ULES
APPLICATIONS
POS
biCONTRIBUTING
AUTHORS
R.E. Belke
1. F. Cleary
U. S, Davidsohn
J. Giorgis
E. Gottlieb
E.L, Haas
D. J. Hubbard 2a:
D. V. Jones
J.
.F. Kvamme
H. Phelps
W. A, Sauer
K. Schjonneberg
G. E. Snyder
R.A. Stasior
T. P. Sylvan
EDITOR
J. F. Cleary
TECHNICAL EDITOR
J. H. Phelps
Manager Application Engineering
LAYOUT/DESIGN
L. L, King
PRODUCTION
F. W. Pulver, Jr.
EDITED AND PRODUCED BY
Semiconductor Products Department
Advertising & Sales Promotion
General Electric Company
Electronics Park
Syracuse, New YorkThe circuit diagrams included in this manual are for illus-
tation of typical transistor applications and are not intended
as constructional information. For this reason, wattage ratings of
resistors and voltage ratings of capacitors are not necessarily given.
Similarly, shielding techniques and alignment methods which may
be necessary in some circuit layouts are not indicated. Although
reasonable care has been taken in their preparation to insure their
technical correctness, no responsibility is assumed by the General
Electric Company for any consequences of their use.
The semiconductor devices and arrangements disclosed herein
may be covered by patents of General Electric Company or others
Neither the disclosure of any information herein nor the sale of
semiconductor devices by General Electric Company conveys any
license under patent claims covering combinations of semiconductor
devices with other devices or elements. In the absence of an expres
written agreement to the contrary General Electric Company as-
sumes no liability for patent infringement arising out of any use
of the semiconductor devices with other devices or elements by any
purchaser of semiconductor devices or others.
Copyright 1964
by the
General Electric Company
1
Progress |s Our Most Important Product
GENERAL
wo)
ELECTRIC1.
CONTENTS
BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
A Few Words of Introduction
Semiconductors
Atoms.
Valency
Single Crystals
Crystal Flaws
Energy
Electronic
Atomic
Conductivity in’ Crystals
Thermal
Radiation
Impurities
‘N-Type Material
P-Type Material
Temperature
Conduction: Diffusion and Drift
Diffusion :
Drift
PN Junctions (Diodes)
Junction Capacity
Current Flow :
Diode “Concept” 2.22...
Bias: Forward and Reverse
Transistor :
Alpha
Beta : :
Base-Emitter Bias Adjustment
Transistor Switch.
Transistor Amplifier
Symbols and Abbreviations
Leakage
Bias Stability
Thermal Spectrum
Transistor Abuses
Mechanical
Electrical
Aging 0.0...
Current
Frequency
Leakage
Manufacturing Ratings
Mechanical :
Power
Temperature
Voltage
References
Some Things to Remember in the Application of Transistors. |
MIPage
2. SMALL SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 43
Part 1—Low Frequency Considerations . 43
Introduction : . 8B
‘Transistor Low Frequency Equivalent Circuits 45
Generic Equivalent Circuit 45
“Black-Box Analysis” of the Four Terminal Linear Network 49
‘Open Circuit Impedance Parameters (z-Parameters) 49
Short Circuit Admittance Parameters (y-Parameters) 50
h-Parameter Equivalent Circuit 51
T-Equivalent Circuit : 51
Basic Amplifier Stage 37
Input Resistance 37
Output Resistance 37
Current Amplification 59
Voltage Amplification : 59
Maximum Power Gain 59
Transducer Gain * 60
Maximum Power Gain (MPG) 62
Part 2—High Frequency Considerations 65
Addition of Parasitic Elements to the Low-Frequency
Equivalent Circuits : 65
Junction Capacitances 6
Parasitic Resistances 66
Consideration of the Equivalent Circuit 1
Consideration of the Transistor’s Frequency Limitations 4
Gain-Bandwidth Product 4
Alpha and Beta Cutoff Frequencies : 16
The Use of Black-Box Parameters (h or y) 1
Calculation of Input Admittance (Common-Emitter) 19
Calculation of Output Admittance (Common-Emitter) 19
Calculation of Gain 9
Measurement of y-Parameters : 80
References 80
3. LARGE SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND TRANSISTOR CHOPPERS 81
