Review of technical literature and trends

related to automobile mass-reduction technology

UCD-ITS-RR-10-10





May 2010




Prepared for:
California Air Resources Board



Prepared by:
Nicholas Lutsey
Institute of Transportation Studies
University of California, Davis



ii
Acknowledgements
This report is supported by a contract from the California Air Resources Board (under Agreement
Number 08-626). The statements and conclusions in this report are those of the researcher and not
necessarily those of the California Air Resources Board. The mention of commercial products, their
source, or their use in connection with material reported herein is not to be construed as an actual or
implied endorsement of such products.




iii
Table of contents
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................................. ii
Table of contents..................................................................................................................................... iii
Acronyms, abbreviations, units............................................................................................................... iv
Lists of tables and figures ........................................................................................................................ v
Executive summary................................................................................................................................. vi
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Background........................................................................................................................................ 1
3. Vehicle mass reduction: Survey of trends and technologies ............................................................. 6
3.1. General technology trends...................................................................................................... 7
3.2. The existing fleet of vehicle models ...................................................................................... 11
3.3. Emerging mass-reduction technology and automaker plans ............................................... 12
3.4. Advanced mass-optimized vehicle designs ........................................................................... 18
4. Implications ..................................................................................................................................... 33
4.1. Vehicle mass-reduction and policies for CO
2
emissions and fuel economy......................... 34
4.2. Vehicle mass-reduction and electric drivetrain technology ................................................. 36
5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 38
References.............................................................................................................................................. 40


iv
Acronyms, abbreviations, units

AHSS: Advanced high-strength steel
Al: Aluminum
CAFE: Corporate Average Fuel Economy
CARB: California Air Resources Board
CO
2
: Carbon dioxide

gCO
2
/mi: gram of carbon dioxide per mile
gallon: gallon, equal to 3.785 liters
HSS: High-strength steel
lb: pound, equal to 0.4535 kilogram
kg: kilogram, equal to 2.205 pounds
Mg: Magnesium
mi: Mile, equal to 1,609 meters
mpg: Miles per gallon
PNGV: Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles
SMC: Sheet-molded composite
ton: U.S. ton, equal to 2,000 pounds
U.S. EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency


v
Lists of tables and figures
Tables:
Table 1. Vehicle mass breakdown by system and components .................................................................... 6
Table 2. Component weight-reduction potential from technologies on production vehicles ..................... 14
Table 3. Examples of overall vehicle weight reduction from production vehicles..................................... 16
Table 4. Automaker industry statements regarding plans for vehicle mass-reduction technology ............ 17
Table 5. Summary of Honda NS-X............................................................................................................. 18
Table 6. Summary of Ford P2000............................................................................................................... 19
Table 7. Summary of DaimlerChrysler ESX.............................................................................................. 19
Table 8. Summary of General Motors Precept ........................................................................................... 19
Table 9. Summary of Rocky Mountain Institute Revolution...................................................................... 20
Table 10. Summary of aluminum-intensive Audi space frame technology................................................ 20
Table 11. Summary of aluminum-intensive Jaguar XJ............................................................................... 21
Table 12. Summary of Porsche Engineering Advanced Concept Vehicle ................................................. 21
Table 13. Summary of Ford and U.S. Army IMPACT Ford F150............................................................. 22
Table 14. Summary of Auto/Steel Partnership Future Generation Vehicle................................................ 22
Table 15. Summary of ThyssenKrupp New Steel Body............................................................................. 23
Table 16. Summary of DaimlerChrysler Dodge Durango Next Generation Frame project ....................... 23
Table 17. Summary of Advanced Materials Partnership magnesium-intensive vehicle project ................ 24
Table 18. Summary of IBIS and Aluminum Association aluminum-intensive vehicle.............................. 24
Table 19. Summary of Volkswagen-led European Super Light Car project .............................................. 25
Table 20. Summary of EDAG and WorldAutoSteel Future Steel Vehicle project..................................... 26
Table 21. Summary of Lotus Engineering Low and High Development vehicle project........................... 26
Table 22. Findings related to the costs of mass-reduced vehicle designs................................................... 33
Table 23. Worldwide automobile efficiency and GHG standards .............................................................. 34

Figures:
Figure 1. Light duty vehicle weight trends for model years 1975 to 2009 (U.S. EPA, 2009a) .................... 2
Figure 2. U.S. light duty vehicle trends for weight, acceleration, fuel economy, and weight-
adjusted fuel economy for model years 1975-2009 (U.S. EPA, 2009a data) ............................... 3
Figure 3. U.S. automobile weight and CO
2
emissions.................................................................................. 4
Figure 4. Effect of mass-reduction technology on CO
2
emission rate for constant performance................. 5
Figure 5. Distinction between fleet "downsizing" and vehicle "mass-reduction technology"...................... 5
Figure 6. Historical shift in vehicle composition by mass (based on Taub et al, 2007) ............................... 7
Figure 7. Automotive material properties and approximate costs (based on data from Caceres, 2007:
U.S. DOE, 2006; Powers, 2000; Lovins and Cramer, 2004; Stodolsky et al, 1995b) .................. 9
Figure 8. Example of higher-strength, higher-cost materials achieving a net decrease in component
cost (based on steel alloy options for B-pillar from Adam, 2009) ............................................... 9
Figure 9. Illustration of body-on-frame and unibody vehicle construction ................................................ 10
Figure 10. Model year 2008 U.S. light duty vehicle curb weight and size................................................. 11
Figure 11. Sales-weighted average vehicle weight and size for each automaker group............................. 12
Figure 12. Mass reduction from the body structure of mass-optimized vehicle designs............................ 28
Figure 13. Material composition of mass-optimized vehicle body designs................................................ 29
Figure 14. Vehicle body and overall vehicle mass impacts from mass-optimized designs........................ 29
Figure 15. Vehicle mass reduction and material composition of PNGV prototypes .................................. 30
Figure 16. Comparison of Lotus mass-reduced designs to historical vehicle composition trend............... 31
Figure 17. The mass by material of the Lotus baseline and mass-reduced vehicle designs ....................... 32
Figure 18. Impact of an identical efficiency-and-mass-reduction technology package in size- and
mass-indexed CO
2
emission regulations .................................................................................... 35
Figure 19. CO
2
emissions of model year 2008 hybrids and their non-hybrid counterparts........................ 37

vi
Executive summary
Past automotive trends, ongoing technology breakthroughs, and recent announcements by
automakers make it clear that reducing the mass of automobiles is a critical technology objective for
vehicle performance, carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions, and fuel economy. Vehicle mass-reduction
technology offers the potential to reduce the mass of vehicles without compromise in other vehicle
attributes, like acceleration, size, cargo capacity, or structural integrity. As regulatory agencies continue
to assess more stringent CO
2
and fuel economy standards for the future, it is unclear the exact extent to
which vehicle mass-reduction technology will be utilized alongside other efficiency technologies like
advanced combustion and hybrid system technology. This report reviews ongoing automotive trends,
research literature, and advanced concepts for vehicle mass optimization in an attempt to better
characterize where automobiles and their mass in particular might be headed.
Several findings on mass-reduction technology trends emerge from this assessment. Automakers
are deploying a wide variety of advanced materials in new vehicle models. The competition between
alternative materials like high-strength steel, aluminum, magnesium, and plastic continues to result in a
rich portfolio of options to reduce vehicle mass component-by-component (e.g., engine, beams, panels,
etc). In addition, design approaches for the vehicle body structure that more heavily utilize higher-
strength steels and aluminum are beginning to be embraced by some manufacturing companies, and this
could substantially reduce the mass of vehicle models. Several major studies, as well as some automakers
announced plans, indicate that mass-reduction technology with minimal additional manufacturing cost
could achieve up to a 20% reduction in the mass of new vehicles in the 2015-2020 timeframe. This
incremental mass-reduction approach would, in turn, result in a 12% to 16% reduction in CO
2
emissions
while maintaining constant vehicle size and performance.
Greater potential for future CO
2
emission reductions involves the commercialization of more
advanced mass-optimization technologies that go beyond the near-term incremental approaches. Greater
reductions in vehicle mass result from more comprehensive vehicle optimization designs that incorporate
component-level mass reduction, a diverse mix of materials, secondary mass-reduction effects, new
manufacturing techniques, and component integration to systematically make the whole vehicle more
mass-efficient. These more advanced mass-optimization techniques could yield vehicle mass reductions
of 30% or greater but would involve some additional costs and manufacturing process modifications.
This scale of mass-reduction has been found to be feasible for introduction in model year 2020 vehicles.
Beyond its direct CO
2
improvement, this scale of mass-reduction technology could involve powertrain
cost improvements that could help enable affordable hybrid electric-drive vehicles.
Based on automakers commitments to deploy mass-reduction technology, this study offers several
policy implications. Automakers and suppliers are moving forward with advanced mass-optimization
techniques apparently at a faster rate than regulators forecast or acknowledge. Several worldwide vehicle
efficiency policies are directly indexed to the mass of vehicles (e.g., in Europe, China, and Japan), and
therefore these standards stand to provide a lesser incentive for automakers to pursue and deploy
emerging mass-reduction technologies in their new vehicle designs. Furthermore, U.S. regulators
similarly have downplayed the importance of mass-reduction as a core efficiency technology to reduce
new vehicle CO
2
emissions and increase fuel economy. Lack of recognition about the potential for
vehicle mass reduction can run the risks of neglecting a major CO
2
-reducing technology, ignoring a
critical low-cost technology, and missing an opportunity to the set the stage for long-term electric-drive
technologies that may very well require mass-reduced vehicles.






1
1. Introduction
Technology developments by the automobile industry, consumer preferences for vehicle
performance, and societal pressures on vehicle efficiency will ensure that there will be a constant
deployment of lower-mass vehicle concepts in new automobiles. This mass-reduction technology
deployment occurs with the piece-by-piece introduction of new reduced-mass parts, the use of advanced
materials in stronger designs, and the redesign of vehicle models that systematically optimize the use of
materials and design in a more comprehensive manner. These types of mass-reduction technology can
reduce the mass of vehicles, independent of the size, functionality, or vehicle class of automobiles.
A primary driver for reducing the mass vehicle designs will be the consistent regulatory push for
increased vehicle efficiency in major automobile markets. Standards that regulate the fuel efficiency or
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions of light duty vehicles have become the norm around the world. The
goals of the standards generally are to reduce petroleum use and the CO
2
emissions associated with
automobiles. These standards take on many different forms, involve different ways of categorizing
vehicles, require different levels of stringency, and have different timelines for their implementation.
There are regulatory standards in Europe (gCO
2
/km), United States (gCO
2
/mile, mile/gallon), China
(km/L), Japan (km/L), Canada (gCO
2
/mile), South Korea (km/L, gCO
2
/km), Taiwan (km/L), and
Australia (L/100km) (ICCT, 2009). Together, these programs encompass about 70% of 2009 world
automobile sales. These efficiency initiatives or at at least those that do not index their standards to
mass will drive the development of vehicle mass-reduction techniques along with a variety of engine,
transmission, and other vehicle efficiency technologies.
This study investigates trends and technical research related to the development of reduced-mass
vehicle designs and their potential importance for the efficiency of future vehicles. The report is
structured as follows. After this introduction section, Chapter 2 reviews a number of basic weight-related
trends in the U.S., including a summary discussion of a number of fundamental relationships in vehicle
attributes of weight, performance, and CO
2
emissions. Chapter 3 analyzes trends related to materials and
vehicle structural changes that allow for the reduction of vehicle weight, highlighting a variety of mass-
reduction concepts that are now emerging in production vehicles. Also within Chapter 3, technical
literature on the potential for mass-optimized vehicle designs is examined and findings from a number of
major engineering design studies are reviewed. Chapter 4 provides a discussion of the implications of
these vehicle mass reduction trends for future policy. Chapter 5 briefly summarizes major findings.

2. Background
Some background is provided in this section to put the rest of this report on vehicle mass reduction
in context. This section outlines basic vehicle mass trends in the U.S., the relationship between mass and
other vehicle attributes, the distinction between mass-reduction technology and downsizing, and the basic
breakdown of vehicle mass by the various components of the vehicle.
Vehicle mass, or more typically measured as weight in the U.S., has changed substantially in
various automotive markets over different time periods. Light-duty vehicles sold in the U.S. over the past
35 years exhibit how weight trends can shift under different market and regulatory situations. Figure 1
shows the weight trend for light-duty vehicles, as well as for the two major categories within light duty
vehicles (based on data from U.S. EPA, 2009a). The historical shifts in the U.S. auto market over this
period show both periods of decreasing and increasing weight. From 1975-1980, the time period of the
onset of federal fuel economy standards, as well as higher fuel prices and drastic world oil price
fluctuations, there was a 21% decrease in average new light duty vehicle weight (with a 25% decrease for
cars and 9% for light trucks). However, following that time period was a period of stable fuel economy
standards and relatively low or stable fuel prices, resulting in rather different vehicle attribute trends.
During the period from 1987-2009, the shift has been toward heavier vehicles, with a 28% weight
increase for new light duty vehicles over that span (27% weight increase for cars, 17% for trucks).
During that span, the highest year-on-year increase in vehicle weight was 3%, and the annual average
increase was 1.1%.


2


Figure 1. Light duty vehicle weight trends for model years 1975 to 2009 (U.S. EPA, 2009a)

The presentation of data in the above Figure 1 involves aggregated data on the weight trend in the
new vehicle fleet. Underlying the overall vehicle weight trend is a handful of factors related to consumer
shifts in vehicle category and size, as well as differences in the content of the vehicles. Just as the
average light duty vehicle weight increases due to consumer shifts from cars to trucks, so to do the car
and truck average weight increase due to the increased purchase of existing models that are in heavier
vehicle classes within those categories (e.g., compact sedan to mid-size sedan shift). These fleet
composition sales shifts are separate trends from the concurrent general increases in vehicle weight that
come from vehicle model redesign changes that tend to see increases in vehicle content (e.g., air
conditioning, safety equipment). Based on a General Motors study, the content increases due to such
equipment changes on a vehicle could amount to approximately 300-400 lbs (Glennan, 2007). This
would imply that equipment changes represent a smaller portion about 20-40% of the overall light
duty vehicle weight trend shown in Figure 1 (see also Corus, 2009).
The remainder of the overall mass increase would then come primarily from the shifts toward
vehicles of larger size and mass characteristics (i.e., independent of vehicle content). Due to the relatively
recent development of U.S. size-indexed standards and the related tracking of size variables, there are not
comparable historical model year data for vehicle size to compare with the above vehicle mass weight
data. It is highly likely that data on vehicle size (as measured by the footprint metric) has followed
approximately the same trend as vehicle mass on a percentage basis, due to the close statistical correlation
between vehicle size and mass variables. Vehicle size and mass relationships are investigated further
later in this report (See, for example, Figure 10 for how current vehicle models size and mass are related).
To understand vehicle efficiency improvements that occur over time, multiple vehicle attributes
must be examined at once. The trade-offs that are involved with efficiency technologies and their
potential use toward vehicle performance (e.g., maximum power, greater acceleration), vehicle size and
mass, and fuel economy have been analyzed extensively in the research literature. Vehicle designers and
powertrain engineers have continued to bring forth incremental efficiency improvements in vehicles
aerodynamics, engines, and transmissions through redesign phases of vehicle models. However, how this
technology budget is utilized in the U.S. light duty vehicle fleet tends to differ over time, due to the level
of regulatory pressure to increase fuel economy, the changes in the price of petroleum, and consumer
reactions to market factors and automaker offerings.
Figure 2 shows vehicle attribute trends from the onset of U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(CAFE) standards in 1975 through model year 2009. In the figure, average new light duty vehicle weight,
acceleration performance, fuel economy, and weight-adjusted fuel economy are shown, with data from
U.S. EPA (2009a). The vehicle weight variable is the loaded test weight of vehicles. The acceleration
performance is U.S. EPAs estimate of the time it takes to accelerate vehicles from rest to 60 miles per
hour (mph) in seconds. The fuel economy variable is the combined (city and highway), adjusted (for on-
road conditions) measure of miles per gallon traveled. The efficiency variable is the weight-adjusted
fuel economy of vehicles (weight multiplied by fuel economy), and is a measure of the distance that a
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3
vehicle can transport a ton, or 2000 lbs, of loaded vehicle weight on one gallon of fuel. This ton-mpg
measure is used here as a simple measure for overall vehicle efficiency, due to data difficulties in
attempting to more accurately portray the more true technical efficiency of engines, transmissions,
aerodynamics, vehicle weight, etc. All of the variables are sales-weighted average values for new
vehicles of the model year specified.

