholars.ButanotherreasonforArendt'sintellectualaversiontoJudaismcouldeasilybetheassociationofJudaismwithorthodoxy.Arendt'sassociationofhearing withobedienceseemstoindicatethatthismayhavebeenonhermind.Itisnotanidleconcern:ifArendtwascommittedtoopeningdialogue,to"unfreezingfrozen thoughts,"thenor

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thodoxyofanysortwouldbeincompatiblewiththeworldlyThinkingshesought. Theironyisthatinherwork,the"orthodoxy"ofphilosophyisGreekandperhapsalsoGermanandeverybitascoerciveasreligiousorthodoxymaybe. Orthodoxyis"right"or"straight"opinion,orbeliefinitsliteraltranslationfromtheGreek.Inhereffortstoputthinkingtoworkintheworld,Arendtcontinually stumblesovertheclassicalGreekandGermanbeliefthatphilosphyandpoliticsdonotmixthatthinkingisnotsomethingeveryonecandobecauseitisassociated morewiththepursuitoftruththanthearticulationofmeaningthroughopinionthatdetachmentratherthanengagement,thedistanceofvisualperspective,ratherthan theproximityneededforhearing,istheappropriatestanceofthethinkerthatThinkingissolitaryratherthancommunityorientedorgenerated. IdonotadvocateJewishoranyothersortofthinkingasbydefinitionthemosteffectivewayofengagingtheworldinadialogueabouttolerancefordiversity,howto avoidtotalitarianism,andsoforth.IdosuggestthattheTalmudicorBibilicalapproachtotheworldmayembodyqualitiesArendtsoughtforkeepingthinkingdynamic, andthatheravoidanceofitwassymptomaticoftheculturalhegemony,theorthodoxyof"classical"philosophy.Thetensionsandconflictsinherfinalworkmayinfact reflectthelimitationsoftheGreekandGermanapproachestophilosophy,andArendt'seffortstofindawayoutofthem.Butontheotherhand,herattractiontothe "legitimacy"ofGermanandGreekphilosophypreventedherfromtrulybreakingwithphilosophicalorthodoxyandfromachievinghergoalsasthebrilliant,original, maverickthinkersheactuallywas.WhenArendtstroveagainstthelimitationsofclassicalphilosophicalorthodoxy,shewasapariahscholar,andaJewishonebyher owndefinition:bybirthandpoliticalidentity.WhensheretreatedtotheattractionsofGermanandGreekscholarship,shelimitedherselfbyassumingthestance,again inherownterms,ofthe"parvenu,"orassimilationist,atleastintellectually. LetuslookmorecloselyatthetensionbetweentheJewandtheGermaninThinking.Attimes,ArendtdescribesThinkingintermsthatseemwhollyforeigntoany "Jewish"conceptionofthe

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lifeofthemind.Thinkinghasnoworldlycharacteristics,anditmustbeperformedalone:"Forwhile,forwhateverreason,amanindulgesinsheerthinking,andno matteronwhatsubject,helivescompletelyinthesingular,thatis,incompletesolitude,asthoughnotmenbutManinhabitedtheearth"(Thinking47).Additionally, thinkingsubjectseverythingintheworldtodoubt:"ItispreciselytheThinkingactivitytheexperiencesofthethinkingegothatgivesrisetodoubtoftheworld's realityandofmyown"(49).Thinkinginvolvesawithdrawalfromtheworld:notevenintoa"self"becausethe''Thinkingego"isageless,sexless,withoutevencultural dispositions."Thinking...subjectseverythingitgetsholdoftodoubt...[and]hasnosuchmatteroffactrelationtoreality"(52).Shecontraststhinkingwith commonsense,whichshedescribesas"Thefeelingofrealnessbelongingtoourbiologicalapparatus"(52). AfterfollowingArendtforawhiledownthepathoftheisolationandworldlessnessofthethinker,wefindherreturningtoamoreworldlyversionofthinking.Nowit hasthecapacitytochangethings,sinceaccordingtothedefinitionpresented,itisaradically"deconstructionist"activity.Herdiscussionoftherelationshipbetween thinkingandscienceisagoodencapsulationoftheGreekandtheJewembattledinThinking.Scienceisassociatedwithsightandknowledge,ratherthan"meaning." ItalsohasthecapacitytochangetheworldinawaythatresemblesthedeconstructivepowersofThinking,ratherthanthelinearaccumulationoffacts.Science "constantlydestroysauthenticsemblances.""ItwasThinkingthatenabledmentopenetratetheappearancesandunmaskthemassemblances,albeitauthenticones commonsensereasoningwouldneverhavedaredupsetsorapidlyalltheplausibilitiesofoursensoryapparatus"(53). Arendtcontrasts"pure"Thinkingwithscience,preciselybecausescienceisworldorientedandresultsina"product."Scienceandthesearchforknowledgenever leavethe"realmofappearances."Scienceseeksknowledgeandbothfactualandrationaltruth,whileThinkingseeksmeaning.Assuch,Thinkingisproductless:itis notorientedtowardanendproduct.

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"Thinkingwithdrawsradicallyandforitsownsakefromtheworldanditsevidentialnature,whereasscienceprofitsfromapossiblewithdrawalforthesakeofspecific results"(56).Ultimately,Arendtidentifiessciencewithcommonsense.Itis"refinementofcommonsense"anchoredintheworld,whilepureThinkingisaself containedactivityinpursuitofmeaning,whichisneverfinalortangible. Inwhatisbynowbecomingapredictablepattern,thedistinctionbetween"worldless"Thinkingand"worldly"sciencedoesnotholdforlong.Beforeweknowit, Arendtisbacktryingtoidentifythinkingwithasearchformeaningbearingworldlyandhumanimplications.Thehuman"need"tothinkisprobablywhatpermitsusto raisethemorecommonsensicalandscientificquestions.''Itismorethanlikelythatmen,iftheywereevertolosetheappetiteformeaningwecallthinking,andceaseto askunanswerablequestions,wouldlosenotonlytheabilitytoproducethosethoughtthingsthatwecallworksofart,butalsothecapacitytoaskalltheanswerable questionsuponwhicheverycivilizationisfounded"(62).Arendtevidencesafaiththatalinkbetweenthinkingandtheworldexistsbutcannotbepointedto.Itis invisible,ineffable:thepointisnottoaskforresultsorguarantees,buttokeepthinking,outof"reason'sownneed"orperhapsoutoffaith.Thinkinghasitsresults, butnoonehassufficientcontrolorpresciencetodeterminewhattheymustbe. ButcommitingherselftothepotentialworldlinessofThinkingonceagaineludesArendt'sgrasp.Shecallsagainuponherclassicalauthorities,Heideggerandthen Plato,whodescribeThinkingasunworldly,almostantitheticaltolife.AllThinking"everyreflectionthatdoesnotserveknowledgeandisnotguidedbypractical needsandaims"is"outoforder"(Heidegger).Itinvolvesa"stopandthink."Thinkinginterruptsliving.ArendtdiscussestheageoldbattlebetweenThinkingand commonsense,earlyexemplifiedbytheThracianpeasantgirlwholaughedatthesightofThalesfallingintoawellwhilehewasintentuponthemotionsoftheheavenly bodiesabovehim,andmorecontemporarilycaricaturedbytheabsentmindedprofessor.Plato,withhissimileoftheCave,reminds

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usthattoordinarypeoplethepreoccupationsofphilosophersseemotherworldly,morelikedeaththanlife,whileforphilosophersitisthemeaninglessnessof unexploreddailyactivitiesthatseemdeathlike."SeenfromtheperspectiveofThinking,lifeinitssheertherenessismeaninglessseenfromtheperspectiveofthe immediacyoflifeandtheworldgiventothesenses,Thinkingis,asPlatoindicated,alivingdeath"(Thinking87). AsCanovanpointsout,whenArendtisn'tassociatingHeideggerwithworldlyThinking,sherescuesThinkingfromitsotherworldly,Heideggerianincarnationwiththe helpofSocrates.Butremarkably,theSocrateswhoemergesastheworldlythinkerinArendt'svolumebearsastrikingresemblancetothepariahinherJewish politicalwritings.ThustheconflictbetweentheclassicalandJewishperspectiveinArendt'sworkisplayedoutasabattlebetweenHeideggerandSocrates,withPlato asasortofmediator. SocratesasPariah InherdiscussionofSocratesinthechapter"WhatMakesUsThink?"theJewishaspectsofArendt'squesttoconceptualizethinkingasworldlysurfacemostvisibly. Fromacertainperspective,Arendt'smodelthinker,Socrates,isaJew.ThisisnottosaythatshemisrepresentsSocrates.Indeed,ifthereareculturalorethnic"traits" thatemergeasaperspectiveontheworld,whicharenotregardedasessentialistorbiologicallydetermined,wewouldexpectforthemnottobeuniquetotheethnic groupinquestion.Wedonotseektoidentifyracialexclusivity,butculturaltendencies.ArendtmayrecognizetendenciesinSocratesthatwecanidentifywith intellectual"Jewishnes''aspresentedthere.IfSocratesremainsrecognizable,hemayindeedhavepossessedcharacteristicsthatresembleJewishcharacteristics.That doesn'tmeanthatheneedstohavebeenaJewtopossessthem.ButitcanmakeuswonderwhyArendtneededtogotoSocratestofindthem,andthatinquirymay teachussomething. Arendtsurveys"historicallyrepresentativeanswers"tothequestion"Whatmakesusthink?"InearlyGreece,philosophy

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replacedreligion(135):Thinkingwasanapproachtotheimmortal.PlatoassociatedtheoriginofPhilosophywiththesenseofWonder."Thewonderthatisthe startingpointofThinkingisneitherpuzzlementnorsurprisenorperplexityitisanadmiringwonder"(Thinking143).TheRomananswertowhywethinkwasnearly theoppositeoftheGreek:Thinkingarisesoutofunhappiness."Thinkingthenarisesoutofthedisintegrationofrealityandtheresultingdisunityofmanandworld,from whichspringstheneedforanotherworld,moreharmoniousandmoremeaningful"(153).Thereisnowaytochoosebetweentheseapproachestothequestion. Arendtfindsacommonthreadinthevariousexplanations,inthewordneed.Wesimplyneedtothink. Thebestwaytounderstandwhatmakesusthinkisto"lookforamodel,anexampleofathinkerwhowasnotaprofessional"(167).ShechoosesSocrates,whomwe wouldundoubtedlyknowevenlessabout,wereitnotforPlato.Indeed,SocratesmightnothavemadesuchanimpressionuponPlato,"ifhehadnotdecidedtolay downhislife,notforanyspecificbeliefordoctrinehehadnonebutsimplyfortherighttogoaboutexaminingtheopinionsofotherpeople"(168).Socrateshad nodoctrine,andleftnotext.Platoprovidedthetext,andthevisionthathascomedowntousbearsaneerieresemblancetoaTalmudicRabbiwithafollowingof devotedstudents.ThetextisnottheBible,butthemethodofstudyissimilaratleastaccordingtoArendt'sdescription.
ThefirstthingthatstrikesusinPlato'sSocraticdialoguesisthattheyareallaporetic.Theargumenteitherleadsnowhereorgoesaroundincircles.Inordertoknowwhatjustice is,youmustknowwhatknowledgeis,andinordertoknowthat,youmusthaveaprevious,unexaminednotionofknowledge....Noneofthelogoi,thearguments,everstays puttheymovearound.AndbecauseSocrates,askingquestionstowhichhedoesnotknowtheanswers,setstheminmotion,oncethestatementshavecomefullcircle,itis usuallySocrateswhocheerfullyproposestostartalloveragainandimaginewhatjusticeorpietyorknowledgeorhappinessare.(Thinking170)

ThissurelysoundsmorelikeBoman'sdescriptionofdynamicHebrewthought,ratherthanthepeacefulstasisofhisGreek.It

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isadescriptionofThinkingasceaselessactivitywithnoanticipatedendproduct.Itrepresentsadeconstructiveapproachtodogma,tocodes,toanyaccepted doctrine.EvenSocrates'focusonwordsthemselvesinvolvesacriticalreexaminationofcommonlyaccepteddefinitions.Wordshaveavital,dynamicquality:not closedentities,butsomethingthatmustbebroughttolifeintheworld."ThewordhouseissomethinglikeafrozenthoughtthatThinkingmustunfreezewheneverit wantstofindouttheoriginalmeaning"(171). AlthoughSocratesclaimedtohavenodoctrine,nothingtoteach,andindeedcouldbecountedontoundermineanysmuglyassumeddoctrine,hedidsaythathecould teachvirtue.Butvirtuewasnottobeconfusedwithrulesofbehavior.Hetaughtamethodofquestioningassumptions,andtheactivity,theprocessofquestioningwas itselfvirtuous.Themethodinvolvedinteractivedialoguewithothers,inthepursuitofmeaningvoidofdoctrine.Hetaughtthemethodofquestioningassumptions."It seemsthathe,unliketheprofessionalphilosophers,felttheurgetocheckwithhisfellowmentolearnwhetherhisperplexitiesweresharedbythemandthisisquite differentfromtheinclinationtofindsolutionsforriddlesandthendemonstratethemtoothers"(172). ThreeimagesSocratesusedtodescribehistaskasthinkerarethegadfly,midwife,andelectricray.Hegoadedpeopleoutofthecomplacentworldofunquestioned assumptionshe"shocked"themintostoppingandthinking,withunconventionalquestionsandviewpointsandhebroughtforththethoughtsandvitalquestionsof others,nurturingtheimportantonesoncetheyweredistinguishedfromshallow"windeggs."Still,whileheclaimedthatThinkingwasthegreatestgoodthateverbefell Athens,andwhileheseemstohavebelievedhecoulddistinguish''healthy"thoughtsfrom"windeggs,"hedidnothaveananswertothequestionofwhatthinkingwas goodfor.Arendthypothesizes,"Wemaybesurethatadialoguedealingwiththequestion'WhatisThinkinggoodfor?'wouldhaveendedupinthesameperplexities asalltheothers"(173).Hewasdealingwithinvisibles.ThemetaphorforThinkingisthewind:itseffectscanbefeltandseen,whileititselfremainsinvisible(174).

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Infact,twoofSocrates'moreillustriousstudents,AlcibiadesandCritias,gotSocrates'lesson"wrong"bymisinterpretinghiscallfornodoctrinetomeanthatallwas permitted:"Ifwecannotdefinewhatpietyis,letusbeimpiouswhichisprettymuchtheoppositeofwhatSocrateshadhopedtoteachbytalkingaboutpiety"(176). ObviouslywewouldhavedifficultydefiningAlcibiadesandCritiasas"Jewishthinkers." Thereasonforthewillfulavoidanceofdoctrine,ofthestancetoward"unfreezing"wordsandconcepts,ratherthancongealingthoughtsintorules,isthattheexistence ofrulescausespeopletoceaseThinking."Whatpeoplethengetusedtoislessthecontentoftherules,acloseexaminationofwhichwouldalwaysleadtheminto perplexity,thanthepossessionofrulesunderwhichtosubsumeparticulars"(177).Thenpeoplearedependentupontheexistenceofrulesandhavenocapacityto distinguishgoodonesfrombad."Themorefirmlymenholdtotheoldcode,themoreeagerwilltheybetoassimilatethemselvestothenewone,whichinpractice meansthatthereadiesttoobeywillbethosewhowerethemostrespectablepillarsofsociety,theleastlikelytoindulgeinthoughts,dangerousorotherwise"(177). Andlestwemistakeherintentions,sheletsusknow,"Iamalluding,ofcourse,towhathappenedinNaziGermany"(177). SocratespursuedthisdangerousundertakingofinfusingThinkingintorespectablesocietyneitherfromaltruismnortotransformAthensintoadifferentsortofcity."He doesnotsaythathebeganhisexamininginordertobecomesuchagreatbenefactor.Asfarashehimselfisconcerned,thereisnothingmoretobesaidthanthatlife deprivedofthoughtwouldbemeaningless"(178).ArendtsuggeststhatSocratescontinuedtothinkoutofsheerErosloveofThinkingbecauseitwaswhatmade hislifemeaningful. ItisdifficulttowriteaboutSocratesashepersisteduntodeathinaskinguncomfortablequestionsanddeconstructingaccepteddoctrinewithoutthinkingofthe JewishPariahinArendt'swork.Arendtdidnotrespectassimilationistparvenusandsheexpectedpeopletorefusetoactlikevictims.ShefavoredaJewisharmy duringWorldWarII,toliberatetheJews

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fromthecampsandtoestablisharecordofrefusingtobevictims.ButasIhavearguedelsewhere,herauthenticheroeswerepariahs,whoknewwheretheystood with"respectable"societyandinsistedontheiridentityaspariahs,asselfproclaimedoutsiders.5 Theyclaimedforthemselveswhatsocietytriedtoimposeuponthem, therebypreemptingvictimhood. Throughouthistory,Jewshavecontinuedtopracticetheirreligioneventhoughitmeanttheirdoomasindividuals:thereligionlivedon.Jewishmartyrsmakethe statement,inessence,thatlifewouldbemeaninglesswithouttheirJudaism,thatceasingtostudyTalmudandtopraytotheirownGodisanecessaryconditionfortheir life.Socratescontinuedtothinkoutof"reason'sownneed,"becauselifewouldbemeaninglesswithoutit.

ItlooksasthoughSocrateshadnothingmoretosayabouttheconnectionbetweenevilandlackofthoughtthanthatpeoplewhoarenotinlovewithbeauty,justice,andwisdom areincapableofthought,justas,conversely,thosewhoareinlovewithexamining,andthus"dophilosophy"wouldbeincapableofdoingevil.(Thinking179)

Butsurelythisistoomuch.ArendtcannothavehadinmindanonassimilationistEuropeanJewwhenshewroteaboutSocrates!Andisonejustifiedinblithely associatingpracticingareligionwithpracticing"Thinking"?EspeciallywhenBomanleftuswiththecontrastingimageofSocrates,standingstockstillintheAgora,and theJew,rockingbackandforthwhileheprays?Besides,Socrateshasnodoctrine,notext,hedoesnotbelongtoagroupofbelievers.Whatarethepossible connectionswithareligiousJew? NowitmightbethatSocrateshadmoreofadoctrinethanheacknowledged.Ifnot,itisdifficulttoimaginewhyhewasdangerousenoughtohavebeenexecuted. Arendtherselfremindsusthattheusualstancetowardthephilosopherislaughter.EventhelittlepeasantgirlknewtolaughatThales'sincapacitytonavigateonthe earth.WhatmadeSocratessomuchmoredangerousthanThales?ThesamequestionscouldberaisedinrelationtoJews:Whathasmadethemthetargetoflethal oppressionthroughoutthemillennia?Likewise,they

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bothdoanddonothaveadoctrine.TheyhaveaGod,atext,andasetofcommandments,butthereis,aswehaveseen,aprofoundreluctancetocodifythetext, whichiscontinuallybeingreinterpreted,tothepointofrenderingtheboundarybetweentextandinterpretationindefinable,justastheboundarybetweenwordand thingorwordandworldisindefiniteintheHebrewlanguage. InArendt'sdiscussionofthe"TwoinOne"ofSocrates'internaldialogue,wefindthatSocratesdidafterallhaveafewpositivepropositions.Two,tobeexact:"Itis bettertobewrongedthantodowrong"and"ItwouldbebetterformethatmylyreorachorusIdirectedshouldbeoutoftuneandloudwithdiscordthanthatI, beingone,shouldbeoutofharmonywithmyselfandcontradictme"(Thinking181).Thesehardlysounddangerousenoughdoctrinestohavebroughtabout Socrates'trialandexecutionforteachingfalsegodsandcorruptingyouth.ArendtsuggeststhattherealthreattoanyestablishedorderisThinkingitself.Thedangeris thatthinkingbothchallengesacceptedconventionsandcreeds,anddoesnotseektobringforthanewcreed.

TherearenodangerousthoughtsThinkingitselfisdangerous,butnihilismisnotitsproduct.Nihilismisbuttheothersideofconventionalismitscreedconsistsofnegationsof thecurrentsocalledpositivevalues,towhichitremainsbound....Thinkingisequallydangeroustoallcreedsand,byitself,doesnotbringforthanynewcreed.Itsmost dangerousaspectfromtheviewpointofcommonsenseisthatwhatwasmeaningfulwhileyouwereThinkingdissolvesthemomentyouwanttoapplyittoeverydayliving. (Thinking176)

TheWorldlyResultsofThinking "Thinking"asitisemerginginTheLifeoftheMindhassomeinfluenceontheworld,butthatinfluenceisneithersimplenordirect.Thereare,reflectingthetensionwe havenoted,twoversionsofThinkingasitemergesinArendt'sdiscussion:one"pure"andremovedfromthedailinessoftheworldtheothermoreengaged,although stillindirectly,andpotentiallydangerousintermsofperceivedthreatstothepoliticalregime.

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Frommyperspective,thefirstversionisGreek,thesecond,Jewish.The"pure"thinker'ssolitudeshouldkeephimoutoftrouble,"offthestreets"asitwere,andinthis waytheincapacityofthethinkertodoevilisbydefault:heorshedoesn'tdomuchofanythingintheworld,exceptthink.Themore"worldly"Thinkingonthe Socraticmodelisnotreallypluralistbutdialogical.ThisthinkerthinksoutofEros,outofloveofThinkingandhasanindirectimpactontheworld.Thetheory,which ArendtattributestoSocrates,isthatanybodycapableoflove,andofappreciatingbeautywould,orperhapscould,donowrong.Weknowthatthisisnotnecessarily true:peoplekillforthesakeofandinthenameoflove.ThismaybringusclosertounderstandingwhyaversionofThinkingmodeledonlovemaybeconsidered politicallydangerousenoughtoinvitekilling.Butwhat,morespecifically,isthelinkbetweenSocrates'eroticThinkingandtheworld? ConsiderArendt'sbriefremarkearlyinThinkingthatwhileThinkingitselfhasnoproduct,someofthemorepracticalorscientificquestionscouldnothavearisen withoutit.ThisgivesusaclueabouttheworldlyusesofThinking.WethinkforthesakeofThinking,andthenletgo,relinquishcontrolsomethinglikeArendt's descriptionofpoliticalaction.Thinking,likeacting,introducessomethingintotheworld,butcannotcontrolitsoutcomes.Lenin'sdescriptionofmakingarevolution alsocomestomind:therevolutionarybegins,butdoesnotthencontrolthecourseofevents.Leadingarevolutionfeelslikeridingarunawaytrain.Introducingan importantideaintotheworldinvolvesthesamerelinquishmentofcontroloveritsdestiny. Arendtreferstothinkingas"thehabitofexamining":"CouldtheactivityofThinkingassuch,thehabitofexaminingwhateverhappenstocometopassortoattract attention,regardlessofresultsandspecificcontent,couldthisactivitybeamongtheconditionsthatmakemenabstainfromevildoingorevenactually'condition'them againstit?"(Thinking5).Thinkingofthissortresemblesconditioning,training.Insports,onepractices,trains,exercisesthebody,andrehearsesthemovements requiredinactualcompetition.Oneanticipatessituationslikelytooccur,andtriestoprepareforthem.Baseball

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playersendlesslypracticefieldinggroundersandmakingdoubleplaysfootballplayersanticipatedifferentdefensesandpracticegettingthrough,over,oraroundthem martialartistsanticipatevariousattackslikelytooccurinsparringmatchesandrehearseevasions,blocks,andcounterattacks.Butwhenthegamebegins,onecanonly hopethatthetrainingwillassertitselfandthatthebodywillrespondappropriately.Onecanneverpredictexactlywhatwillhappen,nordoesone"think"before moving,anymorethanabicyclerider"thinks"aboutmaintainingbalancewhilesherides.Responsesmustbealmostautomatic.Athletesreferto"musclememory"to describethishighlypreparedstate,inwhichmusclesrespondfromtrainingalmostasfrominstinct. Inasimilarvein,perhapsthe"habitofexamining"conditionstheindividualtorespondwithcriticalperspective,almostinstinctively,butwithconditionedinstincts,tothe adventofevil.Whenone'sJewishneighborsdisappearinthenight,andsodotheJewishneighborsofallone'sacquaintances,oneispreparedtorespond appropriately,ifonehasallalongbeeninthehabitofexamining.WehavereferenceheretoThinkingasmoraltraining:politicaldisasterpreparednesstraining,asit were.Amorallypreparedpolitywillnotbepassiveputtyinthehandsofatotalitariandictator,becauseitsinstinctsarepreparedtorespondswiftly:itisincondition. Onewouldnosoonerexpectapopulacetobepreparedtorespondtototalitarianterrorwithouthavingbeenconditionedtothink,thanonewouldexpectateamof beerswilling,potatochipmunching,Mondaynightfootballviewerstoprevailinafootballmatchupwithaprofessionalteam.Thuswebegintosensethedangerto theauthoritiesofthepersonwhotrainsthepopulaceinthisvitalart.VisualizeSocratesasafreelancefootballcoachtryingtogetateamofvolunteersinshapeto challengethecurrentSuperBowlchampions.Iftheydefeattheprofessionalheroes,theythreatentounderminethemultimilliondollarsportseconomythatis professionalfootball.Theamateursrepresentagenuineeconomicthreat. WenowhavesomesenseofwhatmakesThinking"dangerous"toanexistingpoliticalandsocialorder.Wealsohave

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ahintofhowitmayaffecttheworld.Still,hasArendtbroughtustoanunderstandingofhoweverybodyiscapableofthought?Andwhathashappenedtomy argumentthatherapproachtoThinkingisbothmoreJewishthanshebelievedandsomehowalso"notJewishenough"?HerremainingdiscussioninThinking,of"The twoinone,"willenableustoaddresstheseissues.TherearelimitationswithSocratesasamodelofathinker,andArendtisatalossastohowtomovebeyond them. "Thetwoinone"referstothe"soundlessdialogue"betweenmeandmyselfthatdescribesSocraticThinking.WhileSocratesisrememberedasthethinkerwhowould engageanybodyindialogue(forfree!becausehepromisednodoctrineandclaimedhehadnothingtoteach),hisrealThinkingseemstohaveoccurredindialogue withhimself.Thatis,inspiteofArendt'spresentationofSocratesasthephilosopheroftheagora,inspiteofherpresentationofhisdialoguesas"aporetic"and dynamic,thereisstillBoman'svisionofSocratestheGreek,stockstill,lostinthought,standingintheagoratobesure,butnotreally"there."Arendtattemptsinher discussionofSocratestomoveThinkingoutofthemindofthephilosopherandintothestreets,theagora,thepolis.Socratesisherchosenman.Andthoughhetalks toeverybody,thereisstillthesensethathelistensmostlytohimselfwhichmaybewise,butitdoesn'tdowithThinkingwhatArendtneedstohavedone.Fromthis standpoint,SocrateswasafterallaGreek,andArendtneedssomethingmoretocompletehervisionofThinking. ArendtisawarethatwhileSocratesmayrepresentthemost"complete"wordlythinkershecanfind,therearestillelementsmissingthatsheregardsasessential. Socratesisadismantlerofdogma,aradicalandchallengingthinker.Butheisnot"wordly"enoughinthesensethathisdialoguesaremoreinternalthancollective,and hethusresemblesthatrarified,unapproachablephilosopherthatdiscouragesordinarypeoplefromjoininginhischallengetothink.Heprofessestorespecttheopinion ofordinaryfolksmorethanexperts,butheclearlyprefershisowncompanyintheenterpriseofThinking.ConsiderArendt'sreadingofSocrates'positivemaxim "Beingone...":itisbettertobeoutofharmonywiththeworldthan

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withmyself.Sheregardsthisasanunpoliticalstance,inthattheemphasis,overlookedbymostmoderntranslators,isonthe"beingone."Asanindividualnotasa memberofacommunityitismoreimportanttobeinharmonywithoneselfthanwiththecommunity.Asamemberofacommunity,incontrast,onemayhaveto compromise,beflexible,forthegoodofthecommonworld,ratherthanforone'sownsenseofinternalcoherenceorrighteousness. Neither,contendsArendt,canSocrates'firstmaxim,"Itisbettertosufferwrongthantodoit,"bedescribedas"political,"becauseitconcernstheindividualsoulofthe thinker,ratherthanthestateoftheworld.Itmeansonlythat"Itisbetterforme,asathinker,tosufferthandowrong."Althoughsheacknowledgesthatitwasa revolutionarystatementinthecontextofitstime,sheinsiststhatthepoliticalresponseinourowntimewouldbetoaffirmtheresponsibilityofalltopreventwrongfrom happeningintheworld,nevermindwhocommitsorsuffersit.ArendtwouldpoliticizeSocrates'statementas:"Itisbettertopreventwrongfromhappeninginthe world,thantoeithersufferordowrong."Thisrestatementreflectsanobjectivestance,orientedtowardtheworld,ratherthanasubjectivestanceorientedtoward one'sownsoul.Thatworldlyorientation,theobjectiveratherthansubjectivestandpoint,iswhatArendtbelievesisprerequisitetopoliticalthinking. ArendtleavesuswithaconflictedimageofSocrateswhichisnotsurprising,sincewehaveentertainedaconflictedimageofSocratesallalong.Socrateswasthe "purest"thinker,andalsothemostpublicthinkerinhistory.Heleftnowrittenrecordofhisthinking,soughtnoproducts,nodoctrines,thoughtfortheloveofit.His thinkingwasadialoguewithinhimself,wherehesoughtnothingmoredangerousthanharmony,andtodonoharm.Yetifhisthinkinghadnoworldlyproduct,whywas heexecutedasapoliticaltroublemaker?Didheseek"pure"meaningorpublicdialogue?Didheseekinnerpeace,ortochangetheworld? TheconflictedimageofSocratesreflectsonceagainArendt'sconflictbetweenJewand"classical"GermanorGreekscholar.Socratesisapariah,andalsothemodel ofthewisest