Parameters 81
Basic Equations 83
Active Operation 83
Saturated Operation 83
Cutoff Operation 86
Useful Large Signal Relationships : 86
Collector Leakage Current (Icro) : f 87
Collector Leakage Current (Igps) 87
Collector Leakage Current (cen) 87
Collector Leakage Current—Silicon Diode in Series With Emitter. 87
Base Input Characteristics. 88
Voltage Comparator Circuit 88
Junction Transistor Choppers 88
References : : 94,
4. BIASING AND DC AMPLIFIERS 95
Biasing 95
Introduction : 95
Single Stage Biasing : : 96
Biasing of Multistage Amplifiers : 102
Nonlinear Compensation 106
‘Thermal Runaway 107
DC Amplifiers : il
Transistor Requirements ul
Single Stage Differential Amplifier 114
Two Stage Differential Amplifier : ui7
References , 120
5. LOGIC. : ~ 121
Switching Algebra : 121
The Karnaugh Map - 126
Number Systems o : 128
Arithmetic Operations 130
Memory Elements ne 131
Cirewit Implications 134
Iv
10.
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
The Basic Switch . . .
The Basic Diode Switch
The Basic Transistor Switch
Static Parameters
Power
Leakage Current
Current Gain
Gollector Saturation Voltage
Base-Emitter Saturation Voltage
Transient, Response Characteristics,
Definition of Time Intervals and Currents
Turn-On Delay —
Collector and Emitter Transition Capacitances
Forward Base Current
Gain Bandwidth Products
Charge Control Concepts
Application of Stored Charge Concepts.
Rise Time . ae
Complete Solutions’.
Limitations
14 Specification
Calculation of Fall-Time
Summary of Results
‘Anti-Saturation Techniques
References
DIGITAL CIRCUITS
Introduction .
Basic Circuits . see
Common Logic Systems
Flip-Flop Design Procedures
Saturated Flip-Flops
Non-Saturated Flip-Flop Design
Triggering
Special Purpose Circuits
Schmitt Trigger
‘Astable Multivibrator
Monostable Multivibrator
Indicator Lamp Driver
Pulse Generator
Ring Counter
DCTL
OSCILLATORS
Oscillator Theory
Phase Shift Oscillators :
Resonant Feedback Oscillators
Crystal Oscillator
References
FEEDBACK AND SERVO AMPLIFIERS
Use of Feedback in Transistor Amplifiers
‘Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback
Servo Amplifier for Two Phase Servo Motors
Preamplifiers on
Driver Stage
Output Stage
References
REGULATED DC SUPPLIES
Regulated DC Supplies
Precision Power Supplies Using Reference Amplifier
Precision Regulated Voitage Supply
Precision Constant Current Supply
Parallel Inverters
DC to DC Converters
References
Page
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139
2.139
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5
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23911. AUDIO AND HIGH FIDELITY AMPLIFIER
CIRCUITS...
Part 1-—Audio Amplifier Circuits.
Basic Amplifiers
Single Stage Audio Amplifier
Two Stage RC Coupled Audio Amplifier
Class B Push-Pull Output Stages
Class A Output Stages.
Class A Driver Stages
Design Charts
Part 2—High Fidelity Circuits
Introduction
Preamplifiers coe :
Bass Boost Loudness Control Circuit
NPN-Tape and Microphone Preamplifier.
NPN-Phono Preamplifiers
Power Amplifiers
Silicon Power Amplifiers
8 Watt Transformerless Ampiifier
2¥% Watt Transformerless Amplifier
12 Watt Transformerless Amplifier
15 Watt Transformerless Amplifier
Stereophonic Systems
20 Wait Stereo With 8 or 16 Ohm Speakers
Stereophonic Systems Using Silicon Transistors
Stereo Headphone Amplifier
Tape Recording Amplifier With Bias and Erase Oscillator
Recording Amplifier
Tape Erase and Bias Oscillator
References
12. RADIO RECEIVER CIRCUITS
Silicon Transistors
Advantages
Line Operated Receivers
Radio Frequency Circuits
Autodyne Converter Circuits
IF Amplifiers
Emitter Current Control
Auxiliary AVC Systems
Detector Stage
Reflex Circuits
Complete Radio Receiver Diagrams
Notes
Additional Component Information
13. UNIJUNCTION CIRCUITS.
Theory of Operation
Parameter—Definition and Measurement. .