Vehicle weight
and acceleration
trends

Fuel economy and
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efficiency trends

Figure 2. U.S. light duty vehicle trends for weight, acceleration, fuel economy, and weight-adjusted
fuel economy for model years 1975-2009 (U.S. EPA, 2009a data)

By showing the acceleration, weight, fuel economy, and the efficiency variables together, Figure 2
demonstrates the historical trade-offs that have occurred between these factors. Within that 1975-2009
period, the only period for which major fuel economy increases were mandated was from 1975 to 1987.
During this early CAFE time period, when there was an increasingly stringent fuel economy standard,
vehicle weight was constrained to either be held steady or be reduced on average to aid in automaker
compliance with the fuel economy standards. Also during this time period, vehicle acceleration was
approximately stable. With these weight and acceleration variables constrained, new efficiency
technology was fully devoted to fuel economy improvement. As a result, average fuel economy
improved rather dramatically from about 13 mpg to about 22 mpg in those first twelve years of CAFE.
However since 1987, vehicles have, on average, become heavier and faster while fuel economy has not
shown marked or consistent increases. By showing the combined impact of vehicles getting heavier
while having approximately stable fuel economy from 1987 to 2009 in ton-mpg terms, the improvement
in vehicles technical efficiency is illustrated. This steady efficiency improvement from 1987 to today
went toward the production of heavier and faster vehicles instead of toward increased fuel economy.
Such trade-offs with vehicle mass, performance, fuel economy, and efficiency are discussed and
analyzed in detail in a number of research studies (Lutsey and Sperling, 2005; An and DeCicco, 2007;
Knittel, 2009; U.S. EPA, 2009a). Generally, these types of studies suggest how fuel economy could have
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4
improved if other vehicle attributes were held constant. Some of these studies suggest that, due to the
technology advances of automakers engineering efforts, improvements in new vehicles technical
efficiency occur at a rate of about 1% to 2% per year, even in the absence of regulatory pressure to sell a
fleet of vehicles with higher fuel economy. However, as indicated from the Figure 2 trends, increases in
the overall average vehicle mass tend to consume any efficiency improvements that do indeed occur, and
therefore the fuel economy level does not reflect all of the naturally occurring efficiency improvements.
Included in these efficiency technologies that are unseen, or not directly in evidence, are numerous
mass-reduction techniques that are incrementally introduced into vehicle models over time.
The average mass of the existing fleet of vehicles is directly linked to the energy consumption of
vehicles, due the physical requirement of the vehicles powertrain systems to accelerate and maintain
various speeds for the inertial mass of the vehicle. Due to the oxidation of carbon in the combustion of
hydrocarbon gasoline and diesel fuels, vehicle CO
2
emissions are, in turn, closely linked to the mass of
vehicles. Based on the model year 2008 vehicle fleet, Figure 3 shows this relationship between vehicles
weight and CO
2
emission rate on the combined city-highway U.S. Federal Test Procedure (FTP). In
addition to the new 2008 vehicle fleet on the plot are the fourteen sales-weighted corporate averages CO
2

emission rates and vehicle weights for major automakers. Based on the linear relationship between
vehicle models curb weight and CO
2
emission rates shown, a 10% change in vehicle weight within the
existing fleet of vehicles is associated with an approximate 8% change in vehicle CO
2
-per-mile emissions.


Figure 3. U.S. automobile weight and CO
2
emissions

Although Figure 3 shows an important fundamental relationship between a fleet of vehicles weight
and CO
2
emissions, an important distinction must be made between this current fleet relationship and the
potential for mass-reduction technology that exists on all vehicles of all sizes. A shift in sales within an
existing fleet is generally referred to as downsizing and it involves a shift in fleet composition toward
vehicles that are both smaller and have reduced weight, but does not involve a redesign of existing vehicle
models. Mass-reduction technology, on the other hand, involves the use of higher strength materials and
mass-optimized vehicle structures to redesign vehicle models to have lower mass but without change in
vehicle size or functionality.
Based on a number of studies, the physical relationship between vehicle mass and its technical
efficiency (measured approximately as either in CO
2
emission rate or fuel consumption) is well
established. Often the relationship is expressed as an elasticity between mass and fuel economy to define
the effect in percent fuel economy increase that results from a percent vehicle mass reduction. The
research consistently shows elasticities whereby a 10% decrease in the mass of a conventional vehicle
results in a 6% to 8% decrease in the fuel consumption rate (on standard regulatory test cycles) if the
vehicles performance is kept constant (see, e.g., Casadei and Broda, 2008; Bandivadekar et al, 2008;
FKA, 2007; Pagerit, et al, 2006). The range in the estimated elasticity is primarily related to which
performance variables (e.g., 0-60 mph acceleration) are kept constant and which drive cycles are
examined. When other factors like towing requirements and hybrid drivetrains are considered, the
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5
relationship can change somewhat. Figure 4 shows this vehicle mass-to-CO
2
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vehicle mass reductions up to 35%. As shown, a 30% mass reduction is equivalent to an 18% to 24% CO
2

emission rate (and fuel consumption) decrease.


Figure 4. Effect of mass-reduction technology on CO
2
emission rate for constant performance

Because this report is focused exclusively on mass-reduction technology it is important to
emphasize the distinction between technologies for improved mass-optimization and downsizing. Figure
5 illustrates this distinction by showing hypothetical examples of fleet downsizing and mass-reduction
technology. In the left side of the figure, the example of Honda selling more Civics and less of the larger
Accord models shows fleet downsizing. On the other hand, the hypothetical example of mass-reduction
technology example of Honda, using higher strength materials and mass-optimized designs to reduce the
mass of each model by 10%, is shown on the right. Sometimes downsizing (or increased size trends, too)
can confuse or confound the analysis of mass-reduction technology trends; however these are distinctly
different factors. Both of these approaches yield lower CO
2
emissions and a lower average vehicle mass,
but the fleet downsizing approach requires a shift in consumer purchasing. The focus of this technology
review is exclusively on the mass-reduction technologies of vehicle models through advanced material
substitution and optimized redesign not on fleet or per-vehicle downsizing.



Fleet downsizing:
Shift in fleet composition toward smaller vehicles
(without redesign of vehicle models for lower mass)
Mass-reduction technology:
Redesign of vehicles to have the same size but lower mass
(without vehicle sales shift or models getting smaller)
Figure 5. Distinction between fleet "downsizing" and vehicle "mass-reduction technology"
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6

As further background for this report on concepts for reducing vehicle mass, a breakdown and
description of vehicles mass characteristics is provided here. The weight of a given vehicle can be
partitioned by its material composition or by its functional vehicle systems. Because much of mass-
reduction technology research revolves around particular systems, conventional system categories are
summarized and defined here. Table 1 shows an approximate breakdown of vehicle systems, with ranges
to show the approximate variation seen in various existing vehicle designs. One of the major systems of
the vehicle is the body, or sometimes referred to as the body-in-white. The body represents about a
quarter of the overall vehicle mass and is the core structure and frame of the vehicle. The body is so
fundamental to the vehicle, that sometimes it is the only portion of the vehicle that is researched, designed,
and analyzed in mass-reduction technology studies, because the other systems are not as sensitive to the
structural integrity of the vehicle. The other two most prominent vehicle categories are the powertrain
and the suspension systems; each of these typically makes up about one-fifth to one-quarter of the vehicle
mass. After these systems, the interior, closures, and miscellaneous (including electronic, lighting,
thermal, etc) make up the remaining vehicle systems.

Table 1. Vehicle mass breakdown by system and components
Approximate vehicle
mass breakdown
a

System Major components in system
Body-in-white
Passenger compartment frame, cross and side beams, roof
structure, front-end structure, underbody floor structure, panels
Powertrain Engine, transmission, exhaust system, fuel tank
Chassis Chassis, suspension, tires, wheels, steering, brakes
Interior Seats, instrument panel, insulation, trim, airbags
Closures Front and rear doors, hood, lift gate

Miscellaneous Electrical, lighting, thermal, windows, glazing
a
Based on Stodolsky et al, 1995a; Bjelkengren, 2008; Lotus Engineering, 2010; the actual system definitions and system
component inclusion can vary, and percentage weight breakdown can vary substantially by vehicle

There are not perfect definitions or conventions that are applied in the literature for the vehicle
system categories and the components included within each category. For example, sometimes the
general term body can more broadly refer to all vehicle parts but the powertrain and the chassis, and
therefore this definition makes the body about half of the overall vehicle mass. Often times the term
glider is used to include all of the vehicle parts except for the powertrain of the vehicle. This report
references and summarizes many different studies on vehicle mass characteristics. As a rule, this report
tries to adopt the Table 1 definitions and make note when other conventions are applied in the various
studies that are referenced.


3. Vehicle mass reduction: Survey of trends and technologies
There is a diverse array of mass-reduction techniques that have been and are being used in
automobiles to improve efficiency and performance. The mass-reduction techniques can be seen through
historical trends in vehicle designs, new vehicle designs that are currently emerging in vehicles, and
concepts for future vehicle model redesign. Mass-reduction can occur in smaller incremental ways, for
example reducing the mass of vehicle parts piece-by-piece, or through a more fundamental whole-vehicle
redesign. This chapter provides a survey of mass-reduction technology trends, vehicle mass
characteristics among the existing vehicle fleet, production vehicle models with advanced mass-reduction
techniques, and vehicle concepts for the future.
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7
3.1. General technology trends
Historical vehicle mass reduction trends include major transformations in the materials used in the
design and construction of vehicles. Figure 6 shows the progression of vehicle materials from a long-
term historical perspective (from Taub et al, 2007). The first mass-produced vehicles were primarily
constructed from wood, but quickly the primary dominant vehicle material became steel due to its greater
durability and higher strength. As vehicle designs and the available materials evolved, a greater diversity
of materials has been utilized for the more specialized parts of increasingly complex vehicles. Over the
years the modern automobile has seen a fundamental shift its composition toward higher strength steels,
aluminum, plastics (including various polymers and composites), and other materials.


Figure 6. Historical shift in vehicle composition by mass (based on Taub et al, 2007)

Within the vehicle composition shift, the most dramatic increases by mass in recent years are for
high strength steels and aluminum. Generally many of the milder, low-carbon steel parts of vehicle
powertrains and body structures have increasingly and incrementally moved toward higher strength steels.
The higher strength steels in turn bring forth structural designs that are simultaneously stronger and lower
in mass (because they use less overall steel material). High strength steel (HSS) alloys continue to be
more widely used across almost every vehicle system, including various powertrain components, steering
wheels, front-end structures, chassis, beams, and closure body panels. The above figure and other data
show how on average, high-strength steel content has about doubled in the past two decades to make up
13% of 2007 vehicles (Taub et al, 2007; Wards Automotive, 2009). Within this trend, there are
particular advanced high strength steel (AHSS) alloys that have seen particularly fast growth (Keith,
2010). Such prominent AHSS materials include dual phase, martinsitic, and boron steels. Individual
vehicle models and some companies have incorporated these advanced steels much more quickly than the
fleet average. For example, the body of the Honda Civic went from 32% to 50% HSS when redesigned
for 2006 (Krupitzer, 2009), the Mercedes C-class jumped from 38% to 74% HSS in its body redesign
(Gildea, 2007), and the BMW X6 has 32% of its body and closure structures composed of AHSS
(Steelworks, 2009). Estimates from Ducker Worldwide indicate that the automobile industry will see an
annual increase in AHSS of about 10% through 2020 (AISI, 2009). Looking at automaker-by-automaker
average material composition, there are considerable differences in the use of high-strength steels.
Compared to the average 2009 usage of about 14%, some automakers have greater than 20% AHSS while
others have less than 10% AHSS (Schultz and Abraham, 2009).
Similarly, lower density aluminum alloys continue to replace the milder, lower carbon steels.
Much of the overall vehicle composition shift toward aluminum has come with increasing use of
aluminum in engine cylinder heads and blocks, transmission parts, and wheels. Aluminum has gone from
about 5% of light duty vehicles in the late 1980s to about 9%, or over 325 lbs per vehicle today
(Stodolsky et al, 1995; Brooke and Evans, 2009). Most cylinder heads are aluminum, and now engine
blocks made from aluminum in U.S. light duty vehicles passed 50%, surpassing steel in this area for the
first time (Simpson, 2006). Along with engine cylinders heads and blocks, aluminum is competing to
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8
replace many traditional steel components in vehicles, including valve covers, torque converter and
transmission housings, crankcases, control arms, suspension links, cradles, steering wheels, door frames,
dashboards, sheet panels (e.g., roof, door, hood), and beams (Caceres, 2007). Along with these areas,
relatively new areas being explored for aluminum include all aluminum bodies, bumpers, crash-
management systems, and unibody construction (Keith, 2010).
Other than increased use of high-strength steel and aluminum, there are also substantial increasing
trends for the use of magnesium. Magnesium is least dense of the primary automotive metals, at about
30% lower density than aluminum and 75% lower density than steel and is therefore seen as a promising
potential lower mass metal substitute (Kulekci, 2008). However, currently magnesium only makes up
about 10 lbs, or 0.2%, of the average new U.S. vehicle (Wards Automotive, 2009). New magnesium
parts have been commercialized in a number of vehicle models for several years now. For example,
Volkswagen applied 20 kg of magnesium in its cars in the 1970s and refers to the more recent expanded
magnesium application into instrument panels, driveline components, and the gearbox housings as a
magnesium renaissance (Friedrich and Schumann, 2001). Although current magnesium use in vehicles is
low, some forecasts suggest that magnesium could become a major automotive component in the near
future. The same Volkswagen engineers suggest that 60 kg magnesium per vehicle is realistic and 100
kg per vehicle of magnesium is conceivable in the 2010-2020 timeframe (Friedrich and Schumann, 2001).
A study by the U.S. Council for Automotive Research indicates that vehicle magnesium content could
increase to 350 lbs by 2020 (U.S. AMP, 2006). Ford forecasts the use of about 250 lb of magnesium
components per vehicle by around 2020 (AEI, 2010b). Some early magnesium applications are seen in
roof frames, cross beams, interior components like the instrument panel, steering column, steering wheel,
and engine cradle (e.g., see Gerard, 2008).
Outside of the above three metal groups, there is also potential for automobile mass reduction with
the expanded use of plastics and polymer composites. These plastic materials are considerably less dense
than all the automotive metals discussed above, and, up to now, these materials have tended to fill many
of the non-structural functions of vehicles for example in many interior components. To illustrate their
low density compared to the rest of the vehicles materials, modern vehicles are about 8% plastic by mass,
but 50% plastic by volume (Bandivadekar et al, 2008). Automobiles utilize a wide range of plastic types,
including polypropylenes, polyesters, and vinyl esters. These materials are utilized in hatches, roofs,
interior panels, instrument panels, and hundreds of other parts. Although primarily replacing non-
structural vehicle components, plastics have continued to make in-roads in bumper systems and in
composite beam applications, and a number of studies have found potential to supplant structural beams
and frame components (Stodolsky et al, 1995b; Lovins and Cramer, 2004). Also included in this general
category are the more costly composites, like glass fiber and carbon fiber reinforced polymers. These
materials, to date, are used primarily in limited applications in low-production-volume vehicles.
Particular substitution possibilities for all of these materials are described and elaborated upon
further below in Section 3.4. The general applications of these automotive materials follow directly from
their material properties. Figure 7 shows the material properties of the main material options for the
construction of the various vehicle components. All the numbers shown in the chart are approximate and
should only be viewed as illustrative, as there are many different grades and types of the general materials
that are listed (data are based on Caceres, 2007: U.S. DOE, 2006; Powers, 2000; Lovins and Cramer,
2004; Stodolsky et al, 1995b). Yield strength and cost are shown in logarithmic scale in order to
accommodate their large variation across materials. As introduced above, steel has historically taken on
almost all of the primary structural functions of vehicles body and chassis components. Increasingly,
lower density and higher cost alternative materials (aluminum, magnesium, plastics) and stronger steels
that require less of their use are supplanting the lower carbon steels. Many plastics, despite their relative
high cost per mass and low strength, are still critical components due to how light and shapeable they are,
which enables lower fabrication costs (e.g., sheet molded composite [SMC]). The highest strength glass
and carbon reinforced composites and titanium alloy materials have remained expensive and rare in
automotive applications. In a more comprehensive material comparison, other factors would further
differentiate these materials relative advantages and disadvantages in terms of their stiffness, elongation
properties, creep deformation, corrosiveness, ductibility, reparability, etc.