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maninthehistoryoftheworld.Hisinternaldialoguewouldnothavebeensufficienttogethimselfkilled,althoughitneverwouldhaveearnedhimareputationfor wisdomeither:nodataleftbehind.Hewouldhavebeenlaughabletoafewpeasantgirls,ashestoodinthesameplaceintheagora,dayafterday,thinking.That SocratesisGreek.The"Jewish"Socratestriedtalkingtoothersinhiscommunity,andwheninfactafewpeopleclusteredaroundhimtodebatethemeaningofthings, theirleaderwasputtodeath.He,likeAkiba,chosedeathratherthanbetrayalofeitherhimselforhisfollowers,andashewasdying,deliveredamessagetokeepthe faith.6 ArendtwastemptedtoviewSocratesasamodeloftheworldlyphilosophershesought,butshefrozeatthethoughtofrelinquishingtheimageofSocratesthesolitary classicalphilosopher,thepurestthinkerofalltime.Thepariahactivistwhoengagesindialogueforthesakeofdisruptingcomplacency,andthe"pure"thinkerwho thinksoutoflove,forreason'sownneed,mayinfactreflecttwosidesofSocrates.ButtheyalsoaccuratelyreflectArendt'sconflictbetweentheclassicalmodelof philosophythatshehadbeeneducatedtorevere,andthepariahactivistneededbytheJews,andallpotentialvictimsoftotalitarianism.Theresultisthelackof resolutioninThinkingandthedoubleexposedpictureofSocratesthatArendtbequeathedus.Arendtcouldn'tquitefollowSocratesintotheagoraandusehimasan example,becauseshecouldn'tturnofftheGermanphilosophicaldemandsforpurityandisolationfromthemasses.ArendtthePariahdrewastunningportraitof SocratesthePariah.ShewasmoreaJewishthinkerthansheadmitted,andyet,shebackedoffatthecriticalmoment,leavingalackofresolutioninherquestfora worldlyphilosophy. NowisthetimetoevoketheimageoftheTalmudicstudentspairedoffwithoneanother,noisilydebatingandcontestingeverywordofthemostreveredscholarsof theirtradition,andtoconsiderwhetherthatimagemightnotbemorecompatiblewithArendt'ssearchforauniversallyavailable,worldlywayofthinkingthanthesilent Socratictwoinone.TheTalmudicstudentsmayhavebeenspecialistschosen

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foraparticularlyintenseencounterwithJewishscholarlyteachingsbutaccordingtotheJewishteachingsthemselves,any(male)JewcanbecomeaTalmudic scholar.Indeed,eventhehumblestworkingmenandpeasantswereenjoinedtospendtheirSabbathsnotlanguishinginwelldeservedidlenessbutstudyingand discussingtheTorahwiththeirfriendsandfamily.AllJewishmenweresupposedtothinkandstudysomemorethanothers.Thestudy,aswesaw,entailed questioningthewordsoftheauthorities,bytakingeachwordseriously.Likewise,theassumptionwasthatthewordsare"real":theyexistintheworldandbear worldlyconsequences. TheimportanceoftheTorahisnotrarified,private,worldlessawareness.Theteachings,sofiercelydebated,aredirectedtowardactivity.AsmembersoftheJewish community,howshouldweact?Whatshouldwedo?InArendtianterms,however,theborderbetweenprivateandpublicisblurred,whichmaybeyetanother reasonwhysheavoidedutilizingJewishthoughtforherphilosophy.Still,whatdidshefear?Solongastheircultureremainsviable,themembersoftheJewish communitieshardlyseemtobeindangerofsuccumbingtothetemptationofbecoming"massmen,"whichiswhatArendtassociatedwiththeriseof"thesocial."7 Arendtregardedtheblurringoftheborderbetweenprivateandpublicaspoliticallydangerousbecauseindividualaction,whichsheassociatedwithfreedom,was foreclosed.Thelikelyresultwasmasssociety,arequisitefortotalitarianism. TheteachingsoftheTorahareintendedtoshapeandprovidestructuretodailylife.Buttheyarenotintendedtobedoctrinaire,andtheyare,aswesaw,subjectto ceaselessdebateandreinterpretation.Theyconcern"conventional"morality,suchastheinjunctionnottokill.ButplentyofkillingtakesplaceintheBible,committed bythepatriarchsthemselves,andsometimesthematriarchs,too,givingrisetoquestionsaboutwhenonemaykill,sinceitisobviouslynotanabsolute,eventhoughit isacommandment.Asnotedearlier,eventheTencommandmentswerelostonceandresurrected. TheteachingsoftheTorahalsohavetodowithdebatesaboutwhattoeat,whentobathe,howtodressandgroom,

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whentohavesexualintercourse,andwithwhom,andwhentorestandpray.SothefiercedebatesamongpairsofJewishscholarsresultnotindirectlypolitical actions,butcertainlyinworldlyethicsthataffectallthemembersofacommunity.Thisisnottobeconfusedwith''behavior"ofwhichArendtissodisdainfulinThe HumanCondition.There,behaviorisassociatedwithprivatelife,physicalnecessity,andtheinstinctivebehaviorofanimalskeepingthemselvesalive.Incontrast,the privateandphysicalactivitiesofobservantJewsarehumaninArendt'sterms,preciselybecausetheyaremediatedbythought:theyareneitherautomaticnor instinctive.Andwhiletherulesofkashrut,forexample,mayseemdoctrinaire,evendogmatic,theytoohavebeenthesubjectofrabbinicdebate.Theyaresetforthin theTorah,butrarelyimplementedwithoutrabbinicdialogueaboutwhatisintended.Ittakesanactofinterpretation,indeed,ahistoryofinterpretationtogetfrom "Thoushaltnotseethethelambinitsmother'smilk"8 tokeepingseparatemeatanddairykitchens,andtodeclaringCheerioskosher,butRitzcrackersnot. WeconcludeoursearchforJewishthemesinArendt'sworkbyreturningtohermoreworldlywritings:onpoliticalactionandhistory.

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Chapter11 JewishThemesinPoliticalActionandHistory
JudaismandtheSpaceforPoliticalAction ArendtwroteTheLifeoftheMindaspartofalifelongprojectthatpresenteditselfinitiallyasJewish:howtopreventarecurrenceofantiSemiticgenocide.While sheinsistedthattheHolocaustwasnotauniquelyJewishproblem,thesystematicdestructionoftheJewsinEuropeprovidedthespecificcatalystthatlaunchedheron thequestforatypeofthinkingdesignedtopreventpoliticalevil.Butthe"Jewishness"ofArendt'sscholarshipisnotrestrictedtotheLifeoftheMind,nordidthe Eichmanncontroversy"make"ArendtaJewishthinker.HannahArendtwasonewoman,whosework,asherlife,isofawhole.ThereareJewishthemestobefound evenintheworkthatseemsmostprofoundlybeholdentoancientGreeceandclassicalimageryforthecoherenceofitstheory:TheHumanCondition.1 Ihavewrittenelsewhere,andingreaterdetailthanIneedgointohere,aboutArendt'sPariahasJewish,ashadowfiguretoparalleltheGreekherowhohasreceived somuchattentionasArendt'spoliticalactor.2 HereIwishtofocusbrieflyonArendt'sdiscussionofpoliticalactioninTheHumanCondition,andthentomoveonto herideasabouthistory,inorderto

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demonstratethesamepatternobservedinTheLifeoftheMind:whileshefocusesontheGreek,Roman,andChristianreferences,avoidingJewishsourcesand explicitdiscussionofJewishthemes,thesubstanceofherquestionsandconcernsisJewish,atleastintermsofthethemeswehavebeendiscussing. ThisstatementmayappearextravagantgiventhefactthatTheHumanConditionhasbeenutilizedbyArendtscholarsasanexampleofherthoroughpreoccupation withtheGreeks.Arendt'streatmentofpoliticalactionandpubliclifeinTheHumanConditionisfocusedexclusivelyontheGreeks.TheAthenianpolisprovided publicspaceforGreekcompetitionwiththegods,theefforttowinimmortalfame,towrestimmortalityfromthehandsofthegodsandtoprovidemeaningforthe Athenianmenwhocompetedonthispublicstage.HertreatmentofthesubjectissuffusedwithadmirationfortheGreeksandforanagonisticconceptofheroismthat hasbeenregardedasconventionally"male,"incompatiblebothwithfeminism,andwitha"softer"moreparticipatoryversionofdemocraticpolitics.3 ButacloselookatonedimensionofArendt'sdiscussionofpoliticalactioninTheHumanConditionrevealsaJewishfoundationhiddenbeneaththeGreekfacade, andifwemakeallowanceforthestereotypicalassociationofJewishnesswithfemininity,the"maleness"ofArendt'spolislifealsodisappears.thefocusofmyanalysis isArendt'sconceptionoftheimportanceofphysicalspaceasanarenaforpoliticalaction,andasaprerequisiteoffreedom. ThroughoutTheHumanCondition,Arendtlamentsthelossofpoliticalspacesinmodernlife,stressestheimportanceofobjectivity,andarguesforthenecessityofan actualpublicarenaforthecreationandmaintenanceofpoliticalfreedom,whichsheattributestotheAthenians.Thereseemstobenodoubtthatshereferstoactual, physicalspaces,whicharedesignedtosurvivethegenerations,asthefollowingquotationsindicate:"Tolivetogetherintheworldmeansessentiallythataworldof thingsisbetweenthosewhohaveitincommonasatableislocatedbetweenthosewhositaroundittheworld,likeeveryinbetween,relatesandseparatesmenat thesametime.The

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publicrealm,asthecommonworld,gathersustogetherandyetpreventsourfallingovereachother,sotospeak"(HC52)."Iftheworldistocontainapublicspace,it cannotbeerectedforonegenerationandplannedforthelivingonlyitmusttranscendthelifespanofmortalmen"(55)."Thepoint,then,isnotthatthereisalackof publicadmirationforpoetryandphilosophyinthemodernworld,butthatsuchadmirationdoesnotconstituteaspaceinwhichthingsaresavedfromdestructionby time"(57). Thislineofargumentismaintainedconsistently,rightuptothediscussionofAction,whichcomesfairlylateinthebook.Arendtopensthatdiscussionbyreiteratingher beliefthatpublicspaceisphysicalandprovidesaplaceforsecuringtheimmortalityofhumandeedsagainsttheravagesoftimeandhistory."Theorganizationofthe polis,physicallysecuredbythewallaroundthecityandphysiognomicallyguaranteedbyitslawslestthesucceedinggenerationschangeitsidentitybeyond recognitionisakindoforganizedremembrance"(HC198). Then,astonishingly,inthecourseofthenextfewparagraphs,weseethewallsofthepoliscrumble,asArendtabruptlyclaimspriorityforhumaninteractionasthe basisfor"organizedremembrance,"evenintheabsenceofaphysicalspace.Ononesinglepage(198),ArendtmovesfromaparagraphratherHegelianinspirit,in whichshesuggestsadialecticbetweenthetangiblephysicalspaceofthepolisandtheintangibilityofthewordsandactionsofthepeoplewhoappearthere,toa descriptionofpublicspaceasinteractive,ratherthanphysical.ThedialectialmomentisreflectedinherdescriptionofHomericperformances.
Accordingtothisselfinterpretation,thepoliticalrealmrisesdirectlyoutofactingtogether,the"sharingofwordsanddeeds."...Itisasthoughthewallofthepolisandthe boundariesofthelawweredrawnaroundanalreadyexistingpublicspacewhich,however,withoutsuchstabilizingprotectioncouldnotendure,couldnotsurvivethemomentof actionandspeechitself.(HC198)

Thisdescriptionoftheinteractionbetweenphysicalspaceandhumanactivityraisesaquestionabouttheinviolabilityofthe

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physicalaspectofthepolis,whichnowappearstobeshapedbypeopleandspace.Butbytheendofthepage,thephysicalpolishasfullyreceded,nolonger necessaryforwhatArendtisarguingabout"organizedremembrance."Thehumandynamics,theactualinteractionofpeoplehasreplacedinimportancethephysical locationforaction:

Thepolisproperlyspeakingisnotthecitystateinitsphysicallocationitistheorganizationofpeopleasitarisesoutofactingandspeakingtogether,anditstruespacelies betweenpeoplelivingtogetherforthispurpose,nomatterwheretheyhappentobe."Whereveryougo,youwillbeapolis":thesefamouswordsbecamenotmerelythe watchwordofGreekcolonization,theyexpressedtheconvictionthatactionandspeechcreateaspacebetweentheparticipantswhichcanfinditsproperlocationalmostanytime andanywhere.(HC198)

The"space,"whichnowreferstohumaninteraction,doesnotalwaysexistand,Arendtnotes,"Tobedeprivedofitmeanstobedeprivedofreality"(198),aclear referencetowhatshedescribesasthedisappearanceofrealityintotalitarianism.4 Intheensuingdiscussionof"PowerandtheSpaceofAppearance,"thecreationof powerispresentedasadirectresultofcollectivehumanaction,evendeprivedofaphysicalspace."Thespaceofappearancecomesintobeingwherevermenare togetherinthemannerofspeechandaction"(199). Whataccountsforthissuddenswitchinherthinking?Whyfocusonthequotation("Whereveryougo..."fromXenophon'sAnabasis)thatreferredtocolonial expansion,asthoughithadequallytodowithlossofplace?WhatlosspreoccupiedArendtenoughtoleadfromthestabilityoftheGreekpolistothesortofpolitical actionthat"createsitsownspace"amongparticipants? In"ThePariahasHero,"IexplainedthisstrangeandsuddenshiftofArendt'sdiscussionofspace,frominanimatetohuman,asherefforttocreateaplaceforthequiet hero,theoutsider,thepariah.ItnowalsoseemsclearthatArendtisevokinganimageevenmoredeeplyrootedthanherconcernsforthesurvivaloftheJewsand otherpariahpeoplesinthefaceofextremepoliticalpersecution.Thehiddenpolissurvives

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intheundergroundandresistancemovements,intheabsenceof"thelightofpublicity,"sureenough.Butwhattheimageryonpage198evokesevenmoredramatically isthedestructionoftheTempleinJerusalemandtheJewishdiaspora.ThatlossismoredistinctandvividthanthedestructionofanyGreekpolisIamawareof.The physicalspacethatheldtheancientJewstogetherwasdestroyedinfact,butthepeoplelivedonbymeansof"organizedremembrance."Referencetothedestruction oftheJerusalemTemplewasundoubtedlyfarfromArendt'sconsciousmind.ButwhyshouldtheGreekpolisthathadbeensoimportanttoherdiscussion,suddenly ceasetobenecessarytothepreservationofapeople?Morelikely,wehavehereanotherindicationofherJewishsoulatwork,whiletheGermanscholartowhich sheaspiredwentondiscussingcontemporarypoliticaldilemmaswithreferencetotheancientGreek,Roman,andChristianworlds. Lestthisinterpretationseemtoofarfetched,toomuchofawishorafantasyonmypart,consideronemoredramaticallyandselfconsciouslyJewishimageinher writingsonthethemeofthepariahinpolitics.Intheprefacetohercollectionofessays,BetweenPastandFuture,shedescribesthe"treasure"oftheFrench resistance,whichmaybetakenasamodelforhermostidealisticvisionofparticipatorypoliticalaction:thosemomentsinhistorywhenpeoplespontaneouslyband togethertoaccomplishagoalintheworld,irrespectiveofinstitutionalgovernmentandadministrativeapparatus.5 TheexceptionalmomentinhistoryintriguesArendt andprovidesthemodelforpoliticalfreedom,eventhoughitdoesnotprovideabasisfor"politicsasusual."ForHannahArendt,freedomisfoundinextraordinary historicalmoments,suchastheMontgomeryBusBoycottduringtheCivilRightsMovementintheUnitedStatestheearlystudentprotestmovementsofthe1960s, beginningwiththe1964FreeSpeechMovementinBerkeleyandtheHungarianresistancetotheSovietUnion.Thesearemomentsthatappearspontaneous, althoughofcoursetheyhadbeenyearsinthemaking:momentsofclaritywithregardtogoals,aspiritofunusualcomraderyamongtheparticipantsand,untilprovoked byaggressors,momentsofpeacefulandarticulateprotest.

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HerdiscussionofthepoignanttemporalityoftheFrenchresistanceisofapiecewithherdiscussionofthe"movable"publicrealm,forcedunderground,inTheHuman Condition.OftheFrenchresistanceArendtnotes,"Withoutpremonitionandprobablyagainsttheirconsciousinclinations,theyhadcometoconstitutewillynillya publicrealmwherewithouttheparaphernaliaofofficialdomandhiddenfromtheeyesoffriendandfoeallrelevantbusinessintheaffairsofthecountrywas transactedindeedandword"(BPF3).ShecitestheFrenchpoetandresistancefighterReneChar,whodescribeshisdreadoflosingthatessentialmoment,forcedby politicaldisasterandboundtoevaporate,takingwithittheheightenedsenseofurgencyandrealitywithwhichtheparticipantswereimbued.ArendtquotesChar's descriptionofthereturntopoliticsandbusinessasusualasan"'epasseurtriste,'the'sadopaqueness'ofaprivatelifecenteredaboutnothingbutitself,"oralternatively areturnto"theoldemptystrifeofconflictingideologies"(BPF4).ThefinalparagraphofArendt'sdescriptionoflossofthespecialhumannessoflifeinthe underground,alifeofpariahdom,isparticularlyremarkable.IquoteArendtquotingChar:

Whatwasthistreasure?Astheythemselvesunderstoodit,itseemstohaveconsisted,asitwere,oftwointerconnectedparts:theyhaddiscoveredthathewho"joinedthe Resistance,foundhimself,"thatheceasedtobe"inquestof[himself]withoutmastery,innakedunsatisfaction,"thathenolongersuspectedhimselfof"insincerity,"ofbeing"a carping,suspiciousactoroflife,"thathecouldafford''togonaked."Inthisnakedness,strippedofallmasksofthosewhichsocietyassignstoitsmembersaswellasthose whichtheindividualfabricatesforhimselfinhispsychologicalreactionsagainstsocietytheyhadbeenvisitedforthefirsttimeintheirlivesbyanapparitionoffreedom... becausethey...hadtakentheinitiativeuponthemselvesandtherefore,withoutknowingorevennoticingit,hadbeguntocreatethatpublicspacebetweenthemselveswhere freedomcouldappear."Ateverymealthatweeattogether,freedomisinvitedtositdown.Thechairremainsvacant,buttheplaceisset."(BPF2emphasismine)

Considerwhatthisparagraphreveals.Arendtisostensiblydiscussingundergroundresistance,aformofcivildisobedience.

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Itseems,thus,toconfirmCanovan'sreadingbydemonstratingArendt'sunwaveringcommitmenttoparticipatorydemocracy.6 Acloserlookrevealsthatthelanguage echoesherdescriptionoftheconflictfacedbyJewsinmidtwentiethcenturyEuropewhofalsifiedthemselvesbydividingtheirlivesintoprivateandpublic:"Amanon thestreetandaJewathome."IntheantiSemitismvolumeofTheOriginsofTotalitarianism,shenotes,"Theadage'amaninthestreetandaJewathome'was bitterlyrealized:politicalproblemsweredistortedtothepointofpureperversionwhenJewstriedtosolvethembymeansofinhumanityforexampleinthequestion ofmixedmarriages7 whentheheavyburdenofunsolvedproblemsofpublicsignificancewascrammedintothatprivateexistencewhichismuchbetterruledbythe unpredictablelawsofpassionthanbyconsideredpolicies."8 Thatis,politicalproblemswereprivatized,andtheattemptofindividualstoworkthemoutathomewas boundtocreatemiseryanddestinedtofail. TheintrusionofpublicproblemsintoprivatespacesresultsinthesamesortoffalsenessofselfdescribedbyChar,andremediedbyinvolvementinthepolitical activismoftheresistance.IntermsofJewishidentity,onerefusestobecomeaparvenuandbecomes,instead,a"consciouspariah."In"WeRefugees"Arendtnotes, "Thelesswearefreetodecidewhoweareortoliveaswelike,themorewetrytoputupafront,tohidethefacts,andtoplayroles."9 Ultimately,"therecoveringof anewpersonalityisasdifficultandashopelessasanewcreationoftheworld.Whateverwedo,whateverwepretendtobe,werevealnothingbutourinsane desiretobechanged,nottobeJews"(63).Theparallelsbetweenthe"falseness''CharassociateswiththelossofpoliticalactivismandthefalsenessofArendt's Jewishparvenuseemunmistakable. In"WeRefugees,"shedescribestheemotionalhavoccreatedbythissortofdividedselfinauthenticity:
Oncewecouldbuyourfoodandrideinthesubwaywithoutbeingtoldwewereundesirable.Wehavebecomealittlehystericalsincenewspapermenstarteddetectingusand tellinguspubliclytostopbeingdisagreeablewhenshoppingformilkandbread.Wewonderhowitcanbedonewealreadyaresodamnablycarefulineverymomentofourdaily livestoavoid

Page262 anybodyguessingwhoweare,whatkindofpassportwehave,whereourbirthcertificateswerefilledoutandthatHitlerdidn'tlikeus.Wetrythebestwecantofitintoaworld whereyouhavetobesortofpoliticallymindedwhenyoubuyyourfood.(60)

ReturnnowtotheprefacetoBetweenPastandFuture,withitshauntingreferencetotheplacesetforfreedomateverymealeatenbymembersoftheresistance: "Ateverymealthatweeattogether,freedomisinvitedtositdown.Thechairremainsvacant,buttheplaceisset"(BPF4).TheimagewasofferedbytheFrenchman (andnonJew)Char,torefertothevitalityandoptimismoflifeintheundergroundnothing"Jewish"aboutitatall.ButthequotationischosenbyArendt,whohad quiteadifferentstakethanCharintheliberationofFrancefromtheNazis.ShewasarefugeeinFranceduringtheperiodofoccupation,wascapturedbythe Germans,separatedfromherhusband,putonatrain,andshippedtoaninternmentcampatGurs.Thereshetookadvantageofamomentofconfusionbetween FrenchandGermancommandstoslipawayunnoticed,whichultimatelyledtoherbeingreunitedwithherhusband,andtotheirhairraisingescapetotheUnited States.10 ForArendt,whatwasatstakeintheFrenchresistancewasnottherecapturingofherowncountry,butthedefeatoftheNazis,andthepossibilityofphysicalsurvival inacountryinwhichshewasinexile.TheliberationofFrancefromtheNazis,ofcourse,didnothappenquicklyenoughandArendthadtofleeonceagain,asshehad fromGermany.ThepointisthatshewasaJewinexile,andtheimagesheborrowsfromCharputsmeinmindnotofameetingoftheFrenchunderground,butofa JewishPassoverSeder. Theplaceset"forfreedom"inChar'stermstakestheactualformateverySeder,oftheplacesetfortheprophetElijah,whorepresentsthepossibilityoffreedomfor Jews.ThePassoverSederistheritualreenactmentoftheJews'passagefromEgyptianslaveryintofreedominthepromisedland,andtheplacesetforElijahisa centralimageintheJewishimagination:acupofwineforElijahispouredandsetattheSedertable.AtthebeginningofthesecondpartoftheSeder,afterthemealis eaten,achildissenttoopenthedoorofthehouse

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forElijah,shouldhedesiretoenter.Heisalways"invitedbutnotexpected"attheSeder.TheservicealsoincludestheremonstranceforallJewstorememberthe unfortunatesofeveryland,for"oncewewereslavesinEgypt":"Stillweremember:'Itwaswewhowereslaves,...wewhowerestrangers.'Andtherefore,werecall thesewordsaswell:Youshallnotoppressastranger,foryouknowthefeelingsofthestranger,havingyourselvesbeenstrangersinthelandofEgypt"(fromtheNew UnionHaggadahpreparedbytheCentralConferenceofAmericanRabbis,p.56quotedfromExod.23:9).Withregardtothespecificimagerysurroundingtheritual placesetandcuppouredforElijah."TheprophetMalachipromisedthatElijahwouldcometoturntheheartsofparentstochildren,andtheheartsofchildrento parents,andtoannouncethecomingoftheMessiahwhenallmankindwouldcelebratefreedom.Hence,hehasaplaceineverySeder.Weopenthedoorthathemay enter,andsetacupofwinetorepresentthefinalMessianicpromiseforusandforallpeoples:'IwillbringyouintotheLand'''(NewUnionHaggadah68). ThePassoverserviceisitselfanexampleof"organizedremembrance,"reenactedoverandovertoevokethefeelingintheparticipantsofbondageandliberation,as thougheachnewgenerationofJewswereactuallypresentinEgyptwiththeirancestors.Thereisnotempleandnoactualphysicalspace:nopolisfortheJews.Arendt doesnotassociateanyoftheimagesdiscussedinherworkwithJewishhistory,orthedevelopmentofJewishthinking.Butheruseofthetermorganized remembranceissoevocativeoftheJewishcommandZakhor!"Remember!"thatwemustturntowhatshedoessayabouthistory,toseeifwecancontinueto tracetheseunacknowledgedbutpersistentJewishthemesinherpoliticaltheory. JudaismandArendt'sConceptofHistory Arendt'sessays"TheConceptofHistory"(1958)and"OnHumanityinDarkTimes"(1959)providefurtherevidenceofthehiddenJewishthemesinArendt's scholarship,thistimethroughherconceptsofhistoryandcommunity.11RecallthataJewishperspectiveonhistoryaccordingtobothYosef

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YerushalmiandAmosFunkenstein,whootherwisehavesignificantdisagreementsonthesubject,involvesselfconsciousnessoftheimportanceofknowingabout historybeliefthathistoryinvolvesdiscreteevents,someofwhichare(subjectively)moreimportantthanothersandmustbeactivelyremembereddeferencetothe Bibleasthemain"sourcebook"ofJewishhistory,andasimultaneousdeferencetotheinterpretationsofthescholars,therabbis,whohaveindicatedlittleinterestin writing,butmuchininterpreting,Jewishhistory.BothFunkensteinandYerushalminoteaJewish"indifference"towardpostBiblicalhistory,asensethatwhatJews needtoknowaboutthemselvesisindeedhistorical,butiscontainedwithintheBibletobeinterpretedbyandforlatergenerations. Arendt's1958essay"TheConceptofHistory"providesthemostdirectaccountofherideasabouthistory.Thestructureandsubstanceoftheessayrevealsthesame dynamicsthatweobservedinThinking:thepieceisostensiblyaboutGreek,Roman,andChristianhistory,butitnonethelessrevealsdistinctlyJewishconcerns.The essayopenswithareferencetoHerodotus,whowasgiventhetitlepaterhistoriaebyCicero,and"hasremainedthefatherofWesternhistory"(BPF41).TheGreek historicalprojectwastofindarealmforhuman"immortality"inthefaceofanimplacable,cyclical"nature.''Humanmortalityisdescribedasalinearprojectionthat "cutsthroughthecircularmovementsofbiologicallife"(42).12Buthistory,Arendtnotes,isactuallyolderthanHerodotus,"older,even,thanHomer."Lestwebetoo hopefulthatArendtmayhereactuallyacknowledgeJudaismasavenerableandvaluablepartofhistory,sheidentifieshistory'sbeginning"inthemomentwhenUlysses, atthecourtoftheKingofthePhraescians,listenedtothestoryofhisowndeedsandsufferings,tothestoryofhislife,nowathingoutsidehimself,an'object'forallto seeandtohear"(45).HistoryforArendtbeginsnotwiththeJews,butwiththeGreeks,andproceedsthroughtheRomansandChristians. Arendtthusappearstoregardhistoryfromathoroughlyclassicalperspectiveasisherwontbutwhatemerges,unconsciously,isthoroughlycompatiblewiththe "Jewish"perspec

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tivesdiscussedearlier.Arendt'sessayisacritiqueofthemodernreificationofhistoryasa"process"amenabletomanipulationbyhumanbeings.Shecondemns processthinkingasahubristicattemptonthepartofmentoreplaceGodasthe"maker"or''fabricator"ofhistory. Apartfromthespiritualinadvisabilityofsuchhubris,Arendtworriesabout(atleast)twofactorsassociatedwithviewinghistoryasprimarilyaprocess,ratherthanas therecordofdiscreteevents.Ifhistoryisaprocess,andhumanbeingscancreateandshapeitsoutcome,then(1)thebeliefthat"anythingispossible,"whichshe associateswithtotalitarianthinking,isalikelyoutcomeand(2)ifpeople"make"historyona"fabrication"model(shecitesMarxasanimportantspokesmanforthis perspective),thenhistorymusthavean"end,"amanmadeendatthat.Thedangerofbeliefinanhistoricalendpointisthatviolenceispresupposed,justified,and deemednecessaryforitsachievement.ForasArendtnotes,fabricationofanythinginvolvesviolence:youcannotbuildahousewithoutkillingtrees,disruptingthe naturalsurfaceoftheearth,transformingoreintometalbyfire,andsoforth."WhatdistinguishesMarx'sowntheoryfromallothersinwhichthenotionof'making history'hasfoundaplaceisthathealonerealizedthatifonetakeshistorytobetheobjectofaprocessoffabricationormaking,theremustcomeamomentwhenthis 'object'iscompleted,andthatifoneimaginesthatonecan'makehistory'onecannotescapetheconsequencethattherewillbeanendtohistory"(BPF79). Theriseofhistoryas"process"isassociatedwithmodernityandalienationbyArendt,whoclaimsunequivocallythat"themodernconceptofprocesspervading historyandnaturealikeseparatesthemodernagefromthepastmoreprofoundlythananyothersingleidea"(63).Thelinkwithalienationisthatindividualeventsand individualpeoplelosetheirsignificance,are"meaningful"onlywhentheendisachievedorthewholeiscomprehended.Peoplebecomedispensablemeanstoanend, ratherthaninherentlyvaluableintheirownsubjectivity."Whattheconceptofprocessimpliesisthattheconcrete,thegeneral,thesinglethingoreventandtheuniversal mean

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ing,havepartedcompany"(64).Processhasusurpedandreplacedmeaning.Historyisviewednotasthestoryofdiscreteandmemorabledeeds,orthesufferingsof discrete,individualpeoplewithnamesandbirthdates,butratheras"amanmadeprocess,theonlyallcomprehendingprocesswhichoweditsexistenceexclusivelyto thehumanrace"(58).Menpridefullytakeresponsibilityformanipulatinghistorymuchasscientistsbelievetheycanmanipulatenature.Historyispresumedtofollow laws,likethelawsofnature,andmenassumeacapacityforomnipotenceasneverbefore.ThisisafrightfuldevelopmentandArendtlamentsthelossofhumanactions viewedasdiscrete,unpredictable,andnotmanageable. RegardinghistoryasprocesstowardamanmadeendistantamounttoplayingGod.Thehumanclaimthatprocessdeterminesendseclipsesthebeliefthatmeaningis providedbysomethinglargerthanindividuals.Shecontraststhismodernhubriswithancientperspectives,theGreek,Christian,andJewish.TheGreekswere preoccupiedwithgreatness,competingwiththeirgodsforimmortality:theyaspiredtoimmortalitythroughtheirdeeds.Christianityreflectstheoppositeperspective: mencanachieveimmortalityintheafterlife,whiletheworlditselfisperishable."InChristianity...itistheworldthatwillpassawaymenwillliveforever"(52).The Christian"reversal"oftheGreek,inturn,isderivedfrom''thealtogetherdifferentteachingsoftheHebrews,whoalwaysheldthatlifeitselfissacred,moresacredthan anythingelseintheworld,andthatmanisthesupremebeingonearth"(52).WhatistrulyremarkableisthatArendtfailstorecognizethatthisbeliefistheonethat mostresemblesherown.Sheinsists,consistentlythroughoutallofherworks,thattodignifyindividualhumanlifeisthehighestvalue,andtheultimatedeterminantof morality. Arendt'sargumentinthisveryessay,herreadingofthedangersofmakinghistoryintoaprocess,isthusmostcompatiblewithwhatsheherselfidentifiesasJewish priorities.However,in"TheConceptofHistory,"asinThinking,JewishthinkingispresentedasnomorethanasteppingstonetothemorerespectableChristian teachings,whichthenformthe"sig