Construction
Important Unijunction’ Characteristics
Peak Point
Beak Point Temperature Stabilization
Valley Point
Relaxation Oscillator
Circuit Operation
Oscillation Requirements and Component Limits
Transient Waveform Characteristics
Pulse Generatio:
Frequency Stability
Synchronization
Sawtooth Wave Generators
General Considerations
Temperature Effects
Improving Linearity
Linear Sawtooth Wave Generators
Precision Timing Circuits
Time Delay Relay
Precision Solid State Time Delay Circuits
Delayed Dropout Relay Timer
VI
Page
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236
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320
320
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323
14.
15.
Sensing Circuits
Voltage Sensing Circuit
Page
324
324
Nanoampere Sensing Circuit With 100 Megohm Input Impedance. 325
SCR Trigger Circuits .
Simplified SCR Trigger Circuit Design Procedures
Triggering Parallel-Connected SCR’s
Simplified SCR Trigger Circuits for AC Line Operation
Sensitive AC Power Switch
Sensitive DE Power Switch
High Gain Phase-Control Circuit
Triggering Circuits for DC Choppers and Inverters
Regulated AC Power Supply
Transistor Control of Unijunction
Shunt Transistor Control of Unijunetion
Series Transistor Control of Unijunction
Hybrid Timing Circuits
Symmetrical Multivibrator (Square Wave Generator)
One-Shot Multivibrator
Non-Symmetrical Multivibrator
Non-Symmetrical Multivibrators (Constant Frequency)
Multivibrator
Frequency Divider
Miscellaneous Circuits
Regenerative Pulse Amplifier
Pulse Generator (Variable Frequency and Duty Cycle)
Staircase Wave Generator
One-Shot Multivibrator (Fast Recavery and Wide Frequency
Range)
Voltage-to-Frequency Converter
References
TUNNEL DIODE CIRCUITS
Tunnel Diode Oscillators
Tunnel Diode Micro-Power Transmitters
Tunnel Diode Converters
Various Industrial Special Uses of Tunnel Diodes
Tunnel Diode Amplifiers
Tunnel Diode Multivibrators
Hybrid (Transistor—Tunnel Diode) Multivibrators
Tunnel Diode Counters
Miscellaneous Tuned Diode Circuits
Tuned Diode Computer Circuits
References
EXPERIMENTER CIRCUITS
Simple Audio Amplifier
Low Impedance Microphone Preamplifier
Direct Coupled “Battery Saver” Amplifier
Six Volt Phono Amplifier
Nine Volt Phono Amplifier
Code Practice Oscillator
Unijunction Transistor Code Practice Oscillator
Unijunction Transistor Metroneme
Metronome
Unijunction Home Signal System
Ultra-Linear High Precision Tachometer
Audible Auto Signal Minder
Unijunction CW Monitor
IKC_ Oscillator
100KC Crystal Standard
Unijunction 100KC Crystal Standard
One Transistor Receiver
Two Transistor Receiver
Three Transistor Receiver
AM Broadcast Band Tuner
Superregenerative 27MC Receiver
FM Broadcast Band Tuner
Low Power AM Broadcast Band Transmitter
Low Power VFO CW Transmitter
Transistor Test Set
Transistor Tester
Transistor Tester Showing Readout Chart
Internal View of Transistor Tester
Regulated Power Supply
VIL
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39016.
17.
18.