9

Figure 7. Automotive material properties and approximate costs (based on data from Caceres,
2007: U.S. DOE, 2006; Powers, 2000; Lovins and Cramer, 2004; Stodolsky et al, 1995b)

Despite the increased material cost of moving toward stronger and more mass-optimized metals
(HSS, aluminum, magnesium) and non-metals (e.g., plastics, carbon fiber), their potential for net
component cost improvements keeps each one of them advancing and penetrating further within various
automotive applications. To demonstrate how this net cost decrease occurs, Figure 8 shows how the use
of higher strength steel alloys can affect material cost, material use, and overall cost. The figure shows
how, despite shifting toward more expensive materials (up to 10% higher cost per mass), the reductions in
the use of that material reduce more substantially to actually reduce the part cost by more than 10%. The
example is for four particular grades of high-strength steel as potential substitutes for the B-pillar between
vehicle front and rear doors, using data from ThyssenKrupp (Adam, 2009). However, the principle is
widely applicable as similar trade-offs in material choice, material thickness, and the overall amount of
required material exist in many vehicle components and with different materials. This demonstrates how
stronger and more expensive materials that are utilzed in mass-optimized ways can be utilized with net
manufacturing cost savings.


Figure 8. Example of higher-strength, higher-cost materials achieving a net decrease in component
cost (based on steel alloy options for B-pillar from Adam, 2009)

Another critical transformation in automobiles over the past couple decades is in the way that
vehicles have been constructed. Originally, vehicles were most commonly manufactured with a body-on-
frame construction, whereby a vehicle body structure and frame are independently built and they are later
combined (e.g., bolted together) during the vehicle production process. Instead, unitized body, or
unibody construction, all of the vehicles body components (including body, side beams, panels, floor
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10
pan, roof) and the traditional chassis frame structure are constructed together as one integrated load-
bearing structure. Figure 9 depicts body-on-frame and unibody designs for two sport utility vehicles.
The innovation required more design planning, as many different body types (e.g., sedan, station wagon,
limousine) could easily be placed on one existing frame. However, ultimately this led to a reduction in
components and weight of the overall body structure and related cost reductions.


http://blogs.cars.com/photos/uncategorized/2008/06/09/explorer_chassis_final.gif

http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/cg-suv-safety-3.jpg
Body-on-frame Unibody
Figure 9. Illustration of body-on-frame and unibody vehicle construction

The use of unibody construction began to be deployed widely for smaller cars in the 1960s and
slowly took over as the dominant vehicle construction for larger cars through the 1980s. Currently
unibody construction represents nearly all of passenger car production and most of the smaller sport
utility vehicles (i.e., crossover or car-based sport utility vehicles) production in the U.S. Unibody
vehicles represented about 59% of U.S. light duty vehicles in 2000 and about three-quarters of the new
vehicle fleet in 2008, and they are forecasted to continue this trend to be 80% of the 2015 new vehicle
fleet (Schultz and Abraham, 2009). The remaining one-quarter of light duty vehicles that are
predominantly body-on-frame construction is comprised of the larger sport utility vehicles, full-size vans,
and pickups, as body-on-frame structure provides a more rigid structure that is well suited for high towing
capacity.
Improved design techniques have enabled a systems level design of vehicles. This is contrary to
the more common piece-meal approach, whereby an automaker or supplier changes one frame piece or
substitutes a new material incrementally, piece-by-piece. Tools like computer-aided design (CAD) and
finite element analysis were pioneered in the 1980s. Then computer-aided engineering (CAE) techniques
developed extensively through the 1990s, allowing automotive engineers to increasingly design vehicles
virtually while accounting for the interaction of vehicle parts in a much more sophisticated manner.
Some automotive engineers suggest that these past CAE and CAD efforts are just the beginning of such
new designing techniques for vehicle mass reduction. Advanced simulation tools, such as biomimetic
topology, help strategically target advanced high-strength steel material gauges and materials to shed
unnecessary vehicle weight on the order of 120 lbs from body structures (Brooke and Evans, 2009).
Mass-optimization from a whole-vehicle perspective opens up the possibility for much larger
vehicle mass-reduction opportunities. For example, secondary mass-reduction effects, sometimes called
mass decompounding, can be very important (see, e.g., Malen and Reddy, 2007; Bjelkengren, 2006).
Secondary mass-reduction is possible as reducing the mass of one vehicle part can beget further
reductions elsewhere due to reduced requirements of the powertrain, suspension, and body structure to
support and propel the various vehicle systems. New more holistic approaches that include integrated
vehicle systems design, secondary mass effects, multi-material concepts, and new manufacturing
processes are expected to help optimize vehicles for much greater potential mass reduction (see, e.g.,
Friedrich and Schumann, 2001; Glennan, 2007; Goede et al, 2009; Lotus Engineering, 2010). The results
of these new design techniques are examined below.



11
3.2. The existing fleet of vehicle models
The above section introduces details and trends related to the composition and design of vehicles.
A broader way of examining vehicle mass characteristics is to look at a snapshot of the current vehicle
fleet. The fundamental vehicle size-to-weight relationship for the U.S. light duty vehicle fleet is shown in
Figure 10. The figure shows that, for a given vehicle size, it would be possible to approximately estimate
the weight of that vehicle, based on the current spread of vehicle models across all of the different
categories (e.g., compact cars, to small sport utility vehicles, to large pickup trucks). Here, vehicle size is
measured as the area between the wheels (i.e., wheelbase multiplied by average track width). Based on
this figure, it is also possible to pick out which vehicles are relatively heavy for a vehicle of that size
(above the regression line), and which vehicles are relatively light (below the line). This important
distinction shows that within this basic size-weight spread of the vehicle fleet there is a large apparent
discrepancy in the weight characteristics of vehicle models: comparatively light vehicle models can be as
low as 25% below the line and comparatively heavy vehicle designs can be as high as 40% above the line
that defines the average model vehicle size-to-weight relationship.


Figure 10. Model year 2008 U.S. light duty vehicle curb weight and size

Noting the historical trade-offs in vehicle attributes (as shown above in Figure 2), another way to
see how vehicle efficiency technologies are allocated in vehicles is to examine a snapshot of the existing
vehicle fleet but with a look in particular at how the different automaker groups sales fleets compare to
one another. Figure 11 shows the sales-averaged size and weight of each automaker group, with the
spread of individual model year 2008 vehicles in the background. Within a single model year snapshot,
the sales-weighted average size and weight positions for each manufacturer gives some indication of how
different automaker groups are utilizing mass-reduction technologies in their vehicle models.
As is shown in the figure, automakers have different average vehicle size and weight characteristics.
Based on a linear regression of these automaker group average weights and sizes, various automakers
have relatively heavy vehicles for their size, while others are comparatively light. The relatively heavy
automaker averages (those above the regression line) are companies that tend to specialize in luxury and
higher performance vehicles. Another factor in relative weights is the fraction of vehicles that are body-
on-frame construction. The heavier manufacturers tend to manufacture vehicles that, on average, have
higher power, higher-displacement engines, which result in an increase in the weight of the powertrain,
which is one of the heaviest vehicle component systems. Also, to the extent to which the automakers
specialize in luxury vehicle segments, their vehicles generally have increased premium content (e.g.,
electronics, leather and power seats, sun-roofs, etc), which can be another factor in their relatively high
weight. Also shown in the figure is how some manufacturers are selling vehicles that have comparatively
low mass for their size. When compared to the industry trendline, Hyundai-Kia (8% lighter than the
industry trendline) and Honda (6% lighter) show relatively low average weight for the size of their
vehicles. Differences in automaker designs and material choices their deployment of mass-reduction
technologies are critical determinants in automakers relative weight-to-size characteristics.
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3.3. Emerging mass-reduction technology and automaker plans
Building on the two previous sections on general vehicle mass trends and current automaker vehicle
fleet mass characteristics, this section summarizes near-term future automaker plans regarding the
emerging mass-reduction technologies. Recent media announcements, technical specifications, and
product developments from automakers provide a clear indication of the types of mass-reduction
technologies that will be utilized across new vehicles in upcoming years. Various automotive industry
plans are summarized here in order to highlight the diversity of different technology approaches that
industry is exploring, as well as to highlight common technology threads that cross the different company
strategies. The future plans that are recounted here are essentially all foreshadowed by the emerging
trends that were introduced above regarding advanced materials and mass-optimized vehicle designs.
From a general planning perspective, nearly all automakers have made some statement regarding
vehicle mass reduction being a core part of the overall technology strategy that they will utilize to achieve
future fuel economy and CO
2
emission standards. Ford has stated that it intends to reduce the weight of
its vehicles by 250-750 lb per model from 2011 to 2020 (Ford, 2009). For context, the midpoint of that
range of reductions would correspond to a 12% reduction from the current Ford new light duty vehicle
sales fleet. Similarly, Nissan has a target of a 15% mass reduction per vehicle by 2015 (Keith, 2010).
This reduction would represent over a 500-lb reduction from their 2008 light duty vehicle average.
Mazdas statement about achieving a 220-lb reduction per vehicle (Lago, 2009; GCC, 2008) is equivalent
to about a 6% reduction for the companys current fleet, and Mazda has indicated that it is targeting an
additional 220-lb reduction by 2016 (U.S. EPA, 2009b). Toyota stated that it could end up reducing the
mass of the Corolla and mid-size models by 30% and 10%, respectively, in the 2015 timeframe (U.S.
EPA, 2009b). The low end of those targets, 10%, is equivalent to 350 lb per Toyota vehicle in 2008.
Federal U.S. regulators, in their assessment of automaker strategies to comply with upcoming fuel
economy and CO
2
standards, pointed to the above announcements and mass-reduction technology trends.
In their final analysis, they suggested that the overall average per-vehicle mass reductions could be about
4% for new vehicles of model year 2016. Their analysis indicated that the response would differ
depending on the class of vehicles. Cars averaged a 3.8% mass reduction and light trucks averaged a
4.5% reduction. The smallest cars saw the smaller effects a 75-lb reduction (2.8%) while the effect
increased to a 376-lb (7.0%) reduction for the larger trucks (U.S. EPA and NHTSA, 2010).
Although other automakers have been less forthcoming in providing such quantitative weight
reduction targets as those cited above, essentially every automaker does nonetheless indicate that future
fuel economy standards provide a major inducement for the commercialization of mass-reduction
technologies. In addition to the quantitative announcements above, automaker announcements indicate
that essentially every automaker continues to deploy a variety of mass-reduction technologies. For
example, in releases regarding products from General Motors, Chrysler, Volkswagen, Porsche, Audi,
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Mercedes, and BMW, there are statements about wider commercialization of lighter front-wheel drive
architectures, lighter interior components, increased use of less-dense materials, multi-material use, and
mass-optimized vehicle design techniques (see, e.g., GMC, 2009; Gerard, 2008; Chrysler, 2009; Goede et
al, 2009; Stahl, 2010; EAA, 2007; Tan, 2008; BMW, 2008).
Details on emerging technologies and product announcements from automakers provide some
definition on the types of mass reductions that can be realized from various technologies. It must be re-
emphasized here that the actual reduction in mass from any model year redesign has historically been
quite rare. Automobile engineers routinely refer to a model weight creep, whereby vehicle models
incrementally increase in mass as they typically add size and more content. Analysis of particular models
(see, e.g., the progression of the Volkswagen Golf [Lotus Engineering, 2010; EAA, 2007]) show the types
of year-to-year changes that are well known to automotive engineers due to vehicles getting larger, adding
content, and increasing in powertrain size and performance (Also see Chapter 2, above).
Noting this historical incremental upward mass creep trend of vehicles, many mass reductions
can occur alongside increases in content and overall vehicle mass. These unseen reductions in vehicle
component mass can be observed in isolation by examining changes in individual parts of new and
redesigned vehicles. Therefore quantifying the impact of emerging mass reduction techniques requires
the isolation of particular parts or systems (e.g., the engine, the body, smaller parts). Although most such
mass reductions within current vehicles cannot always be definitively known or quantified, in some cases
automakers release small amounts of information related to innovations in mass-reduced parts when they
publicly release and promote new models.
Table 2 summarizes vehicle components that have seen mass-reduction innovations in material use
or design in automotive applications. As shown, there is a large array of different measures, big and
small, being utilized to reduce component mass within vehicles. The mass reductions are taken from
many different sources, many of them being automaker press release materials for the vehicle models that
are distributed for automobile shows and reviews. Note the mass-reduction technologies are shown in
units of lbs, the more common U.S. unit. As enumerated in the table, there are many potential mass-
reduction opportunities throughout the vehicles various components and systems that have been utilized
in production vehicles. However, there are countless other measures that are less publicized and more
subtle than those that are documented here. Some of the innovations (e.g., high-strength steel in all body
parts; aluminum engine and wheels) are relatively widespread, whereas others are in lower volume
production, are just emerging, or are relatively rare.
Engine mass savings result from increasing the use of high-strength steels, aluminum, and
magnesium components across the engine and its auxiliary components. Some Ford models found
reductions of about 100 lbs when switching to aluminum or aluminum-magnesium alloy engine blocks
(see, e.g., Tyll, 2010; Kulekci, 2008). Various other engine-related components can be switched to less
dense components like valves, connection rods, crankshafts, manifolds, and the engine cradle for weight
reductions that vary from 1 to 12 lbs for technologies that have been used by General Motors, Honda,
Porsche, and Audi (Kulekci, 2007; U.S. AMP, 2009; Gerard, 2008).
The switching of many body parts to aluminum has been embraced by a number of automakers,
especially Audi and Jaguar. Honda first produced the all-aluminum body Acura NS-X in 1990 (Muraoka
and Miyaoka, 1993). Since, Audi has increasingly utilized aluminum in the frame of its vehicles. The
2000 Audi A2 in Europe was among the early production vehicles with a body entirely made of
aluminum, resulting in about a 40% reduction in the weight (Autointell, 2000). The models primary
weight savings of 295 lb from the aluminum body begat another 165 lb in secondary reductions via the
drivetrain, motor, and chassis systems (EAA, 2007). The larger Audi A8 sedan uses 1147 lb of aluminum
(EAA, 2007) in its aluminum-intensive design. This amount of aluminum amounts to about 25% of the
current models overall curb mass and is almost three times the average U.S. vehicle aluminum
composition. Audi has continued to expand these aluminum mass-reduction concepts into other vehicle
models. For example, the TT model for model year 2008 used aluminum extensively for a 220-lb weight
reduction, the model year 2011 A6 uses Audis second generation of space frame innovations for a 50%
reduction in body weight, and Audi could apply the technology to the A3 and Q7 (Brooke and Evans,
2009). Also, the latest A5 prototype uses the aluminum frame for a 242-lb reduction (Lavirnc, 2009).