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nificant"pointofcomparisonwiththeGreek.HeresheacknowledgesthatJewishthoughtregardslifeassacred,prohibitingthesacrificeofhumanlifeforanhistorical "end."ButwhenitcomestoactuallyputtingtheJewishteachingtouse,workingwithitanddevelopingittofurtherherargument,wefindherquicklydroppingthe JewishinfavoroftheChristianorGreek.Shecautionsagainstovervaluingthehumancapacitytodeterminehistoricalends:"Neitherfreedomnoranyothermeaning caneverbetheproductofahumanactivityinthesenseinwhichthetableisclearlytheendproductofthecarpenter'sactivity"(78).Tosupportthiscaveatabout humanomnipotence,ArendtreferstoAugustine.However,Augustinehimself,aspresentedbyArendt,soundsverymuchlikeoneofYerushalmi'searlyJews.Arendt tellsus,

Thepoint,ashesawit,wasthatnopurelyseculareventcouldorshouldeverbeofcentralimporttoman.Hislackofinterestinwhatwecallhistorywassogreatthathedevoted onlyonebookoftheCivatasDeitoseculareventsandincommissioninghisfriendandpupilOrosiustowritea"worldhistory"hehadnomoreinmindthana"truecompilation oftheevilsoftheworld."(BPF6566)

ForAugustine,"historyremainsastorehouseofexamples,andthelocationsofeventsintimewithinthesecularcourseofhistoryremainwithoutimportance"(66).This isconsistentwithFunkenstein'sobservationsaboutAugustine.AlthoughAugustineisthespokesmansheturnsto,Arendtconcedesthathissenseofthelimited importanceofsecularhistorywasnotparticularlyChristian."ThesinglefactthattheproblemofhistoryaroseinChristianthoughtonlywithAugustineshouldmakeus doubtitsChristianorigin"(66). With"TheConceptofHistory"Arendtdeliversacautionarytale,warningaboutthehubristicdangersofovervaluinghumanwillasadeterminingfactorinhistory.The humanbeingshouldnotaspiretoshapeorfashion,thatisto"make"historyandshouldnotbesoarrogantastoassumethepostureofaGod,pretendingtoknowthe significanceofallworldlyevents,reducingtheindividualtotheabstractuniversalasthemeaningofindividuallivesanddeedsaresacrificedtothegod

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of"Progress."Arendt'shumilityregardingthelimitsofthehumancapacitytounderstandisalsoreflectedinherstatementatthebeginningofTheHumanCondition, thatpeopleshouldnotpresumetoknowwhat"humannature"is."Toavoidmisunderstanding:thehumanconditionisnotthesameashumannature....Ifwehavea natureoressence,thensurelyonlyagodcouldknowanddefineit,andthefirstprerequisitewouldbethathebeabletospeakabouta'who'asthoughitwerea 'what'"(HC910). What"feels"Jewishaboutthisstanceisitsunwillingnesstospecify,articulate,orvisualizeknowledgebetterlefttoGod.EventhoughArendtisnotareligiouswriter, thoughherbeliefsaboutGodremainedprivate,rarelybeingallowedtosurfaceinherwritings,herunwillingnesstobroachcertainsubjects,herconvictionthatcertain thingssimplyshouldnotbearticulated,ormadeexplicit,iscompatiblewithaJewishaversionto(1)visualizingGod(2)reifyingdogmaintheformoffinalized doctrineand(3)statingexplicitlywhatthefuturewilllooklike.ThisaversiontoarticulatingthefutureiscompatiblewithJewishagnosticismaboutthecomingofthe messiahandalsotheunwillingnesstoarticulateortowritedownchangeinJewishlaworcustom."Everythingnewisforbiddenbylaw,"andyetthewillingnessto adapttochanginghistoricalnecessityhasbeenaprerequisitetoJewishsurvival. IperceiveresiduesoftheinvisibilityoftheJewishGodinArendt'srespectfor"theineffable."Arendt'sdeferencetowhatmaybecomprehended,accepted,butisbest leftinexplicitorunarticulated,isalsocompatiblewiththeJewishattitudetowardreformoftradition.Manypeoplehaveregardedherasan"arrogant"thinkerfewhave notedorappreciatedherhumility,evenreverence,incontrasttothehumanarrogancethatsheregardedasacomponentoftotalitarianregimes,posingalethalthreatto thepoliticalrealmaswellastohumanlife. Toreturnto"TheConceptofHistory,"Arendtcontendsthatthemodernconceptualizationofhistoryasprocesscarriesthedangerousmisconception(withthe exceptionofMarx,asnotedabove)thathumanhistoryisinfinitelackingeitherbeginningorend."Thistwofoldinfinityofpastandfuture

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eliminatesallnotionsofbeginningandend,establishingmankindinapotentialearthlyimmortality."Arendt'sfearofthisisutterlycompatiblewithtraditionalJewishand Christianstances.HistorybeganwhenGodcreatedtheworld(orwhenChristwasborn)andwillendwhentheMessiahreturns.SinceArendtnowheregives evidenceofactuallybelievinginaMessiah,onemaywonderhowthisviewofhistoryashavinganendpoint,symbolizedbytheexpectationofaMessiah,canpossibly beassociatedwithher. WemaybeabletomakesenseofArendt'spositionifwecalluponFunkensteinoncemore,whocontraststheJewishattitudetowardthecomingoftheMessiahwith theProtestant.

ThedrivingforceofProtestantismtheyearningforareformation,forreturntotheoriginalshapehadnopreciseequivalentinthetraditionalJewishimagery.Thebeliefinthe futurecomingoftheMessiah,who,"evenifheprocrastinates,willsurelycome,"andthebeliefintherestorationoftheDavidicKingship,werenotnecessarilytiedtothehopeof abetterJudaism,apurercommunity.TraditionalJudaismlackedtheimageofaninnocent,pureUrgemeinschaftthatshallonceagainberestored.(Funkenstein253)

WeareremindedthatJewishimageryissimplynotasconcreteandpictorial,asvisualasChristianimagery.Jewswouldnomorepredictadateforthearrivalofa MessiahthantheywouldattempttodrawapictureofGod. ThesenseofanultimatebutineffablemeaningtohistorythatArendtbelievesisnecessarytoavoidthearrogantstancethatpeoplealonemaketheirownhistory,isthus compatiblewiththeJewishconceptionofthecomingoftheMessiahinthesensethatitisanindefinite,ineffable,unarticulable,nothumanlyconceivableend.Thisis radicallydifferentfromtheendtohistorythatArendtassociateswithMarx:inherviewmancanneithermakenorconceptualizeanendtohistory.ButArendt's conceptualizationofan"end"standsasanineffablesymbolforhumilityabouthuman"prowess"intheworld.This,Iwouldargue,isathoroughlyJewishstance. CompatiblewithArendt'sbeliefthathumanbeingsshouldnotinflateasenseoftheirownefficacyintheworld,should

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retainhumilityinthefaceofGod,isherconcernaboutthelossofparticularitythatresultsfrom"processthinking."This,too,resoundswiththeJewishperspectivethat "lifeitselfissacred,moresacredthananythingelseintheworld,andthatmanisthesupremebeingonearth"(BPF53).Notheoreticalend,noconceptofabsolute truth,isworththeknowingsacrificeofevenonelife.Jewishfolkwisdomhasitthatifyousavethelifeofoneperson,yousavetheworld.LifeisGod'screationandit issacred.Jewishlawprohibits"mixing"thingscertainfabricscannotbeworntogether,certainfoodscannotbeeateninthesamemealpreciselybecausehuman beingsshouldnotmeddlewithGod'screations.TheBiblicalprohibitionagainstmixingmilkandmeatis,fromoneperspective,aprohibitionthatkeepssacredthe bondbetweenmotherandoffspringofanyspecies("Thoushaltnotseethethekidinthemilkofitsmother")anotherTalmudicperspectivehasitthatbloodandmilk arethefluidsoflife,andthereforebelonginGod'scarealone.WhatGoddoesnotmix,neithershouldhumanbeingspresumeto.13 Obviously,the"progress"ofhumanbeingshasdependedupontheirwillingnesstomixandmeddlewiththenaturalworld.Ibelievethesanctionagainst"mixing"can stillbeunderstoodasasymbolicreminderofthepoweroflifeforces,andoforigins:acallforhumilitywhichitwouldbewisetoheed.Themostbrilliantandeffective scientistsmightdowelltomaintaincontactwithremindersoftheethicalcomplexities,thedangersaswellasthebenefitsoftooaggressivelyrearrangingthenatural world. CommunityinDarkTimes AnotherfeatureofArendt'sperspectiveonhistory,onewithitsJewishundercurrentsaswell,appearsintheessay"OnHumanityinDarkTimes,"heracceptance speechoftheLessingprizebestowedbytheFreeCityofHamburg.14Thereisamomenttowardthebeginningoftheessay,whereArendtdefineshistoryaspublic stories,dependentuponfreedomforsurvival:"Whenmenaredeprivedofthepublicspacewhichisconstitutedbyactingtogetherandthenfillsofitsownaccord with

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theeventsandstoriesthatdevelopintohistorytheyretreatintotheirfreedomofthought"(MDT9).ShedescribesLessingasamancommittedtomaintaining freedomintheworld,amansomistrustfulofabsolutetruththatherelishedhispartialityandvaluedaboveallotherthings,friendship.Justice,hemaintained,"haslittle todowithobjectivityintheordinarysense"(6)."Lessing...rejoicedintheverythingthathaseveroratleastsinceParmenidesandPlatodistressedphilosophers: thatthetruth,assoonasitisuttered,isimmediatelytransformedintooneopinionamongmany,iscontested,reformulated,reducedtoonesubjectofdiscourseamong others"(MDT27). FromArendt'sperspective,Lessingstandsfortheimportanceoffriendshipandcommunityoverdoctrineandideology,evenwhenideologyisregardedas"Truth." "Wouldanydoctrine...howeverconvincinglyproved,beworththesacrificeofsomuchasasinglefriendshipbetweentwomen?"(29).Lessingvaluedfriendship overbrotherhoodbecausefriendshipinvolveschoice,andacertaindistancenecessaryforfreediscussion."Hewantedtobethefriendofmanymenbutnoman's brother"(30).Thisencouragesustoconsiderthenatureofcommunity,andtheextenttowhichitiscomprisedofmembershipbychoiceorbirth.Arendtinsiststhat communitiesofbirtharefragile,havethemoststrengthduringtimesofcrisis.ShehasreferencetotheJewsduringtheHolocaust.Sheprofesseshercentral identificationwiththeJewsduringandaftertheNazipersecution,butalsoclaims,"Thehumanityoftheinsultedandinjuredhasneveryetsurvivedthehourofliberation bysomuchasaminute.Thisdoesnotmeanthatitisinsignificant,forinfactitmakesinsultandinjuryendurablebutitdoesmeanthatinpoliticaltermsitisabsolutely irrelevant"(MDT1617). Arendt'sideasabouttherelativemeritsofbloodtiesversustheemotionaltiesoffriendshiporothersortsofcommunityarecomplex.Sheclearlybelievesthatblood ties,andbyextensionthebiologicaltiesofmembershipinanethnic,religious,orracialgroup,areunreliable,evenartificialasabasisforalongstandingcommunity.In timesofcrisis,imposedpoliticalcategoriesbaseduponnotionsof"race"orbiologymay

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forceacommunitytogether,butassoonasthedangerispast,orthesingularlydefinedenemyisnolongerathreat,thecommunitydissolves.Thosetimesofcrisis, however,havethepowertorenderfriendshippoliticallyirrelevant,iffriendsaretemptedtousetheirenclosedrelationshiptoinsulatethemselvesfrompoliticalreality, whenwhatiscalledforisconfrontingthetroubleinthepoliticalworld.

InthecaseofafriendshipbetweenaGermanandaJewundertheconditionsoftheThirdReichitwouldscarcelyhavebeenasignofhumannessforthefriendstohavesaid:Are wenotbothhumanbeings?Itwouldhavebeenmereevasionofrealityandoftheworldcommontobothatthattimetheywouldnothavebeenresistingtheworldasitwas.A lawthatprohibitedtheintercourseofJewsandGermanscouldbeevadedbutcouldnotbedefiedbypeoplewhodeniedtherealityofthedistinction.(MDT23)

Ontheotherhand,under"normal"politicalcircumstances,friendship,relationsofchoiceratherthanbirth,arethemorereliableguidetoforgingpoliticalcommunities: "Humanenessshouldbesoberandcool,ratherthansentimental...humanityisexemplifiednotinfraternitybutinfriendshipthatfriendshipisnotintimatelypersonal butmakespoliticaldemandsandpreservesreferencetotheworld"(25). ArendtisusingLessingtodescribetheimportanceofstaying"intheworld"evenintimeofhistoricalcatastrophewhentheworldseemsunendurable.Buthowisit possibleforagroupthathasbeenthreatenedwithannihilationtostayintheworld?And"towhatextentdoweremainobligatedtotheworld,evenwhenwehave beenexpelledfromitorhavewithdrawnfromit?"(22).Arendt'sresponseis:Survivalispossibleifwecontinuetotellourstory."Inreificationbythepoetorthe historian,thenarrationofhistoryhasachievedpermanenceandpersistence.Thusthenarrativehasbeengivenitsplaceintheworld,whereitwillsurviveus(22).So longasthestoryispreservedintheworld,peoplehaveachancetocontinuetofindmeaningfromit.Thetextisallimportantitsmeaningisneverfullyunderstoodand sothestoryisnever"closed"orcompleted.Anassociationwiththe

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JewishattitudetowardtheBibleasthesourceofcontinuity,asnarrative,history,theguaranteeoffutureneverfullyunderstood,doesnotseemfarfetched. Arendtendsheressayonanotethoroughlyconsistentwiththethemesdelineatedinher"ConceptofHistory,"whichalsostrikesmeascompatiblewithaJewish conceptionofhistory.SheconcludeswithaquotationfromLessingthatonceagainprofessesignoranceinthefaceofabsolutes,andhumilitybeforetheineffable. Humanpowerissimplylimited,andawarenessofthatlimitationpromotessomesortofhumandiscourse:"Leteachmansaywhathedeemstruthandlettruthitselfbe commendeduntoGod"(MDT30). ThethemesthatemergefromArendt'sdiscussionofLessingisconsistentwiththemesthroughoutherwork.Absolutetruths,doctrines,anddogmasarepolitically dangerous:dialogue,discussion,andfluidityaremorereliableelementsofthinking.Thepreservationofhistorythroughstoriesisoneimportantaccessto"truth" conceivedasfactsratherthandoctrines.Thestoriesmustbepublic,andbyextension,availabletointerpretation,partofapublicdialogue.Thecompanywekeep,as wellasloyaltytothatcompany,iscriticalindeterminingbehavior.ThisisconsistentwiththeapprovingquotationofCiceroinheressay"TheCrisisinCulture":"I preferbeforeheaventogoastraywithPlatoratherthanholdtrueviewswithhisopponents"(BPF224).Duringthe"ordinary,"lesseventfulperiodsofhistory,itis moreconducivetopoliticalfreedomforacommunitytobecomposedoffriendswhohavechoseneachother'scompany.Butintimesofpoliticalcrises,theimposed communityof"brothers''mustnotbeabandoned.Whatholdsacommunitytogetherwhetherbroughttogetherbyfriendshiporanoppressorisitsstories,thetelling ofitsownhistory. TherearemanycomplexitiesthatremainunaddressedandquestionsleftunansweredinArendt'sessayonLessing.Themostglaringquestioniswhetherloyaltyto friendswhocompriseagangofmurderousthugsisonepossibleoutcomeofthisstance.Butwhatismoredirectlyrelevantforourpurposeshereishow,onceagain, Arendtstressestheimportanceof

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narrativehistoryoverphilosophyasapathtofreedomandcommunitycoherence.ThisstanceisaltogethercompatiblewiththeJewishperspectivesonhistorywehave considered,andspeaksonceagaintotheJewishdimensionsinHannahArendt'spoliticaltheory.

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Chapter12 Conclusion
Theconclusionistheauthor'smomenttostatebluntlywhatshefearsmaynothavecomeacrossforcefullyenoughinhermoreextendeddiscussion.Ihavetakenpains todojusticetothecomplexityofthepolitical,cultural,andgenderedissuescentraltomyargumentsinthisvolume.NowIrestatethemajorpointsinbrief,with emphasisuponwhatIfearmayhavebecomelostalongtheway.Letusreturntotheissuesraisedintheintroduction,toseewhetherweareanycloser,afterour excursionthroughHannahArendt'swork,tounderstandingwhatinfluencethefactsofherJewishnessandgendermayhavehaduponherintellectuallife. Judaism ThemostdifficultquestionsraisedintheintroductionhadtodowiththenatureofJewishthinking,andJewishidentity,thateachmaybesaidtoinfluenceintellectual work.OnedifficultyisthatJudaismisareligion,althoughinourcontemporarysecularworld,alsoaculturalor"ethnic"identity.ApersoncanidentifyherselfasaJew, andyetnotbeanobservantreligiouspractitioner.OrshecaninsistthatJudaismhasnoinfluencewhatsoeveruponherscholarshiporliterarywork,assomany

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twentiethcenturyJewishintellectualshavedone,andstill"find"herJewishidentitylateinlifeperhapswhensheunderstandsthatmosteveryoneconsidersheraJew inspiteofalldisclaimers.Still,howcanareligionbesaidtohaveinfluenceuponanonreligiousthinker,especiallyinareasnotrelatedtoreligion? HannahArendtclaimedherJewishidentitypublicly,butkeptherreligiousconvictionsprivate,wasnotareligiouspersonorobservantJew,sofarasIknow,and believedthatherscholarshipwasfreeofJewishinfluence:sheregardedherselfaseducatedintheGermantradition.How,then,canIinsistthatherintellectuallife revealedJewishinfluences?ThiswasthequestionIraisedintheintroduction. InthechaptersdescribingJewishthinking,certainelementsemergedasmostcharacteristic,derivedfromBiblicalandrabbinicthought,fromtheHebrewlanguage itself,manifestingthemselves,fromthestandpointofcontemporaryscholars,inJewishliterature,andaJewishsenseofhistory.Withthecaveatthatanysuchlistis itselfantitheticaltoJewishthinkingbecauseoftheseconditemonthelist,theyare:(1)centralityoftheTorah(2)reluctancetocodify(3)lackofboundedness,which alsoaffectsasenseofhistoryandtime,thesensethatthepastisnotreally"closed"(4)lackofinterestinvisualimagery(5)inherentworldliness,ordemocratic potential,implyingacommunityofadherents. Letustranslatethesequalitiesintocontemporarysecularterms.ThecentralityofTorahcanbeunderstoodasafocusonacentraltext,withtheexceptionalquality beingthattoreligiousJewstheTorahisbothsacredandperfect,andyetnot"complete"inthesenseofneverfullycomprehended,evenbythewisestofscholars.But therequirementtocontinuetotrytounderstand,tointerpretingoodfaith,isasacredduty.Thus,HaroldBloom'sinsistencethat"interpretation"isacentral characteristicofaJewishapproachtotheworld.IntheJewishtradition,wordsareas"real"asanyotherthingsintheworld.Becausepeoplecanneverknowultimate truth,therecanbenocodificationthatisnotamisrepresentationofthecomplexityoftruth.Interpretationrequiresfluidityanddialogue.Thecontemporaryvernacular forcodificationisreification,andwhatisdangerous

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aboutitisthatithaltsthinking,andbecomesoppressivelydogmatic:codificationisantitheticaltofreedom.Thesenseofhistory,thebeliefthatthepastisnot"closed," isawayofconnectingcontemporarygenerationswiththepast,evenasthatpastisbeinginterpretedanew.Thelossofcommunityandtraditionisaproblemformany culturesinthemodernagetheJewishcommunity'sceremonialreenactmentsoftheimportantmomentsinitshistoryareawayofbothkeepingcommunitytogetherand keepingasenseofthepastalive,whichalsoreinforcesthesenseofcommunity.Obviously,itisoneculture'ssolutiontomaintaininghistoricalcontinuityallcultures havesomeequivalent. ThelackofJewishinterestinvisualimageryisantitheticaltoourempiricallybiasedmodernage.ItsimportanceinJewishthinkingcanbeassociatedwiththesame impulseasthereluctancetocodify,thedesiretokeepdialogueopen:apictureorvisualimageisaformofcodification.Itfreezesthedevelopingtruthaboutthe concept.Paradoxically,inspiteoftheJewishpredilectionforauralratherthanvisualaccesstotruth,Jewishthinkingisorientedtowardtheworld.Inmodern philosophicalterminology,itismaterialistratherthanidealist.TomakephilosophyworkintheworldwashowKarlMarxviewedhisPromethiantask.Arendtwasno lessdesirousofawayofthinkingthatwouldbeaccessibletoallpeople.IntheJewishsense,thatpathleadstotheconvergenceofwordandworld,thebeliefthat TorahandTalmudblendintooneanotherandarenotentirelyseparablefromworldlyenactment:themostsacredpassagesoftheTorahandTalmudareintendedto haveworldyimplications.MaxKadushin's"valueconcept"isanattempttoexpresstheblurredboundarybetweenthesacredandthepractical.TheHebrewword Mitzvah,commandment,alsocarriesthisconnotation:themostimportantworldlydutiesarealsoholy.ThemostsacredofJewishprayersallbeginwiththe acknowledgmentthatwearemadeholybybeinggivencommandments,thingstodointheworld:"BlessedartThou,ruleroftheuniverse,whohassanctifiedusby commandingusto...." Butmorespecifically,wheredotheseJewishthemesappearinArendt'spoliticaltheory,inawaythatsupportsmy

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thesisthat,unbeknownsteventoArendt,herwork,herquestions,herscholarlypriorities,wereJewish?Letmepinpointafewthemesthatareparticularlyreleventfor Arendt'sefforttodescribethinkingascapableofworldlyinterventionagainstthethreatofpoliticalevil,availabletoallpeople,moresolidthanopinion,yetnotas coerciveasacodifieddoctrine,dogmaorideology.Myapproachhasbeentwopronged:ontheonehand,asummationofwhereJewishthinkingisevidentin Arendt'ssearchforaworldyphilosophy,andontheother,areviewofareaswhereArendtmighthavebeenassistedbyamoredirectlyJewishapproachinhereffort tobreakthroughtheGreekinspireddichotomiesbetween"pure"philosophyandworldlydialogue. WhereArendt,withthehelpofSocrates,exhibitsaperspectivemorecompatiblewithRabbinicthanGreekthinking,isinherinsistencethatallcodificationhalts thinking,andcourtsthedangerofdogmaandauthoritianism.TheaporeticSocraticdialoguethatsheadmiressomuch,theunwillingnessevertostopexamining accepteddoctrine,soundsremarkablyTalmudic.Itisnottheendproductofthinkingthatcarriesworldlyconsequences,buttheprocessofendlesschallengeand reinterpretationthatbearsthepromiseofpreparingthethinkertoquestionrulesanddogma.Thisisnottobeconfusedwiththesortofendlessthinkingthatsimply keepsphilosophersoffthestreetsandoutoftrouble,becausetheyarealwaysengagedinadialoguewiththemselves.TalmudicdialoguediffersfromtheGreek philosopher'slonelyquestinanumberofimportantways.Itactuallyisadialoguewithanotherpersonitpresupposesthattheparticipantsinthedialoguearemembers ofacommunityanditis"material"inthesenseofbeingorientedtowardworldlybehavior,bothprivateandpublic. ThesefactorsatfacevaluewereimportanttoArendt.Butwhenwerememberherdiscussionoffriendshipratherthanbirthasthepreferredbasisofapolitical community(fromtheessayonLessing,"OnHumanityinDarkTimes"),itdoesn'tseemlikelythatArendtwouldhavebeenanadvocateof"identitypolitics"basedon race,religion,orethnicity.Indeed,giventheviolenttribalismthatplaguesmuchofthecontemporary

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worldEasternEurope,theMiddleEast,Ireland,LosAngeleshercautionwasnodoubtwise.Andyetpeopleseemincapableofrelinquishingtheselongstanding traditionalidentities,asunneighborlyastheyappeartobe.Whatarethechancesthatanacknowledgmentofone'sethnicidentityisbothpsychologicallycomforting andcapableofpromotingpeacefulcoexistencewithotherracesandreligions?Whyisitgoodtoacknowledgeandacceptone'sJewishidentityifitthreatensto endangeroneatthehandsofantiSemites?Or,asanAfricanAmericanstudentonceaskedme,rhetorically,"Whyshouldn'tI'pass'ifIcan?" Atthetime,Icouldn'tbelieveshewasserious.Surelydenyingone'sraceandculturewasboundtobeemotionallydestructive.Buttheensuingdiscussioninthe seminarmademetakeherquestionveryseriously.If,asanAfricanAmericanwomaninwhitesociety,shewaslikelytosuffereconomically,socially,and professionally,thenwhyshouldn'tshetryto"pass,"betakenforawhitewomanbywhitesociety,accruethebenefitsofbeingwhiteanddealwiththeemotionalcosts ofthedeception,theinauthenticity,onherownterms?Ineffect,shewasasking,WhyshouldIchoosepsychologicalovereconomicandsocialwellbeing,especiallyif povertyandexclusionarelikelytowreakpsychologicalhavocoftheirown?Whyshouldn'tIchoosethepainofinauthenticityoverthepainofpovertyandlackof choicesinlife? Therearenoreadyanswerstothequestionofwhyitisinherentlygoodtoacceptone'sethnicheritage.However,oneresponseisfairlyobvious:itisnotnecessaryto regardacceptanceofone'sethnicidentityinidealistterms.Nocultureisperfect,eachhasitsgoodaspectsanditsbad.Jewishthinkingisnopanacea,anymorethan thesortofthinkingthatmaybesaidtocharacterizeanyotherlongstandingcommunityonearth.Itcarriesnoguaranteeagainstdangerousmisuse,violentdefensive exclusionism,tribalism,nationalism,racismallthedangersthemodernworldhastooffer. ThereexistintheworldexclusionistJewswhoarenotinterestedinparticipatinginanynetworkofracial,cultural,orreligiouscommunitiesbeyondtheirown.There arealso

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ChristianandMuslimfundamentalists,blacknationalists,andracialandreligiouschauviniststhroughouttheworldwhosharethesameadherencetoexclusionism,and arepreparedtomakewaruponanyperceivedchallengetotheirhegemony.Thisphenomenonisaplagueupontheearth. Ontheotherhand,IshareArendt'sconcernthataworldwithoutboundariesanddivisionswilllikelybecomeamasssociety,susceptibletoatotalitarianorderforits direction.Lossofidentifyingboundariesleavespeoplebereftofcommunity.Arendtbelieved(whenshewasn'tlamentingthelossofsmallparticipatorycommunities, suchasthepolisofancientAthens,ortheNewEnglandsmalltown)thatnationalidentitywasnecessarytoprovidesuchboundaries:statelessnessdeprivesaperson ofgroundingintheworld.Thisisarationalistapproachtoforgingacommunityoutofthemodernworlditshunsthe"irrationality"andtheapparentbiological determinismofrace,religion,andethnicityasthebasisofmoderncommunity. HereIdisagreewithArendt.Whileitmightbenicetobeabletooverlookcommunitiesofbirthorbiologyandtochooseone'sowncommunity,nationality,orpolitical identity,suchasituationisnotpossiblegiventhetenacityofethnicheritagenorisitnecessarilydesirable.Arendtunderstoodtheimportanceofbothhistoryand community.Partofthesustainingpowerofethnicityisitslongevity.Race,religion,andculturehavesimplybeenaroundmuchlongerthanmostnationstates.People feellostwithoutthem.Thisdoesnotmeanthatculturalidentityisdeterminist:thatonemustbecomearacialorreligiousexclusionistwhenacceptingone'scultural identity.Therearechoicesonceonecomestotermswithwhooneis,raciallyorethnically.Butavoidingtherealityofcenturiesormilleniaofheritageseemstometo runtheriskofallpsychologicaldenial:oneisneverfullyopentodialoguebecauseoneistoobusydefendingoneselfagainstreality. ThepointofthisbookhasnotbeentoestablishthatJewishorTalmudicthinkingisinherentlysuperiortoanyother.Ratherithasbeentoaffirmthat,asArendtwrote toGershomScholem,shewasaJew,"asamatterofcourse."Inaway,Iamsuggestingthatherthinkingwasinfluencedbythatfact,also

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asamatterofcourse,althoughthemechanismbywhichcultureistransmittedtoindividualsisnotsomethingtowhichIclaimspecialinsight.Weshouldnotbe surprisedtofindelementscompatiblewithJewishthinkingintheworkofHannahArendt:ratherweshouldbesurprisedtofindthemdeniedandsuppressed.Andwe canhypothesizethattheymighthavebeenhelpfultoher,hadshepaidmoreattentiontothem. LetusreturntothequestionofhowaJewishapproachmighthaveaidedArendtinherquestforadialogical,communitybased,worldlymodelofthinking.Without implyingthatallJewsthinkprogressivelyandopenmindedly,IinsistthatthereareelementsoftheTalmudicapproachtotheworldandcommunitythatwouldhave helpedArendtinherquestforaworldlyphilosophy.Thereluctancetocodify,asdiscussedabove,andthroughoutthesecondpartofthebookisoneexample.Ihave suggestedthatArendtadheredtothatreluctance,althoughshedidnotidentifyitsattractivenessforherwithJudaism.Anotherexampleisthecreationofcommunity. The"wisdom"orteachingsoftheTalmudisnotintendedforrabbisonly.AcommunityofJewishmenisassumed.Thepresenceofwomenisacknowledged,butnot asparticipantsinthedialogue.Instead,thewomensimplyperformthemitzvot,commandments,assignedtothembythemalescholarswhodoparticipateinthe dialogue.(We'llletthatgofornow,anddealwiththenecessityforchangeinanotherbook.)Nonethelessthepresumptionofcommunityisreinforceddailyfor orthodoxJews,andatleastweeklyforthemoremoderatelyobservant,incommunalworship.Jewsmustcometogetherinaminyan,agroupofaminimumoften (menonlyfortheorthodox),inordertoconductareligiousservice.Jewsdonotprimarilyworshipathomeorinprivate.Theymustcollectincommunityshuls(the yiddishtermfor"schools,"colloquialforsynagogues),inordertoreaffirmtheirmembershipinthecommunityandtopursuetheirowninterpretationoftheTorah.Their membershipinthecommunityisconfirmedbyrecitingprayersaloudandsilentlytogether,andbyreadingandrereading,anddiscussingthecentraltext. ThereisaprayerJewssayeachtimetheycrossthethresholdofthesynagogue,whichaffirmsthattheprivatehousehold