SILICON CONTROLLED SWITCHES
Part I—Understanding PNPN Devices
Introduction
The Equivalent Circuit
PNPN Geometry
Biasing Voltages
Basic Two Transistor Equivalent Circuit
Rate Effect
Forward Conducting Voltage
Holding Current and Valley Point
Transient Response Time
Recovery Time
Basic Circuit Configurations
Circuit Configurations Based on NPN Transistor. |)
Circuit Configurations Using High Triggering Sensitivity
Threshold Circuits
Circuit Configurations for Turning Off the SCS
Circuit Configurations for Minimizing Rate Effect
Circuit Design “Rule of Thumb”
Measurement
DC Measurements
Transient. Measurement
Part 2—SCS Characteristic Curves
Part 3—SCS Circuit Applications
SILICON SIGNAL DIODES & SNAP DIODES
Silicon Signal Diodes . :
Planar Epitaxial Passivated Silicon Diode
DC Characteristics :
AC Characteristics
Diode Comparisons and Trade-Ofis
Diode Assemblies
Stabistors
Snap Diodes
References
TRANSISTOR MEASUREMENTS
Introduction cee
Reverse Diode Characteristics
General
DC Tests
Current Measurements
Large-Signal (DC) Transistor Measurements,
Large Signal Definitions and Basic Test Circuits
Some Test Circuits
Junction Temperature Measurements
Junction Temperature (T;)
Thermal Impedance !
Test Circuit for Junction Temperature Measurements
‘Small Signal Measurements (Audio) of Transistor Parameters
Common Base Configuration : :
Common Emitter Configuration
Common Collector Configuration
General... -
High Frequency Smail Signal Measurements of
‘Transistor Parameters
General
Input Impedance
Output Admittance
Forward Current Ratio
Power Gain Measurement
General
Measuring Power Gain
Neutralization
Transistor Noise Measurements
General
Measurement of Noise Figure .
Equivalent Noise Current and Noise Voltage
Measurement of (ex) % and (ix*) % for Transistors
Measurement of Noise Factor Without Using Signal
Generator or Noise Diode -
Transistor Noise Analyzer
Vul
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Charge Control Parameter Measurement
Ta Effective Lifetime in the Active State
to. Effective Lifetime in Saturated State
Com) Average Emitter Junction Capacitance
Composite Circuit for Beige
2, Total Charge to Bring Transistor s i
Calibration of Capacitor, Ce on One Teat Seve’ Saturation
19. THE TRANSISTOR SPECIFICATION SHEET
AND SPECIFICATIONS
Part 1—The Transistor Specificatic
General Device Capapiiies oaien Sheet
Absolute Maximum Ratings
Voltage a
Current
Transistor Dissipation
Temperature
Electrical ‘Characteristics
DC Characteristics
Cutoft Characteristics
High Frequency Characteristics
Switching “Characteristics
Generic Characteristics .
Explanation of Parameter Symbols.
‘Symbol Elements
Decimal Multipliers
Parameter Symbols
Abbreviated Definition of Terms
Part 2~Specifications
GE Specification Charts Index
GE Semiconductor Charts
GE Outline Drawings
Registered JEDEC Transistor Types’ with
Interchangéability Information
20. APPLICATION LITERATURE—
SALES OFFICES
GE Application Notes and Article Reprints
GE Semiconductor Sales Offices
GE Fulbline Seconductor, Distributors
her General Electric t De
GE Semiconductor Type Index men's
tibutors, Related Departments, and GE Semiconductor Products
Turn to back of book.
Ix
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NOTE: For information pertaining to General Electric Sales Offices, Dis-FOREWORD
The growth to maturity of the semiconductor industry: is
paralleled by the growth of this General Electric Transistor Manual.
First published in 1957, the present Manual’s more than 600 pages
is roughly 10 times the size of the first edition. The contents, how-
ever, retain the same basic orientation which is that of a highly prac-
tical circuit book, one that can be used to advantage by electronic
design engineers as well as students, teachers, and experimenters.
This seventh edition contains new and updated material which
accounts for more than 80% of the contents. For instance: more
high frequency material has been added; the chapter on switching
has been completely rewritten; the number of circuits in the manual
has been almost tripled; also, the chapter for experimenters has
been greatly enlarged.