14
Table 2. Component weight-reduction potential from technologies on production vehicles
Vehicle
system
Subcomponent New material or technique
a

Weight
reduction
(lb)
b

Example automaker
(models)
c

Source(s)
Block Aluminum block 100 Ford (Mustang); most vehicles Tyell, 2010; Ford, 2010
Engine, housing, etc Alum-Mg-composite 112 BMW (R6) Kulekci, 2008
Engine Smaller optimized molds (Al) 55 Toyota (Camry) Simpson, 2007
Valvetrain Titanium intake valves 0.74 GM (Z06) Gerard, 2008
Connecting rod (8) Titanium 3.5 GM (Z06); Honda (NSX) Gerard, 2008
Driveshaft Composite 7 Nissan; Mazda: Mitsubishi ACC, 2006
Cradle system Aluminum 22 GM (Impala) Taub et al, 2007
Power-
train
Engine cradle Magnesium 11-12 GM (Z06) Gerard, 2008; US AMP, 200x
Intake manifold Magnesium 10 GM (V8); Chrysler Kulekci, 2008: US AMP
Camshaft case Magnesium 2 Porsche (911) Kukekci, 2008: US AMP
Auxiliaries Magnesium 11 Audi (A8) Kulekci, 2008
Oil pan Modular composite 2 Mercedes (C class) Stewart, 2009
Trans. housing Aluminum 8 BMW (730d); GM (Z06) Gerard, 2008

Trans. housing Magnesium 9-10
Volvo; Porsche (911); Mercedes;
VW (Passat); Audi (A4, A8)
Kulekci, 2008; US AMP

Unibody design Vs. truck body-on-frame 150-300
Honda (Ridgeline); Ford; Kia;
most SUV models
Honda, 2010; Motor Trend, 2009

Frame Aluminum-intensive body 200-350
Audi (TT, A2, A8); Jaguar (XJ);
Lotus; Honda (NSX, Insight)
Brooke and Evans, 2009;
Autointel, 1999: EAA, 2007;
Audi, 2010
Frame Aluminum spaceframe 122 GM (Z06) Taub et al, 2007
Panel Thinner, aluminum alloy 14 Audi (A8) Audi, 2010
Body Panel Composite 42 BMW Diem et al, 2002
and
closures
Doors (4) Aluminum-intensive 5-50
Nissan (370z); BMW (7); Jaguar
(XJ)
Keith, 2010; BMW, 2008; Birch,
2010
Doors (4) New production process 86 Porsche (Cayenne) Stahl, 2010
Door inner (4) Magnesium 24-47 Kulekci, 2008; US AMP
Hood Aluminum 15 Honda (MDX); Nissan (370z) Monaghan, 2007; Keith, 2010
Roof Aluminum 15 BWW (7 series) BMW, 2008
Lift gate Magnesium 5-10 Kulekci, 2008; US AMP
Chassis Aluminum 145 Porsche (Cayenne) Carney, 2010

Chassis
Hydroformed steel structure,
tubular design
100 Ford (F150) FordF150.net, 2010

Steering wheel Magnesium 1.1
Ford (Thunderbird, Taurus);
Chrysler (Plymouth); Toyota
(LS430); BMW (Mini); GM (Z06)
Kulekci, 2008; Gerard, 2008
Suspen.
and
Steering column Magnesium 1-2 GM (Z06)
Kulekci, 2008; Gerard, 2008; US
AMP
chassis
Wheels (4) Magnesium 26
Toyota (Supra); Porsche (911);
Alfa Romeo
Kulekci, 2008; US AMP
Wheels (4) Lighterweight alloy, design 13 Mercedes (C-class) Tan, 2008

Brake system
Heat dissipation, stainless steel
pins, aluminum caps
30 Audi (A8) Audi, 2010
Tires Design (low RR) 4 Mercedes (C-class) Tan, 2008
Suspension Control arms (2) 6 Dodge (Ram) SSAB, 2009

Seat frame (4) Magnesium 28
Toyota (LS430); Mercedes
(Roadster)
Kulekci, 2008; US AMP
Interior
Instrument panel Magnesium 7-13
Chrysler (Jeep); GM; Ford
(Explorer, F150); Audi (A8);
Toyota (Century); GM
Kulekci, 2008; US AMP; Taub
et al, 2007
Dashboard Fiber-reinforced thermoplastic 18 VW (Golf) Stewart, 2009
Console and
shifter
Injection molded glass
reinforced polypropylene
5 Ford (Flex) Stewart, 2009
Misc. Windows Design, material thickness 3 Mercedes (C-class) Tan, 2008
Running board Glass-reinforced polypropylene 9 Ford (Escape) Stewart, 2009
a
These technologies can include a change in design, a reduction in parts, a reduction in material amount, and use of various metallic alloys;
note that weight (lb) and mass (kg) variables are used in this report. 1 kg = 2.205 lb.
b
Weight reduction estimates are approximate, based on media sources and technical reports

c
A number of these models are not available in the U.S.; some model names have changed in recent product changes


Along with the mass-reduction technology concepts being commercialized by Audi, other
automakers also claim first status in developing aluminum vehicle bodies, although generally in lower
production volume performance and luxury vehicles with more limited production. Lotus has also


15
employed aluminum body technology in its mass-efficient sports cars through the 1990s. Honda and
Jaguar have both employed aluminum sheet body structures. Honda, with its Acura NS-X in 1990,
offered the first all-aluminum body, chassis, and suspension. The NS-Xs aluminum design reduced
body-in-white weight by 309 lb (40%) and overall vehicle weight by 441 lb (Komatsu et al, 1991;
Muraoka and Miyaoka, 1993). Meanwhile, Honda, as mentioned above, currently is one of the bigger
users of high-strength steel in its vehicle bodies to result in one of the more mass-efficient fleets. The
Jaguar XJ design pioneered its own full aluminum body and also extensively utilizes high-strength steels
and composites, reduces adhesive use by 10%, reduces the required parts by 15%, and uses glass-
reinforced plastics for a 700-lb reduction in vehicle weight (Birch, 2010).
Also highlighted in Table 2 for mass-efficient body innovations being deployed is the use of
unibody construction for trucks. As introduced above, over three quarters of light duty vehicles in the
U.S. are unibody construction, with the remaining body-on-frame vehicles being mostly mid-size and
larger pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles. The only unibody pickup truck that has been
commercialized is the Honda Ridgeline, which is roughly estimated to offer an equivalent weight
reduction of 300 lb versus similarly equipped and powered competitor pickup trucks. Several reports
suggest that unibody design could eventually penetrate all larger light trucks for which there are not high
towing requirements. For example, the Ford Explorer would convert from body-on-frame to unibody for
a 150-lb weight reduction in upcoming years (Motor Trend, 2009). Another automaker, Kia is
transitioning its Sorrento sport utility vehicle to a front-wheel-drive unibody layout and is considering a
unibody pickup that could be comparable to the Ridgeline (Johnson, 2008).
Outside of the core body frame structure, mass-reduction technology features in other areas can add
up to substantial mass reductions. Lighter roof panels, beams, side panels are being deployed by many
different automakers. Thinner gage high strength steels and aluminum are the main substitutes, but some
limited magnesium is also being utilized. Within the suspension and chassis system, major mass
reductions are being found from aluminum wheels and redesigned braking systems. Also, more simply
(and without material substitution), many suspension and chassis parts can see secondary mass reductions
from reduction in their size that result from mass reductions elsewhere on the vehicle. In the interior,
magnesium substitution shows considerable mass reductions in the instrument panel and seat frames.
As mentioned above, Ford has committed to a 250 to 750 lb reduction in vehicle models weight by
2020. In recent model year redesigns, Ford appears to be getting an early start on this commitment. The
2009 Ford F-150 saw an overall 100-lb reduction from its predecessor (Brooke and Evans, 2009). Shifts
from larger cast-iron engine at Ford to all-aluminum ones result in a 100-lb weight reduction and
improved power-to-weight ratio, improved fuel economy, acceleration, handling, and steering precision
(Tyll, 2010; Ford, 2010). Fords use of plastics in new running boards, center console/shifter assembly
netted additional reductions (Stewart, 2009), and a new tubular steel chassis for the F150 pickup was
found to reduce that models weight by 100 lb (FordF150.net, 2010).
Mazdas redesign of its compact Mazda2 in 2008 resulted in a 100-kg mass reduction from the
previous year (Brooke and Evans, 2009). As noted above, Mazda has installed a near-term target of a 100
kg (220 lb) mass reduction per vehicle for all its vehicles during model redesigns from 2011 to 2015;
Mazdas logic is that improving current technologies (engine, transmission, stop-start, mass reduction),
they can achieve a 30% fuel consumption improvement without hybrid technology (Lago, 2009, GCC,
2008). For the Mazda2 model, a 100-kg weight reduction is equivalent a 10% mass reduction.
Although Porsche has not made such an across-the-board commitment regarding mass-reduction
technology as Ford and Mazda, its latest Cayenne model is among the largest of all year-on-year mass
reductions. The announced 400-lb reduction for the V-8 Cayenne from model year 2010 to 2011 comes
from a combination of many mass-reduction technologies. The lower mass model uses high-strength
steel throughout; increased aluminum content in the chassis, suspension, hood, fenders, doors, and hatch;
a new production process for the doors; and a lower mass all-wheel-drive system. Despite adding 154 lbs
in additional equipment, the mass-reduction technology measures resulted in a net 400-lb overall
reduction for the 2011 Cayenne (Carney, 2010; Stahl, 2010).
In some rare cases, vehicle models have had overall reductions in mass as a result of mass-
reduction technologies that more than offset the additional mass that the model may have taken (due to


16
increased engine size, increased content, etc) at the same time. Several examples of whole-vehicle mass
reductions are shown in Table 3. A number of the examples include models that were listed above for
having mass-optimized parts or components, but these models generally applied mass-reduction
technologies in a more concerted way to actually achieve an overall reduction from the previous models
curb mass. As shown, several models showed over 400 lb of weight reductions with a given design.
Note that, of these vehicle models, the ones with the largest weight reductions or 400 lbs or greater have
been relatively limited production of niche market models (e.g., Honda NS-X, Audi A2, Jaguar XJ).
However, some vehicle models that achieved reductions of 100-400 lb per vehicle have larger sales (e.g.,
Mazda2, Cayenne, TT, 370z, F150).

Table 3. Examples of overall vehicle weight reduction from production vehicles
Vehicle make and
model (year)
Features
Weight reduction,
lbs (percent)
Source (s)
Honda NSX
(1990)
Nearly all aluminum body, chassis, suspension
Increased aluminum content from 7% to 31%
Body-in-white weight reduction from 350 to 210 kg (40%)
Overall vehicle weight reduction from 1565 to 1365 kg
441
(13%)
Muraoka and
Miyaoka, 1993
Audi A2 (2000)
Aluminum-intensive space frame
Direct body weight savings of 134 kg (vs steel)
Secondary savings of 75 kg from drivetrain, motor, chassis
461
(18%)
EAA, 2007;
Autointel, 1999
Jaguar XJ (2010)
Aluminum body frame, shell
10% reduction in adhesive use
Glass-filled polymide/ultra-high strength steel B-pillar
Hydroformed A-pillar/cantrail extrusion assembly
Composites, glass-reinforced plastic molding
Overall 15% few parts for the whole vehicle
717
(15%)
Birch, 2010
Porsche Cayenne
(2011)
Increased use of high-strength steel throughout
Aluminum and high-strength steel chassis parts
Aluminum fenders, hood, doors, rear hatch
New production process for doors
If subtract 154 lb of added features, 10% reduction (554 lb)
400
(8%)
Carney, 2010;
Stahl, 2010
Mazda Mazda2
(2008)
Wide application of high-strength steels
Aluminum engine head, block, wheels
220
(9%)
Brown, 2007
Audi TT (2008) Aluminum-steel hybrid frame (58% Al, 42% HSS)
220
(7%)
Brooke and
Evans, 2009
Ford F150 (2009)
Hydroformed steel body structure
Use of tubular ultra high strength steel
100
(2%)
FordF150.net,
2008
Nissan 370Z
(2011)
Wide application of high strength steels
Aluminum door panels, hatch, hood
95
(3%)
Keith, 2010

Although they do not achieve particularly high efficiency or low CO
2
emissions, and they do not
even achieve overall mass reductions in many cases, low-volume sport cars can exhibit inordinate
amounts of mass-reduction technology features due to the resulting improvement in performance. Like
the pioneering mass-efficient Honda NS-X model, the mass-reduction features on the recent Chevrolet
Corvette Z06, for example, are very advanced and too numerous to list here. A partial list includes
aluminum spaceframe, a carbon fiber-skinned balsawood core floor pan, magnesium roof frame,
hydroformed aluminum roof bow, aluminum allow transmission housing, high-strength steel crankshaft,
titanium intake valves, titanium connecting rods, magnesium steering column, carbon fiber wheel houses
(Gerard, 2008). Some of these types of mass-reduction innovations also occur on various models by
Audi, BMW and other automakers that specialize in performance models (as shown above in Table 2).
Literally, it is safe to assume that these mass-reduction technology innovations at the scale of that
niche market Corvette Z06 are equivalent to over a hundred kilogram of mass reduction. However, as
utilized in such a performance-oriented model, the mass reductions are not realized. A clear reason for
the unseen nature of these models mass-reduction is that their powertrains are sized 2-3 times the typical
vehicle size and power output for that vehicle size. For example the Corvette engine is a 6.0-liter 505-
horsepower engine, whereas an average U.S. vehicle of that weight has a 3-liter 200-horsepower engine.
As a result, these high-powered sports cars suspension systems and other vehicle components are also


17
beefed up to support the powertrain. Nonetheless, these types of innovative mass-reduction techniques
typically see their introductions in niche sports cars and can work their way into premium sports cars and
luxury vehicles before penetrating high-volume production vehicle models.
Another indication of automakers intent to deploy mass-reduction vehicle designs and increased
use of advanced materials is in the direct statements by automobile engineers and designers. Table 4
provides direct quotes from industry representatives from various media sources and technical reports.
These statements confirm that stronger advanced materials and mass-optimized designs are critical
components of automakers future vehicle plans. The quotes are from representatives of General Motors,
Ford, Nissan, Volkswagen, Fiat, and BMW and show a general importance of mass-reduction
technologies now and for future vehicle designs. Of course, the exact plans of automakers for the
different automobile manufacturing companies role out of new materials and designs is proprietary and a
part of their strategic product planning for the future. These direct statements, as well as the above
information related to mass-reduction plans of individual automakers and the increasing rollout of
emerging mass-optimized components, all suggest that mass-reduction technology is a major vehicle
efficiency technology lever for near- and mid-term commercialization.