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hasbeenleftbehindandthecommunityplaceofworshipentered.Itiseffectivelyeachindividual'sprayerforsanctificationoftheplaceofcommunalworship.It begins,"Howgoodlyareyourtents,OJacob!Howbeautifulyoursanctuaries,OIsrael!/ThroughYourgreatgoodnessIenterYourhouseWithreverenceIbow beforeYourholyark."ThefirstverseisactuallytakenfromaverseintheBible(NumbersXXIV:5),wheretheprophetBalaamiscommandedbyMoabiteKing BalaktocursetheJews,andmiraculously,outofhismouthcomestheblessing,"Howgoodlyareyourhabitations,OJacob."1 ThecommunalenergycreatedeachtimethecongregationmeetscloselyresemblesArendt'sconceptofactioninTheHumanCondition,andfreedominher discussionoftheFrenchResistance,fromthestandpointsofboththenecessityofapublicspace,reveredbythecommunity,andofthesheerforceofhumanpower createdwheneverindividualscollectpublicly.Thepoweriscreatedandrecreatedcollectively,wheneverthecommunityactuallyconvenesitself.Theenergycreatedin thissortofcommunitymayactuallybecapableofenduringbeyondthose"exeptional"politicalmomentsdescribedbyArendtbecauseit"refuels"onitsownhistory eachtimeitreconvenes.ThisconceptionoftheroleofacommunityofbirthisrecognizedbyArendtonlyintimeofpoliticaldisaster,whenthecommunityis embattledaswesawinherdiscussionofLessing.Perhapsshefearedthepotentialviolenttribalismwerethe"irrationality"ofcommunitymembershiptobereified. ButIbelievetherearechoices,solongaspeopleareinthe"habitofexamining'':andacceptanceofone'smembershipinanhistoriccommunitydoesnotinevitably leadtoaviolentmistrustofothercommunities,ordemandwithdrawalfromtheworld. OneotheraspectofArendt'sthoughtstrikesmeasparticularlyJewish,andrelatedtoherrefusalto"codify."2 Itisherrespectforwhatshecalls"ineffability."Iread thisalsoascompatiblewiththeJewishbeliefthatGodcannotbeseen.ThereisgreatstressthroughoutArendt'sworkonwhatcannotbemadeexplicit.Thisissimilar towhattherabbisdescribedasthe"fencearoundtheTorah,"andwhatIidentifiedasoneofthesecretsofsurvivalfortheJews:changesincustomoccur,

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andarenotmadeexplicituntillongaftertheyareinplace.Thentheyare"addedon"totheteachings,andfuturethinkersaregiventhetaskofinterpretingthemeaning ofanyapparentcontradictions. Arendt'sdeferencetotheineffableappearsthroughoutherwork,asasubthemethatbubblestothesurfaceoccasionally.Wesawitinthediscussionofher"Concept ofHistory":herunwillingnesstoallowhumanbeingstoconverthistoryintoaproduct,withanendthatcanbedeterminedbyanyperson.Therewasasensethatshe wrotefromastandpointwhich,whilenotexplicitlyreligious,wasnonethelessspiritualinitswillingnesstorelinguishhumanknowledgeofimportantaspectsoflife.She simplyrefusedtoentertainthepossibilityofhumanlyavailableknowledgeoflife'smeaning,orthedescriptionofanendpointtohistory. Iseethatsamerespectfortheineffableinherconceptofpoliticalactionwhich,inTheHumanConditionshedescribesas"initsmostgeneralsense...totakean initiative,tobegin,tosetsomethingintomotion....Itisinthenatureofbeginningthatsomethingnewisstartedwhichcannotbeexpectedfromwhatevermayhave happenedbefore.Thischaracterofstartlingunexpectednessisinherentinallbegininngsandinallorigins."3 Butthepoliticalactordoesnotretaincontroloverhis(sic) act.Itssignificanceissomethinglefttolatergenerations,tohistory."Whateverthecharacterandcontentofthesubsequentstorymaybe,whetheritisplayedinprivate orpubliclife,whetheritinvolvesmanyorfewactors,itsfullmeaningcanrevealitselfonlywhenithasended....Actionrevealsitselffullyonlytothestoryteller,thatis tothebackwardglanceofthehistorian,whoindeedalwaysknowsbetterwhatitwasallaboutthantheparticipants"(HC192).Arendt'spoliticalactorinitiates somethingintheworld,butthenmustrelinguishittofuturegenerations.Theconsequencesofhisactareneitherfullyknowableorcontrollable.Itsmeaningisineffable, retainedinnarrative,interpretedbylatergenerations. NowonecouldarguethatthisdoesnotsoundparticularlyJewishifanything,itsoundsHegelian,asinHegel'sPhilosophyofHistory,andspecificallyinhis descriptionoftheflight

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oftheOwlofMinerva.WhatmakesArendt'sversionmoreJewishthanHegelianisheracquiescencetotheunknowabilityoftheendofhistory,whichisalso compatiblewithherprofessedagnosticismabouthumannature:"Ifwehaveanatureoressence,thensurelyonlyagoodcouldknowanddefineit"(HC10).Notonly doesArendtabhorthehubrisofbelievingthataphilosopherorarevolutionarycanpresumetoknowwherehistoryisheaded,andsacrificeevenonehumanlifeforhis ownprojectedcreation.Shealsoabhorsthearroganceofbelievingthathumanhistoryissomethingthatpeople"make."Herhumilityinthefaceoftheineffable,her concessiontowhatisbelievedunknowablestrikesmeasinkeepingwitharabbinicstancetowardhistoryandtruth.4 Jewsarenottheonlypeoplewithvaluesthat resemblethis.ButArendtwasaJewwhowasescapingherculturalheritageinherscholarship.Herescapemadeherlessawarethanshemighthavebeenofsomeof thesourcesofherownideas. Gender GenderistheseconddimensionIhaveconsideredinrelationtoHannahArendt'swork.TheperspectiveIhavetakenisnotthemoretraditionalfeministstance, studyingwhatinfluenceArendt'sgendermayhavehaduponherscholarlyinterestsandthecontentofherwork.Anotherfeministperspective,reallyacritique,takesa tacksimilartotheoneIhavetakenwithJudaism,andconsidersArendt'sflightfromfemininityinherscholarlylife.SomeofthesamepointsImakeinmydiscussionof heravoidanceofintellectualJudaismmaybemadewithregardtoherattitudetowardintellectualfemininity:themodelofscholarlylegitimacyforArendtwasmaleand Christian.Possessingneitherofthoseidentifyingcharacteristics,andknowinganywaythatshewasascholar,Arendtsimplydissociatedscholarship,herintellectuallife, fromherbiologicalandculturallife.IhavearguedthattherewasapricetopayforherdissociationofherintellectuallifefromJudaism:denialofamajorpartofher identity,andsomemissedintellectualopportunities.Therealsomaybeapricetopayfordenyingone's

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genderintellectually:thesameproblemswithadividedlife,culturallyspeaking,aresuretoapplyonthegenderlevelaswell.Theultimateriskofanysortofdenialis inauthenticityandfearofself. Butthataspectofthegenderdimensionhasnotbeenmyprincipalinterestinthisbook.Arendtneverclaimedtobeafeministalthoughsheneverdeniedbeinga womanbutshedidclaimtobeaJew,allthewhilekeepingthatidentityapartfromherintellectuallife.MyinvolvementwithgenderandHannahArendthashadto domorewiththefactthatshewasreceivedasa"womanscholar,"5 andwascaughtbysurpriseattheferocityofthecriticismleveledagainstherwhenshecrossed aninvisiblelineandpubliclycriticizedthemenofherowncommunity.Ifshehadbeenawareofhowherreadingpublicperceivedher,shemightnothavebeenso takenbysurprisebythefuriousresponsetoEichmann.Butthat'sneitherherenorthere.Ihavelaidoutmyargumentfortheimpactofgenderontheresponseofthe NewYorkandIsraelicommunitiestoEichmanninJerusalem,andwilladdnothingtothatextensivediscussionhere.Myconcerniswhatsensecanwemakeofthe furor. Isuggestedinthefirstpartofthebook,ongenderandJudaism,thatArendt'sreportonEichmannwassothreateningtoJewishmen,aswellastotheprotectorsof theirhonor,Jewishwomen,becausetheyhadbeenlabeledeffeminatebytheNazis.IconsideredargumentsthatJewishmaledefensivenessaboutmasculinitymayin factbetraceabletothecovenantofcircumcision,whichinrelationtotheuncircumcisedgoyimmaybeexperiencedasasymboliccastration.This,Isuggested,was probablylessaninevitable,psychoanalyticassociationthanaresultofahistoryofoppression.ThereisnothingtosuggestthattheBiblicalpatriarchsfeltlessmasculine thanthepeopleofothernationsbecauseofcircumcision.Indeed,circumcisionwasregardedasempowering,asymbolofaspecialrelationshipbetweenJewishmen andtheirGod.Theywerepowerfulmen,capableofspillingbloodinthemostviolentwaywhenrequired(Abrahamevencapableofsacrificinghisbelovedson althoughnotofconsultingSarahaboutit),andmanyof

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themweremarriedtopowerfulwomen.Theassociationofmasculinityandpoweristheresultofthephallushavingbeensymbollicallyassociatedwithworldlypower, ofwhichJewishmenhavehadlittle. ThemythofJewishmaleeffeminacymayhavebegunintherabbinicperiod.Morepertinentforthediscussionhereisitsprevalence,forwhateverreasons,inthe modernage,anditsavailabilitytoNazis.ThesexualsymbolismcoupledwithrealimpotenceinthefaceoftheNazimenacecreatedanintenselygenderedsituationfor JewishmenduringthiscenturyofvirulentantiSemitism.6 ThismightexplainagoodpartoftheviciousnesswithwhichtheJewishcommunityattackedHannahArendt. ButthereallessonswecanlearnfromtheEichmanncontroversyaremorecomplexthansimply,"Girls,ifyouwanttoplaysafe,becarefulhowyoupresentyour criticismsofmen!"or"Guys,willyougrowupandstoplettingyoursexualfearsgetinthewayofeverylittlething!"AsIindicatedinchapter5,partoftheproblem wasthatArendtherselfwasmore"macho"thanthemenshecriticizedexperiencedthemselvesasbeing.ShewantedaJewisharmy.ShewantedJewstostandupand fightforthemselves,inawaywewouldnormallyassociatewithmasculinity.Fromtheperspectiveofsomefeminists,ifmilitancy,armedretaliation,washerresponse totheattackontheJews,shesufferedfromfalseconsciousness.Indeed,JewishfeministDanielBoyarinwouldundoubtedlyarguethatArendt'sresponsewasnotonly wrongheaded,butantitheticaltohisreadingofwhatJewishmanhoodisreallyabout:headherestotheadmirabilityofJewishpassivitythroughouthistory,andlaments thataggressionandcombativenesshavecometoberegardedasthedefinitionofmasculinityinthemodernworld.Aggressionandcombativenesscharacterizethe goyim,inBoyarin'sschema,andJewishmaleeffortstobemore"masculine"onsuchamodelareanassimilationistselloutofwhatisfinestintheJewishtradition. Tomywayofthinking,theanswerisnotsomucheithertoglorifyortocondemnaggressionandcombativenessperse,buttodismantletheassociationofsuch characteristicswith

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masculinity.Theremay,onrareoccasion,verywellbeaplaceforviolenceintheworld,althoughnotforaggressiveorinstrumentalviolenceasawayofachieving one'sgoals.Butinextremecircumstances,whenexceptionalwrongisbeingdone,violencemaybealastditchdefensivemeasureinordertosecureone's preservation.Thereisplentyofviolenceinnature(allonehastodotogetclosetoitissitonthebackporchandwatchabirdextractingalivingwormfromitshomein theearth),andalthoughpeoplearenotinterchangeablewithnature,althoughwhatmaydistinguishusfromtheanimalsisourabilitytouseourintelligencetofree ourselvesfromthedeterminismofnature,neitherareweatacompleteremovefromit.Weareapartofnature,howeverspecialourrelationtoit. Peoplehavealwaysfoundreasontofightascivilizationadvances,wetrytofindwaystoworkoutdisagreementswithoutresortingtoinstinctivebrutality.Butweare also"hardwired"forsurvival,whichsometimescallsforfightratherthaneitherflightoracquiescence.Extremethreats,suchasgenocidalmenace,mayverywellcall forarmedresistance.Whatconcernsmeisthatinthoseextremecircumstanceswhendefensiveviolencemaybenecessaryforsurvival,violenceisperceivedin genderedterms.Theonlythingthatmakesmenmoreviolentthanwomenisessentialistsexism.Whenviolentbehaviorissymbollicallyassociatedwithmanhood,the worldisindeeptrouble.Menareintroublebecausetheyhaveboughtthebillofgoodsthattheyareonlytruly"men"iftheybehaveviolently.Womenareineven deepertrouble,havingboughtanevenmoredangerousbillofgoods:thattheyareincapableofviolence,evenwhenitisneccesarytodefendthemselves.Occasionally, itisconsidered"natural"forthefemalesofthespeciestodefendtheiryoungandtheirhomeswithviolence.Butthisismoreinkeepingwithstereotypical"maternal instincts"''mamabear"behaviorthanwithmature,rationalwomencapableofdefensiveviolence. Thelessontobelearnedhereisthatthereisatimeforpeace,andwithluck,intelligence,andtheendofgenderstereotypingamuchlesssignificanttimeforwar. Butneitherwarnorpeace,aggressionnorpassivityisthesoledomainof

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eithermenorwomen.HannahArendtseemedtoknowthishardlesson,havinggaineditfromherlife'smosttryingmoments.WhenshewroteEichmannin Jerusalem,theworldwasnotyetreadytohearhermessage.

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Appendix ReviewsofRaulHilberg'sTheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews
ThefollowingareexerptsfromarepresentativesampleofreviewsofRaulHilberg'sTheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.Theyhavebeenchosentoreflectthe prestigeofthejournalsprovidingthereviews,andtodemonstratetherespectfultonereservedforHilberg,evenwhenthereviewerhadreservationsabouthisfindings orargument.TheyareintendedtoillustratethecontrastbetweenthetoneofthereviewsofHilberg'sbook,andthoseofArendt'sEichmanninJerusalem,while recognizingthatthecontentofthetwobooksdealtwithsimilarissues. <><><><><><><><><><><><> ETHICS72,2(January1962) TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.ByRaulHilberg(Chicago:QuandrangleBooks,1961),pp.+788. Thisbookrecounts,inalmostoverpoweringdetail,theprocessbywhichtheNaziregimecarriedoutits"solution"ofthe"Jewishquestion."Inoversevenhundred doublecolumnedpages...Hilbergtracestheprocessofpersecutionwhichbeganwiththeeconomic,socialandpoliticaldestructionoftheJewsofGermanyinthe prewaryearsandculminatedinthe

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massmurdersofAuschwitzandtheother"killingcenters"ofthe"finalsolution."Murderingthreemillionpeopletheapproximatenumberkilledintheassemblyline proceduresemployedinthefinalstagesisnotasimplematter,especiallyifitistobeaccomplishedinrelativesecrecy....Theproblemputeven"Teutonic" thoroughnessanddedicationtoaseveretest,anditseemsuncontestablethatitcouldnothavebeenaccomplishedwithouttherelativedocilityofapopulationwhich hadcometobelieveoverthecenturiesthatresistanceonlyincreasedthefuryanddelayedtheterminationofpersecution.Lackingthesatanicingenuityandthe elaboratenetworkofcommunicationwithwhichtheywerecreditedinNazimythology,theJewishcommunitieswere,inanastonishingdegree,takenbysurprise,only slowlygraspedthetruthoftheirsituation,and,reactingintraditionalfashion,inlargepartsuppliedthedisciplineandorganizationwhichdeliveredthemtothegas chambers. ButHilberg'snarrativeisnotconcernedprimarilywiththeJews.Hisinterestisin"theperpetrators,"or,asheputsit,"thestormthatcausedthewreckage"...andhe hasthereforeproducedanarrativewhichaboundsinorganizationcharts,accountsofbureaucraticintrigue,andthenamesofofficials. Throughout,infact,theworkdisplaysapolitical(andconsequentmoral)naivetewhichputsintrinsiclimitationsuponitsusefulnessforthepurposeswhichHilberg professestobeserving.ThemovementoftheNazibureaucracyfromstatetostateof"thedestructionprocess"isnotintelligibleinitself.Understandingitrequires morethanananalysisofadministrativehierarchies. TheclosingsectionsofHilberg'sbookaredevotedtoaconsiderationof"consequences"and"implications"oftheeventshedescribes.Itishere,inhisconsiderationof thevariouseffortsatrescue,salvage,punishmentoftheperpetrators...thathispoliticalinsightbecomesmostclearlydeficient.Thetoneofthesesectionsisbitter, andconsistentlyso:itseemsalmostthateveryonefailedtoreacteffectivelyortoappreciatetheenormityofthecrime. Onsuchproblemsstudiessuchasthisshedlittlelight. C.W.

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<><><><><><><><><><><><> COMMENTARY33,4(April1962) NaziBureaucratsandJewishLeaders* *AreviewofTheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.ByRaulHilberg(QuadrangleBooks),788pp. H.R.TrevorRoper Thisisaforbiddingbook.Itisnearly800pageslong.Thepagesaredoublecolumned.Ithasnearlyahundredstatisticaltables.Itiswritteninanausterestyle,without literarygraceoremotion.Anditdealswithasubjectofwhich,thisyear,wehavealreadyheardagreatdeal.Ihardlythought,ontakingitup,thatIshouldbeunable toputitdown:thathavingpostponedthereadingofittillatimeofleisure,Ishouldthenhavereaditthrough,almostwithoutinterruption,andquitewithoutskipping,to theend.Forthisisnotmerelyacompilationorarecapitulationofthethenowdocumentedfacts.Itisnotyetanotherchronicleofhorrors.Itisacareful,analytic, threedimensionalstudyofasocialandpoliticalexperienceuniqueinhistory:anexperiencewhichnoonecouldbelievepossibletillithadhappenedandwhosereal significancestillbewildersus. ThegreatinterestofMr.Hilberg'sbookisthathehasfacedthistotalproblem.Heisnotcontenttochronicleortoexclaim.Whilekeepingtoanarrativeform,hehas studiedthesocialproblemanalytically:hisnarrativecarriesalongwithitaprofoundsocialcontent.ThisiswhyIcallit"threedimensional."Itreveals,methodically, fully,andclearly,thedevelopmentofboththetechnicalandthepsychologicalprocessthemachineryandthementalitywherebyonewholesocietysoughttoisolate anddestroyanotherwhich,forcenturies,hadlivedinitsmidst. InallthisprocessundoubtedlyitwastheNazipartywhichgavethesignalbutitwastheGermanbureaucracyinthewidestsensethatis,notonlythecivilservants butthearmyandthebusinessworldwhichmadeitpossible.AgainandagainMr.Hilbergmakesthisclear. Hereindeedwecometothecentralproblem.ForonethingwhichemergesclearlyfromMr.Hilberg'sstudyisthat

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theGermanspersuadedthemselvesthattheexterminationoftheJewswasanecessity.Thosewhopositivelyorganizedtheexterminationsawthemselvesasidealists, andtheywereanxiousthatthisidealism,whichenabledthemtocarryoutahideoustask,shouldnotbesulliedbysadismorcorruption.Theymustshowthattheir actionwasmateriallyandpsychologicallydisinterested. Butevenifweacceptthis,itisnottheendoftheproblem.Fortherearealwaystwopartiestodestruction:thedestroyersandthedestroyed.DuringtheEichmanntrial inIsraelaquestionconstantlyaskedbyyoungerIsraeliswas:Butwhywastherenoresistance?...AtAuschwitztheratioofprisonerstoguardsvariedfrom20to1 to35to1.Andyettheywentlikesheeptotheslaughter.TheGermansthemselves,whohavelongstaggeredtheworldbytheirbovinedocility,wereamazed.The Jewsmeeklyacceptedeverysuccessiveorderwhichrenderedthemimpotent,theyqueuedupforthedeportationtrains,theydutifullydugtheirgravesandkneltdown tobeshotandtumbleintothem,theyfiledintothegaschambers.Resistancewasnegligible,Germancasualtiesalmostnil.ThelastminuteresistanceoftheWarsaw Ghettowasaheroicexception. ForwhentheGermanshaddonetheirworst,wecannotescapethefactthattheJewsofEurope,obedienttotheirleadersandtotheirownhabitsofmind, collaboratedintheirowndestruction.AgainandagainthisfactemergesfromMr.Hilberg'snarrative.Itishismostsurprisingrevelation,anditwillprobablybethe leastwelcometohisreaders.Butitisinescapable.Fortwothouandyears,ashesays,theJewshadbeenunlearningthehabitofresistance,andintheendtheycould not,withoutarevolution,recoverit. ThepatternofJewish"appeasement"wasthesameeverywhere....NorwasitonlytheGermanJewswhowalkedintothetrap.WecannotascribeittoGerman docility. ItiseasytoblametheJudenrate,buttheJudenratewerenotunrepresentative.AsMr.Hilbergsays,they"weretheJewishleaders."Allhisevidenceshowsthat,in theircompliance,theyaccuratelyrepresentedtheirfollowers.CompliancewasthementalityoftheDispersion....Evenattheend(astheHun

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garianepisodeshows)theydidnotwaittobedeceived.Theydeceivedthemselves.LiketheGermans,whodidnotwishtoadmitthat,asanation,theywere murdering,theJewsdidnotwishtoadmitthat,asanation,theywerebeingmurdered. NottheleastofthecontributionswhichMr.Hilberghasmadetohistoryandsociologyinthisimpressiveworkishisilluminationofthisgreatgulfbetweenthosewho continuedandthosewhosoughttoreversealongsuccessfulbut,initslaterandperhapsuniqueencounterwiththeGermanbureaucracy,ultimatelydisastrous tradition. <><><><><><><><><><><><> AMERICANHISTORICALREVIEW67,3(April1962) TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.ByRaulHilberg(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1961),pp.x+788. Thisisanimpressiveanddepressingwork.ProfessorHilbergtracesthestepstakenbytheGermanstate,party,economic,andmilitarybureaucraciestodestroy Europe'sJews. Theauthor'smethodissimpleinform.Hereviewseachstep,followingachronologicalandgeographicalsequenceacrossEuropeandexplicatingtheorganizationsand individualsinvolvedonthebasisprimarilyofexhaustiveresearchintheGermandocuments.Thisapproachisproductivebothofthebook'sgreatmeritsanditsdefects. WithgreatcareandingenuityHilberghasunraveledagenciesandjurisdictions,organizationalresponsibilities,andfinancialtransactionsthatoftenbafflethescholar. Theapproachalsorevealsandthisisoneofthemainthemesofthebooktheinvolvementofvastnumbersinthemechanicsofmassmurder.Amodernsociety withitscomplexbureaucracyispotentiallyamenacetoanymoralorder.Crimelosesitscriminalitythroughtheinstitutionalization:thosewhogiveordersseenoblood thosewhoassistatthedeedaremeretechniciansthosewhokillonlyobeyorders.ByplacingthiswholestorybeforethereaderHilbergperformsanimportant servicenotonlybypointingtothegeneraldanger,butalsobyrestoringbalancetoourperspectiveonthepast.Heshowsthattheindividualsinvolvedin

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themurderprocesswerenotaselectedcrewofsadists,butasampleofthepopulationthatiftheSSdidtheshootinginRussia,thearmydiditinSerbiathatifthe partybureaucracypushedhard,theForeignMinistryofficialsweredoingtheirbesttocompete. Nothingwouldbegainedbylistingminorerrors.Moreimportantarethoseshortcomingsproducedbytheauthor'smethodology.First,Hilbergissometimescarried awaybyhispassionfordetailintotediouseffortsatprecisionthatonlytirethereaderandmartheeffectivenessoftheaccount.Second,intryingtodopracticallyall theresearchhimselfonthebasisofdocuments,theauthorhassometimesredoneepisodes,liketheproposedGrynzpantrial,thathavealreadybeenanalyzedmore thoroughlybyothers.Furthermore,rigidadherencetothewordingratherthanthemeaningofdocumentshasinplacesledtodistortion. ThesedeficienciesdonotmateriallyreduceHilberg'scontribution.Notonlytheprocessofdestructionbutitsmanifoldimplicationsandrepercussionsaredescribed andanalyzedwithdiligenceandperception.ThesatellitesoftheAxis,boththewillingandtheunwilling,therescueorganizationsandtheAlliedpowers,theobedient victimsandthemurderersbroughttotrial,thesurvivorsandtherestitutionofficialsallmoveacrossthesomberpagesofthisbook.Herethedestructionprocessisseen throughtheeyesofitspractitionersonascalenootherscholarhasyetattempted.AGermantranslationisdesirable. GerhardL.Weinberg <><><><><><><><><><><><> AMERICANJOURNALOFSOCIOLOGY68,1(July1962) TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.ByRaulHilberg(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1961),pp.xii+788. ProfessorHilberg'svolumeisenormouslyusefulasanapproachtotheproblem.Itsdoublecolumnedpagesarepackedwithmeticulousdetail.Hehascarefully examinedagreatnumberofsourcesandhasbroughthismaterialstogether

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skilfully.Hiscareful,lucidunfoldingofhowthetragedydevelopedbringshomeitsfullhorrorasfewothertreatmentshave. Successfulasthebookisindescribinghowthekillingswerecarriedthrough,itneverthelessfailstoexplainwhytheytookplace.Theauthorcannotunderstandthe motives,eitheroftheNazis,oroftheGermans,oroftheircollaborators,oroftheconqueredpopulations,orevenoftheJews.Perhapsbecausehehassodeeply immersedhimselfintheworldofthebureaucrats,hecannotcomprehendthehumanbeingswhoweretheirvictims. AgainandagainHilbergreturns,asifitwerecritical,tothequestionofwhytheJewsfailedtoresist.Itisasif,knowingthatthetragedyshouldnothaveoccurred,he insiststhatsomeoneshouldhavestoppeditGermans,Allies,or,ifnooneelse,theJews.AndhedrawsuponafarfetchedconceptionofhistoricalJewishattitudes toaccountfortheirunwillingnesstoresist.Outofthismisconceptionspringseriouserrorsininterpretation. Theunwelcomepossibility,whichtheauthordoesnotconfront,isthatnothingcouldhavepreventedtheHolocaustoncethewarhadbegunnottheGermanpeople, northeAllies,andleastofalltheJews.Infact,themagnitudeofthekillingoperationshadnorelationtothedegreeofresistance,butonlytotheextentoftheNazi powerinvariouspartsofEurope. Asanexampleofthesupremetestofthecompliancereactioninfrontofthegrave,Hilbergcitesthefollowingeyewitnessreport:"Thefatherwasholdingthehandofa boyabouttenyearsoldandwasspeakingtohimsoftlytheboywasfightinghistears.Thefatherpointedtothesky,strokedhishead,andseemedtoexplain somethingtohim....ThenIheardaseriesofshots"(1669).Perhapsnootherattitudewasdignifiedandreasonableinaworldcompletelyandbrutallymad. OscarHandlin HarvardUniversity

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Notes
Chapter1.Introduction 1.Seeforexample,DagmarBarnouw'sfascinatingstudy,VisibleSpaces:HannahArendtandtheGermanJewishExperience(Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkins UniversityPress,1990)alsoFeministInterpretationsofHannahArendt,ed.BonnieHonig(UniversityPark,Pa.:PennStatePress,1995),particularlyDietz's, Honig's,Pitkin's,andBenhabib'sessaysinthatvolume.ThebasiccollectionofArendt'sJewishwritingsthemselvesisTheJewasPariah,ed.andwithan introductionbyRonH.Feldman(NewYork:GrovePress,1978). 2.The"JewishWritings"referprimarilytotheessayscollectedinRonFeldman'svolume,op.cit.note1.ThecompletecitationforRahelVarnhagenisHannah Arendt,RahelVarnhagen:TheLifeofaJewishWoman,rev.ed.(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1974[1957]). 3.JasperstoHannahArendt,23August1952.Correspondence,HannahArendt,KarlJaspers,ed.LotteKohlerandHansSaner(NewYork:HarcourtBrace Jovanovich,1992,pp.192,193). 4.Correspondence,op.cit.p.197ArendttoJaspers,7September1952. 5.Icitejusttworecentexamplesofscholarshipthattends,inmyopinion,topullArendtinto"early"and"late,"inawaythatresemblesathemeinMarxscholarship. LeahBradshaw,inActingandThinking:ThePoliticalThoughtofHannahArendt(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1989)suggeststhatwhenshewas writingTheHumanCondition,HannahArendtbelievedinthecompleteprimacyofactionandwascontentwithaviewthatmaintainedtheutterseparabilityofaction fromthought.InBradshaw'sscenario,Arendtlatercametorealizetheinterconnectednessofthinkingandactingandtriedtoresolvethetensionbetweenthem,onlyto overemphasizetheimportanceofthought,onceagaindivorcedtoocompletelyfromaction.Thetensionbetweenthinkingandactingpersisted,Bradshawargues,

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untilArendtwenttoJerusalemtoreportonthetrialofAdolphEichmann.Atthattime,sheturnedtowardtheprimacyofmentallifebutneverresolvedthe ''tensions"betweenherlaterinterestinthinkingandherearlypreoccupationwithaction. Likewise,RonaldBeiner,anastuteandevocativestudentofArendt'stheoryofjudgment,becomesensnaredinmappingtheprogressionofherideasabout judgmentfromherearlierwritingsontheVitaActivatothelaterpreoccupationwithTheLifeoftheMind.Henotesasharpturningpointinherideasin1971, withheressay"ThinkingandMoralConsiderations":"SurveyingArendt'sworkasawhole,wecanseethatsheoffersnotonebuttwotheoriesofjudgment....In herwritingsupuntilthe1971essay'ThinkingandMoralConsiderations,'judgmentisconsideredfromthepointofviewoftheVitaActivainherwritingsfrom thatessayonward,judgmentisconsideredfromthepointofviewofthelifeofthemind....AsIinterpretArendt,herwritingsonthethemeofjudgmentfallinto twomoreorlessdistinctphases:earlyandlate,practicalandcontemplative"(LecturesonKant'sPoliticalPhilosophy,ed.andwithaninterpretiveessayby RonaldBeiner[Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1982,pp.91,92]).Beiner,likeBradshaw,concludesthatArendt'sworkisseriouslystrainedbythe inconsistenciesbetweenherearlyandlaterwork:"Arendtachievesafinalresolutionbyabolishingthistension,optingwhollyforthelatterconceptionofjudgment. Thisresolutionultimatelyproducesconsistency,butitisastrainedconsistency,achievedatthepriceofexcludinganyreferencetothevitaactivawithinthe revisedconceptofjudgment"(Beiner139). BothBeinerandBradshawmaybecorrectintheirperceptionoftensionsbetweenan"early"Arendtconcernedwithaction,anda"later"Arendtconcernedwith thelifeofthemind.MargaretCanovanalsoseesadivisioninArendt'sworkbetweentheSocraticandHeideggerian,whichtranslatesintocategoriescompatible withBeinerandBradshaw:communityoriented,andsolitaryphilosophical.Weshalldiscussherworkinmoredetailinchapternine.ButIamconvincedthatthe intellectual"contradictions"inArendt'sworkwerenotasprofoundasthesescholarssuggest,thatactionandthinkingwerealwaysconcernsofArendt's,andthat thetensions,whichcertainlydocharacterize(although,inmyopinion,donotdichotomize)herwork,arebestunderstoodasatensionbetweenthelargely unacknowledgedinterestsoftheJewishscholarandthesomewhatincompatibledemandsoftheGermanphilosophicalscholar,whichisclosertohowArendt presentedherpublicscholarlypersona.