This is a book written not by theorists, but by experienced
men who are devising the practical solutions to some of the most
challenging, difficult problems encountered in electronic engineering.
As solid state devices contribute more and more to the won-
derful age of automated industry and electronic living, we at
General Electric sincerely hope that this Manual will provide
insight and understanding on how semiconductors might do the
job better and more economically.
Syrapuse, New York
BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
CHAPTER
A FEW WORDS OF INTRODUCTION
Pushing the frontiers of space outward along the “space spectrum” toward both
infinities has caused to be born in this century whole new technologies. Those related
to outer space, and those related to “inner space.” But not one stands alone, inde-
pendent of another. All are related. It is this relationship, accumulating as it has down
through the ages that has brought with it the transistor.
Just as the vast reaches of outer space — that infinite “land” of the sun and moon,
the star constellations and the “milky way,” Mars, Venus, and all of the other mysteries
that exist there — has caused man throughout his history to wonder and ask questions,
so too has he wondered and asked about the vast reaches of “inner space” — the world
of the atom. But it has only been recently, during the 19th and 20th centuries in fact,
that some of his questions about inner space have been answered. Much to his credit,
many questions man has answered by mere observation and mathematical calculation.
Further to his credit he has devised “seeing eye” aids to help push the space boun-
daries still farther out.
ee
eT Ff
GENERAL ELECTRIC DEVICES
Problems of “seeing” exist at both ends of space, and it is just as difficult to look
“in” as it is to look “out.” Just as the outer space astronomer depends on his powerful
a |1 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY EE
magnifying aids to help him see, hear, and to measure, to gather information and data
in order to comprehend; so too does the inner space “astronomer” depend on his mag-
nifying aids. Microscopes, mass spectrometers, x-ray and radiography techniques,
electric meters, oscilloscopes, and numerous other intricate equipment help him to
measure the stuff, the matter, that makes up inner space. From his search has devel-
oped many new technical terms. In fact, whole new technical languages have come
into existence: electron, hole, neutron, neutrino, positron, photon, muon, kaon, the Bohr
atom, quantum mechanics, Fermi-Dirac statistics. Strange terms to many, but terms
of the world that exist at one end of the infinite space spectrum, the atomic world.
‘Atomic physics as we know it today started far back in 400 B.C.” when the doctrine
of atoms was in vogue in the Greek world of science. And no matter how unsophisti-
cated the atomic theories at the time, it was a beginning. The idea of “spirit” particles
too small for the unaided human eye to see was then postulated. It would take many
centuries before the knowledge of the physicist, the statistician, the metallurgist, the
chemist, the engineer — both mechanical and electronic — could and would combine to
bring into being a minute, micro-sized crystal that would cause to evolve a completely
new and unusually complicated industry, the semiconductor industry.
The history of the semiconductor is, in fact, a pyramid of learning, and if any one
example were to be cited, of the practical fruits of scientific and technical cooperation
over the ages, and especially over the past 100 or so years, near the head of the list
would surely be the transistor.
In 1833, Michael Faraday,” the famed English scientist, made what is perhaps the
first significant contribution to semiconductor research. During an experiment with
silver sulphide Faraday observed that its resistance varied inversely with temperature.
This was in sharp contrast with other conductors where an increase in temperature
caused an increase in resistance and, conversely, a decrease in temperature caused a
decrease in resistance. Faraday’s observation of negative temperature coefficient of
resistance, occurring as it did over 100 years before the birth of the practical transistor,
may well have been the “gleam in the eye” of the future,
For since its invention in 1948 the transistor has played a steadily increasing part
not only in the electronics industry, but in the lives of the people as well. First used in
hearing aids and portable radios, it is now used in every existing branch of electronics.
‘Transistors are used by the thousands in automatic telephone exchanges, computo
industrial and military control systems, and telemetering transmitters for satellite:
A modern satellite may contain as many as 2500:transistors and 3500 diodes as part
of a complex contro] and signal system. In contrast, but equally as impressive, is the
two transistor “pacemaker,” a tiny electronic pulser. When imbedded in the human
chest and connected to the heart the pacemaker helps the ailing heart patient live
a nearly normal life. What a wonderful device is the tiny transistor. In only a few
short years it has proved its worth — from crystal set to regulator of the human heart.