Table 4. Automaker industry statements regarding plans for vehicle mass-reduction technology
Affiliation Quote Source
General
Motors
We use a lot of aluminum today-about 300 pounds per vehicle-and are likely to use more lightweight
materials in the future.
Keith, 2010
Ford
The use of advanced materials such as magnesium, aluminum and ultra high-strength boron steel offers
automakers structural strength at a reduced weight to help improve fuel economy and meet safety and
durability requirements
Keith, 2010
Nissan
We are working to reduce the thickness of steel sheet by enhancing the strength, expanding the use of
aluminum and other lightweight materials, and reducing vehicle weight by rationalizing vehicle body
structure
Keith, 2010
BMW
Lightweight construction is a core aspect for sustainable mobility improving both fuel consumption and CO2
emissions, two key elements of our EfficientDynamics strategy.we will be able to produce carbon fiber
enhanced components in large volumes at competitive costs for the first time. This is particularly relevant
for electric-powered vehicles.
BMW and
SGL, 2010
Volkswagen
Material design and manufacturing technologies remain key technologies in vehicle development. Only
integrated approaches that work on these three key technologies will be successful in the future. In addition to
the development of metals and light metals, the research on fibre-reinforced plastics will play a major role.
Goede et al,
2009
Fiat
A reduction of fuel consumption attains big importance because of the possible economical savings. In order
to achieve that, different ways are followed: alternative engine concepts (for example electric engines instead
of combustion ones) or weight reduction of the vehicle structure. Using lightweight materials and different
joining techniques helps to reach this aim
Nuez, 2009
Volkswagen
Lightweight design is a key measure for reducing vehicle fuel consumption, along with power train
efficiency, aerodynamics and electrical power management
Krinke, 2009
BMW
A dynamic vehicle with a low fuel consumption finally demands a stiff body with a low weight. To achieve
the initially mentioned targets, it is therefore necessary to design a body which offers good stiffness values and
a high level of passive safety at a low weight.
Prestorf,
2009
BMW
Light weight design can be achieved by engineering light weight, manufacturing light weight and material
light weight design
Prestorf,
2009
Volkswagen Automotive light weight solutions are necessary more than ever to reduce CO2 emissions. Stehlin, 2008
Volkswagen
All the car manufacturers are working on advanced multi-material concepts that better exploit materials
lightening potential combining steel, aluminum, magnesium, plastics and composites.
Stehlin, 2008
Volkswagen Multi-Material Concepts promise cost effective light weight solutions Stehlin, 2008
General
Motors
Undoubtedly many of the component and system innovations in the Z06 will provide a foundation for
technologies that will be incorporated in the electronically propelled vehicles of the future.
Gerard, 2008
General
Motors
One trend is clear vehicles will consist of a more balanced use of many materials in the future,
incorporating more lightweight materials such as nanocomposites and aluminum and magnesium sheet.
Glennan,
2007
Renault
To meet commitments on CO2 emission levels, it is important that we stabilize vehicle weight as from now,
and then start bringing it down. This requirement goes a long way to explaining the many current exploratory
programmes (with names like 90g CO2 and 3 l/100 km), which will drive work on all factors having a bearing
on fuel consumption, including vehicle weight.
Maeder, 2001
Honda
The desire for weight reduction for automobiles is increasing more and more an increase of aluminum
material will surely be required. The company will be delighted if any technology to apply aluminum to the
car body developed by Honda to reduce car weight is useful for other automobile companies.
Muraoka and
Miyaoka,
1993
Ford Excess weight kills any self-propelled vehicle... Weight may be desirable in a steam roller but nowhere else Ford, 1924



18
3.4. Advanced mass-optimized vehicle designs
The above section and tables show the types of mass-reduction opportunities that occur with piece-
by-piece or component-level changes from vehicles that have been produced commercially. Although
those demonstrate significant mass reduction in vehicles, there is the potential for more substantial mass
reduction when the systematic and comprehensive redesign of vehicles is done with the expressed goal of
a mass-efficient vehicle. Whereas the above section on emerging mass-reduction technology illustrates
what is being done in the automobile fleet to reduce the weight of components, this section chronicles
more advanced vehicle redesign concepts that illustrate where future vehicle designs could be headed.
This section provides a summary of findings from a number of major research projects that have
sought to determine the mass-reduction technology potential for future vehicles. Although some of the
technology efforts described here are somewhat older, each of the projects demonstrates advanced mass-
reduction technologies that are currently not embraced widely by automakers and therefore are still highly
relevant. The vehicle concepts summarized here each involved a substantial research undertaking in
terms of analytical, engineering, and demonstration effort, and they each help to provide a better
understanding of the potential for future mass-efficient vehicle design. Before comparing various
technology aspects of the conceptual mass-optimized designs, brief summary tables are provided for the
following vehicle concepts:
1990-2005: Honda NS-X (Table 5)
2000: Fords P2000 (Table 6)
2000: DaimlerChryslers ESX (Table 7)
2000: General Motors Precept (Table 8)
2000-2004: Rocky Mountain Institute Revolution Hypercar (Table 9)
2000-present: Audi A2 and A8 aluminum space frame (Table 10)
2004-present: Jaguar all-aluminum XJ body (Table 11)
2001: Porsche Engineering ULSAB Advanced Vehicle Concept (Table 12)
2001-2003: Ford/US Army IMPACT Ford F150 (Table 13)
2003-2007: Auto/Steel Partnership Future Generation Vehicle (Table 14)
2004: ThyssenKrupp New Steel Body (Table 15)
2005-2006: DaimlerChrysler Dodge Durango Next Generation Frame (Table 16)
2007-2008: U.S. Advanced Materials Partnership magnesium-intensive vehicle (Table 17)
2007-2008: IBIS and Aluminum Association aluminum-intensive vehicle (Table 18)
2005-2009: Volkswagen-led European Super Light Car (Table 19)
2010: WorldAutoSteel Future Steel Vehicle (Table 20)
2010: Lotus Engineering Low and High Development Vehicles (Table 21)

Table 5. Summary of Honda NS-X
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Nearly all aluminum body, chassis, suspension; stamped aluminum frame
Increased aluminum content from 7% to 31%
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 309 lb (40%)
Overall vehicle reduction: 441 lb (13%)
Sources
Komatsu, Y., K. Ban, T. Ito, Y. Muraoka, T. Yahaba, K. Yasunaga, and M. Shiokawa, 1991. Application of
Aluminum Automotive Body for Honda NSX. Society of Automotive Engineers. 910548.
Muraoka, Y. and H. Miyaoka, 1993. Development of an all-aluminum automotive body. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology. 38: 655-674.
Status Produced from 1990 to 2005
Illustrations


Y. Muraoka and H. Miyaoka/Aluminum automotive body 659
Composedspace
Rigidity
~ Rigidity andstrength
Rigidity andstrength
Fig. 6. Design concept of an aluminum body.
Extruded aluminum Press molded aluminum
Fig. 7. Comparison between an extruded-aluminum side-sill and a press-molded aluminum
side-sill (after Ref. [21).
The r i gi di t y of t he body is a ver y i mpor t ant f act or for t he st eer i ng st abi l i t y of
a spor t s car. For t he NSX, t he sect i onal ar ea of each f r ame was i ncr eased t o as
l ar ge a val ue as possi bl e t o r ai se t he r i gi di t y of t he body. Especi al l y, t he most
not abl e ar ea was t he ext r uded- al umi num side-sill wi t h var i abl e t hi cknes s t hat
was sel ect ed. Thi s si de sill has a hi gher s t r engt h and r i gi di t y t ha n t hose of side
sills t hat ar e made of pr essed and spot - wel ded al umi num pl at es (Fig. 7).
All t he out er panel s, excl udi ng t he r oof panel , wer e desi gned t o be fixed t o
t he body skel et on wi t h bol t s.
656 Y. Muraoka and H. Miyaoka/Aluminum automotive body
Fig. 1. All-aluminum sports Honda NSX (after Ref. [1]).
The devel opment concept of the NSX was to make "A genuine sports car t hat
everyone can dri ve" and its design point was to give the car enhanced perfor-
mance in accel erat i on and in steering.
To satisfy the above, "reduci ng the weight t hr oughout the ent i re car" was
the i mport ant t arget and to employ al umi num was decided upon as a solution.
As is shown in Fig. 1, the NSX was designed with adequat e consi derat i on of
aerodynamics.
Fi gure 1 shows the conceptualized design targets. The NSX follows the
image of the F-l, which stresses t he runni ng performance being at a maximum,
and moreover balances a high level of human fitting and of adapt abi l i t y to the
envi ronment , which are essential for a modern car. Therefore, the NSX is
bet t er in all respects t han the convent i onal pure sports car and product i on
sports car. To satisfy the charact eri st i cs requi red for the NSX, various new
t echnol ogi es were introduced, amongst which the one to be stressed was
a t horoughl y-ut i l i zed light-weight t echnol ogy represent ed by the al umi num
body (Fig. 2).


19
Table 6. Summary of Ford P2000
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Aluminum-stamped body, substitution of less dense metals and composites
Aluminum (733 lb, or 37%) magnesium (4.3 lb, 3%), titanium (11 lb, 0.5%), and carbon fiber (8 lb, 0.4%)
Secondary effects: smaller powertrain and other components
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 476 lb (54%)
Overall vehicle reduction: 1238 lb (38%)
Sources
Automotive Engineering International, 2010. Battle of the metals: the aluminum angle.
http://www.sae.org/automag/metals/10.htm Accessed April 9, 2010.
Carpenter, J.A., E. Daniels, P. Sklad, C.D. Warren, M. Smith, 2007. FreedomCAR Automotive
Lightweighting Materials. Orlando, Florida. February 28.
Status Prototype built and tested in late 1990s, similar Ford Prodigy unveiled at auto shows in 1999-2000
Illustration

http://us1.webpublications.com.au/static/images/articles/i6/0647_8lo.jpg http://www.electrifyingtimes.com/fordprodigy.jpg

Table 7. Summary of DaimlerChrysler ESX
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Extensive use of plastics throughout the vehicle, including in body
Structural injection-molded body panels and aluminum with aluminum frame
Similar to Dodge Intrepid vehicle, but ESX3 body design resulted in 90% reduction in part count from steel
Diesel-fueled mild hybrid (15-kW motor) with 72 mpg; projected cost premium of $7,500
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 46%
Overall vehicle reduction: 1238 lb (38%)
Sources
Winter, D., 1998. Chryslers plastic car push.
http://wardsautoworld.com/ar/auto_chryslers_plastic_car_2/. September 1.
Jost, K., 2000. Dodges mild hybrid. https://www.sae.org/automag/globalview_05-00/02.htm. May.
Visnic, B., 2000. Injection molding for low-cost high mileage. http://wardsautoworld.com/ar/auto_
injection_molding_lowcost/. March 1.
Status Prototype built and tested in late 1990s
Illustration


http://www.autointell.net/nao_companies/daimlerchrysler/dodge/dodge-esx3-01.htm

Table 8. Summary of General Motors Precept
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Aluminum intensive body, chassis, exterior panels, seat frames; carbon fiber bumper beams
Novel chassis design with matrix composite brackets
Mass-reduction
impact
Body reduction: 397 lb (45%)
Overall vehicle reduction: 656 lb (20%)
Sources
Automotive Engineering International, 2010a. Battle of the metals: the aluminum angle.
http://www.sae.org/automag/metals/10.htm Accessed April 10, 2010.
Autospeed, 2000. The 2000 PNGV Concept Cars. Autospeed Issue 97. http://autospeed.com/cms/title_The-
2000-PNGV-Concept-Cars/A_0647/article.html. September 12. Accessed April 10, 2010.
Status Prototype developed in late 1990s; built in 2000
Illustration

http://us1.webpublications.com.au/static/images/articles/i6/0647_11lo.jpg


20

Table 9. Summary of Rocky Mountain Institute Revolution
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Vehicle optimization including integration, parts consolidation, advanced material substitution
Carbon fiber-intensive body frame, plastic body panels, carbon-fiber drive shafts
In-wheel motors, shared motor/brake housing; advanced composite and aluminum front-end structure
At $30,000 to $35,000 per vehicle, roughly cost-competitive with luxury sport-utility vehicles
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 537 lb (57%)
Overall vehicle reduction: 2080 lb (52%)
Source
Lovins, A.B., and D.R.Cramer, 2004. Hypercars, hydrogen, and the automotive transition. Int. J. Vehicle
Design 35: 50-85.
Status Prototype developed 2000-2004
Illustration




Table 10. Summary of aluminum-intensive Audi space frame technology
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Aluminum-intensive spaceframe body (and powertrain, chassis, and suspension)
Overall aluminum composition of 700 lb (34% of overall weight) for Audi A2
Overall aluminum composition of 1150 lb (25% of overall weight) for Audi A8
A2: body savings versus steel of 134 kg, secondary savings of 75 kg from drivetrain, motor, chassis
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 300-500 lb (30-40%)
Overall A2 vehicle reduction: 461 lb (18%)
Sources
Autointell, 1999. Worlds first volume-production aluminum car Audi A2 fascinating technology and a
new form of agility. http://www.autointell.com/european_companies/volkswagen/audi-ag/audi-cars/audi-
a2/audiag1112.htm.
European Aluminum Association (EAA), 2007. Aluminum in Cars. September.
European Aluminum Association (EAA), 2010. Automotive Aluminum Manual (AAM).
http://www.eaa.net/en/applications/automotive/aluminium-automotive-manual/
Status
Introduced in 1999 in compact A2, currently used in Audi A8
New version of spaceframe being used in TT coupe, under consideration for A5, A6 and other models
Illustration
(A2, 1999)

http://www.xwomm.com/datagrip/datagrip/pictures/gross/acab_1h _2.jpg http://www.xwomm.com/datagrip/datagrip/pictures/gross/acab_1e_4.jpg
Illustration
(A8, 2002)

http://www.xwomm.com/datagrip/datagrip/pictures/gross/acab_3d_2.jpg http://www.xwomm.com/datagrip/datagrip/pictures/gross/acab_3b_2.jpg


p r o c e s s i n g . Y e t t h e f i b r e s a r e l o n g e n o u g h t o m a i n t a i n n e a r - c o n t i n u o u s - f i b r e l e v e l s o f
s t i f f n e s s i n t h e f i n i s h e d p a r t .
3 . 6 . 3 P a r t d e s i g n
E a c h p a r t i s d e s i g n e d f o r l o w - c o s t f a b r i c a t i o n a n d a s s e m b l y , a c h i e v i n g a c o m p l e x
s t r u c t u r e f r o m s i m p l e p a r t s . W h i l e s o m e c o m p o n e n t s h a v e c o m p l e x s u r f a c e
g e o m e t r y , t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w , w i t h f e w s h a r p b e n d s o r d e e p d r a w s
m i n i m i z i n g t o o l i n g c o s t , e n h a n c i n g r e p e a t a b i l i t y , a n d e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d f o r
l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e p r e - a n d p o s t - p r o c e s s s t e p s .
F i g u r e 9 C o m p o s i t e s t r u c t u r e , a l u m i n i u m / c o m p o s i t e f r o n t s u b f r a m e , a n d e x t e r i o r p a n e l s
F i g u r e 1 0 C o m p o s i t e s a f e t y c e l l e x p l o d e d v i e w
A . B . L o v i n s a n d D . R . C r a m e r 6 6
p r o c e s s i n g . Y e t t h e f i b r e s a r e l o n g e n o u g h t o m a i n t a i n n e a r - c o n t i n u o u s - f i b r e l e v e l s o f
s t i f f n e s s i n t h e f i n i s h e d p a r t .
3 . 6 . 3 P a r t d e s i g n
E a c h p a r t i s d e s i g n e d f o r l o w - c o s t f a b r i c a t i o n a n d a s s e m b l y , a c h i e v i n g a c o m p l e x
s t r u c t u r e f r o m s i m p l e p a r t s . W h i l e s o m e c o m p o n e n t s h a v e c o m p l e x s u r f a c e
g e o m e t r y , t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w , w i t h f e w s h a r p b e n d s o r d e e p d r a w s
m i n i m i z i n g t o o l i n g c o s t , e n h a n c i n g r e p e a t a b i l i t y , a n d e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d f o r
l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e p r e - a n d p o s t - p r o c e s s s t e p s .
F i g u r e 9 C o m p o s i t e s t r u c t u r e , a l u m i n i u m / c o m p o s i t e f r o n t s u b f r a m e , a n d e x t e r i o r p a n e l s
F i g u r e 1 0 C o m p o s i t e s a f e t y c e l l e x p l o d e d v i e w
A . B . L o v i n s a n d D . R . C r a m e r
6 6
the following combination of features with 857 kg kerb mass, 2.38 m
2
effective frontal
area, 0.26 C
D
, and 0.0078 r
0
:
*
Seats five adults in comfort, with a package similar to the Lexus RX-300 (6%
shorter overall and 10% lower than a 2000 Ford Explorer but with slightly
greater passenger space)
*
1.95-m
3
cargo space with the rear seats folded flat
*
2.38 L/100 km (99 miles per US gallon) equivalent, using a direct-hydrogen fuel
cell, and simulated for realistic US driving behaviour
*
530-km range on 3.4 kg of hydrogen stored in commercially available 345-bar tanks
*
Zero tailpipe emissions
*
Accelerates 0100 km/h in 8.3 seconds
*
No body damage in impacts up to 10 km/h (crash simulations are described
below)
*
All-wheel drive with digital traction and vehicle stability control
*
Ground clearance adjustable from 13 to 20 cm through a semi-active suspension
that adapts to load, speed, location of the vehicle's centre of gravity, and terrain
*
Body stiffness and torsional rigidity 50% or more higher than in premium sports
sedans
*
Designed for a 300 000-km service life; composite body not susceptible to rust
or fatigue
*
Modular electronics and software architecture and customizable user interface
*
Potential for the sticker price to be competitive with the Lexus RX-300, Mercedes
M320, and BMW X5 3.0, with significantly lower lifecycle cost.
Figure 3 illustrates the main technical features of the Revolution, emphasizing
those that reduce mass and improve efficiency.
3.2 Lightweight design
Every system within the Revolution is significantly lighter than conventional systems
(Table 2 and Figure 4) to achieve an overall mass saving of 52%. Techniques used to
minimize mass, discussed below, include integration, parts consolidation, and
appropriate application of new technology and lightweight materials. No single
Figure 2 Revolution concept car photo and package layout
Hypercars
1
, hydrogen, and the automotive transition 59