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Onalighternote,withregardtothesegregationofArendtintowomanandJewaswellasscholar,considerthefollowingcorrespondencewithGertrudJaspers. Rightafterthewar,whenArendtandJaspershadmadecontactaftertwelveyearsofmutuallyfearingtheotherdead,Arendtenclosedcookinginstructionsalong withthepackageofsuppliesshehadsenttotheJaspers.Sheinstructedthe(Jewish)FrauJaspersintheartofcookingbacon:"Furthermore,dearGertrud Jaspers,don'trelyonmynotveryhighlydevelopedhousewifelyinstinctsbutwritemewhatyou'dliketohave.Inthelastpackages,Iputinakosherwurstyou havetobeverycarefulwithporkherebecauseoftrichinosis.IfIshouldsendbacon(I'veforgottentheGermanwordforit,thehellwithit),pleasealwaysfryit justthisway:Puttheslicesinamoderatelyhotpanandfrythemoveralowflame.Keeppouringthefatoffuntiltheslicesarecrisp.Thennothingcangowrong witheitherthefatorthebacon"(Correspondence,op.cit,p.24,18November1945).AlthoughIfacetiouslyofferthischarmingletterasanexampleofArendtas hausfrau,perhapssomemoretraditionalJewishnessshowshereunconsciously.Inspiteofinstructingasisterintheartofcookingtraif,sheforgetstheGerman wordforit! 6.InTheJewasPariah,ed.andwithanintroductionbyRonH.Feldman(NewYork:GrovePress,1978),pp.241,24547. 7.Someworkisfinallybeingdoneonassimilationandgender.AnewvolumehasbeenpublishedbytheUniversityofWashingtonPress,GenderandAssimilation inModernJewishHistory:TheRolesandRepresentationofWomen,ed.PaulaHyman(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,1995).SeealsoMarionA. Kaplan,TheMakingoftheJewishMiddleClass:Women,FamilyandIdentityinImperialGermany(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1991).Other sourcesonJewishfeminism,althoughnotspecificallyongenderandassimilationarecitedinchapter5. 8.GeorgeL.Mosse,NationalismandSexuality:MiddleClassMoralityandSexualNormsinModernEurope(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1985). 9.See,forexample,bellhooks,Ain'tIaWoman(Boston:SouthEndPress,1981),e.g.,"WhileblackmenwerenotforcedtoassumearolecolonialAmerican societyregardedas'feminine,'blackwomenwereforcedtoassumea'masculine'role.Blackwomenlaboredinthefieldsalongsideblackmen,butfewifanyblack menlaboredasdomesticsalongsideblackwomeninthewhitehousehold(withthepossibleexceptionofbutlers,whosestatuswasstillhigherthanthatofamaid). Thus,itwouldbemuchmoreaccurateforscholarsto

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examinethedynamicsofsexistandracistoppressionduringslaveryinlightofthemasculinizationoftheblackfemaleandnotthedemasculinizationoftheblack male"(22)and"Moynihansuggestedthatthenegativeeffectsofracistoppressionofblackpeoplecouldbeeliminatedifblackfemalesweremorepassive, subservientandsupportiveofpatriarchy.Onceagain,woman'sliberationwaspresentedasinimicaltoblackliberation.Theextenttowhichblackmenabsorbed thisideologywasmadeevidentinthe60sblackliberationmovement.Blackmaleleadersofthemovementmadetheliberationofblackpeoplefromracist oppressionsynonymouswiththeirgainingtherighttoassumetheroleofpatriarch,ofsexistoppressor.Byallowingwhitementodictatethetermsbywhichthey woulddefineblackliberation,blackmenchosetoendorsesexistexploitationandoppressionofblackwomen.Andinsodoingtheywerecompromised.They werenotliberatedfromthesystembutliberatedtoservethesystem.Themovementendedandthesystemhadnotchangeditwasnolessracistorsexist"(181). SeealsoAngelaDavis,Women,RaceandClass(NewYork:VintageBooks,1983)andPatriciaHillCollins,BlackFeministThought:Knowledge, Consciousness,andthePoliticsofEmpowerment(NewYork:Routledge,1990).Bothscholarsaddressthemythofthe"dangerous"blackmatriarch,who somehowreceivestheblameforthe"emasculinization"ofAfricanAmericanmen,aswellasforalltheproblemsAfricanAmericanfamiliesmaysuffer.Collins observes,"FartoomanyBlackmenwhopraisetheirownmothersfeellessaccountabletothemothersoftheirownchildren....InthecaseofBlack motherhood,theproblemshavebeenastiflingofdialogueamongAfricanAmericanwomenandtheperpetuationoftroublesome,controllingimages,bothnegative andpositive"(116,117).And:''ThemammyrepresentstheclearestexampleofthesplitbetweensexualityandmotherhoodpresentinEurocentricmasculinist thought.Incontrast,boththematriarchandthewelfaremotheraresexualbeings.Buttheirsexualityislinkedtotheirfertility,andthislinkformsonefundamental reasontheyarenegativeimages.Thematriarchrepresentsthesexuallyaggressivewoman,onewhoemasculatesBlackmenbecauseshewillnotpermitthemto assumerolesasBlackpatriarchs.Sherefusestobepassiveandthusisstigmatized.Similarly,thewelfaremotherrepresentsawomanoflowmoralsand uncontrolledsexuality,factorsidentifiedasthecauseofherimpoverishedstate.InbothcasesBlackfemalecontroloversexualityandfertilityisconceptualizedas antitheticaltoelitewhitemaleinterests"(78). AngelaDavisarguesthattheimageoftheblackmatriarchwascreatedbywhitemalescholarsofslavery,whoobservedmoreshared

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domesticresponsibilitiesandcooperationbetweenmenandwomeninslavehouseholdswithregardtotasksperformed,andthissemblanceofequalitybetween slavemenandwomenwasperceived,throughtheirgenderdistortedeyesas"matriarchy."Thatis,theabsenceofpatriarchalhierarchywithintheslavefamilies waslabeled"matriarchy"becausethewomenwerenotsubordinatetothemen:"Thesalientthemeemergingfromdomesticlifeintheslavequartersisoneofsexual equality.Thelaborthatslavesperformedfortheirownsakeandnotfortheaggrandizementoftheirmasterswascarriedoutintermsofequality"(Davis18). 10.AstheAfricanAmericanpoetAmiriBaraka(formerlyLeroiJones)observedrecentlyinTheNewYorker,regardingLouisFarrakhan:"Firstofall,Iwouldn'tgo tonowarandleavehalfthearmyhome....Logistically,thatdoesn'tmakesense."HenryLouisGatesfurtherreportsofhisinterviewwithBaraka:"Henotesthat MartinLutherKing's1963MarchonWashingtonwas'muchmoreinclusive,'andseesFarrakhan'sregressionas'anabsoluteduplicationofwhat'shappeninginthe country,'fromRobertBlyonthesacrilizationofmasculinity,"inHenryLouisGates,Jr.,"AnnalsofRace:ThirteenWaysofLookingataBlackMan,"TheNew Yorker71,33(23October1995):60. 11.SeeJenniferRing,ModernPoliticalTheoryandContemporaryFeminism:ADialecticalAnalysis(Albany,StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1991),esp. pp.158. 12.Thismaysoundlikethetraditionalpsychoanalytic"Catch22":Theevidencethatweareresistanttosomethingispreciselythatweareunawareoftheresistance and,thus,resistingallthemorestridently.However,formoreextensivediscussionofthepsychogenesisofthefearoffemaleanger,seeforexample,Dorothy Dinnerstein,TheMermaidandtheMinotaur(NewYork:ColophonBooks,1977)andNancyChodorow,TheReproductionofMothering(Berkeley,University ofCaliforniaPress,1978). 13.bellhooks,TalkingBack:ThinkingFeminist,ThinkingBlack(Boston:SouthEndPress,1989),p.7. 14.bellhooks,op.cit.,pp.7,128. 15.CarolGilligan,InADifferentVoice(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1982). 16.CatharineMacKinnon,"Feminism,Marxism,MethodandtheState:TowardFeministJurisprudence,"Signs8,6(1983):3558and

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MacKinnon,"Feminism,Marxism,MethodandtheState:AnAgendaForTheory."InFeministTheory:ACritiqueofIdeology,ed.NannerlO.Keohane, MichelleZ.Rosaldo,andBarbaraC.Gelpi(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1982),p.24. 17.SandraHarding,TheScienceQuestioninFeminism(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1986),p.47.SeealsoEvelynFoxKeller,ReflectionsonScience andGender(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1985)SandraHardingandMerrillB.Hintikka,DiscoveringReality(Dordrecht,Holland:D.Reidel, 1983),especiallytheessaybyNaomiSchemanonobjectivityAnneFaustoSterling,MythsofGender(NewYork:BasicBooks,1985). 18.NancyHartsock,"TheFeministStandpoint."InFeminismandMethodology,ed.SandraHarding(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1987),pp.15780. Chapter2.ThePoliticsoftheEichmannControversy 1.ElisabethYoungBruehl,Arendt:ForLoveoftheWorld(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1982),pp.339,379.SeeYoungBruehl'sexcellentand thoroughdiscussionofthewritingofEichmanninJerusalemandthecontroversysurroundingit,pp.328378. 2.InHannahArendt,1954.BetweenPastandFuture:EightExercisesinPoliticalThought(NewYork:Viking,1954),p.227. 3.Arendt,Hannah,"ThinkingandMoralConsiderations:ALecture,"SocialResearch38,3(Autumn1971):417440. 4.Arendt,Hannah,TheLifeoftheMind:One/Thinking,Two/Willing.(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1978[1971]),pp.35.Hereafterreferredtoin thetextaseitherThinkingorWilling,withpagereferencefollowing.SeealsoDagmarBarnouw,VisibleSpaces(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990). ReferringtoherunfinishedTheLifeoftheMindandtheworkthatleduptoit,Barnouwnotes:"Yet,whereshetalkedexplicitlyandexclusivelyaboutthinkingin the1971lecture"ThinkingandMoralconsiderations,"inThinking,thefirstvolumeofTheLifeoftheMindshefelttheneedtojustifyher'presumptuousness,'and inbothcasesshereferredherreaderstothecaseofEichmann"(1ff.). 5.ArendtnotedtoJaspers:"WhatisseriousaboutthisisthatallthenonJewsareonmysidenowandthatnotasingleJewdarestostand

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upformepublicly,evenifheiscompletelywithme"(L.34311/24/63,p.535).MaryMcCarthyin"TheHueandCry"(PartisanReview31,1[Winter1964]) noted:"SofarasIknow,allMissArendt'shostilereviewshavecomefromJewsandthosefavorabletoherfromgentiles,withfourexceptions:A.Alvarez, GeorgeLichtheim,BrunoBettelheim,andDanielBell....ItisasifEichmanninJerusalemhadrequiredaspecialpairofJewishspectaclestomakeits'true purport'visible"(82).Barnouwnotes:"Thisis,onthewhole,ausefulobservation,eventhough,asDwightMacdonaldpointsout,theexceptionsaretoomanyfor herclaimtobeentirelyconvincing,especiallysincetheyincludesuchsubstantialwriters.ButMacdonald,too,thoughtMcCarthy's'broaderaim'wasaccurate: 'ThereactionsingeneraldividealongJewishandnonJewishlines'"(fromPartisanReview31,2[Spring1964]):26566. 6.HannahArendt,EichmanninJerusalem:AReportontheBanalityofEvil(NewYork:Penguin,1980[1963]),p.118.Hereafterreferredtointhetextas Eichmann,followedbypagereference. 7.Barnouw,op.cit.p.234. 8.Arendtwasalsonottheonlyonetohavemadethesecharges.AnIsraelicounselconfirmedasmuchtoherprivately(seeHannahArendtandKarlJaspers, Correspondence,19261969,ed.andwithanintroductionbyLotteKohlerandHansSaner.Trans.RobertKimberandRitaKimber(NewYork:HarcourtBrace Jovanovich,1991).Hereafterreferredtointhetextwiththeinitial"L."for"Letter,"followedbyanumber,date,pagenumber,andauthor,whereneededfor clarification(L.343,11/24/63,p.534). 9.Barnouw,op.cit.,pp.23233. 10.SeeforexampleherdiscussioninOnRevolutionofthepatronizingattitudeoftheleadersoftheFrenchRevolution,inwhatsheregardsastheirbetrayalofthe massesofpoorpeople.Especiallypp.8898and109114."SincethedaysoftheFrenchRevolution,ithasbeentheboundlessnessoftheirsentimentthatmadethe revolutionariessocuriouslyinsensitivetorealityingeneralandtotherealityofpersonsinparticularwhomtheyfeltnocompunctionsinsacrificingtotheir'principle,'or thecourseofhistory,orthecauseoftherevolutionassuch"(90)."ItwasthewaruponhypocrisythattransformedRobespierre'sdictatorshipintotheReignof Terror"(99),and"Itistruethatthemassesofthesufferingpeoplehadtakentothestreetunbiddenanduninvitedbythosewhothenbecametheirorganizersandtheir spokesmen.Butthesufferingtheyexposedtransformedthe

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malheureuxintotheenragesonlywhen'thecompassionatezeal'oftherevolutionariesofRobespierre,probably,morethanofanybodyelsebegantoglorify thissuffering,hailingtheexposedmiseryasthebestandevenonlyguaranteeofvirtue"(111). 11.SeeHannahArendtandKarlJaspers,Correspondence,19261969,ed.andwithanintroductionbyLotteKohlerandHansSaner.Trans.RobertKimberand RitaKimber(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1991).Hereafterreferredtointhetextwiththeinitial"L."for"Letter,"followedbyanumber,date,page number,andauthor,whereneededforclarification(L.332,7/25/63[Jaspers],pp.51115,andArendt'sreply,L.333,8/9/63,pp.51518)."WhatImeanisthat everyonewhohadapoliticalroleevenifhewasagainsttheregimeandevenifhewassecretlypreparinganassassinationattemptonHitlerwasinfectedbythe plagueinbothwordanddeed.Inthissense,thedemoralizationofthecountrywascompletetheonlypeoplenotaffectedbyitwerethosewhosatsteadfastlyintheir hidingplaces.Yousetthenumberatabout100,000,andIthinkthat'safairestimate.IfthosehundredthousandhadcometopowerafterGermany'sdefeat,things wouldprobablylookverydifferentnow"(518).LeniYahil,inTheHolocaust:TheFateofEuropeanJewry(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1990),also chroniclesindetailinstancesofresistance.SeefulldiscussionoftheEuropeanresistanceinchapter3. 12.ElisabethYoungBruehl,HannahArendt:ForLoveoftheWorld(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1982),p.349. 13.Forthoroughaccounts,seeYoungBruehl,op.cit.,andBarnouw,Dagmar,VisibleSpaces(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990). 14."HannahArendtonEichmann:AStudyinthePerversityofBrilliance,"Commentary36,3(September1963):201208. 15.RaulHilberg,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews(NewYork:HolmesandMeier,1985). 16."TheAestheticsofEvil:HannahArendtonEichmannandtheJews,"PartisanReview30,1(Spring1963):21130. 17.SeeAppendix,pp.289295andHilberg,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews,chapterone,"Precedents",especiallypp.1924. 18.YoungBruehl,op.cit.,p.360. 19.YoungBruehl,p.360.IrvingHoweclaimedinPartisanReview31,2(Spring1964):"Atnopointwasanyone,notBellorHillbergorKazin'shouteddown.' Everyonewhorosetospeakwasallowedtofinish"(260).

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20."TheAestheticsofEvil,"PartisanReview30,2(Spring1963):214. 21."TheHueandCry,"PartisanReview31,1(Winter1964):8294. 22."Ahistoricaldisasterhasbeentransformed,Iamsorrytosay,intoajournalisticoccasion.""MoreonEichmann,"PartisanReview31,2(Spring1964):278. 23.SeediscussioninChapter3,pp.71ff. 24.Feldman,op.cit.,p.241. 25.Ibid,p.242. 26.Feldman,TheJewasPariah(NewYork:Grove,1978),p.250. 27.Feldman,op.cit.,p.247. 28.Feldman,op.cit.,p.245. 29.Ibid,24849.DagmarBarnouwobserves:"ScholemchosetomisunderstandwhatshesaidaboutEichmann'sprofessedfascinationwithHerzl'sTheJewish State....This,ofcourse,didnotmakeEichmannaZionist,nordoesitsuggestthatArendtconsideredhimonewhenshereportedthatheconsideredhimself convertedtoZionismandofcourseitdidnotmakeaZionistaNazi,nordiditsuggestArendt'sestablishingsuchanequation."Barnouwgoessofarastoexpress astonishmentatthepublicmentalitythatcouldsoprofoundlymisinterpretArendt'sintentions: "InherreportontheEichmanntrial,Arendtshowedhowonequitenormalman'sinabilitytothinkforhimselfwasfedbythemoralinversionoftotalitarianruleand, inturn,contributedtoituntilitreachedstunningproportions.Mostofhercriticsunderstoodherdescriptionofthisprocesstobeanattempttoexcusethe executionersandaccusethevictims.Itisthismisunderstandingwhichisamazing,nottheangerortherage.ItwascausedbyherrefusaltouseantiSemitismasthe mainfocusinheranalysisofthecrimeanditspunishment,whichwasconnectedwithherinsistenceonbeingallowedtotellthestoryofEichmannusinga storyteller'sstrategiesinnegotiatingdistancesandperspectives." 30."InherlengthychronicleofthedestructionofEuropeanJewryMissArendtaddsnothingnewtothevastliteratureonthesubject.BasingherselflargelyonRaul Hilberg'simpressivestudy(TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews)shegoesoverfamiliarterritory"(Syrkin7). 31.Thisisthesubjectofchapter3,"IsraelandtheHolocaust." 32.HeadlineinIntermountainJewishNews,April12,1963.CitedinMacdonald,PartisanReview31,2(Spring1964):262.

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33.DanielBell,"TheAlphabetofJustice:Reflectionson'EichmanninJerusalem,'"PartisanReview30,3(Fall1963):41729. 34.TheissueoftheeducationofJewishwomenintheGermanyofHannahArendt'schildhoodisdiscussedindetailinthesectionentitled"JewishWomen,"ofchapter 5,thisvolume. 35.RaulHilberg,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews(NewYork:HolmesandMeier,1985). 36.SeetheappendixofreviewsofHilberg'sbookattheendofthisvolume,pp.289295 37.Myevidenceforthisissomewhatanecdotal:presentationoftheseideasatseveralannualmeetingsoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociationweremetwith virulentoutragethatsimplyrecaptulatedthetoneoftheEichmanncontroversyitself,andcausedonesympatheticcolleaguewhohadwitnessedtheuproartoremark tome,"IguesstheEichmanncontroversyisstillalive."Readers'objectionstomyeffortstopublisharticlesbasedonresearchforthisbookhavebeensimilarly strident,includingreportstojournalsasdisparateasTikkunandPoliticalTheory. 38.DagmarBarnouw(1990)issomewhatofanexceptiontothis,especiallyinherchapteronRahelVarnhagen,whereshenotes,forexample,"ButArendtdoesall thesethingstoRahelbecausesheisprofoundlyangrywithheroutofaconcretesympathywithherlifeasawomanandaJew.PuttingherselfinRahel'splace,seeing hersoclearly,understandinghersowell,shewishespassionatelythattheotherJewishwoman,livingmorethanacenturybeforeher,couldhavehadthecourageand theencouragementtochange.Nomale,nogentile,wouldhavebeensoangrywithRahel,norwouldtheyhaveseensoclearlythewasteofherlifeandtheflawsinher lifestory"(70). 39."Nowletus,byaflightofimagination,supposethatRomeisnotahumanhabitationbutapsychicalentitywithasimilarlylongandcopiouspastanentity,thatis tosay,inwhichnothingthathasoncecomeintoexistencewillhavepassedawayandalltheearlierphasesofdevelopmentcontinuetoexistalongsidethelatestone," andsoforth(Freud,CivilizationandItsDiscontents,trans.JamesStrachey[NewYork:Norton,1961],p.18). 40.ForexamplesofArendt'sabilitytodistanceherselffromidentifyingwiththefemale,seeArendtJaspers,Correspondence(L.258,3/25/60p.391):"Butthat trulyawfulstoryaboutthegirlconfirmsmein

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myprejudiceagainstwomenasprofessors.ImaynothavebeenabletomanageaperformancelikethatbecauseIlacktheuninhibitednessofthehysterical,butI canunderstandhowfearwoulddrivesomeonetosimplylieinbed.Thattakesacertaincourage,too,thatIdon'thave.Youthought:earlystagesofmentalillness. Youareprobablyright,butIdon'tthinksinglewomenneedtobecrazytodocrazythings."Also,inTheHumanCondition,pp.7273:"Womenandslaves belongedtothesamecategoryandwerehiddenawaynotonlybecausetheyweresomebodyelse'sproperty,butbecausetheirlifewas'laborious,'devotedto bodilyfunctions....Thefactthatthemodernageemancipatedtheworkingclassandthewomenatnearlythesamehistoricalmomentmustcertainlybecounted amongthecharacteristicsofanagewhichnolongerbelievesthatbodilyfunctionsandmaterialconcernsshouldbehidden." Chapter3.IsraelandtheHolocaust 1."RaulHilberg'sbasicworkontheHolocaustalsoremainsuntranslatedintoHebrew.LikeArendt,HilbergplacedpartoftheguiltforthegenocideontheJews themselves,implicatingtheJudenratsinfacilitatingtheexterminationprogram.TheroleoftheJudenratshasalwaysbeenoneofthemostsensitiveissuesofthe HolocaustittooksevenyearsforYadVashemtopublishaHebrewtranslationofIsaiahTrunk'sJudenrat,whichwasfirstpublishedinNewYork.RuthBondi's EdelsteinagainstTimeahumane,balancedaccountofthemoraldilemmasfacedbythemanwhomEichmannappointedas'JewishElder'oftheTheresienstadt ghettowaspublishedonlyintheearly1980s,whenitwasseenasshatteringataboo.ThesamewastrueofYehoshuaSobol'splay,Ghetto,producedafewyears later"TomSegev,TheSeventhMillion:TheIsraelisandtheHolocaust,trans.HaimWatzman(NewYork:HillandWang,1993),p.465. 2.(NewYork:HillandWang,1993),trans.HaimWatzman. 3.TomSegev,TheSeventhMillion:TheIsraelisandtheHolocaust,trans.HaimWatzman(NewYork:HillandWang,1993),p.465.Pagereferencesfollowin thetextinparentheses. 4.AlexanderBloom,ProdigalSons:TheNewYorkIntellectualsandTheirWorld(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1986),p.329.Pagereferencesfollowin thetextinparentheses.

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5.ThetermPalestinianJews,andevenPalestine,isproblematic.Itistechnicallyaccurate,sincetherewasno"stateofIsrael"before1948,andtheBritish protectorateofPalestineincludedbothJewishandArabterritories.Butsincethecurrentpoliticsoftheregionremaintense,andstruggleoverterritorystillbitter,with IsraelnowreferringtoJewishterritoryandPalestinereferringtoArabterritory,useofthetermPalestiniantorefertoJewsbeforethefoundingofthestateofIsraelis somewhatdisconsonant.Inthischapter,therefore,IshallusethetermsPalestineandPalestinian,withthemodifierofeitherJewishorZionist,onlywhenthe referenceinvolvesthelegalorpoliticalaspectsoftheBritishprotectoratebefore1948.Otherwise,indeferencetocontemporarypoliticalinstincts,whentheterm impliesmoretheJewishpeopleinPalestine,(asinamYisraeloreretzYisrael)ratherthanthelegalentity,IshallusethetermIsraelorIsraeli.Themostaccurate term,andtheonepreferredbytheJewishpeopleinPalestinebeforestatehoodtodescribethemselves,andwhichIshallalsomakeuseof,isYishuv,or"settlement". 6.AmorebenignreadingthanPorat'sregardstheBritishaseitherpassiveorsopreoccupiedwiththeirinvolvementinthebroaderwaragainsttheAxispowersthat theyoverlookedthespecificfateoftheJews.Poratislesssypathetic,andinsistsbluntlythattheBritishsimplydidnotcareaboutthefateoftheJewsandwere activelyworkingagainsttheeffectivenessofIsrael'seffortstorescueEuropeanJews.InherdiscussionofthepleastotheBritishtobombAuschwitzshenotes:"The reasonsgivenbytheAlliesfortheirrefusaltobombAuschwitzaregreatlysuspect"(219)andconcludes,"ThereisnowaytoavoidtheconclusionthattheAlliesdid notbombAuschwitzbecausetheyweresimplyindifferenttothefateoftheJews"(219).ShebelievesthatfarfrombeingpassiveabouttheHolocaust,theBritish activelyintervenedagainstsomeoftherescueefforts:"Afewdecadeslater,whenthearchiveswereopened,itbecameclearthattheBritish,whohadbeenaccusedof passivityinthefaceoftragedy,hadnotbeenpassiveatall.Thisisperhapsthemostheartrendingaspectofalltheunsuccessfulattemptstorescuethechildren.While Eichmann,hisstaff,andGermanForeignMinistryofficialsexertedthemselveslestasingleJewishchildescapethem,theBritish,selfrighteousandseeminglypassive, blockedallescaperoutes.InthemiddlewereahandfulofemissariesinIstanbulandofficialsinPalestine,whotriedtobreakthroughthewallswiththeirbarefists,and thechildren,whonevercame"(Porat163). 7."AtthenextmeetingoftheZAC,inmidJanuary1943,GruenbaumarguedthatmoneyfromtheFoundationFundshouldnotbeusedfor

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rescueoperations:'No,andIsayitagainno!ThistendencytoconsiderZionistactivitiessecondarymustberesisted.'...Fundsforrescueoperationshadto comefromothersources"(Porat76).Poratwonderswhether"Gruenbaumhadmovedfromoneextremeofrejectingthenews[oftheHolocaust]anddenying itsveracitytoanotherofacceptingitandtotallydespairing"(78). 8.WithregardtotheaccusationsthattheZionistswouldacceptonly"thebesthumanmaterial,"whichmeanthealthyyoungadultswhoagreedwiththempoliticallyor childrenwhocouldbesocializedtolaborZionism,Poratbelieves,"Mostoftheleaderssupportedthedecisiontosave'anyJewwhocouldbefound'astheright decision"(Porat247).Shenotesthat"Inmid1943theRescueCommitteedecidedtoextendhelptoanyJewwhocouldbehelped.Smugglersandcourierswere instructedto'takeanyJew...anyJewishchild'whocouldstillbefound"(246).Butshealsoacknowledgesthattherewasaproblem:

Ontheotherhand,immigrationpermitscontinuedtobedistributedalongpartylinesinthesatellitecountries,withwhichcommunicationwasbetter....Towardtheendof 1943...itemergedthat,ofthe857refugeeswhohadmadetheirwaytoIstanbulthroughtheBalkans,themajorityweremembersofAgudatYisraelandwealthyJews,fewof whomhadevergivenathoughttoPalestine.Noonefromthepioneeringmovementswasamongthem....ZionistsactivistsinoccupiedEuropewerebitter"IfeelasifIhad beenspaton,"wroteone.(Porat24647)

9.Bauerprovidesstatisticstodemonstratehisconclusionthat"theboycottneverposedathreattotheNaziregime"because"Nazipolicies,notunlikethoseofthe AmericanNewDeal,concentratedonpublicworksandprimingthepumptheywereimplementedbeginningimmediatelyupontheassumptionofpowerinJanuary 1933.Theresultswereimpressive....TheGNPgrewby43percent,thenationalindexby46percent,theindustrialindexby88percent,andthenumberof employedby36percent.""Tosumup:giventherelativelyinsignificantpartthatforeigntradeplayedintheGermaneconomyin1933,evenasuccessfulboycottby JewscouldhaveaffectedtheGermaneconomymarginallyatmost"(seeBauer1215).Nonetheless,NaziantiSemitismwassuchthatJewishfinancialpowerwas fearedirrationallyandevenagainsttheearlyeconomicsuccessesoftheNaziregime. 10.ThetitleofachapterinSegev'sbook,quotingthefindingoftheIsraeliChiefJusticeHeshininRudolfKastner'sappeal,who

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claimedthatnegotiatingwithNazisforthereleaseofJewshadprecedentinJewishhistory:''Butthereisalsoanotherpointofview,differentandopposite,andthis viewalsohasrootsinthepagesofourhistory.Jeremiahtheprophet,forexample,preachedsurrendertotheenemyandanalliancewithhim,whileRabbi YohananBenZakkaichosetosavewhatcouldbesavedinatimeoftrouble.Despitethis,nooneaccusedthemofsellingtheirsoulstothedevil"(Segev307). 11."Evenin1942,theJewsoftheYishuvusedthisselfrighteousdoctrineofdeathwithhonortoexcoriatetheirbrothersinEuropewhohadnottakenuparms againsttheNazis.'TheproblemwiththeJewsintheExileisthattheypreferthelifeofabeatendogtodeathwithhonor,'saidYitzhakGruenbaum.Hereasonedthat therewasnohopeofsavinganythingoftheZionistundertakinginthefaceofaGermaninvasion.Giventhat,hesaid,'wemustattheveryleastseetoitthatweleavea Masadalegendbehindus'"(Segev71). 12.ThreemenwerearrestedandultimatelyconvictedandsentencedtolifeimprisonmentforassassinatingKastner.Itwasbelievedthattheyworkedforanextreme rightwingundergroundmovementthatthesecretservicehadinfiltratedbecauseitwasillegal.Itturnedoutthatoneofthem,Ze'evEckstein,hadbeenassignedto infiltratetheundergroundmovementbythesecretservice.TheothertwosuspectswereDanShemerandYosefMenkes(Segev308). 13.BenGurionwrotetoafriend,"IknowalmostnothingabouttheKastnermatter....Ididnotfollowthetrialanddidnotreadtheverdict,exceptforafew sentencesthatappearedintheheadlines"(Segev293). Chapter4.TheNewYorkIntellectualsandEichmanninJerusalem 1.GeorgeL.Mosse,GermanJewsBeyondJudaism(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPressandCincinnati,HebrewUnionCollegePress,1995). 2.TerryCooney,TheRiseoftheNewYorkIntellectuals:PartisanReviewandItsCircle(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1986),p.6.Pagereferences followinparenthesesinthetextwith"Cooney." 3.AlexanderBloom,ProdigalSons:TheNewYorkIntellectualsandTheirWorld(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1986).Pagereferencesappearinthetext inparenthesiswith"Bloom." 4.RussellJacoby,TheLastIntellectuals:AmericanCultureintheAgeofAcademe(NewYork:Basic,1987).Pagereferencesappearinthetextinparentheses with"Jacoby."