But it is said that progress moves slowly. And this is perhaps true of the first
hundred years of semiconductor research, where time intervals between pure research
and practical application were curiously long. But certainly this cannot be said of the
years that followed the invention of the transistor. For since 1948 the curve of semi-
conductor progress has been moving swiftly and steadily upward. The years to come
promise an even more spectacular rise, Not only will present frequency and power
limitations be surpassed but, in time, new knowledge of existing semiconductor mate-
rials . . . new knowledge of new materials . . . improved methods of device fabrication
... the micro-miniaturization of semiconductor devices . . . complete micro-circuits . . .
all, will spread forth from the research and engineering laboratories to further influence
and improve our lives,
Already, such devic
as the tunnel diode and the high-speed diode can perform
2 ae ee
A BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY 1
with ease well into the UHF range; transistors, that only a short time ago were
limited to producing but a few milliwatts of power, can today produce thousands
upon thousands of milliwatts of power; special transistors and diodes such as the
unijunction transistor, the high-speed diode, and the tunnel diode can simplify and make
more economical normally complex and expensive timing and switching circuits, Intri-
cate and sophisticated circuitry that normally would require excessive space, elaborate
cooling equipment, and expensive power supply components can today be designed
and built to operate inherently cooler within a substantially smaller space, and with
less imposing power components. All this is possible by designing with semiconductors,
In almost all areas of electronics the semiconductors have brought immense increases
in efficiency, reliability, and economy.
Although a complete understanding of the physical concepts and operational theory
of the transistor and diode are not necessary to design and construct transistor circuits,
it goes without saying that the more device knowledge the designer possesses, whether
he be a professional electronics engineer, a radio amateur, or @ serious experimenter,
the more successful will he be in his use of semiconductor devices in circuit design.
Such understanding will help him to solve special circuit problems, will help him to
better understand and use the newer semiconductor devices as they become available,
and surely will help clarify much of the technical literature that more and more
abounds with semiconductor terminology.
The forepart of this chapter, then, is concerned with semiconductor terminology
and theory as both pertain to diodes and junction transistors. The variety of semi-
conductor devices available preclude a complete and exhaustive treatment of theory
and characteristics for all types. The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is well covered
in other General Electric Manuals;“ treatment of the unijunction transistor (UJT)
will be found in Chapter 13 of this manual, and tunnel diode circuits are shown in
Chapter 14. Other pertinent literature will be found at the end of most chapters
under references. Information pertaining to other devices and their application will be
found by a search of text books and their accompanying bibliographies. The “year-end
index” (December issue) of popular semiconductor and electronic periodicals is another
excellent source. Public libraries, book publishers, magazine publishers, and component
and device manufacturers are all “information banks” and should be freely used in any
search for information and knowledge.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductor technology is usually referred to as solid-state. This suggests, of
course, that the matter used in the fabrication of the various devices is a solid, as
opposed to liquid or gaseous matter — or even the near perfect vacuum as found in the
thermionic tube — and that conduction of electricity occurs within solid material. “But
how,” it might be asked, “can electrical charges move through solid material as they
must, if electrical conduction is to take place?” With some thought the answer becomes
obvious: the so-called solid is not solid, but only partially so. In the microcosmos, the
world of the atom, there is mostly space.” It is from close study of this intricate and
complicated “little world,” made up mostly of space, that scientists have uncovered the
basic ingredients that make up solid state devices — the semiconductors.
Transistors and diodes, as we know them today, are made from semiconductors,
so-called because they lie between the metals and the insulators in their ability to
conduct electricity. A simple illustration of their general location is shown in Figure 1.1.
Shaded areas are transition regions, Materials located in these areas may or may not
be semiconductors, depending on their chemical nature.
There are many semiconductors, but none quite as popular at the present time as
germanium and silicon, both of which are hard, brittle crystals by nature. In their
en a ee eee) 3