21
Table 11. Summary of aluminum-intensive Jaguar XJ
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Aluminum-intensive body frame and shell; hydroformed A-pillar/cantrail extrusion assembly
Glass-filled polymide/ultra-high strength steel B-pillar; composites, glass-reinforced plastic molding
Overall 15% few parts for the whole vehicle, 10% reduction in adhesive use
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 250-350 lb (25-30%)
Overall vehicle reduction: 717 lb (15%)
Sources
Birch, S., 2010. Jaguar remakes XJ. http://www.sae.org/mags/sve/7547. March 4. Accessed April 8.
European Aluminum Association (EAA), 2007. Aluminum in Cars. September.
Status Introduced in XJ in 2002; currently available
Illustration



Table 12. Summary of Porsche Engineering Advanced Concept Vehicle
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Mass-optimized steel-intensive design; meet 2004 safety regulations; cost minimization is final priority
Developed two vehicle designs on European C-class (small hatchback) and PNGV-class (mid-size sedan)
Holistic approach to simultaneously consider all systems of the vehicle together
Demonstrated for frontal, side, and rear impacts that are comparable with Four- and Five-Star vehicles
Manufacturing assessment for new materials and fabrication methods demonstrates affordable design
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white reduction: 91-99 lb (17%)
Overall vehicle reduction: 472-1042 lb (19-32%)
Status
Supported by American Iron & Steel Institute
Called UltraLight Steel Auto Body Advanced Vehicle Concepts (ULSAB-AVC) program
Engineering design study in 2001
Source
Porsche Engineering Services Inc., 2001. ULSAB-AVC: Engineering Report: The design, materials,
manufacturing, performance and economic analysis of ULSAB-AVC (Advanced Vehicle Concepts).
October.
Illustrations
C-class
hatchback
and Sedan








ALUMINIUM IN CARS EUROPEAN ALUMINIUM ASSOCIATION 5
3.2. PRIMARY WEIGHT SAVINGS
Aluminium allows a saving of up to 50% over competing materials in many applications.
Typical relative
c
and average absolute weight savings of todays main aluminium applications in mass-produced
cars are given below.
Typical relative and average absolute weight savings
Relative weight saving Absolute w. s. Market penetration
Engine and transmission parts:
Chassis and suspension parts:
Hang-on parts
d
:
Wheel rims
e
:
Bumper systems:
For niche models, full aluminium bodies allow saving 30-40% weight, and between 70 and 140kg, depending
on the size of the car.

c Relative to the weight of substituted parts
d Doors, bonnet, wings, boot
e Wheel rims are presently not always weight-optimised. However, 50% weight saving is achievable.
Figure 3
! -10kg
60% 0%
Engineering Services, Inc..

B
o
d
y
-
I
n
-
W
h
i
t
e

C
o
n
c
e
p
t
s
U|5Ab-AvC ||5 |n|neer|n |epor|
Iune 2001
ChapIer 6
Page 31
Figure 6.6.1-1 C-Class tubular hydroformed body side members 3/4 rear
view
Figure 6.6.1-2 C-Class tubular hydroformed body side members 3/4 front
view
E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s , I n c . .

B
o
d
y
-
I
n
-
W
h
i
t
e

C
o
n
c
e
p
t
s
U | 5 A b - A v C | | 5 | n | n e e r | n | e p o r |
I u n e 2 0 0 1
# H A P T E R
0 A G E
F i g u r e 6 . 8 - 3 P N G V - C l a s s c l o s u r e s t r u c t u r e s i n c l u d i n g g l a s s 3 / 4 f r o n t v i e w
F i g u r e 6 . 8 - 4 P N G V - C l a s s c l o s u r e s t r u c t u r e s i n c l u d i n g g l a s s 3 / 4 r e a r v i e w


22
Table 13. Summary of Ford and U.S. Army IMPACT Ford F150
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Intensive use (and stated preference for) high-strength steels throughout the vehicle
Heavy use of dual-phase steel structures, bake hardened steels, and reduced steel gage
Body structure is almost 100% high strength steel
Found substantial reductions of 18% or greater in all major truck systems (powertrain, cab/front, chassis,
pick-up box, closures, and interior)
Final design had roughly the same percent steel composition (most steel shifted to high strength alloys)
Body designed for five-star government crash test rating for passenger side impacts (computer analysis)
Found most weight reduction came with cost savings
The first 19% overall vehicle weight reduction (1000 lb) came at net zero cost
The full 25% reduction came at a $500 increase in the total variable vehicle cost
Mass-reduction
impact
Overall vehicle reduction: 1310 lb (25%)
Body-in-white (cab+front-end) reduction: 130 lb (20%)
Status
Joint project between Ford, American Iron & Steel Institute, University of Louisville, U.S. Army TACOM
Developed and built redesigned Ford F150 over 1998-2003
Individual weight reduction techniques (60% of them) have been utilized in Ford model platforms in the six
years from IMPACT project completion in 2001 to the 2007 report.
Source
Geck, P. J. Goff, R. Sohmshetty, K. Laurin, G. Prater, V. Furman, 2007. IMPACT Phase II Study to
Remove 25% of the Weight from a Pick-up Truck. Society of Automotive Engineers. 2007-01-1727.
Illustrations






Table 14. Summary of Auto/Steel Partnership Future Generation Vehicle
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Intensive use of high-strength steels to replace iron and milder steels throughout vehicle
Use of higher strength steel enables thinner gages and redesigned components
Passenger compartment: 30% mass reduction, improved crash performance, no additional cost
Front-end structure: 32% mass reduction, no additional cost
Rear chassis: 24% mass reduction, no additional cost
Closures: 22% mass reduction, no additional cost
Mass-reduction
impacts
Overall vehicle reduction: 20-30%
Body-in-white reduction: 204-214 lb (30%)
Status
Supported by the Auto/Steel Partnership, conducted by Altair Engineering
Series of design, engineering, cost, and crashworthiness analyses completed between 2003 and 2007
Many demonstrated uses of high-strength steel and design techniques are being introduced and
commercialized gradually across new vehicle models today
Sources
Altair Engineering, 2003. Lightweight SUV Frame: Design Development. May.
Auto Steel Partnership (ASP), 2005. Lightweight Front End Structure Project: Phase I & II Final Report.
Auto Steel Partnership (ASP), 2007. Future Generation Passenger Compartment. Phase I Report. June.
Accessed December 10, 2009.
Heimbuch, R.A., 2009. Auto/Steel Partnership: Hydroforming Materials and Lubricant, Lightweight Rear
Chassis Structures, Future Generation Passenger Compartment
Krupitzer, R., 2009. Automotive Steels and Future Vehicles. Bloomberg Cars & Fuels Summit. Dec 1.
Illustrations

E a c h l i n e s e g m e n t , b e t w e e n d o t s , i n F i g u r e 3 c o r r e s p o n d s
t o t h e w e i g h t d e c r e a s e a n d t h e c o s t i n c r e a s e / d e c r e a s e f o r
o n e o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r o n e o f t h e s u b s y s t e m s .
D i f f e r e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e t r i e d f o r e a c h s u b s y s t e m u n t i l t h e
m o s t c o s t e f f e c t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s i s p l o t t e d ,
w h i c h a c h i e v e s t h e t a r g e t o f 2 5 % . T h i s g o a l t r a n s l a t e s t o
a b o u t 1 3 0 0 l b r e d u c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e b a s e v e h i c l e w a s
a b o u t 5 2 5 0 p o u n d s . T h e r e f o r e , v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
a l t e r n a t i v e s w e r e p l o t t e d u n t i l 1 3 0 0 l b w e i g h t r e d u c t i o n
w a s a c h i e v e d f o r t h e l e a s t c o s t p e n a l t y .

T h e n e x t s e t o f t e a m s w a s t h e P r o g r a m A t t r i b u t e T e a m s
a n d t h e P r o g r a m A c t i v i t y T e a m s ( t h e P A T s ) . F o r
i n s t a n c e , t h e A e r o T e a m , t h e D u r a b i l i t y / C o r r o s i o n T e a m ,
a n d t h e W e i g h t T e a m a r e v e h i c l e a t t r i b u t e t e a m s a n d t h e
C A E T e a m a n d t h e D e s i g n T e a m w e r e a c t i v i t y t e a m s .
T h e s e t e a m s w e r e s e t u p t o s u p p o r t t h e m o d u l e t e a m s ,
b e c a u s e w e n e e d e d t o s e g r e g a t e t h e p e o p l e w i t h
s p e c i f i c t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s f r o m a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
p e r s p e c t i v e . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e w a s s y n e r g y i n h a v i n g
a l l t h e C A E m o d e l b u i l d e r s i n a s i n g l e t e a m .

F i n a l l y , t h e r e w e r e t h r e e t e a m s t h a t w e r e i n v o l v e d i n
m a j o r r e s e a r c h a r e a s t h a t s u p p o r t e d t h e o v e r a l l g o a l o f
t h e p r o j e c t . T h e s e w e r e t h e A r c h i t e c t u r e T e a m , t h e
M a t e r i a l S e l e c t i o n T e a m , a n d t h e C o r r o s i o n T e a m . T h e
w o r k o f t h e s e t e a m s w a s n o t i n t e n d e d t o n e c e s s a r i l y
i m p a c t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r o j e c t , b u t w a s m e a n t t o s e t i n
m o t i o n r e s e a r c h , w h i c h w o u l d p o i n t t o f u t u r e p r o j e c t s ,
w h i c h w o u l d h a v e s i m i l a r o b j e c t i v e s t o t h e p r o j e c t b e i n g
e x e c u t e d h e r e .

I M P A C T D E S I G N

T h i s r e p o r t w i l l n o w g o i n t o s o m e o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
t e c h n i c a l e l e m e n t s , w h i c h s u r v i v e d t o p r o v i d e t h e d e s i g n
f o r t h e b u i l d v e h i c l e .

C a b S t r u c t u r e
B e f o r e 2 0 0 4 , t h e F o r d F - S e r i e s , w h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e b a s e
f o r t h e I M P A C T P h a s e I I p r o j e c t , w a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y
m a n u f a c t u r e d w i t h m i l d s t e e l g r a d e s . D e s i g n o f t h e
I M P A C T P h a s e I I C a b S t r u c t u r e w a s a l m o s t 1 0 0 % h i g h
s t r e n g t h s t e e l ( H S S ) , w h i c h i n c l u d e s s i g n i f i c a n t u s e o f
D u a l P h a s e ( D P ) , H i g h S t r e n g t h L o w A l l o y S t e e l s
( H S L A ) , a n d B a k e H a r d e n a b l e ( B H ) g r a d e s . T h i s s h i f t o f
s t e e l u t i l i z a t i o n f o r t h e I M P A C T P h a s e I I C a b a n d F r o n t
E n d i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4 .

T h e I M P A C T d e s i g n e r s a n d e n g i n e e r s a p p l i e d h i g h
s t r e n g t h m a t e r i a l s t h r o u g h d e s i g n a n d / o r s t a n d a r d
d o w n g a g e s t r a t e g i e s . F o r s e v e r a l o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s
i n v o l v e d , c o s t s a v i n g s w e r e a c h i e v e d a n d p e r f o r m a n c e
r e l a t i v e t o s a f e t y p e r f o r m a n c e w a s a l s o i m p r o v e d .

F i v e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s w e r e d e s i g n e d w i t h D u a l P h a s e
s t e e l . T h e s e D u a l P h a s e p a r t s d e l i v e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t
m a s s s a v i n g s . T h e e n e r g y - a b s o r b i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f D u a l
P h a s e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o e n h a n c e d s a f e t y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
N o n - S t e e l
M i l d
D R 2 1 0 , B H 2 1 0
B H 2 5 0 , H S L A 2 5 0
B H 2 8 0 , H S L A 3 0 0 , D P 5 0 0
B H 3 0 0 , H S L A 3 5 0 , D P 6 0 0
T . S . > 7 0 0 M P a
C A B / F r o n t E n d - 1 3 0 l b s ( 2 0 ) M a s s S a v i n g s

F i g u r e 4

A d h e s i v e b o n d i n g w a s u s e d t o b o l s t e r w e l d s t h r o u g h o u t
t h e c a b , w h i c h h e l p e d t o m a k e t h e b o d y s t r u c t u r e m o r e
s o l i d . T h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a d h e s i v e b o n d i n g t o
c r i t i c a l j o i n t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , p a n e l g a g e s c o u l d b e
s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d .

G i v e n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l a r c h i t e c t u r e
c o n s t r a i n t s , b a s e d o n t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n , t h e 5 7 p o u n d
s a v i n g s a c h i e v e d w a s c o n s i d e r e d a s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t .
W h i l e t h e w e i g h t s a v i n g s d i d n o t a c h i e v e t h e 2 5 % t a r g e t ,
t h e 1 7 % w e i g h t s a v i n g s f o r t h e c a b w i t h o u t t h e f r o n t e n d
w a s c o n s i d e r e d a s u c c e s s , e s p e c i a l l y i n l i e u o f t h e f a c t
t h a t s o m e o t h e r s y s t e m s o f t h e v e h i c l e w e r e a b l e t o
e a s i l y o v e r a c h i e v e t h e 2 5 % b o g i e .

H i g h l i g h t s o f t h e c a b s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n w e r e a s f o l l o w s :
! 5 7 p o u n d ( 1 7 % ) w e i g h t s a v i n g s t h r o u g h
r e d e s i g n a n d / o r u s i n g h i g h s t r e n g t h s t e e l s a t
t h i n n e r g a g e s .
! S e v e r a l C a b C o m p o n e n t s w e r e r e d e s i g n e d ;
r o o f , r e a r r e i n f o r c e m e n t p a n e l , d o o r o p e n i n g
p a n e l s , r o c k e r s , f l o o r p a n s a n d u n d e r b o d y
c r o s s m e m b e r s
! E s t i m a t e d $ 1 0 v a r i a b l e c o s t s a v i n g s .
! D e s i g n e d f o r f i v e - s t a r g o v e r n m e n t c r a s h t e s t
r a t i n g f o r p a s s e n g e r s i d e i m p a c t s ( c o m p u t e r
a n a l y s i s ) .
! 4 D P 6 0 0 c a b c o m p o n e n t s ; R o c k e r a n d 3 -
C r o s s m e m b e r s .
! " M i c r o - b e a d " s u r f a c e p r o f i l e u s e d t o i n c r e a s e
s t i f f n e s s o f r o c k e r p a n e l .
! L a s e r - w e l d e d b l a n k t e c h n o l o g y i s u s e d f o r t h e
D o o r O p e n i n g P a n e l ( D O P ) .
! L a s e r - w e l d e d p a t c h o n b o t h t h e d r i v e r a n d
p a s s e n g e r s i d e " C " p i l l a r l a t c h p o i n t s .
! S t r u c t u r a l a d h e s i v e s u s e d t o i n c r e a s e s t i f f n e s s
a n d e n a b l e d o w n g a g i n g .