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5.IrvingHowe,WorldofOurFathers(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1976),pp.25152. 6.AlanWald,TheNewYorkIntellectuals:TheRiseandDeclineoftheAntiStalinistLeftfromthe1930'stothe1980's(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorth CarolinaPress,1987),pp.3335. 7.AlanWald,TheNewYorkIntellectuals:TheRiseandDeclineoftheAntiStalinistLeftfromthe1930stothe1980s(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorth CarolinaPress,1987). 8.AlfredKazin,"InEveryVoice,inEveryBan,"NewRepublic(10January1944):4546. 9.Bloom,p.138.BloomreferstoaninterviewthatheconductedwithAlfredKazinon23October1976. 10.BloomdescribesMaryMcCarthy'srelationtothePartisanReviewintheseterms,forexample:"Althoughshewasunknown,RahvbroughtMcCarthyto PartisanReviewasaneditorherdutiesweretohandletheatercriticism.McCarthyclaimsshereceivedtheassignmentbecauseshehadoncebeenmarriedtoan actorandwas'supposedtoknowsomethingabouttheater.'Althoughshewasclearlyawomanofintellectualskills,itisalsoclearthatherpositiononthePReditorial boardderivedessentiallyfromherrelationshipwithRahv.Whenshelefthim,sheleftthemagazine"(73). 11.SeeElisabethYoungBruehl,HannahArendt:ForLoveoftheWorld(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1982),Chapter4,"StatelessPersons", especiallypp.150163. 12.IrvingHowe,"MidCenturyTurningPoint:AnIntellectualMemoir,"Midstream(JuneJuly1975):25. 13.ThesignificanceofArendt'sabilitytoseethehumanityin"her"Nazi,theonewhoarrestedherbeforeherescapetoParisbecomesparticularlytellinginthis context.SeeYoungBruehl,p.106. Chapter5.Race,GenderandJudaism:TheEichmannControversyasCaseStudy 1.Seeappendix. 2.SeeYoungBruchl,pp.34748,op.cit."OnbehalfoftheCouncilofJewsfromGermany,SiegfriedMoses,formerlythestatecomptrollerofIsraelandafriendof Blumenfeld's,sentHannahArendtaletter.Moses,ascholarandanoldacquaintanceofArendt'sfromBerlin,towhose1962festschriftshehadcontributed,made whathe

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calleda'declarationofwar'againstArendtandherbook.MosesindicatedthatthecouncilwasalsopreparingforwaronthehistorianRaulHilberg'sThe DestructionoftheEuropeanJewsandonthepsychologistBrunoBettelheim's"FreedomfromGhettoThinking."ArendtwarnedMosesinreplythatHilberg's bookwouldhavealimited,scholarlyaudienceandthatBettelheim'sarticlewouldnotlenditselftodiscussiononahighintellectuallevelshethensuggestedthathe attackherbookaloneandnotconfusehiswarbyfightingontoomanyfronts."ArendtwasnotentirelyrespectfulofHilberg,writingtoJasparsinAprilof1964:"I haven'theardanythingaboutHilberg'scomingoutonmyside.He'stalkingsomenonsensenowaboutthe'deathwish'oftheJews.Hisbookisreallyexcellent,but onlybecausehejustreportsfactsinit.Hisintroductorychapterthatdealswithgeneralandhistoricalmatterswouldn'tpassmusterinapigpen.(ExcusemeI momentarilyforgottowhomIwaswriting.ButnowthatI'vesaiditI'llletitstand.)"ArendtJasparsCorespondence,op.cit.(L.351,H.A.toK.J.,NewYork, 20April1964),p.550. 3.GeorgeL.Mosse,NationalismandSexuality:MiddleClassMoralityandSexualNormsinModernEurope(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1985). Pagereferencesfollowinparentheseswith"Mosse." 4."ThemanlyEnglishmanorGermanshowedtherestraintandselfcontrolsodeartothemiddleclass.Manlinessmeantfreedomfromsexualpassion,thesublimation ofsensualityintoleadershipofsocietyandthenation....Manlinesswasnotjustamatterofcourage,itwasapatternofmannersandmorals.Masculinecomportment andamanlyfigureexemplifiedthetranscendenceofthesocalledlowerpassions"(Mosse13). 5.Mosse23.ButMossediscussesthelater,partial,acceptanceofwomenwhosoughttobeathleticonamalemodel.Thereemergedworksofart,monumentsto theseathleticGermanwomen,inwhichtheirnudeformswerepracticallyindistinguishablefromamalenude.SeeMosse,p.129andthephotographonthecoverof thebook. 6.Seebellhooks,Ain'tIaWoman?(Boston:SouthEndPress,1981),pp.22,181.Seealsofn.9chapter1. 7.Mosseadds,"ThecondemnationofcontraceptionbyracistswasnotconfinedtoGermany.SidneyWebbwarnedthatunlessthedeclineofthebirthratewas averted,theEnglishnationwouldfalltotheIrishandtheJews"(Mosse140). 8.MossesuggeststhatHimmler'splantosnuffout,toobliterateentirely,thetwomillionhomosexualsthathebelievedlivedinGermany

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providedaforecastofthefatethatawaitedtheJews."ThewayinwhichHimmlerdescribedthedeaththatshouldawaittheincurablehomosexualpushedtonew lengthstheprocessofeliminatingtheoutsiderandplayeditsroleintheJewishHolocausttocome.ThedeathoftheoutsiderWASusedtoobliteratehisvery existence....Theoutsiderwasnotmerelykilledhewassupposednevertohaveexistedatall"(Mosse169). 9.KarlMarx,"TheFetishismofCommoditiesandtheSecretThereof,"Capital,vol.1:"Whenever,byanexchange,weequateasvaluesourdifferentproducts,by thatveryact,wealsoequate,ashumanlabour,thedifferentkindsoflabourexpendeduponthem.Wearenotawareofthis,neverthelesswedoit.Value,therefore, doesnotstalkaboutwithalabeldescribingwhatitis.Itisvalue,rather,thatconvertseveryproductintoasocialhieroglyphic.Lateron,wetrytodecipherthe hieroglyphic,togetbehindthesecretofourownsocialproductsfortostampanobjectofutilityasavalue,isjustasmuchasocialproductaslanguage."InThe MarxEngelsReader,2ded.,ed.RobertC.Tucker(NewYork:Norton,1978),p.322. 10.SeeDanielBoyarin,JudaismandGender:AnAutobiographyoftheJewishMan,forthcoming,p.219. 11.Seeparticularly,MaryO'Brien,ThePoliticsofReproduction(Boston:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1981)MaryO'Brien,"FeministTheoryandDialectical Logic,"inFeministTheory:ACritiqueofIdeology,ed.N.O.Keohane,M.Z.Rosaldo,andB.C.Gelpi(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1982)Dorothy Dinnerstein,TheMermaidandtheMinotaur(NewYork:Colophon,1977)NancyChodorow,TheReproductionofMothering(Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress,1978)JulietMitchell,PsychoanalysisandFeminism(NewYork:Pantheon,1974). 12."TheOedipusmodelitselfoughttobeinterpretedasarepressionofhomoeroticdesire.ThefundamentalideasofhumansexualdevelopmentinFreudareasortof screenorsupervalentthoughtforadeeperbutverythreateningpsychicconstituentthatFreudhadfoundinhisownhysteria,butthatthenpanickedhim:thedesirefor 'femaleness,'forpassivity,tobetheobjectofanotherman'sdesire,eventobearthechildofanotherman.TheanalysandthatFreudcametodisbelievewasthus himself"(Boyarin301). 13.Mosse(42):"GermanJewswerefondofevokingparticipationinGermany'swars,notonlytoprovetheircitizenshipbutalsotodemonstrateheroismandmanly comportment.Highlightingthisquest,MaxNordauattheSecondZionistCongressof1898calledforthe

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creationof'muscleJews'asagainstpalefacedandthinchested'coffeehouseJews.'Later,heexpressedthehopethat'ournewmuscleJews'mightregainthe heroismoftheirforefathers.'" 14."ThecontemptthatZionistsinPalestinehadfortheJewskilledintheNaziconcentrationcampsis,Iputforth,adirectdescendentofthisantiSemitic representation,butthosewhodiedinthehopelessWarsawGhetto'Rebellion'wereglorifiedas'NewJews',asthePolishbranchofthe'palmach',theZionistshock troops.Theyhad'learnedtodie.'Overandoveragain,Zionistwritersofthe'40swroteinnearfascisttermsofthe'beautifuldeath'oftheWarsawrebelsandthe'ugly death'ofthemartyrsofthecamps.Thisrepresentsidentificationwiththeoppressorinoneofitsmostnakedandobviousformsandhasitseffectinimitationofthat oppressoraswell"(Boyarin382). 15.PaulBreines,ToughJews:PoliticalFantasiesandtheMoralDilemmaofAmericanJewry(NewYork:Basic,1990).Citationsfollowinthetextin parentheses. 16."Asdecisiveasthe1967ArabIsraeliWarwasingeneratingtheJewishAmericancultofbothIsraelandtoughJewishimagery,itleftasmallbutsignificantgap,a gapthenfilledbythe1973ArabIsraeliorYomKippurWar.TheSixDayWarhadplacedJewishpoweronthestageofworldhistory....The1973war,inwhich Israelwasnearlydefeated,reassertedJewishvulnerability.Jewishtoughnessappearstobeallthemorenecessaryandethicallygrounded"(Breines175). 17."Wemustacknomwledgethatwhatisexcludedbysuchanassumptionisnotonlytheprospectof'big,strong'womeninthesamemuscularandfightingsense,but alsotheprospectthatbigandstrongmighthaveradicallydifferenttermsofreference....Inadditiontoexcludingwomen,thetaleofthe'capinthemud'also banishesthefigureofthenonJewwhoisnotantiSemitic"(Breines38,42). 18.InAnthonyHeilbrut,ExiledinParadise(NewYork:Viking,1983),p.402.SeealsoArendtJaspers,Correspondence,pp.90,91ff. 19.DavidBiale,ErosandtheJews(NewYork:Basic,1992).Citationsappearinthetextinparentheses. 20."IfthesexualpersonaoftheAmericanJewishmaleappearsrelativelyharmless,theimageoftheJewishwomanoftentakesaviciousturnintheformofjokes aboutthe"JewishAmericanPrincess,"orJAP....theJAP,likethemaleschlemiel,iseroticallyblocked,buthe

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atleastiscomicandperhapslovableinhisineptitude,whereassheistypicallyloathsome.Hisinnerconflictsandneurosesarerevealedandthussympathetic,but hersexualpathologyremainspurelyobjectifiedandsuperficial,likeheroverdonemakeup.Womenbecomethesiteforprojectionsofallthatseemsmosthateful aboutJewishsexuality"(Biale207). 21.Forafeministreadingofthe"emasculation"ofAfricanAmericanmen,seeforexample,bellhooks,Ain'tIaWoman:BlackWomenandFeminism(Boston: SouthEnd,1981)PatriciaHillCollins,BlackFeministThought:Knowledge,ConsciousnessandthePoliticsofEmpowerment(NewYork:Routledge,1990) JacquelineJones,LaborofLove,LaborofSorrow:BlackWomen,WorkandtheFamily,FromSlaverytothePresent(NewYork:Basic,1985)Angela Davis,Women,RaceandClass(NewYork:Vintage,1983)ToniMorrison,RaceingJustice,EnGenderingPower:EssaysonAnitaHill,ClarenceThomas, andtheConstructionofSocialReality(NewYork:Pantheon,1992),aswellasavastnumberofadditionalsources.ForAsianAmericanmen,seeforexample, StuartCreightonMiller,TheUnwelcomeImmigrant(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1969)EvelynNakanoGlenn,Issei,Nisei,WarBride:Three GenerationsofJapaneseAmericanWomeninDomesticService(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1986)AsianWomenUnitedofCalifornia,Making Waves:AnAnthologyofWritingsByandAboutAsianAmericanWomen(Boston:Beacon,1989)RandallMillerandAlanWoll,EthnicandRacialImagesin AmericanFilmandTelevision(NewYork:Garland,1987). 22.SeeNancyChodorowandDorothyDinnerstein,op.cit.above,n.12.AlsoIrvingHowe,WorldofourFathers,andNormanPodhoretz,MakingIt. 23.ItisinterestingtonotethecurrentAfricanAmericanmale"gangsta"mystiqueperhapsasimilarefforttoclaim"manhood"onamodelgearedtoearntherespect, oratleastattention,ofwhitegentileAmerica. 24.Cooneynotes,"Rahvwaspreparedtoadmitinsecurityanduncertaintyintheearlyissuesofthemagazine.Buthewasalsopreparedtoreactvigorouslyto Trotsky'scritiqueandtochallengetheexile'sbehavior.Rahv'sletter,reflectingthecombinationofinsecurityandboldassurancethatshapedthenewPartisan Review,spokemorefranklythananyprogrampublishedinthemagazineitself....AlthoughTrotskywasastrategistandatheoreticianofmajorstature,Rahvdidnot shrinkfromcallinghisjudgmentandhisperspectiveintoquestion"(Cooney131).SeealsoAlanM.Wald,TheNewYorkIntellectuals:TheRiseand

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DeclineoftheAntiStalinistLeftfromthe1930stothe1980s(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1987),pp.164ff. 25.Trotskyalsocutadashingfigure,appealingtowomen,whichhadwonhimajobasamovieactor,somethingofaminormatineeidol,duringhissojourninNew YorkbeforetheRevolution. 26.SeeCooney,op.cit.pp.1113.Discussioninchapter4above,pp.6970. 27.WilliamPhillips,"HowPartisanReviewBegan,"Commentary62(December1976):43. 28.LionelAbel,"NewYorkCity:ARemembrance,"Dissent8,3(Summer1961):257. 29.SeeBoyarin. 30.AsjustasamplingofsourcesonJewishfeminism,seeforexample,SusannahHeschel,OnBeingaJewishFeminist:AReader(NewYork:Schoken,1983) JudithPlaskow,StandingAgainatSinai:JudaismfromaFeministPerspective(NewYork:HarperCollins,1990)RachelBiale,WomenandJewishLaw:An ExplorationofWomen'sIssueinHalakhicSources(NewYork:Schoken,1984)FriedaForman,EthelRaicus,SarahSilbersteinSwartz,andMargieWolfe,ed., FoundTreasures:StoriesbyYiddishWomenWriters(Toronto:SecondStory,1994)JudithR.Baskin,ed.,WomenoftheWord:JewishWomenandJewish Writing(Detroit,Mich.:WayneStateUniversityPress,1994)SusanA.Glenn,DaughtersoftheShtetl:LifeandLaborintheImmigrantGeneration(Ithaca, N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1990)SavinaJ.Teubal,SarahThePriestess:TheFirstMatriarchofGenesis(Athens:OhioUniversityPress,1984)MarionA. Kaplan,TheMakingoftheJewishMiddleClass:Women,FamilyandIdentity,inImperialGermany(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1991). 31.ThatJewishmenarecapableofdomesticviolenceiswelldocumentedand,inaway,evenmoredifficulttoacknowledgeandrespondtobecauseoftheir reputationaspassive,gentlemenand"goodhusbands."See,forexample,MimiScarf'sstudy,"MarriagesMadeinHeaven?BatteredJewishWives,"inHeschel,op. cit.,pp.5164(excerptedfromherMasters'ThesisatHebrewUnionCollege,LosAngeles).Thedenialonthepartofthewivesoftheirhusbands'violencewhich resemblesrunofthemilldomesticviolenceinsomewaysandinotherspossessesdistinctivecharacteristicsispervasive,but

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evenworseistherefusalonthepartofparentsandparentsinlawtobelievewhatJewishsonsandhusbandsmaybecapableof.Thereexiststheassumptionthat evenwhenJewishmenare"bad,"they'renotasbaddrunk,violent,possessiveasthegoyim.MosheMeiselman,whilenotaddressing(oreven acknowledging)Jewishmalemistreatmentofwomeninthemarriagecontract,congratulatesJewishlawonnotbeingasbadas,forinstance,EnglishCommon Law,inreducingwivestothepropertyoftheirhusbandse.g.,"This[theJewish]viewcontrastssharplywiththehistoricpositionofwomeninEnglishlaw,wherea womanwasliterallyherhusband'spossession.Thus,until1882awomancouldnotenteracontractorevenownproperty.Furthermore,until1891ahusbandhad completedominionoverhiswife,includingtherighttobeatherandlimitherfreedomofmovement.NoneofthisistrueinJewishlaw....Notonlywasbeatinga wifefrowneduponandforbidden,butitwasavalidgroundfordivorce"(Meiselman97)(ifthewomancouldgetanybodytobelieveherhusbandwasbeating her).Seealso"Reyzele'sWedding,byDoraSchulnerinFoundTreasures,Formanetal.,op.cit. 32.CynthiaOzick,"NotestowardFindingtheRightQuestion,"OnBeingAJewishFeminist:AReader,ed.andwithintroductionsbySusannahHeschel(New York:SchokenBooks,1983),p.142. 33.MosheMeiselman,JewishWomaninJewishLaw(NewYork:KTAVPublishingHouse,1978),p.27 34.QuotedinMeiselman,p.37 35.FoundTreasures:StoriesbyYiddishWomenWriters,ed.FriedaForman,EthelRaicus,SaraSilbersteinSwartz,andMargieWolfe(Toronto:SecondStory Press,1994).Citationsappearinparentheses. 36.Seeforexample,CatherineMackinnonin"Feminism,Marxism,MethodandtheState:AnAgendaforTheory"Signs7,no.3(Spring1982)"Themale epistemologicalstance,whichcorrespondstotheworlditcreatesisobjectivity:theostensiblyuninvolvedstance...doesnotcomprehenditsownperspectivity,does notrecognizewhatitseesassubjectivelikeitself...."(p.24.)AlsoKlepfisz,"Undoubtedlythisdefeminizingandseparatingthenewfromtheold,themalefromthe female,weremeantto"universalize"aliteraturewhich,untilthen,hadbeenseenasrootedinthewomen'ssphere.But,asfeministcriticismhasshown,Western conceptsofthe"universal''assumetheprimacyofmen'sfeelings,experiencesandperceptionstheytreat

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women'sexperiencesastrivialorfailtodifferentiatethemfrommen'sIneithercase,women'sexperiencesareerased"(Forman,etal.37). 37."InEasternEuropeJewishwomenweregainingmoreandmoreaccesstopracticalseculareducationofvarioustypes,preciselybecausethecommunityhadnot adoptedthevaluesystemofWesternEurope,andthemorevalorizedtalmudicstudywasreservedforboyswhilegirlswereallowed(andevenencouraged)topursue nonreligiousvocations.ThiswasconsistentwithawellestablishedsocialnormwithinwhichJewishwomenwereideallythebreadwinnersfortheirscholarly husbands"(Boyarin256). 38.MarionA.Kaplan,TheMakingoftheJewishMiddleClass:Women,Family,andIdentityinImperialGermany(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress, 1991),p.12.SeealsoSusanA.Glenn,DaughtersoftheShtetl:LifeandLaborintheImmigrantGeneration(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1990). 39.SeeKaplan,"JewishWomenConfrontAcademia,"inTheMakingoftheJewishMiddleClass,pp.13752. 40.Heilbutrelatestheactualstoryleadinghertomaketheremark.Atascholarlyconferenceinthelate1960s,aftershehadbecomesomethingofaherotostudent radicalsintheUnitedStates,shepleadedwithheryoungaudiencenottoturnherintoaguru."Sheclosedtheconferencewithafinal,implicitpleathatshenotbe turnedintosomeintellectualguru.'IwouldliketosaythateverythingIdidandeverythingIwroteallthatistentative.'Aquestioneraskedhertolocateherselfinthe politicalspectrum.Shereplied,'SoyouaskmewhereIam.Iamnowhere.Iamreallynotinthemainstreamofpresentoranyotherpoliticalthought.Butnotbecause IwanttobesooriginalitsohappensthatIsomehowdon'tfit'"(Heilbut436). 41.BetweenFriends:TheCorrespondenceofHannahArendtandMaryMcCarthy,19491975,ed.andwithanintro.byCarolBrightman(NewYork:Harcourt BraceJovanovich,1995),p.147(H.A.toM.M.20September1963). 42."In'TheMaryMcCarthyCase',TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,October17,1963,NormanMailerchargedtheauthorofTheGroupwithhavingwrittena 'ladybook,'whichdidnomorethanmatch'thebestnoveltheeditorsofthewomen'smagazineseverconceivedintheirsecretambitions.'ElizabethHardwick's unsignedparody,'TheGang,'hadappearedthreeweeksearlier"(Brightman155n.2).

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Chapter6.Transition 1.SeeMaryDietz,"FeministReceptionsofHannahArendt"andotheressaysinFeministInterpretationsofHannahArendt,ed.BonnieHonig(UniversityPark, Pa.:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1995). 2.Forexample,intherecentcausecelebre,HannahArendt,MartinHeidegger(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1995),authorElzbietaEttingerclaims, "ForArendt,broughtupinacompletelyassimilatedsocialdemocraticfamilyinKoenigsberg,the'Jewishquestion'waslimitedtothenamecallingofstreeturchinsand schoolchildrenortotheoccasionalantiSemiticremarkofateacher.Accordingtohermother'sinstructions,shehadtodefendherselfonlyfromthechildrenher motherdealtwiththeteachers....Ina1964interviewArendtsaid:'AsachildIdidnotknowthatIwasJewish....Theword"Jew"wasnevermentionedathome whenIwasachild'"(4).ItisdifficulttoimaginewhatArendt'smothertoldhertodefendherselfagainst,ifthewordJewwasnotmentioned.Thisalsodirectly conflictswithElisabethYoungBruehl'saccountinherclassicbiographyofArendt,oftheArendtfamily'sfriendshipwiththereformrabbiofKonigsburg,Hermann Vogelstein,ofthefactthathergrandparentsonbothsideswerereformJews,butobservantenoughtoattendservices,accompaniedbytheirgranddaughterHannah, andtoprovideherwithprivatetutoringfromtherabbi,uponwhomlittleHannahdevelopedacrush,declaringthatsheintendedtomarryhim.Shewasdeterredonly whenremindedthatshewouldhavetogiveupeatingpork,ofwhichshewasfond.Sheamendedherambitionto"Well,then,I'llmarryaRabbiwithpork''(Young Bruehl89).TheonlysenseonecanmakeoutofEttinger'sinaccuracyisherdesiretoseparateHannahArendtfromherJewishidentity. 3.SeeHonig,op.cit.Honig'sessayinFeministInterpretationsofArendtalsoappears,invirtuallyidenticalform,inJudithButlerandJoanW.Scott,Feminists TheorizethePolitical(NewYork:Routledge,1992). 4.ArendtwrotetoJasperson17December1946,"IjustnoticedyourquestionagainaboutwhetherI'maGermanoraJew.Tobeperfectlyhonest,itdoesn'tmatter tomeintheleastonapersonalandindividuallevel....I'dputitthisway:Politically,IwillalwaysspeakonlyinthenameoftheJewswhenevercircumstancesforce metogivemynationality.Thatiseasierformethanforyourwife,becauseI'matafurtherremovefromthiswholequestionandbecause

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Ineverfeltmyself,eitherspontaneouslyoratmyowninsistenceto'beaGerman'"(Correspondence70).InalettertoJaspersdated7September1952,she discussesherdecisionnottopublishRahelVarnhagen,whichshehadgiventoJasperstoread,andwhichhehadexpressedsomecriticismsabout,becausehe believedthatArendthadnotletRahel"speakforherself"andhadoveremphasizedtheroleJudaismhadplayedinheridentity.Arendtreplied:"Itwaswrittenfrom theperspectiveofaZionistcritiqueofassimilation,whichIhadadoptedasmyownandwhichIstillconsiderbasicallyjustifiedtoday.Butthatcritiquewasas politicallynaiveaswhatitwascriticizing.Personally,thebookisalientomeinmanyways,andperhapsthat'swhyIfeelitasparticularlyalientomenow, especiallyinitstone,initsmodeofreflection,butnotintheJewishexperience,whichImademyownwithnolittledifficulty.ByvirtueofmybackgroundIwas simplynaive.IfoundthesocalledJewishquestionboring.ThepersonwhoopenedmyeyesinthisareawasKurtBlumenfeld....Heusedtosay,'Zionismis Germany'sgifttotheJews'"(Correspondence19798).ShealsowrotetoJaspersonJan.29,1946(Correspondence,1.34,p.28)thatshewouldcontinueto usethenameArendt,althoughshewasnewlymarried,''becauseIwantedmynametoidentifymeasaJew." Arendt'slettertoScholemhasbeenanalyzedatlengthinthediscussionoftheEichmanncontroversyabove.Heretheimportantpointisherinsistenceonher Jewishidentity.Scholem,remember,accusedherofhavinginsufficientahavathyisrael,"loveoftheJewishpeople,"andsheresponded,"Ihaveneverinmylife 'loved'anypeopleorcollectiveneithertheGermanpeople,northeFrench,northeAmerican,northeworkingclassoranythingofthatsort.Iindeedlove'only' myfriendsandtheonlykindofloveIknowofandbelieveinistheloveofpersons.Secondly,this'loveoftheJews'wouldappeartome,sinceIammyself Jewish,assomethingrathersuspect.IcannotlovemyselforanythingwhichIknowispartandparcelofmyownperson....Well,inthissenseIdonot'love'the Jews,nordoI'believe'inthemImerelybelongtothemasamatterofcourse,beyonddisputeorargument"(NewYorkCity,24July1963),inTheJewas Pariah,edRonFeldman(NewYork:Grove,1978),pp.24546. SeealsoPitkin'ssubtlediscussionoftheinfluenceHeideggermayhavehadonArendt'sideasinHonig,etal.e.g.,"Butthematterisstillmorecomplicated,forthe lessonArendtlearnedfromherromancewithHeideggerparallelsmorethanthelessonshethoughtVarnhagenlearnedattheendofherlife.Bothoftheselessons alsoresembleaphilosophicaldoctrineofHeidegger's,developedinBeingandTime,thebookonwhichhewasworkingduringhisaffairwith

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Arendt,andwhichtheyoftendiscussed:thedoctrineofdasMan"(Honig71). 5.Also,seeL.33710/22/63Jaspers:"Youhavereachedapointwheremanypeoplenolongerunderstandyou.""Nowyouhavedeliveredthecrucialwordagainst 'radicalevil,'againstgnosis!YouarewithKant,whosaid,'Mancannotbeadevil,'andIamwithyou.Butit'sapitythatthetermradicalevil,inaverydifferentsense thatwasnotunderstoodevenbyGoetheandSchiller,comesfromKant."InthenexttolastparagraphofArendt'slettertoScholem,shewrites:"Iamnowinfact convincedthatevilisalwaysmerelyextremebutneverradicalithasnodepthandnodemonicdimension.Itisabletodevastatetheentireworldpreciselybecauseit spreadsoverthesurfacelikeafungus.Butonlygoodnessisdeepandradical.InthefirstsectionofReligioninnerhalbderGranzenderblosenVernunft,Kant defines'radicalevil'asaturningupsidedownoftherelationshipbetweendutyandinclination"(Correspondence774). 6.InHannahArendt:CriticalEssays,ed,LewisP.andSandraK.Hinchman(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1994)BerelLang,in"HannahArendt andthePoliticsofEvil,"writes,"Eichmanninherjudgment,simplydidnotthink,perhapshedidnotevenhavethecapacitytothink,aboutwhathewasdoingand theimplicationsofherstressonthisisthatifhehadthoughtaboutit,hewouldhaveacteddifferentlyoratleastwhateverevilhedidwouldnothavebeenbanal"(Lang 26475).Likewise,in"ThinkingandMoralConsiderations:SocratesandArendt'sEichmann,"inthesamevolumeJosephBeattynotes,"Shewouldliketocall Eichmann'sacts'evil'andarguethatthinkingwouldhaveprecludedsuchacts"(Beatty272)."WiththisgroundworkestablishedArendtoffersthreeargumentsto supportherclaimthatthinkingexcludesevildoing''(Beatty268).BeattycriticizesArendt'sargumentaslogicallyflawed,assertingthat"Arendtisbuilding'moral reasoning'into'reasoning'suchthatifsomeonedoesn'thavetherequisitemoralconcernsforothers,i.e.,ifhedoesn'tmakeanappropriate(moral)responsetoothers heisn'treallythinking"(Beatty273).Heasks,"WhydoesArendtmaintainthat,forthosewhothinkevilmustnecessarilyoccasionconscienceandpsychic punishment?"(272). 7.Arendt,Hannah,CrisesoftheRepublic(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1972). 8.YoungBruehlbelievesthatthereferenceprobablycamefromHilberg."Thispassageisquotedasitappearedintherevisededition

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ofEichmanninJerusalem,fromwhichArendthadeliminatedthephrasethatinfuriatedsomanyofherreaders:shehadreferredtoBaeckastheman'whointhe eyesofbothJewsandgentileswastheJewishFuhrer.'RaulHilberg,probablyArendt'ssource,hadnotedthatEichmann'sassistant,DieterWisliceny,hadcalled Baeckthe'JewishFuhrer,'buthedidnotimplythatthephrasewasusedbyothers,JewishorGerman"(YoungBruehl363).SeealsoYoungBruehl'sdiscussion ofArendt'sandBlumenfeld'ssomewhatcriticalbutnonethelessadmiringopinionofLeoBaeck(364ff.). 9.Barnouw,op.cit.,p.238. 10.Arendt,Hannah,TheJewasPariah:JewishIdentityandPoliticsintheModernAge,ed.RonFeldman(NewYork:Grove,1978),p.248. 11.InThinking(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1978),p.173."Hence,Socrates,gadfly,midwife,electricray,isnotaphilosopher(heteachesnothingand hasnothingtoteach)andheisnotasophist,forhedoesnotclaimtomakemenwise.Heonlypointsouttothemthattheyarenotwise,thatnobodyisa'pursuit' keepinghimsobusythathehasnottimeforeitherpublicorprivateaffairs.Andwhilehedefendshimselfvigorouslyagainstthechargeofcorruptingtheyoung,he nowherepretendsthatheisimprovingthem.Nevertheless,heclaimsthattheappearanceinAthensofthinkingandexaminingwasthegreatestgoodthateverbefellthe City.Thushewasconcernedwithwhatthinkingisgoodfor,although,inthis,asinallotherrespects,hedidnotgiveaclearcutanswer.Wemaybesurethata dialoguedealingwiththequestion'whatisthinkinggoodfor?'wouldhaveendedinthesameperplexitiesasalltheothers"(173.Seehermorecompletediscussionof Socrates,16693). 12.IwasgratifiedtofindCarolBrightmancomingtothesameconclusion:"Arendt,[Jerome]Kohnsuggests,'actuallybelievedthatthinkingconditionspeopletoresist evildoing.'Thisnovelviewsetsherapartfromcontemporarymoraltheorists,aswellasfromherbelovedKant.ItsuggestswhythephilosopherJ.GlennGray, speakingofTheLifeoftheMindshortlybeforehisdeathin1972,toldKohnthat'thisbookisatleastahundredyearsaheadofitstime.'Itsuggests,too,why someonemightfindinArendt'smeditationsonThinking,willing,andjudgingaspiritofinquirymorecontemporaneouswithPlato'sApology."Brightmandoesnot pursuetheanalogy,butIshall(BetweenFriends:TheCorrespondenceofHannahArendtandMaryMcCarthy,19491975,ed.CarolBrightman[NewYork: HarcourtBrace,1995],p.xxviii).