R o o f
! B H 1 8 0 S t e e l
! . 6 5 - m m t h i c k n e s s ( . 1 0 - m m d o w n g a g e )
! 1 4 % w e i g h t r e d u c t i o n
v e h i c l e . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 1 , F o r d d e l i v e r e d t h e P h a s e I I
p r o t o t y p e t o t h e U . S . A r m y T a n k A u t o m o t i v e
A r m a m e n t s C o m m a n d s ( T A C O M ) N a t i o n a l A u t o m o t i v e
C e n t e r .
I M P A C T P h a s e I I B u i l d C o m p l e t e d
T o t a l M a s s S a v i n g s - 1 3 1 0 l b s . ( 2 5 )
F i g u r e 1 2

A s a n i n t e r e s t i n g o u t c o m e o f I M P A C T P h a s e I I , w e i g h t
s a v i n g s w a s e f f e c t i v e l y a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
v e h i c l e . T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s u m m a r i z e s t h e w e i g h t
s a v i n g s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t f o r e a c h " m a j o r " m o d u l e o f t h e
v e h i c l e . O t h e r m i n o r s u b s y s t e m s ( e . g . , e l e c t r i c a l ) a l s o
c o n t r i b u t e d w e i g h t s a v i n g s .

M o d u l e W e i g h t S a v i n g s
( l b s . )
W e i g h t S a v i n g s
( % )
P o w e r t r a i n 2 4 9 1 8
C h a s s i s 3 8 3 2 4
C a b / F r o n t E n d 1 3 0 2 0
P i c k - u p B o x 6 1 2 5
C l o s u r e s 1 8 1 2 9
I n t e r i o r 1 2 1 2 8

T h e s t e e l s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s w a s f a i r l y c o n s e r v a t i v e i n
t h a t w e w e r e t a r g e t i n g s t e e l g r a d e s , o n e g r a d e s t r o n g e r
t h a n t h e s t e e l , w h i c h w a s b e i n g r e p l a c e d ( F i g u r e 1 3 ) .
P r o b a b l y t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t o f t h i s s t u d y w a s t h a t
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s t e e l i n t h e f i n a l v e h i c l e r e m a i n e d t h e
s a m e a s i n t h e v e h i c l e b e i n g r e p l a c e d . T h i s i s q u i t e
s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t t h e 2 5 % t a r g e t c o u l d b e v i e w e d a s
b e i n g q u i t e a g g r e s s i v e . T h e b e n e f i t o f r e t a i n i n g s t e e l a s
t h e p r i m a r y m a t e r i a l r e s u l t e d i n a t o t a l v a r i a b l e c o s t
i n c r e a s e o f o n l y a b o u t $ 5 0 0 . T h e s t e e l a c t i o n s , t o g e t h e r ,
a c t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n a c o s t s a v e a s w a s s h o w n i n t h e
v a l u e c u r v e ( F i g u r e 3 ) . T h i s w a s d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
g a g e o f t h e s t e e l u s e d , t y p i c a l l y , w a s r e d u c e d m o r e t h a n
t h e i n c r e a s e d c o s t o f t h e h i g h e r g a g e s t e e l . P r o b a b l y t h e
m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f I M P A C T P h a s e I I i s
t h a t t o d a t e o v e r 6 0 % o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t
w e r e d e v e l o p e d f o r t h i s p r o g r a m h a v e b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d
o n e i t h e r t h e F o r d F 1 5 0 o r o t h e r p l a t f o r m s a t F o r d M o t o r
C o m p a n y .

M a t e r i a l s S t r a t e g y
H S S B o d y S t r u c t u r e O p t i m i z a t i o n
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M A R T
Y i e l d S t r e n g t h ( M p a )
L o w M e d i u m H i g h U l t r a - H i g h
I M P A C T
T a r g e t
F i g u r e 1 3

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
T h e a u t h o r s w o u l d l i k e t o g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e F o r d
M o t o r C o m p a n y , t h e A m e r i c a n I r o n a n d S t e e l I n s t i t u t e ,
t h e U . S . A r m y ( N a t i o n a l A u t o m o t i v e C e n t e r ) , a n d t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u i s v i l l e a s t h e p r i m a r y p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d
f i n a n c i e r s o f t h i s s t u d y . M e n t i o n s h o u l d a l s o b e m a d e o f
t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f M i s s i s s i p p i S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
O a k r i d g e N a t i o n a l L a b s , a n d t h e n u m e r o u s a u t o m o t i v e
t i e r 1 a n d 2 p a r t i c i p a n t s , m a n y o f w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d
m a t e r i a l s a n d s e r v i c e s f r e e o f c h a r g e f o r t h i s s t u d y .
R E F E R E N C E S
1 . ! U L S A B C o n s o r t i u m , U l t r a L i g h t S t e e l A u t o B o d y ,
A m e r i c a n I r o n & S t e e l I n s t i t u t e , E l e c t r o n i c R e p o r t
1 . 0 , 1 9 9 8 .
2 . ! U L S A C C o n s o r t i u m , U l t r a L i g h t S t e e l A u t o C l o s u r e
P r e s e n t a t i o n , A m e r i c a n I r o n & S t e e l I n s t i t u t e ,
E l e c t r o n i c R e p o r t 2 . 0 , 1 9 9 8 .
3 . ! P a t t o n , R . , B r e h o b , E . , S t a t e , M . , F u r m a n , V . , G e c k .
P . , a n d C u m m i n s , M . , " A d v a n c e d M a t e r i a l
T e c h n o l o g i e s f o r 2 1
s t
C e n t u r y T r u c k s , " S o c i e t y o f
A u t o m o t i v e E n g i n e e r s , d o c u m e n t n u m b e r 2 0 0 0 - 0 1 -
3 4 2 4 , 2 0 0 0 .
4 . ! I M P A C T P r o j e c t 6
t h
Q u a r t e r l y R e p o r t f o r T A C O M ,
A u g u s t 2 0 0 1 .
5 . ! I M P A C T P r o j e c t 7
t h
Q u a r t e r l y R e p o r t f o r T A C O M ,
N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 1 .
6 . ! P r a t e r , G . , A z z o u z , M . , C u m m i n s , M . , F u r m a n , V . ,
G e c k , P . , S h a h h o s s e i n i , A . , a n d S t a t e , M . , " U s e o f
F E A C o n c e p t M o d e l s t o D e v e l o p L i g h t - T r u c k C a b
A r c h i t e c t u r e s w i t h R e d u c e d W e i g h t a n d E n h a n c e d
N V H C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " S o c i e t y o f A u t o m o t i v e
E n g i n e e r s , d o c u m e n t n u m b e r 2 0 0 2 - 8 2 3 , 2 0 0 2 .
7 . ! G e c k , P . , S o h m s h e t t y , R . , Z a l u z e c , M . , a n d
J o h n s o n , C . , " C A E A n a l y s i s f o r I M P A C T P r o j e c t , "
A s s o c i a t i o n f o r I r o n & S t e e l T e c h n o l o g i e s ,
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o n A d v a n c e d H i g h S t r e n g t h
S t e e l s f o r A u t o m o t i v e A p p l i c a t i o n s , C o l o r a d o , J u n e
6 - 8 , 2 0 0 4 .

Future Generation Passenger Compartment (FGPC)
!

B-pillar 1
B-pillar 2
B-pillar 3
Roof Rail 1
Roof Rail 2
Roof Rail 3
Lower body
cross-bar
Kickdown
cross-member
IP Beam
Front Header
Rocker
Inner
!
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Pos 1
Pos 10
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23

Table 15. Summary of ThyssenKrupp New Steel Body
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Developed mass-reduced vehicle using higher strength steels, tubular steel construction, new forming
techniques (e.g., hydroforming), based on compact van Opel Zafira, which is popular in Europe
Examined stiffness, crash, and impact load path
Cost impacts: benefits from reduced materials (8%), assembly (2%), and tooling (4%), but increased
component manufacturing costs (16%)
Estimated approximate net 2% increase in manufacturing cost of body structure.
Mass-reduction
impacts
Body-in-white reduction: 170 lb (24%)
Potential savings estimated be around 30% with mass-optimization
Status
Conducted by Thyssen Krupp Stahl
Called New Steel Body
Engineering design study in 2004
Source ThyssenKrupp, 2004. NewSteelBody: For a lighter automotive future.
Illustrations




Table 16. Summary of DaimlerChrysler Dodge Durango Next Generation Frame project
Mass-reduction
features
Develop, build aluminum-steel hybrid frame, and design all-aluminum frame for sport utility vehicle
Created a computer aided design (CAE) model
Evaluated impact on noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) and durability
Completed CAE and design iterations for DaimlerChrysler 5-Star crashworthiness rating.
Analyses satisfy all the DCX requirements for 5-Star crashworthiness, NVH, and durability.
Assembled prototype frame into full size vehicle and road tested
Mass-reduction
impacts
Hybrid aluminum-steel frame reduction: 92 lb (30%)
Designed aluminum frame reduction: ~140 lb (46%)
Status
Developed by DaimlerChrysler and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Also with Tower Automotive, Alcoa, Assured Design, Defiance, Mercia
Designed and built 3 prototype frames for testing ~2005-2006
Sources
U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE), 2006. Lightweight materials pave the road for energy-efficient
vehicles. http://www.eurekaalert.org/features/doe/2006-06/dnnl-limp062906.php. June 26. Accessed
March 20, 2010.
U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE), 2006. Progress Report for High Strength Weight Reduction
Materials. March.
21
st
Century Truck Partnership, 2006. Roadmap and Technical White Papers. 21CTP-0003. December.
21
st
Century Truck Partnership, 2005. Transportation Materials Research and Development for Heavy
Vehicle Applications. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. June 28.
Illustrations


FY 2006 Progress Report High-Strength Weight Reduction Materials
!"#"$%&'($%)#(*+&
! Have the Irame evaluated by DCX Ior torsion
! In support oI DCX crush tip testing, evaluate the eIIect oI hydroIorming on tip mechanical properties.
,+#$*-")#(*+&
Increased consumer demand Ior PU/SUVs has
resulted in increased Ileet Iuel consumption. The
Iuel demand Ior this class oI vehicle has exceeded
that oI passenger automobiles and now consumes
approximately 27 oI the oil used in the United
States.
1
The objective oI this project is to explore
manuIacturing methods and materials to reduce the
mass oI the SUV/PU Irame, thereby reducing Iuel
consumption Ior this class oI vehicle.
During the second quarter oI FY 2003, Daim-
lerChrysler completed vehicle testing at the DCX
Proving Grounds using an SUV/PU platIorm
equipped with a hybrid Irame. Results oI the accel-
erated testing have proved that (1) the hybrid Irame
design had suIIicient strength and durability to meet
the vehicle perIormance requirements; and (2) the
Irame was probably somewhat overbuilt and heavier
than required, even with a substantial weight savings
Irom the current baseline steel Irame.
The next phase oI the project will evaluate the
use oI a lighter Irame, the NGF. The NGF uses a
CAE approach and higher-risk manuIacturing tech-
nologies. The NGF is projected to weigh less than
the previously tested new-generation Irame and re-
quire 35 Iewer components.
.//$*0)1&
A CAE model oI the NGF will be created and
design iterations perIormed to meet the NVH, im-
pact, and durability requirements Ior a DCX 5-Star
rating. A prototype oI the Irame will be Iabricated
and evaluated by Irame Ilexure and road tests.
2$*3$%44&
CAE analyses oI the Irame are complete and sat-
isIy all oI DCX requirements Ior 5-Star crashworthi-
ness, NVH, and durability. The Irame has been
completed and delivered to DCX and Magna Ior
Iull-scale automotive testing. Figure 1 shows the
Irame being Iabricated in the assembly Iixture.
!(3"$%&56 NGF components and assembly Iixture beIore
Iinal assembly.
The completed Irame was assembled into a
Dodge Durango and evaluated using a vehicle simu-
lator at the DCX Auburn Hills Technical Center.
The Irame successIully completed a satisIactory liIe-
time. Figure 2 is a photograph oI the Dodge Du-
rango undergoing vehicle testing with the NGF.
!(3"$%&76&Dodge Durango undergoing vehicle testing
with the NGF.
!"#"$%&'($%)#(*+&
All vehicle testing oI the Irame has been com-
pleted and is being evaluated by DCX and PNNL
staII.
120
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24


Table 17. Summary of Advanced Materials Partnership magnesium-intensive vehicle project
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Magnesium substitutions of many conventional steel and aluminum parts
Replace 680 lb of steel and aluminum parts with 380 lb
Viable magnesium component substitutions include body structure (panels, front end, roof frame, lift
gate); powertrain (engine, transmission, intake manifold, transfer case, clutch housing, oil pan); chassis
(wheels, frame, engine cradle); interior (seats, stanchions, instrument panel)
Mass-reduction
impact
Overall vehicle reduction from magnesium substitution: 300 lb (~8%)
Vehicle body-in-white concept: 356 lb (49%)
Concept body-in-
white
Hybrid magnesium/aluminum/foam body-in-white (from DaimlerChrysler)
Reduced total part count: 78%
Improved bending frequency 9%, torsion frequency 25%
Meets/exceeds all NVH and energy management goals
Better than current vehicle on current standards; meets new 50-mph offset rear impact safety standard
Increased marginal cost (+3%), decreased investment cost (-46%)
Status Design study by U.S. CAR, a consortium of U.S. automakers: General Motors, Ford, DaimlerChrysler
Source
U.S. Automobile Materials Partnership (U.S. AMP), 2006. Magnesium Vision 2020: A North American
Automotive Strategic Vision for Magnesium. U.S. Council for Automotive Research.
Illustrations




Table 18. Summary of IBIS and Aluminum Association aluminum-intensive vehicle
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Near full aluminum substitution for major steel components (body, panels, front/rear bumpers, wheels)
Accounted for primary weight savings from light metal substitution and also resultant secondary weight
savings in engine, transmission, suspension, chassis re-sizing
Found aluminum body substitution had additional manufacturing cost of less than $200 per vehicle
Additional mass-reduction costs had synergistic effects, by reducing costs of simultaneous deployment of
advanced powertrains like hybrids and diesels (i.e., additional aluminum cost were offset by reduced
diesel or hybrid costs).
Mass-reduction
impact
Overall vehicle reduction: 573 lb (17%)
Body-in-white reduction: 280 lb (47%)
Status
Project by IBIS Associates, Ricardo Inc, and Novelis Inc, supported by Aluminum Association
Engineering design analyses from 2007-2008
Sources
Bull, M. R. Chavali, A. Mascarin, 2008. Benefit Analysis: Use of Aluminum Structures in Conjunction
with Alternative Powertrain Technologies in Automobiles. Prepared for Aluminum Association.
IBIS Associates, Inc., 2008. Aluminum Vehicle Structure: Manufacturing and Lifecycle Cost Analysis
Hybrid Drive and Diesel Vehicles. Report 2008-05. Prepared for Aluminum Association
Casadei, A. and R. Broda, 2007. Impact of Vehicle Weight Reduction on Fuel Economy for Various
Vehicle Architectures. Prepared for Aluminum Association.



6.2.1. Sheet Production and Automotive Stamping
In the 1930s, Dow Chemical Co. showed that sheet Mg products could be used to produce
lightweight tractor-trailers. By 1942, almost 300 T/mo. of AM503 sheet was being used in
Germany to make aircraft (1). After the war, price increases and lower cost/improved Al alloys
essentially eliminated Mg sheet use for structural applications; however, a great deal of data is
available (2, 3).

Low-cost sheet production
Current processing methods to produce Mg sheet from ingot are more expensive than Al. The
twin-roll casting method has great promise and could make Mg sheet more cost-competitive and
a viable automotive material. It is being studied and developed in China, Korea, Germany,
Norway and Australia, as discussed in the Hunt and Herling review (loc cit). Sheet and
automotive-stamping technology requires a great deal of development, but at the right price,
automotive Mg sheet stampings could see wide applications, see Exhibit 6.2.1.1.