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13.Plato,TheApology,inTheLastDaysofSocrates,trans.andwithanintroductionbyHughTredennick(NewYork:Penguin,1969),p.45.Pagereferences followinparenthesesinthetext. 14.Jaspers,Karl,Socrates,Buddha,Confucius,Jesus,inTheGreatPhilosophers,vol.1(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1985[1957]),p.11. 15.IrvingHowe,"TheNewYorker'andHannahArendt,"Commentary36,4(October1963):pp.31819.Inhisarroganceandcondescension,Howemayhave underestimatedTheNewYorker'sreadership:itishardlyamassmarketpublicationsuchasLifemagazine,SportsIllustrated,Playboy,orMechanicsIllustrated, mistakenforliteratureby"goodmiddleclassAmericans." 16.JohnMurrayCuddihy,TheOrdealofCivility(NewYork:Delta,1974). 17.Cuddihy,p.6.CuddihyisnotimpressedbythecapacityofJewishoranyothersortofintellectualstobedetachedandscientificabouttheirsubject,especially whenthatsubjectistheexplanationofthebehavioroftheirownpeople:"Ihaveneverfoundparticularlyconvincingthepatentlyselfservingtheorythatintellectuals constructaboutthemselvesthattheyare'classless,'orconstitutean'interstitial'stratum(inKarlMannheim'sversion),orare'unattached'(inLewisCoser'sversion). IntellectualsIhaveknownare'attached.'Totheirproductions,astothoseofthetruckdriver,wemustaddressthenervylittlesociologyofknowledgequestion, 'Sayswho?'"(9). 18.Feldman,op.cit.p.247. Chapter7.BiblicalandRabbinicApproachestoThinking 1.ThemoretraditionalwayofapproachingthisquestionistolooktotheJewishphilosophersformodelsofwhat"Jewishthinking"mightbe.IfIarguethatArendt,in raisingthequestionsshedoesinTheLifeoftheMind,was"more"ofaJewishthinkerthanshebelievedshewasandyetwasnotquite"enough"ofaJewishthinker toanswerherownquestions,thenImusthaveinmindsomeJewishthinkerswhomsheshouldhaveeitheremulatedormadeusof.ButIdonottakethatapproach. TheJewishphilosophersthemselves,Maimonides,Spinoza,Mendelssohn,couldbesubjectedtothesortofanalysisIpropose:towhatextentwerethey,too, "assimilationist,"inattemptingtofittraditionalJewishteachingstoaGreekorChristianmodel?Forexample,MaimonidessoughtthecompatibilitiesbetweenAristo

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telianthoughtandtheTalmudSpinozaconvertedtoCatholicism,andisoftennotregardedasa"Jewishphilosopher"atall.HereIammoreconcernedwith whetherthereexists,andhowtodescribe,acertainstyleofthinkingthatmightbecalled"Jewish."Myeffortismorecompatiblewithcontemporarymulticultural analysisthanwiththeclassicalphilosophicalapproach.Foranexampleofthemoretraditionalapproach,seeLeoStrauss:PoliticalPhilosopherandJewish Thinker,ed.KennethL.DeutschandWalterNicgorski(NewYork:RowmanandLittlefield,1994).Seeespecially,StevenB.Smith'sexcellentessay,"Leo Strauss:BetweenAthensandJerusalem,"pp.81106.Foranexampleofthemulticulturalapproach,seeDennisFischman'sdiscussionofMarxasaJewish thinkerinPoliticalTheoryinExile:KarlMarxandtheJewishQuestion(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1991). 2.Inaletterof7September1952toJaspersthatwasapartoftheirongoingcorrespondenceoverherRahelVarnhaganmanuscript,inwhichJaspersurgedherto publishandofferedhersuggestionsforrevisions,andArendtclaimedshewasnotinterestedinpublishing,sherevealsherideasabouttherelationshipbetween religiousandnonreligiousJews:"Judaismdoesn'texistoutsideorthodoxyontheonehandoroutsidetheYiddishspeaking,folkloreproducingJewishpeopleonthe other.TherearealsopeopleofJewishbackgroundwhoareunawareofanyJewishsubstanceintheirlivesinthesenseofatraditionandwhoforcertainsocial reasonsandbecausetheyfoundthemselvesconstitutingacliquewithinsocietyproducedsomethinglikea'Jewishtype.'Thistypehasnothingtodowithwhatwe understandunderJudaismhistoricallyorwithitsgenuinecontent.Herethereismuchthatispositive,namely,allthosethingsthatIclassifyaspariahqualitiesandwhat Rahelcalledthe'truerealitiesoflife''love,trees,children,music.'Inthistypethereisanextraordinaryawarenessofinjusticesthereisgreatgenerosityandlackof prejudiceandthereismorequestionablybutnonethelessdemonstrablypresentrespectforthe'lifeofthemind.'Ofallthesethingsonlythelastonecanstillbe showntohavealinkwithoriginallyandspecificallyJewishsubstance"(Correspondence199200).InTheOriginsofTotalitarianism,Arendtdescribedthe transformationoftheobjectivefactofJudaismintothesubjectivecharactertraitof"Jewishness."MembershipinareligionthatwasoftenregardedbyantiSemitic EuropeanChristiansasa"crime"becameastateofbeing,acharactertraitthatwasan"inherent"partofindividualJews,whichantiSemitescouldconsider ineradicable."AsfarastheJewswere

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concerned,thetransformationofthe'crime'ofJudaismintothefashionable'vice'ofJewishnesswasdangerousintheextreme....Acrime...ismetwith punishmentavicecanonlybeexterminated"(Arendt,AntiSemitism:PartOneoftheOriginsofTotalitarianism(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich),p. 87). 3.YosefHayimYerushalmi,Freud'sMoses:JudaismTerminableandInterminable(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1991).Additionalreferences followinparentheses,indicatedbyYerushalmiandpagenumbers. 4.YosefHayimYerushalmi,Zakhor:JewishHistoryandJewishMemory(NewYork:Schoken,1989),p.xxiii.Additionalreferencesfollowinparentheses, indicatedbyZakhorandpagenumbers. 5.TheHebrewBiblewillbereferredtothroughoutastheBible,ratherthanthe"OldTestament.""OldTestament"istheChristianversionoftheHebrewBible,and carriestheimplicationthattheNewTestamenthasabsorbedtheoldintoitandisbothpreemptiveofandcontinuouswiththeOld.Neitheristhecase.SeeRobert Alter,TheArtofBiblicalNarrative(NewYork:Basic,1981),p.ix. 6.InBacktotheSources:ReadingtheClassicJewishTexts,ed.BarryHoltz(NewYork:TouchstoneBooks,SimonandShuster,1984).Additionalreferencesto thisanthologywillbeidentifiedbythespecificauthorbeingcitedinthetext,andthepagereferencefollowinginparentheses,identifiedby"Holtz." 7.RobertAlter,TheArtofBiblicalNarrative(NewYork:Basic,1981),p.25.Additionalreferencesareidentifiedinparenthesesby"Alter"andpagenumber. 8."HannahArendt'sPariahandTheOldTestament,"unpublishedmanuscript,originallypresentedattheAnnualMeetingsoftheAmericanPoliticalScience Association,1992,Chicago,Illinois. 9."ThedestructionofthefirstTempleinJerusalemin586b.c.e.andtheexiletoBabylonweretraumaticeventsinJewishhistoryandthreatenedthecontinued existenceofJudaism.ThetemplehadbeenthereligiousandpoliticalcenterofJudaism.UponhisreturnfromBabylon,Ezradeterminedtoreconstructthelifeofthe Jews,andrenewed,sotospeak,thecovenantwiththeBookthatwasindangerofbeingforgotten.Ezra'sgreataccomplishmentwastofinallyreestablishthecentrality oftheBook,thewrittenTorah,asthebasisfortheentirelifeofthepeople."SusanHandelman,TheSlayersofMoses:

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TheEmergenceofRabbinicInterpretationinModernLiteraryTheory(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1982),p.43. 10.AsSusanHandelmannotes:
AccordingtoRabbinictradition,evenprinciplesofinterpretationweregivenatSinai,andwhateverisdrawnfromthetextbyapplicationoftheseprinciplesisnotanaddition, butalatentaspectofthetextwhichisrevealedinitsrelevanttimeandplace.Moreover,whateverisdeducedbycommonhumanreasoningisgiventhesameauthorityand statusasthatwhichisderivedfromthedivinelygivenhermeneuticprinciples....Theboundariesbetweentextandinterpretationarefluidinawaywhichisdifficultforusto imagineforasacredtext.(41)

11.Handelman,op.cit.,p.38. 12.FromtheYomKippurMusafService,MahzorforRoshHashanahandYomKippur,ed.RabbiJulesHarlow(NewYork:RabbinicalAssembly,1972),p. 559. 13.Handelman,op.cit.,p.49. 14.Handelman,op.cit.p.103. 15."Thepeshatmethod...shouldperhapsbeglossedinEnglishasthedirect,contextualmodeofexegesis,not'plain'or'literal,'whichitoftenisnot.Thederash methodistheacontextualapproachbecauseitdisregardsthecontradictingofthehistorical,literaryandlinguisticconditionsinwhichthetextfirstcametous"(Holtz 226). 16.AmosFunkenstein,PerceptionsofJewishHistory(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993). 17.Seetheessayson"ZionismandtheJewishState,"inTheJewasPariah,ed.Feldman,op.cit. 18.FunkensteinwasUniversityProfessorandKoretProfessorofHistoryattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.Hisvolume,PerceptionsofJewishHistorywas selectedasaCentennialBook,oneofafewbookschosenbytheUniversityofCaliforniaPresstorepresent"thePress'sfinestpublishingandbookmakingtraditions aswecelebratethebeginningofoursecondcentury." 19.Certainthingsareeasierthanothers.Allowingwomenintominyansisa"bigdeal,"andusuallyacontroversialissueinConservativecongregations.Theordination ofwomenrabbiswasa"bigdeal,"andtooksomefourthousandyearstoimplement.Butothermattersoflawareindeedchangedinresponsetocontemporaryneeds, withoutmuch

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uproar.Thequestionoferuv,orwheretoplacetheboundaryaroundthe"household,"whichhasbeenreinterpretedtoincludeentirecommunitiesintheghettosof EasternEurope,andoftenaroundentireurbancentersincontemporarytimes,beyondwhichanobservantJewmustnot"carry"anythingnotevenaninfant daughterorsononShabbat,isnotquiteasbigadealastheordinationofwomenrabbis,althoughitremainsasignificantissueformanyOrthodoxJews.Thisis notunlikethehistoricaltendencyoftheUnitedStatesConstitutiontoembodyandreflect,butnotlegislateormandatechange.Whensocialchangeshaveforthe mostpartoccurredandbecomepracticewithouttheexplicitsanctionoflaw,aconstitutionalamendmentcanbefairlyunproblematicallypassedandratified.Inthe absenceofthegeneralacceptanceofchange,passingaconstitutionalamendmentisnearlyimpossible.Proclaimingthegoalofchangeistantamounttoinsuring resistance.WhenAmericanwomenwereactuallyvotinginallthewesternstatesandterritories,afederalsuffrageamendmentwaspassed.Tenyearsafterthe judiciallymandateddesegregationofpublicplaces,acivilrightsbillwasenacted.Whenwomenareinfacttreatedequallyunderthelawpolitically,economically, andsocially,anEqualRightsAmendmentwillbepassed. Chapter8.GreekandHebrew:TheStructureofThinking 1.ThorliefBoman,HebrewThoughtComparedwithGreek(NewYork:Norton,1960).AlsoreferredtointhischapterisMaxKadushin,TheRabbinicMind (NewYork:Bloch,1952).Twocontemporarysourceshavebeenconsulted:SusanHandelman,TheSlayersofMoses:TheEmergenceofRabbinicInterpretation inModernLiberaryTheory(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1982)andDennisFischman,PoliticalDiscourseinExileKarlMarxandtheJewish Question(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1992). 2.DennisFischman,forexample,notesthat"Boman'stypologyfailstoallowforhistoricalchange.Hisconcepts'Hebrew'and'Greek'resideinsometimelessand universaldimensionofthought,asinrealitylanguagescandoonlywhentheyaredead.Bomanlocatesthetwomodeswithinaworldofideasandthinkersinwhichthe HebrewandGreekexistasopposingessences,alwayshaveandalwayswill,even(onesuspects)iftherehadneverbeenanyJewsorGreekstoinstantiate them"(45).Thatis,perhapsBomancomparesHebrewandGreekthoughtbymeansofaGreekmethodofanalysis.

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3.PersonalcorrespondencewithElisabethYoungBruehl. 4.Boman'sstatedprojectisadmirable:"IfIsraelitethinkingistobecharacterized,itisobviousfirsttocallitdynamic,vigorous,passionate,andsometimesquite explosiveinkindcorrespondinglyGreekthinkingisstatic,peaceful,moderate,andharmoniousinkind....FromthatviewpointGreekmentalactivityappears harmonious,prudent,moderateandpeacefultothepersontowhomtheGreekkindofthinkingoccursplainlyasideal,Hebrewthinkinganditsmannerofexpression appearexaggerated,immoderate,discordent,andinbadtaste.Puttingasidethenegative,thebiased,andtheunjust,weintendtounderstandbothpeoplespositively fromwithin"(27). 5.UnderstandingfortheGreeksisassociatedwithlightandvisionfortheHebrewsitisassociatedwithhearingandthebeliefthattruthcannotbeseen,orcapturedin termsofplasticimages.Handelmancontendsthat"this[Hebrew]tensionbetweenpresenceandabsenceisexpressedmorereadilythroughvoicethanvision.Vision, appearanceisfullness,completepresenceofthethingsoundisamoresubtlemodeofpresence,amovingvibrationthatbothisandisnotthere.Soundcreates patternsbutnotstaticpresences....Stabilityisattainedthroughrepetition." "Perhapsonecan...understandtheBiblicalbanonimagesinthislight.TheJewishideaoftheinvisibleGodculminatesintheconfessionoffaith,'HearOIsrael!' IntheaccountoftherevelationatSinaitheBiblicaltextrelates,'Andallthepeoplesawthethunderingsandthelightningsandthevoiceofthehornandthe mountainsmoking'(Exod.20:15).CommentsRashi,thefamousJewishmedievalcommentator,'Theysawthatwhichshouldbeheardwhichisimpossibletoseein anotherplace.'Therevelationwastoseewhatisheard,avoicenotanimage.Theinvisibleismanifestedthroughsoundandthedivineword,doesnotbecome 'fulfilled'orhypostatizedintoapresentbeing.Revelationisnotappearance"(Handelman,op.cit.,pp.3435). 6."Rabbinicvalueconceptsareinseparablefromnormal,everyday,momenttomomentexperience.Theyarementalhabitsthatarebecomesecondnature,more correctlyinviewoftheirorganiccharacters,partofnature"(Kadushin31). 7.Perhapsnotsurprisingly,givenmyprojectinthisbook,IamremindedofMargaretCanovan'sdescriptionofthedifficultyofdescribingHannahArendt'sthought: "Inthemselves,too,Arendt'sbooksinvitemisunderstanding,fortheyareoftencondensedandallusive.Theirformissymphonicratherthansequential,interweaving anddevelopingthemesratherthanpresentinganargument."Hannah

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Arendt:AReinterpretationofherPoliticalThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1992),p.3. 8.IthankRabbiJudyShanksfortheobservationthatinsistenceonanexplicitlymaleGod,indicatedbysoleuseofthemalegeneric,isidolatry. 9.Iusethegenderneutralpersonselfconsciously,moreasagestureofhopethanareflectionofhistoricalaccuracy.NothingintheJewishtraditionsuggeststhat womencanbeorhavebeenrespectedasinterpreters.Jewishfeministtheoryoftenbeginswiththatcontradiction. Chapter9.TowardUnderstandingArendtasaJewishThinker 1.Seemy"OnNeedingBothMarxandArendt:AlienationandtheFlightfromInwardness,"PoliticalTheory17,3(August1989):43248. 2.MargaretCanovan,HannahArendt:AReinterpretationofHerPoliticalThoughtNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1992.Pagereferencesfollowin parenthesesinthetext. 3.InthenextchapterIdiscussSocratesasmoreworldlythanCanovansometimespresentshim,andindeed,asArendt's"besthope"foraworldlyphilosopher. 4.HannahArendt,"CivilDisobedience,"inCrisesoftheRepublic(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1972),p.62ff. 5.HannahArendt,TheLifeoftheMind:One/Thinking,Two/Willing.(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1978).Pagereferencesappearinparenthesesin textwiththetitleThinking. 6.HannahArendt,KarlJaspers,Correspondence,19261969,ed.LotteKohlerandHansSaner(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1992).(L.50,12/17/46, p.70).ArendtwascognizantoftheimportanceofhermembershipintheJewishcommunityforherpoliticalidentity.ShedidnotbelievethatJewscouldeverbe assimilatedEuropeans,althoughshewasmoreidealistic,andmoreconflictedaboutAmericanJews."AfterbeingdeniedmembershipoftheGermannation,Arendt foundinAmericaarefugenotonlyfrompersecutionbutalsofrompressurestowardcommunaltogethernessinpolitics.ShediscoveredwithgreatreliefthattheUnited StateswasnotanationstateintheEuropeansenseoflinkingpoliticalunitywithnationalhomogeneity.Inthatcountry,withitsmanydifferentethnicgroupsheld togetherbyaConstitutionthatpredatedthegreatageofnationalism,itwaspossibletoenjoy'thefreedomofbecomingacitizenwithouthavingtopaythepriceof assimilation'"(Canovan244).

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7.HannahArendt,MeninDarkTimes(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1968),pp.1718. 8.HannahArendt,TheHumanCondition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1958),p.170. 9.Ibid,p.171. 10.Correspondence,pp.4748.L.42,9July1946,ArendttoJaspers:

RegardingtheHeideggernote,yourassumptionabouttheHusserlletteriscompletelycorrect.Iknewthatthisletterwasacircular,andthatmanypeoplehaveexcuseditfor thatreason.ItalwaysseemedtomethatatthemomentHeideggerwasobligedtoputhisnametothisdocument,heshouldhaveresigned.Howeverfoolishhemayhavebeen, hewascapableofunderstandingthat....Inotherwords,althoughIneverhadanyprofessionalorpersonalattachmenttooldHusserl,Imeantomaintainsolidaritywithhimin thisonecase.AndbecauseIknowthatthisletterandthissignaturealmostkilledhim,Ican'tbutregardHeideggerasapotentialmurderer.

Andp.142,L.93,ArendttoJaspers,19September1949,referringtoHeidegger:
WhatyoucallimpurityIwouldcalllackofcharacterbutinthesensethatheliterallyhasnone....ThislivinginTodtnauberg,grumblingaboutcivilizationandwritingSein witha"y,"isreallyakindofmouseholehehascrawledbackintobecauseherightlyassumesthattheonlypeoplehe'llhavetoseetherearethepilgrimswhocomefullof admirationforhim.Nobodyislikelytoclimb1,200meterstomakeascene.Andifsomebodydiddoit,hewouldlieabluestreakandtakeforgrantedthatnobodywillcallhim aliartohisface.Heprobablythoughthecouldbuyhimselfloosefromtheworldthiswayatthelowestpossibleprice,fasttalkhimselfoutofeverythingunpleasant,anddo nothingbutphilosophize.Andthen,ofcourse,thiswholeintricateandchildishdishonestyhasquicklycreptintohisphilosophizing.

11.JohnH.SchaarhassuggestedthatArendt'srealtargetinEichmanninJerusalemshouldhavebeenHeidegger,aworthierfoilthanEichmannforherargument. EichmannwasaworkingclassnobodycomparedtoGermany'sPhilosopher,whowastheonewhoshouldreallyhavebeenabletothink,andtohavebeenheld accountableforhispoliticalchoices.AccusingEichmannofnotthinkingamountstoafailureofnerveaswellasclassbiasonArendt'spart.Therealproblemwasthat theprofessionalthinkers,andHeideggermostnotably,failedtothink.(PersonalconversationwithJohnH.Schaar.)

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12.HannahArendt,''WhatisExistenzPhilosophy?"PartisanReview13,1(Winter1946):3456,seeespecially,pp.46and"MartinHeideggeratEighty,"in HeideggerandModernPhilosophy,ed.M.Murray(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1978[1971]),pp.293303. 13.CanovanobservesthatthediscrepencyofthetwoaccountsofHeideggerreflectedArendt'songoingconflictaboutthenatureofphilosophy.

In[the]essayonGerman"ExistenzPhilosophy"publishedinthePartisanReviewin1946shegaveahostileandslightingaccountofHeidegger,comparinghisphilosophy unfavourablywiththatofKarlJaspers,herotherteacher,whohadalwaysopposedNazism....ApparentlyJaspers,whohadbehavedsomuchbetterpolitically,wasalsothe betterphilosopher,sothatphilosophyandpoliticsseemedtobeinharmony.WecannottellhowfarthispositionsatisfiedArendtatthetime.Allthatiscertainisthatwithin afewyearsofthepublicationoftheessayon"ExistenzPhilosophy"shecametoseethingsverydifferently.HerbitternessagainstHeideggerdidnotsurvivereunionwith himduringhervisittoEuropein194950.Avidlyreadinghislaterwritings,sheoncemoresawhimasthetranscendentphilosophicalgeniusofthetime,andwas consequentlyfacedoncemorewiththeproblemofhowsuchprofundityinphilosophycouldcoexistwithsuchstupidityorperversityinpolitics.(Canovan25455)

14.Justsuchavolumehasrecentlyappeared,intheformofElzbietaEttinger'ssloppy,exploitativeHannahArendt,MartinHeidegger(NewHaven,Conn.:Yale UniversityPress,1995). 15.RefertoCanovan'sbook,especiallychapter7,"PhilosophyandPolitics,"pp.25374,forafullerandveryenlighteningdiscussion. 16.BetweenPastandFuture(NewYork:Viking,1968).Pagereferencesappearinparentheses,alongwith"T.andP."inthetextthatfollows. Chapter10.ThePariahandParvenuinThinking 1.HannahArendt,TheLifeoftheMind:One/Thinking,Two/Willing(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1978),p.3.Pagereferencesappearinparentheses inthetextwiththetitle,Thinking. 2.Arendt(1966)iscitingHansJonas,"TheNobilityofSight,"inThePhenomenonofLife.

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3.JenniferRing,"OnNeedingBothMarxandArendt:AlienationandtheFlightfromInwardness,"PoliticalTheory17,3(August1989):43248. 4."Herstatementthatlifeis'given'tousuponconditionshasareligiousflavorwhichremindsusthatherearliestintellectualenthusiasmwasforKierkegaard,thatshe wroteherfirstbookonSt.Augustine,andthataftertheHolocaustshetoldaJewishfriendthatshehadneverdoubtedtheexistenceofGod"(Canovan104).Seealso ElisabethYoungBruehl,HannahArendt:ForLoveoftheWorld(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1982),pp.36,7475."Shewassotakenwith [Kierkegaard's]workthatshehaddecidedtomaketheologyhermajorfieldofstudy...." 5.JenniferRing,"ThePariahasHero:HannahArendt'sPoliticalActor,"PoliticalTheory19,3(August1991):43352. 6."AnancientRomancourtdecreedthatJewscouldnolongerteachtheTorah.Thiscourtsentencedtodeathrabbiswhochosetoignorethedecree.TheTorahwas morepreciousthanlifeitselffortheserabbis,ourteachers....RabbiAkibaalsochosetocontinueteachinginspiteofthedecree.Whentheyledhimtothe executioner,itwastimeforrecitingtheSh'ma.WithironcombstheyscrapedawayhisskinasherecitedSh'maYisrael,freelyacceptingtheyokeofGod'skingship. 'Evennow?'hisdisciplesasked.Hisreply:'AllmylifeIhavebeentroubledbyaverse:"LovetheLordyourGodwithallyourheartandwithallyoursoul,"which meansevenifHetakeyourlife.IoftenwonderedifIwouldeverbeabletofulfillthatobligation.AndnowIcan.'Helefttheworldwhileuttering,'TheLordis One'"(YomKippurMusafService,MahzorforRoshHashanahandYomKippur,ed.RabbiJulesHarlow[NewYork:RabbinicalAssembly,1972],p.557). AndSocrates,intheApology:"ItwouldbeverystrangeconductonmypartifIweretodesertmystationnowfromfearofdeathorofanyotherthingwhenthe godhascommandedmeasIampersuadedthathehasdonetospendmylifeinsearchingforwisdom,andinexaminingmyselfandothers....Fortofear death,myfriends,isonlytothinkthatweknowwhatwedonotknow.Fornooneknowswhetherdeathmaynotbethegreatestgoodthatcanhappentoman. Butmenfearitasiftheyknewquitewellthatitwasthegreatestofevils.Andwhatisthisbutthatshamefulignoranceofthinkingthatweknowwhatwedonot know?"(Apology,XVII29,p.35)."Idonotcareastrawfordeathbut...Idocareverymuchindeedaboutnot

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doinganythingunjustorimpious(XX32,p.39).Andfinally,toCrito,who,asSocratesisabouttodrinkthepoison,askshowhemaybestservehisteacher: "SimplybydoingwhatIalwaystellyou,Crito.Takecareofyourownselves,andyouwillservemeandmineandyourselvesinallthatyoudo,eventhoughyou makenopromisesnow.Butifyouarecarelessofyourownselves,andwillnotfollowthepathoflifewhichwehavepointedoutinourconversationsbothtoday andatothertimes,allyourpromisesnow,howeverprofuseandearnesttheyare,willbeofnoavail"(Crito,LXIV115,p.67),inPlato,Euthyphro,Apology, Crito,trans.RobertD.Cumming(NewYork:BobbsMerrill,LibraryofLiberalArts,1956). 7.SeeHannaFenichelPitken,"Conformism,Housekeeping,andtheAttackoftheBlob:TheOriginsofHannahArendt'sConceptoftheSocial"inHonig,Feminist InterpretationsofHannahArendt,op.cit. 8.Exod.23:19,Exod.32:26,andDeut.14:21. Chapter11.JewishThemesinPoliticalActionandHistory 1.HannahArendt,TheHumanCondition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1958).Citationsappearintextinparentheses,withpagereferenceandHC). 2.JenniferRing,"ThePariahasHero:HannahArendt'sPoliticalActor,"PoliticalTheory19,3(August1991):43352. 3."Thepoliswassupposedtomultiplytheoccasionstowin"immortalfame,"thatis,tomultiplythechancesforeverybodytodistinguishhimself,toshowindeedand wordwhohewasinhisuniquedistinctness.One,ifnotthechief,reasonfortheincredibledevelopmentofgiftandgeniusinAthens...wastomaketheextraordinary anordinaryoccurrenceofeverydaylife"(HC197). 4.Forexample,fromTotalitarianism:"Tothisaversionoftheintellectualeliteforofficialhistoriography,toitsconvictionthathistory,whichwasaforgeryanyway, mightaswellbetheplaygroundofcrackpots,mustbeaddedtheterrible,demoralizingfascinationinthepossibilitythatgiganticliesandmonstrousfalsehoodscan eventuallybeestablishedasunquestionedfacts,thatmanmaybefreetochangehisownpastatwill,andthatthedifferencebetweentruthandfalsehoodmayceaseto beobjectiveandbecomeamerematterofpowerandcleverness,ofpressureandinfiniterepetition....Simpleforgeriesfromthe

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viewpointofscholarshipappearedtoreceivethesanctionofhistoryitselfwhenthewholemarchingrealityofthemovementsstoodbehindthemandpretendedto drawfromthemthenecessaryinspirationforaction."HannahArendt,1951. 5.HannahArendt,BetweenPastandFuture(NewYork:TheVikingPress,1954).Citationsfollowinthetextinparentheses,withpagereferenceandBPF. 6.Seediscussioninchapter9ofMargaretCanovan'sHannahArendt:AReinterpretationofherPoliticalThought. 7.This,ofcourse,wasasubjectofwhichArendthadintimateknowledge. 8.HannahArendt,TheOriginsofTotalitarianism,Volume1,AntiSemitism(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1968),p.77.Citationsfollowinthetextin parentheseswithpagenumberandAS. 9.HannahArendt,TheJewasPariah,ed.RonFeldman(NewYork:Grove,1978),pp.6061.Citationsfollowimmediatelyintextwithpagereferencesin parentheses. 10.SeeElisabethYoungBruehl'sexcellentdiscussionofthisincidentinArendt'slife.HannahArendt:ForLoveoftheWorld(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversity Press,1982),pp.15255. 11."TheConceptofHistory"firstappearedinReviewofPolitics20,4(October1958):57090,entitled"TheModernConceptofHistory."Itwasreprintedin BetweenPastandFuture."OnHumanityinDarkTimes"wasArendt'sacceptancespeechfortheLessingPrizein1959.ItisreprintedinMeninDarkTimes. 12."Allthingsthatowetheirexistencetomen,suchasworks,deeds,andwords,areperishable,infected,asitwere,bythemortalityoftheirauthors.However,if mortalssucceededinendowingtheirworks,deeds,andwordswithsomepermanenceandinarrestingtheirperishability,thenthesethingswould,toadegreeatleast, enterandbeathomeintheworldofeverlastingness,andthemortalsthemselveswouldfindtheirplaceinthecosmos,whereeverythingisimmortalexceptmen.The humancapacitytoachievethiswasremembrance"(BPF43). 13."ThatlivingnessisGod'sforemostqualityinformsthedietaryandotherrituallawsoftheTorah.Blood,theparamountsymboloflife,maynotbeeaten.While animalfleshispermittedforhumanconsumption,thebloodisnot.ItmustbereturnedtoGod....Animals

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thatthemselvesconsumethebloodofotheranimalsmaynotbeeatenbytheIsraelites.Normayakidbeboiledinthemilkofitsmother.Thefleshoftheyoung goatmaynotbecookedinasecondarysymboloflife,milk."EdwardL.Greenstein,inBarryHoltz,BacktotheSources.(NewYork:SimonandShuster, 1992),pp.9293. 14.InHannahArendt,MeninDarkTimes(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1968[1955]).Citationsappearinthetextinparentheseswithpagereference andMDT. Chapter12.Conclusion 1.NumbersXXIV:5.TheprophetBalaamiscommandedbytheMoabiteKingBalaktocursetheJews.Hemakesthreeattempts,buteachtime"Balaamsawthatit pleasedtheLordtoblessIsrael"(XXIV:1),andhiscurseswereturnedintoblessings,themosteloquentofwhichwasthefinalone,"Howgoodlyareyourtents,O Jacob."Balekwasinfuriated,anddismissedBalaam,whosepartinggesturewastorevealthefateinstoreforMoab. 2.IbelievethatMarxhimselfalsorefusedtocodifywhenheinsistedintheprefacetoCapitalIthathewouldnot"writerecipesforthecookerybooksofthefuture." Hisfollowersmadeupforlosttime,insupplyingthemissingcodificationsofhistheory. 3.HannahArendt,TheHumanCondition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1958),pp.17778. 4.Thisofcourse,isnottosaythatsomeJews,likeanyotherpeople,areincapableoftakingthelawintotheirownhands,professingto"know"whatGodintends. RecenttragiceventsinIsraelbearthisoutonlytoovividly.ImeanthisdiscussiontomakethepointthatJewstakingTalmudicorBiblicallawintotheirownhandsare nomore"Jewish"thananyotheroutlawormurderer.Inthesameway,ChristianfundamentalistswhobelievethatmurderinghomosexualsiswhatGodcommands,or thatdestroyingthelivesofwomenseekingabortions,ordoctorswillingtoperformthem,isordainedbyGod,arenotactinglikeChristians,either. 5.OrasIwasonceaskedbyanelderstatesmanoftheJewishcommunityofColumbia,SouthCarolina,whohadreferencetoArendt,"Whatwasthenameofthe ladyphilosopher?" 6.InarecentNewYorkTimesinterviewwithHenryRoth,Rothisquotedasascribinghissixtyyearlongwriter'sblocktoselfloathing,

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andthesensethatJudaismduringthemidtwentiethcenturymeantweakness.ReviewerJonathanRosenreports:"Rothsufferedterriblyduringtheyearshecould notwrite.Hewasfilledwithshameandselfloathing,woundedbyachildhoodofabuseandayoungadulthoodthatwas,inhismind,degenerate.Heidentified Judaismwithweaknessandcowardiceandsoughttopurgeitfromhislife,becomingaCommunistandlosinghimselfinmanuallabor....Israel'svictoryinthe 1967warawakenedRoth'sprideinbeingaJewandshatteredtheholdofCommunismonhisimagination.Roth'slifebecameemblematic.Heseemstostand outsidethepantheonoffamiliarAmericanJewishwritersBellow,Malamud,theotherRothbutinsomewayshemaybethemostrepresentative.""Bookend," JonathanRosen,TheNewYorkTimesBookReview,10December1995,p.47.

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SelectedBibliography
Abel,Lionel."NewYorkCity:ARemembrance,"Dissentvol.8,no.3(Summer1961). Abel,Lionel."TheAestheticsofEvil:HannahArendtonEichmannandtheJews,"PartisanReviewvol.30,no.1(Spring1963). Alter,Robert.TheArtofBiblicalNarrative(NewYork:BasicBooks,1981). Alvarez,A."ItDidNotHappenEverywhere,"NewStatesman,11October,1963,pp.488,489. Arendt,Hannah.BetweenPastandFuture:EightExercisesinPoliticalThought(NewYork:Viking,1968). Arendt,Hannah.CrisesofTheRepublic(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1972). Arendt,Hannah.EichmanninJerusalem:AReportonTheBanalityofEvil(NewYork:Penguin,1963). Arendt,Hannah."MartinHeideggeratEighty"(1971),inHeideggerandModernPhilosophy,ed.M.Murray(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1978). Arendt,Hannah.TheHumanCondition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1958). Arendt,Hannah.TheJewasPariah,ed.RonFeldman(NewYork:GrovePress,1978). Arendt,Hannah.TheLifeoftheMind:One/Thinking,Two/Willing(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1978). Arendt,Hannah.MeninDarkTimes(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1968). Arendt,Hannah.OnRevolution(NewYork:Viking,1962).

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Arendt,Hannah.TheOriginsofTotalitarianism(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1968). Arendt,Hannah.RahelVarnhagen:TheLifeofaJewishWomen(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1974). Arendt,Hannah."AReporteratLarge:EichmanninJerusalem,"NewYorker(16February1963):40113(23February1963):40111(2March1963):4091 (9March1963):48131(16March1963):58134. Arendt,Hannah."SocialScienceTechniquesandtheStudyofConcentrationCamps,"JewishSocialStudiesvol.12,no.1(1950). Arendt,Hannah."ThinkingandMoralConsiderations:ALecture,"SocialResearchvol.38,no.3(Autumn1971). Arendt,Hannah."WhatIsExistenzPhilosophy?"PartisanReviewvol.18,no.1(Winter1946). Arendt,Hannah,andKarlJaspers.Correspondence,ed.LotteKohlerandHansSaner,trans.RobertKimberandRitaKimber(NewYork:HarcourtBrace Jovanovich,1991). AsianWomenUnitedofCalifornia.MakingWaves:AnAnthologybyandaboutAsianAmericanWomen(Boston:Beacon,1989). Barnouw,Dagmar.VisibleSpaces:HannahArendtandtheGermanJewishExperience(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990). Bazon,JeanetteM."HannahArendt:PersonalReflections,"Responsevol.30,no.1(1980). Baskin,JudithR.,ed.WomenoftheWord:JewishWomenandJewishWriting(Detroit,Mich.:WayneStateUniversityPress,1994). Bauer,Yehuda.JewsForSale:NaziJewishNegotiations,19331945(NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1994). Beatty,Joseph."ThinkingandMoralConsiderations:SocratesandArendt'sEichmann,"JournalofValueInquiryvol.10,no.1(1976). Beiner,Ronald,ed.HannahArendt'sLecturesonKant'sPoliticalPhilosophy(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1982). Bell,Daniel."TheAlphabetofJustice:ReflectionsonEichmanninJerusalem,"PartisanReviewvol.30,no.3(Fall1963). Benhabib,Seyla."FeministTheoryandHannahArendt'sConceptofPublicSpace,"HistoryoftheHumanSciencesvol.6,no.2(1993).

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Index
A Abel,Lionel,2730,96,138,163 Abraham,285 Adenauer,ChancellorKonrad,ontheHolocaust,76 AfroAmericanracialstereotypes,11 Aggada(narrativecommentary),186 Akiba,Rabbi,180,252 Alcabiades,245 Aleichem,Sholem,147148 Allen,Woody,130 Alter,Robert,TheArtofBiblicalNarrative,177178 AmericanJointDistributionCommittee(JDC),56 antisemitism,1011,6061,112119,129 beforetheHolocaust,6061 andhomophobia,1011 sexualcomponentin,1011,112119,129 Arendt,Hannah BetweenPastandFuture,1920,41,259,263,283 quoted,260,262 "CollectiveResponsibility,"essayin,217 "TheConceptOfHistory,"essayin,quoted,264270 "TheCrisisinCulture,"essayin,quoted,273 "ConcernWithPoliticsinRecentEuropeanPhilosophicalThought,"224 correspondencewithGertrudeJaspers,3 KarlJaspers,3,26,160161,218,222 MaryMcCarthy,151152 GershomSholem,7 andAdolphEichmann,31 EichmannInJerusalem,2137,39,8088,103,106112,119131,162163,213217,231,285,288 andLeoBaeck,24,162163 and"thebanalityofevil,"2324 DagmarBarnouwon,107 quoted,2425,162163 criticismsof,byLionelAbel,2730,107 DanielBell,30,3536 NormanPodhoretz,2728 GershomSholem,27,2932,163,169 defendedbyAlfredKazin,28 DwightMacdonald,2728,3537 MaryMcCarthy,2730,34 effectofcontroversyonArendt'sthought,2122 andNathanGlazerandDanielPatrickMoynihan,BeyondTheMeltingPot,107 andRaulHilberg'sTheDestructionOfTheEuropeanJews,2728,33,39,109110 andJewishleadership(Judenrte),2324,26,28,34,8088

Page350

andWilliamPhillips,29 whyupsettingtoJewishmen,2224,103108,110112,119131,285286 andgender,157,166171,284288 TheHumanCondition,3,20,41,213,229,254,260,282 quoted,256258,268,283284 asJewishthinking,255268,282 influencedbyAristotle,3,41,216 Augustine,41,216 Camus,42 DunsScotus,41 Heidegger,3,41,158159,216,219,220225,229,233235,238,241242 Jaspers,3,41,216,219221 Jesus,216217 Kant,3,41,216,219 Lazare,219 Luxemburg,219 Machiavelli,216 JudahMagnes,219 Marx,216,219 Plato,41,220221,234,241243 Socrates,3,29,41,160166,216217,219221,229,238,241248,250252,277278 Vico,41 Weber,216 andJewishidentity,158171,218219,222234,261263,275284 asaJewishthinker,1920,160,174,213229,231284 TheLifeOfTheMind(v.1,Thinking),3,6,19,41,160,183,205,213225,229,231251,255 quoted,22,231237,240248 Canovanon,216221,224225,232,242,261 "MartinHeideggeratEighty,"222 quoted,223224 MeninDarkTimes,19,41 "OnHumanityinDarkTimes,"essayin,263,273,279 quoted,218219,270272 andpariahs,238252,258260 andparvenus,67 OnRevolution,41,218 TheOriginsOfTotalitarianismonassimilation,168 AlexanderBloomon,105 andAlfredKazin,105 and"TheNewYorkIntellectuals,"2829,40,103106,151,153,155 and"radicalevil,"104107 AlanWaldon,104 andplurality,218233 RahelVarnhagen:TheLifeOfaJewishWoman,23,41 KarlJasperson,3 "ThinkingandMoralConsiderations,"quoted,22,163164 "TruthandPolitics,"22,225228 "WeRefugees,"261262 "WhatIsExistenzPhilosophy?,"222,225 quoted,223 B Ba'alShemtov,187 Baeck,Leo,24,162 Barnouw,Dagmar,2425,162163 Bauer,Jehudah,JewsForSale:NaziJewishNegotiations,19331945,quoted,47,5863,68,70 Begin,Menachim,leaderofHerut,7778 opposedtonegotiationswithGermany,77 andthe"KastnerTrial,"82 Bell,Daniel,30,94 quoted,3536,102 Bellow,Saul,130 BenGurion,David,19,34,49,50,53,55,67 quoted,52,5457,77,85,100,111 andthe"FinalSolution,"58

Page351

andthe''KastnerTrial,"8184 andnegotiationswithGermany,71,7580 andparachutingJewishtroopsintooccupiedEurope,65 asPrimeMinister,7580 On"TrucksForBlood,"69 BergenBelsen,74 BerkeleyFreeSpeechMovement,259 Bettelheim,Bruno,126 BetweenPastandFuture,1920,41,259263,283 Biale,David,ErosandtheJews,139 quoted,128131 Bible,The(Torah),177179,186,188,206,209211,277,282 Handelmanon,206 Birkenau,64 Bloom,Alexander,ProdigalSons:TheNewYorkIntellectualsandTheirWorld,quoted,44,9295,99102,104,107108,133,135137 Bloom,Harold,276 quoted,174175 Blucher,Heinrich,husbandofHannahArendt,104 Boman,Thorlief,HebrewThoughtComparedWithGreek,20,195202,206207,211,233,243,246 andHannahArendt,195 Boyarin,Daniel,JudaismandGender:AnAutobiographyoftheJewishMan,139,148,286 quoted,119126 Brand,Hansi,widowofJoel,7980 Brand,Joel,associateofKastner,6871 Breines,Paul,ToughJews:PoliticalFantasiesandtheMoralDilemmaofAmericanJewry,121,130,139 quoted,123127,134,153 Buber,Martin,ontryingEichmann,85 C Camus,Albert,42 Canovan,Margaret,HannahArendt:AReinterpretationOfHerPoliticalThought,216221,224225,242 quoted,216217,219,221,224225,238 Char,Rene,260262 quoted,260261 ChristianThinking,190,195,198200,216,219 Arendton,266267 Funkensteinon,190 Churchill,Winston,andthebombingofdeathcamps,64 Cicero,264 quoted,273 Clemenceau,Georges,217,219 "CollectiveResponsibility,"217 Commentary,2627,91,96 "ConceptOfHistory,The,"264270 "ConcernwithPoliticsinRecentEuropeanPhilosophicalThought,"224 Cooney,Terry,TheRiseOftheNewYorkIntellectuals:PartisanReviewandItsCircle,quoted,9293,101,137138 "CrossingDelancey,"130 Cuddihy,JohnMurray,TheOrdealOfCivility,quoted,168 D Davidowicz,Lucy,126,151 Davis,Angela,Women,Race,andClass,14 DeLeon,MosesBenShemTov,187 Derash,commentariesontheBible,187 Diaspora(Jewish),72 Dissent,2627

Page352

Dobkin,Eliyahu,51,5354 quoted,72 andparachutingJewishtroopsintooccupiedEurope,65 Dreyfuscase,219 DunsScotus,41 E Eden,Anthony,quoted,49 andthebombingofthedeathcamps,64 andtheHolocaust,46,48 Eichmann,Adolf andArendt,31 negotiationswithZionists,6163 ontrialinJerusalem,8489 EichmannInJerusalem,2137,39,8088,103,106112,119131,162163,213217,231,285,288 Einstein,Albert,99 ethnicity,34,9,3742,158171,214215,234,261,275284 F Farrell,JamesT.,136 FaustoSterling,Anne,16 Feldman,Ron,TheJewAsPariah,41 Feminism BlackFeminism,1114,140 AngelaDavis,14 AnitaHill,11 bellhooks,11 quoted,1415 JewishFeminism,139150 andDavidBiale,139 andDanielBoyarin,139 andPaulBrienes,139 andtheeducationofJewishgirls,148150 SusannahHeschel,141 MarianKaplan,149150,168169 IrenaKlepfisz,146147 andMosheMeiselman,141142 andGeorgeMosse,139 CynthiaOzick,140,143,145146 roleofYiddishandHebrew,146148 SandraHarding,1617 NancyHartsock,17 EvelynFoxKeller,16 CatharineMacKinnon,16 AnneFaustoSterling,16 Freud,Sigmund,199 CivilizationandItsDiscontents,41 TheInterpretationOfDreams,123124 asaJewishwriter,176 andsexuality,121122 quoted,125,153 G Gemara,186 Germanthinking,216 gender,12,3742 andArendt,157160,166171,284288 andassimilation,131139 bias,1315,17,110131,285286 andJewishFeminism,139150 Gilligan,Carol,InaDifferentVoice,1516 quoted,15 Glazer,Nathan,andDanielPatrickMoynihan,BeyondtheMeltingPot,107 Gold,Mike,editorofTheNewMasses,137138 Goldman,Emma,130,151 Goldman,Nahum,presidentoftheWorldZionistOrganizationduringtheEichmanntrial,85 Golomb,Eliahu,leaderofHaganah,quoted,6566 Greek(Western)thinking,174,195202,204,207,215216,233236,239240,248,251252,256259,264,266267,278 Bomanon,195201,204,206207,243,246

Page353

Funkensteinon,190191 Handelmanon,210 Greunbaum,Yitzhak,leaderofJAE,50,53,5557 quoted,72 andbombingofthedeathcamps,64 and"TrucksforBlood,"69,71 Gruenwald,Michael,accuserofRudolfKastner,71,8083 H Haavara(transferofJewsfromundernazidominance),5963,84 andtheAJC,61 andEichmann,6163 andGestapo,61 andtheJewishAgency,6162 andtheNazis,6163 Halakha(Jewishlegalcommentary),186,193 Handelman,Susan,TheSlayersofMoses:TheEmergenceofRabbinicInterpretationinModernLiteraryTheory,181183,206,210 Harding,Sandra,1617 Hardwicke,Elizabeth,152 Harlow,RabbiJules,MahzorforRoshHashanahandYomKippur,181182 Hartsock,Nancy,"TheFeministStandpoint,"quoted,17 Hassidism,187 Hausner,IsraeliAttorneyGeneralGideon,quoted,8687 "HeartbreakKid,The,"130 Hegel,G.W.F.,192,257 PhilosophyofHistory,283284 Heidegger,Martin,3,41,158159,216,219,220225,229,233,235,238,241242 Heilbut,Anthony,ExiledinParadise,Arendtquotedin,151 Heraclitus,196 Herodutus,264 HerutpartyofIsrael,ledbyBegin,77,82 Herzl,Theodor,125 Heschel,Susannah,ed.,OnBeingaJewishFeminist:AReader,quoted,141,144145 Heshin,IsraeliJusticeSalman,quoted,84 Himmler,Heinrich,onsexualityandrace,quoted,117118 Hill,Anita,11 Hilberg,Raul,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews,2728,33,39,4344,109110,151,154155 Histadrut(GeneralFederationofJewishWorkersinPalestine),50,5556 Hitler,Adolf,49,117 MeinKampf,59,100 indebateovernegotiationstosaveJews,62 Holocaust attitudetowardby"TheNewYorkIntellectuals,"10 Zionists,10,46,7175 andKonradAdenauer,76 inEichmanntrial,8589 andAnthonyEden,46,48 andAdolfHitler,49 andJAE,50 andMapai,50 andMosheShertok,49 andRabbiWeissmandel,48 andChaimWeizmann,49 Holtz,Barry,ed.,BacktotheSources:ReadingtheClassicJewishTexts,177,181,183187 Homer,264 Hook,Sidney,"TragedyofGermanJewry,"99100 hooks,bell,11 quoted,15

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Howe,Irving,WorldOfOurFathers,quoted,93,101,108109,133,135,167 HungarianRevolution,259 HumanCondition,The,3,20,41,213,229,254258,260,268,282284 I Israel andtheHolocaust,7175 andnegotiationswithGermany,71,7580 Begin,opposedto,7778 Rimalt,quotedon,177 partypoliticsoftheEichmanntrial,7589 J Jacob,208209 Jacoby,Russell,TheLastIntellectuals:AmericanCultureintheAgeofAcademe,quoted,9293 Jaspers,Karl,3,26,41,160161,216,219,220221,225 "JazzSingerThe,"130 Jesus,216217 JewishAgencyExecutive(JAE),50,5557 andEliyahuDobkin,51 andYitzhakGruenbaum,50 andHaavara,61 andMeyerSchapira,51 andMosheShertok,51 and"TrucksforBlood,"68 Jewishhistoricism,188193,207,263274 Funkensteinon,188193,207,264 Yerushalmion,188193,207,264 Jewishidentity,34,9,3742,158171,175,214215,234,261,275284 Jewishmysticism,Hassidism,Kabbalism,Zohar,187 Jewishthinking,174193,195211,213229,231284 Alteron,177178 andseeArendtandJewishidentity,158171,214215,275278 ArendtasaJewishthinker,1920,160,174,213229,231274 TheBible,177179,186,188,206,209211,253254,276,283 Alter,Holtz,andRosenbergon,177178,181 Bloomon,175176,276 Bomanon,195201,204,206207,243,246 defined,201,205211 andEichmanninJerusalem,213215 FreudasaJewishwriter,176 Handelmanon,207,210 HebrewthoughtcomparedwithGreekthought,20,195211,213236,239240,248,256259,266267,278 Bomanon,195201,204,206207,243,246 Heraclitus,196 Plato,196,198 Historicismand,188193,207,263264 Funkensteinon,188193,207,264 Yerushalmion,188193,207,264 TheHumanConditionas,213 Jewishidentityand,158,171,175,214215,276284 Kabbalism,187 Kadushinon,20,202205 KafkaasaJewishwriter,176 Midrash,177,185188 DerashandPeshat,187 Holtzon,185187 Rashi,186

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Mishnah,186 mysticism,187 Rabbinicthought,201211 Talmud,177,179186,188,210211,252254,270,277,282 Akiba,180 Holtzon,181,184185 Johnson,Lyndon,162 JointRescueCommittee,55 Jonas,Hans,235 Judaism,47,9,42 andmaledominance,1114 K KabbalismandZohar,187 Kadushin,Max,TheRabbinicMind,20,202205,209,277 quoted202204 Kafka,Franz,asaJewishwriter,176 Kant,Immanuel,3,41,216,219,222 Kaplan,Marian,TheMakingoftheJewishMiddleClass,168169 quoted,149150 Kastner,Rudolf,6784 head,HungarianRescueCommitteeand"TrucksForBlood,"6771 the"Kastnertrial,"8084 assassinated,83 "Kastnertrial,"the,8084,153 andBenGurion,81 andGruenwald,80 andtheJudenrte,8084 andTamir,81 Kazin,Alfred,28,96 "InEveryVoice,inEveryBan,"NewRepublic,100 quoted101,104 Keller,EvelynFox,16 Kirshenbaum,RabbiDavid,130 Klepfisz,Irena,130 IntroductiontoFoundTreasures:StoriesbyYiddishWomenWriters,quoted,146147 Klinger,Chaika,Hungarianundergroundfighter,quoted,72 Kohlberg,Lawrence,1516 Kurtz,Ya'acov,quoted,53 L Lazare,Bernard,219 Lessing,G.E.,271272 LifeoftheMind,The(v.1,Thinking),3,6,19,22,41,160,183,205,213225,229,231251,255 Luria,Isaac,187 Luxemburg,Rosa,151,219 "LyinginPolitics,"162 M Macdonald,Dwight,27,28,30,35,96,98 quoted,3637,104 Machiavelli,Niccolo,216 MacKinnon,Catharine,16 Magnes,Judah,219 Mailer,Norman,reviewsMaryMcCarthy'sTheGroupasa"ladybook,"152 Maimonides,Moses,187,192 quotedonwomenandJudaism,142 Mapaiparty(Israel),19,34,50,55,57,111 andBenGurion,leader,50 andthe"Kastnertrial,"82 andnegotiationswithGermany,7180 "MartinHeideggeratEighty,"222224 Marx,Karl,17,134,191,203,216,219,265,268269,277 masculinity Boyarinon,119126,139,286 Breineron,121127,134,139 andEichmanninJerusalem,126128 andJewishidentity,115118,153154,286287 Arendt,126,151152

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Bialeon,128131,139 andMarx,134,138 Mosseon,112118,121,127,130,139 andsexism,151156,170,284285 andLeonTrotsky,134 andYiddishversusHebrew,146148 Mason,Jackie,130 Meir,Golda,66 Meiselman,Moshe,JewishWomeninJewishLaw,quoted,141142 MeninDarkTimes,19,41 "OnHumanityinDarkTimes,"essayin,218219,263,270273,279 Midrash,177,180,185187 AggadaandHalakha,186 DerashandPeshat,187 andRashi,186 Mishnah,186 Montaigne,Michel,176 Montgomery(Alabama)busboycott,259 Moses,181 andreligiousimagery,208209 Mosse,George,NationalismandSexuality:MiddleClassMoralityandSexualNormsinModernEurope,101,127,130,139 quoted,112118,121 McCarthy,Mary,2730,3437,136137,151152 McCarthyism,see"TheNewYorkIntellectuals,"101,103104,106,108 N NewLeader,The,99100 NewRepublic,The,2627 "NewYorkIntellectuals,The"Abel,Lionel,2730,96,107,163 andassimilation,91101,153156,159,167 Bell,Daniel,30,3536,94,102 Bloom,Alexanderon,44,9295,99103 andCommentary,2627,91,96,167 Cooney,Terryon,9294,101,137138 guiltforignoringplightofEuropeanJews,101,108 Howe,Irving,93,101,108109,133,135,167 Hook,Sidney,99100 RussellJacobyon,9293 andJewishidentity,19,9198 Kagin,Alfred,28,44,96,100101,104105 andMcCarthyism,101,103104,106,108 Macdonald,Dwight,96,98,104 TheOriginsofTotalitarianism,reactionto,103106 andThePartisanReview,2627,91,96,99,101,105106 Phillips,William,29,94,9697,137 Podhoretz,Norman,2728 Rahv,Philip,94,97 Rosenberg,Harold,96 andsexism,151156 andStalinism,101,106,138 andTrotsky,Leon,andTrotskyism,134135 Trilling,Lionel,9496 Wald,Allenon,98,104 Warshaw,Robert,133 Wilson,Edmund,96 NewYorkReviewofBooks,The,152 "NormaRae,"130 O OnRevolution,41,218 OriginsofTotalitarianism,The,2829,40,103107,151,153,155,168 Ozick,Cynthia,"NotestowardFindingtheRightQuestion,"quoted,140,143,145146

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P Palgi,Joel,paratrooperassociateofHannaSenesh,quoted,75 pariahs,238252,258260 Parmenides,271 PartisanReview,The,2627,9697,99,101,105106,111,128,134139,151152 Passoverservice(seder),262263 Peretz,I.L.,147 Peshat,commentariesontheBible,187 Phillips,William,29,94,96,97,137 PhiloofAlexandria,224,233234,237 Pinkerton,LowellC.,AmericanConsulinJerusalem,onbombingofdeathcamps,64 Plato,41,96,198199,204,220221,234,241243,271,273 Podhoretz,Norman,2728 Pomerantz,Venia,and"TrucksforBlood,"68 Porat,Dina,TheBlueandYellowStarsofDavid:TheZionistLeadershipinPalestineandtheHolocaust,19391945,quoted,4550,5256,58,6469,7273 Proust,Marcel,176 R RahelVarnhagen:TheLifeofaJewishWomen,23,41 Rahv,Philip,94,9697,136137 Rashi,186 Remez,David,LeaderofHistadrut,50 quoted,72 rescueofJewsfromNazidominatedEurope,debatesonbombingofdeathcamps,59 andBenGurion,64 andChurchill,64 andEden,64 andUAE,64 paratrooperstooccupiedterritory,63,6567 andBenGurion,65 andDobkin,65 andGolomb,6566 andMeir,66 andPalgi,75 andRott,66 andSenesh,6667 andShertok,65 "TrucksforBlood,"59,6171 andBenGurion,69 andJoelBrand,6871 andEichmann,6871 andGruenbaum,69,71 andJAE,68 andKastner,6771 andPomerantz,68 Rich,Adrienne,130 Rimalt,Elimelech,memberoftheKnesset,quoted,76 Rosenberg,Harold,96 quoted,138 Rosenberg,Joel,inB.Holtz,ed.,BacktotheSources,178 Roth,Philip,124,130 Rott,Egon,JewishrebelleaderinSlovakia,quoted,66 S Sarah,285 Schapira,Meyer(JAE),51 Segev,Tom,TheSeventhMillion:TheIsraelisandtheHolocaust,4445,58,63,67,69,72 quoted,44,52,54,60,62,6566,7376,7883,8586 Senesh,Hanna,Jewishparatrooperandhero,6667,75 quoted,67 Sforim,MendeleMokher,147 Shertok,Moshe(laterSharett),JAE,49,51,58 andbombingofdeathcamps,64 andparatrooperstooccupiedEurope,65

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Sholem,Gershom,27,2932,37,163,169 Singer,I.B.,124,148 Socrates,3,20,41,160161,163,166,219221,229,238,241242,248252,278 Jasperson,166 aspariah,242247,251252 quoted,164165,216217,225 Sophocles,quotedbyAristotle,13 S.S.Strumaincident,53 Syrkin,Marie,27,29,3234,37,151,163 T Talmud,177,179186,188,210211,252254,270,277 Akiba,180 Handelmanquotedon,181183 RabbiHaninahBenTradyon,quoted,182 Holtz,quotedon,181,183184 Tamir,Shmuel,attorneyforGruenwald,8183 quotedonBenGurion,83 Thales,246 "ThinkingandMoralConsiderations,"22,163164 Thomas,JusticeClarence,13 Totalitarianism,4,219220 Tradyon,RabbiHaninahBen,181182 Trilling,Lionel,9496 quoted,9596 Trotsky,Leon,134135 Trunk,Isaiah,126 "TruthandPolitics,"22,225228 quoted,22,226228 U Universalism(orObjectivism),5,9 versustribalism,3542 V Vico,Giambattista,41 W Wald,Allen,TheNewYorkIntellectuals:TheRiseandDeclineoftheAntiStalinistLeft,fromthe1930'stothe1980's,98 quoted,104 Warshaw,Robert,quoted,133 "WayWeWereThe,"130 "WeRefugees,"261262 Weber,Max,216 Weissmandel,RabbiMichaelDovBeer,quoted,48 Weizmann,Chaim,presidentWorldZionistOrganization,49,51 Weininger,Otto,SexandCharacter,117 "WhatIsExistenzPhilosophy?,"222223,225 Wilson,Edmund,96,136 quoted,137 Wise,RabbiStephen,chair,AmericanJewishCongress,61 X Xenophen,Anabasis,258 Y Yerushalmi,YosefHayim,Freud'sMoses:JudaismTerminableandInterminable,quoted175 Zakhor:JewishHistoryandJewishMemory,withanIntroductionbyHaroldBloom,175,188193,264,267 quoted,189 YoungBruehl,Elisabeth,quoted,21 Youngman,Henny,130 Z Zionists andEichmanninJerusalem,1819,34 andHaavara,5963 andtheHolocaust,45,7180 interventiontorescueJewsfromEurope,18,19,34,57,6471