Conventional Stamping
Alloy composition, cast grain structure and thermomechanical processing are important variables
in automotive sheet and stamping. Magnesiums hexagonal close-packed crystal structure
requires higher processing temperatures (225
o
C) vs. Al or steel which can be stamped near room
temperature. Ultra-fine grain continuous-cast sheet might be warm formable (90-150
o
C), which
could significantly reduce process cost. Tooling designs that compensate for Mg's unique
attributes require development, as do rules for hemming, inner/outer joining and
lubricants/coatings to improve stamping, drawing and bead formation.

Superplastic Forming (SPF)
SPF can produce body shapes without the concerns of conventional stampings that stretch, tear
and crack under unfavorable stamping loads, shapes and temperature. SPF requires unique grain
structure, temperature and shape-forming/deformation process development.

Surface Preparation/Protection
The surface of a stamped sheet may become coated with potentially deleterious particles as a
result of the rolling and stamping processing and requires that the sheet be carefully cleaned.
This will produce an active surface that requires protection. Coatings also need to be developed to
improve their wear resistance. These may include 2-sided, co-rolled, bonded plastic layers,
shiny/diamond-hard coatings, Cr-free conversion coatings or other chemical passivation coatings.
The ultimate goal is to produce a class A surface using a sheet stamping process.

Exhibit 6.2.1.1. Potential Vehicle Sheet Applications Stamped VW Lift Gate


Body side inner Body side inner Body side inner
Floor panel Floor panel Floor panel
Door inner
panel rear
Door inner Door inner
panel rear panel rear
Door inner
panel front
Door inner Door inner
panel front panel front
Liftgate inner Liftgate inner Liftgate inner
Shock absorber Shock absorber Shock absorber
Wheel house Wheel house Wheel house
Engine rail Engine rail Engine rail
Bumper Bumper Bumper
Rail front Rail front Rail front
Rail rear Rail rear Rail rear
Roof reinforcement Roof reinforcement Roof reinforcement B- pillar B- pillar B- pillar
A- pillar A- pillar A- pillar
(1) Bob Brown, Magnesium Monthly Review, private communication
(2) H. Friedrich and S. Schumann, Transaction IMM, p. C65-71, May 2002
(3) R. S. Busk, Magnesium Products Design, Marcel Decker, ISBN 0-8247-7576-7, 1987
MG 2020 - Released 11.1.06 22

The second model was developed by engineers at DaimlerChrysler Corporation (1). It is a
hybrid of Mg, structural foam and Al (which could be fabricated in the future from Mg). It
reduces weight while also improving function.

Exhibit A.2. Hybrid Mg/Al/Foam 49% Weight Reduced Body-in-White

Underbody Construction
Al Hot Metal Gas
Formed Rails
Large Thin-wall
Mg Die Castings
Al Stampings
Al Extrusions

Installation of Body Side Apertures
on Underbody
Stamped Al apertures
Die cast Mg B-pillar reinf.
Stamped Al inner reinf.

The advantages to this design include
Reduced part count: (-78%), Bending frequency improvement: (+3 Hz or 8.5%)
Torsion frequency improvement: (+10 Hz or 25%)
Meets or exceeds all NVH and energy management goals:Better than current vehicle on
current standards and meets new 50 mph offset rear impact standard
Variable cost: (+3%), Investment cost: (-46%)
Reduced weight: (-356 lbs. or 49%)

(1) Stephen Logan, David Gostovich,William Doolittle, Suresh Nagesh, DaimlerChrysler Corporation
MG 2020 - Released 11.1.06 II



25
Table 19. Summary of Volkswagen-led European Super Light Car project
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Develop and demonstrate a multi-material concept approach, including design, materials, and processes
Provide balance between mass reduction and affordability without compromise in safety, stiffness
Based on C-class compact car, similar to a Volkswagen Golf
Design objectives: Affordable mass-reduced vehicle of the future; improved production and assembly;
improved design modeling reliability for future resigns
Found major reductions (32-42%) in all major body-in-white components (body, front end, floor)
Utilized diverse material mix: 53% aluminum, 36% steel, 7% magnesium, 4% fiber-reinforced plastic
Utilized continuous, cold, high-speed forming techniques and laser and magnetic welding
Examined structural, crash, fatigue impacts of design and found The static and crash simulations have
proved that the SuperLIGHT-Car body concept has equivalent performances as the C-class reference car
Mass-reduction
impact
Body-in-white design reduction: 221 lb (35%)
Body-in-white prototype reduction: 240 lb (39%)
Status
Project conducted from 2005 to 2009
Utilize 10.5 million European Commission funding for total 19.2 million
Companies involved: Volkswagen, Fiat, Daimler, Porsche, Renault, Volvo, Opel
Also involved: 10 R&D companies, 10 suppliers, 7 universities
Sources
Stehlin, M, 2008. Super Light Car: Sustainable Production Technologies for CO
2
Emission Reduced
Lightweight Car Concepts. Volkswagen Group. Transport Research Arena Europe. April.
Goede, M., M. Stehlin, L. Rafflenbeul, G. Kopp, E. Beeh, 2009. Super Light Car lightweight
construction thanks to a multi-material design and function integration. European Transport Research
Review. 1: 5-10
Goede, M., and M. Stehlin, 2009. SuperLIGHT-Car project An integrated research approach for
lightweight car body innovations. Innovative Developments for Lightweight Vehicle Structures.
Conference proceedings. Wolfsburg. May 26-27.
Illustrations


http://www.eaa.net/upl/4/default/img/Final%20SLC%20prototype%20car-1.jpg http://motorshow.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/golf2008_1.jpg




26


Table 20. Summary of EDAG and WorldAutoSteel Future Steel Vehicle project
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Redesign conventional vehicle for mass reduction and advanced drivetrain simultaneously
Extensive use of high- and ultra-high- strength steel throughout vehicles
Portfolio of advanced material production (e.g., laser and induction welding, tailored tubes, variable wall)
processing (e.g., hot stamping and hydroforming) techniques
Explore mass-reduced plug-in hybrid (PHEV20, PHEV40), electric (BEV), and hydrogen fuel cell (FCEV)
Two primary vehicle classes: 4-door compact hatchback (FSV1) and 4-door sedan (FSV2)
Vehicle body structures redesigned to accommodate advanced drivetrain and energy storage
Mass-reduction
impact
Body structure reduction for FSV1 hatchback: 302 lb (30%) to 340 lb (36%)
Body structure reduction for FSV2 sedan: 509 lb (41%) to 560 lb (48%)
Status
Conducted by EDAG, supported by WorldAutoSteel
Phase 1 engineering design completed in 2009
Phase 2 vehicle concept design and simulation is planned for 2010
Phase 3 construction and demonstration of vehicle concept is planned for 2011
Source EDAG, 2009. Future Steel Vehicle: Phase I. Executive Summary. Prepared for WorldAutoSteel.
Illustrations




Table 21. Summary of Lotus Engineering Low and High Development vehicle project
Mass-reduction
features, findings
Redesign conventional mid-size vehicle for mass optimization, with two redesign architectures
Low Development vehicle technology with industry-leading manufacturing techniques that were deemed
feasible for 2014 (for model year 2017 production) for assembly at existing facilities
High Development vehicle technology, with modifications to conventional joining and assembly processes
that were deemed feasible for 2017 (for model year 2020 production)
Extensive use of material substitution with high-strength steel, advanced high-strength steel, aluminum,
magnesium, plastics and composites throughout vehicles
Conservative use of emerging design and parts integration concepts to minimize technical risk
Using synergistic total-vehicle substantial mass reduction opportunities found at minimized piece costs
The Low Development vehicle was found to have likely piece cost reductions, whereas the High
Development vehicle had nominal estimated cost increase of 3% (with potential for cost reduction)
Mass-reduction
impact
Body structure reduction for Low Development Vehicle: 127 lb (15%)
Body structure reduction for High Development Vehicle: 356 lb (42%)
Overall vehicle reduction for Low Development Vehicle: 739 lb (20%)
Overall vehicle reduction for High Development Vehicle: 1230 lb (33%)
Status
Engineering design study conducted by Lotus Engineering
First phase of project, development of two mass-reduced vehicle designs completed in April 2010
Next phase to test structural integrity, impact load paths, crashworthiness to validate the vehicle designs
Source
Lotus Engineering, Inc, 2010. An Assessment of Mass Reduction Opportunities for a 2017-2020 Model Year
Vehicle Program. April.
Illustrations




27

The various mass-reduction vehicle concepts that are summarized in the above tables allow for a
number of observations related to development of mass-efficient vehicle design. Each of the above
vehicle mass-reduction projects represents a major undertaking that required substantial technical
expertise, engineering resources, and research and development expenditures. The projects in many
instances show a packaging of some of the highlights of the most innovative mass-reduction ideas that
automotive engineers have developed for mainstream vehicles (as were shown in the previous section on
emerging trends) but have not yet been put together in high-production mass-efficient vehicles. In other
cases, the designs are the cutting edge of new mass-reduction techniques that are just emerging (e.g., a
beam design, a hydroforming process, a new alloy, an integrated-part design) and could gradually be
implemented in new models over the next decade as mainstream vehicles move toward some combination
of reduced CO
2
emissions and performance.
Together, these projects present a body of evidence regarding the scale of mass-reduction
technology that is achievable in automobiles. Several of the mass-optimized vehicle designs from above
are niche production vehicles with annual production in the hundreds or thousands, some are physical
prototypes with very limited production of one or several vehicles, while some are engineering design
concepts that develop and model the recent state-of-the-art in mass-efficiency. A number of the projects
that are summarized in the above tables had very different objectives, designs, and material preferences.
As a result, their differences can be quite instructive in some cases. Some of the studies provide detailed
data where others do not, and therefore quantitative comparisons are somewhat limited in some cases.
A number of observations are made here regarding comparisons of the mass-reduced structural
body and the overall vehicle designs. The structural body, often termed the body-in-white, along with the
front-end structure is core of any physical vehicle design, to which all the other major components
(suspension, interior, powertrain, etc) are integrated. The structural body is critical to the mass, size,
utility, and safety characteristics of the vehicle, and is therefore the paramount feature of new mass-
optimized vehicle designs. As a result, mass-reduction design studies typically devote far more attention,
engineering detail, and research findings to the body.
As shown in Figure 12, the technical findings from mass-optimized vehicle design projects
indicates a range of vehicle designs that reduce the vehicle body mass by 16% to 57%, with the average
of these vehicle designs achieving a 30% body mass reduction. All of the low-volume vehicle production
designs have body mass reductions of about 30% to 40% (e.g., Honda NS-X, Audi A2, Audi A8, Jaguar
XJ). The prototype vehicle designs had mass-reduced vehicle bodies that resulted in reductions from 20%
(from the IMPACT weight-reduced Ford F150) to 54% (for the Ford P2000). The more recent
engineering mass-optimized design studies found vehicle bodies with reductions between 16% (for the
Lotus Low Development vehicle) to 49% (for the U.S. AMP aluminum-magnesium design) from their
reference vehicle designs. The much more forward-looking carbon-fiber body of the RMI Revolution
resulted in a 57% reduction in body mass, the greatest reduction of all the designs presented here. A
general result from these design projects is that many automotive engineering projects have found a
variety of different mass-reduction vehicle designs across different light-duty vehicle classes (sportscars,
sedans, pickups, sport utility vehicles), that have achieved 25% to 40% reductions in vehicle body mass.




28

Figure 12. Mass reduction from the body structure of mass-optimized vehicle designs


Figure 13 shows the vehicle material composition by basic material categories of the two Lotus
vehicles (Low and High Development) and the Volkswagen-led Super Light Car design (see Table 19 and
Table 21, respectively, for details and references). The table shows only very basic material categories
for steel, aluminum, plastics, etc.; however there are many different gages, alloys, grades, and types of
these materials, but these distinctions are not reflected in the figure. The reference vehicle body shown is
that of the Lotus study, which is a 2009 Toyota Venza, which is all steel, 5% of which is HSS. Compared
to this reference, the three mass-efficient designs that are shown present new vehicle body designs that
range from incremental to more advanced mixed-material bodies. The most incremental mass-reduction
approach in the figure is the Lotus Low Development vehicle, which shows a 17% body mass reduction
and applies nearly all high-strength steel. This approach essentially follows the industry trend toward
higher strength steel types. The two other designs integrate a mix of stronger and less dense metals and
composites along with high-strength steels to achieve greater body mass reductions. The Super Light Car
design integrates far more aluminum and small amounts of magnesium and carbon fiber to achieve a 39%
body structure mass reduction. The Lotus High Development vehicle applies more magnesium and
composites to result in a 42% body mass reduction.
Both the Super Light Car and the Lotus High Development designs attest to the potential to
substantially reduce vehicle body mass through integrated multi-material approaches that exploit the mass
and functional properties of steel, aluminum, magnesium, and plastics. Several of the mass-optimized
vehicle design studies, prototypes, and production vehicles from above focus almost exclusively on
particular materials. Counter to the multi-material approach, some of the projects are steel-, aluminum-,
magnesium-, or composite-intensive. Of the studies that held explicit strict preferences for materials, the
aluminum and steel-based approaches indicated that single-metal approaches could result in mass
reductions of comparable magnitude to the multi-material approach. The EDAG steel industry project
finds potential body mass reductions from 30% to 46% from essentially all high-strength steel bodies (See
Table 20). Likewise, the IBIS aluminum industry project finds that body mass reductions up to 47%
could result from an essentially all-aluminum vehicle body design (See Table 18).

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Figure 13. Material composition of mass-optimized vehicle body designs

Another point of comparison of the mass-reduced designs is how the vehicles body mass
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percentage body reduction (x-axis) and the overall vehicle mass reduction (y-axis) for mass-optimized
vehicle designs from above. Shown in this figure, there are a few critical differences between the studies.
Several of the studies (e.g., the EDAG and IBIS studies) show high relative body mass reduction
compared to their overall vehicle mass reduction. This could be attributed to these studies particular
interests in documenting the strengths of particular metals (steel for EDAG and aluminum for IBIS), and
therefore being more specifically targeted at replacing structural metal components than on addressing the
various other potential mass-reduction areas (e.g., interior components) that are less based on steel and
aluminum. As a result, these studies would appear to overlook more diverse multi-material, plastic, fiber-
reinforced materials, and magnesium technologies that are exploited in several of the holistic projects
(e.g., Ford P2000, RMI Revolution, Lotus), which found that greater overall vehicle mass reductions were
achievable.


Figure 14. Vehicle body and overall vehicle mass impacts from mass-optimized designs

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The three vehicle prototypes from the U.S. Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)
program provide examples of the types of materials that can be used to achieve mass-optimized vehicle
designs. Figure 15 shows the PNGV vehicles material composition and overall vehicle mass-reductions
(data are from Schexnaydor et al, 2001). The PNGV program had targeted an 80 mile-per-gallon mid-
size sedan, and the three prototype vehicles each ultimately achieved greater than 70 miles per gallon with
hybrid vehicle systems and mass-reduced designs. The achieved mass reductions were approximately
20% (for the General Motors Precept), 31% (for the Daimler-Chrysler ESX3), and 38% (for the Ford
P2000), and each one accomplished the reductions with different material and design approaches. Each
PNGV vehicle made much greater use of aluminum (mostly in the vehicle body structure), with two to
five times more aluminum than the reference vehicle. The Daimler-Chrysler ESX3 made extensive use of
plastics, including injection-molded thermoplastics and also carbon and glass fiber. The Daimler-
Chrysler and Ford prototypes also used magnesium more heavily, at 55 and 39 kg, respectively. All three
models met the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) along with many of the other PNGV
program goals (NRC, 2000).


Figure 15. Vehicle mass reduction and material composition of PNGV prototypes


Figure 16 shows how the Lotus mass-optimized vehicle designs compare with automotive material
composition trends from the past fifteen years (from Wards Automotive, 2009). Looking only at the
historical data on the left-hand-side of the figure, a couple historical trends are clear. Iron, regular steel,
and other steel content in vehicles is decreasing (by 37%, 9%, and 33%, respectively from 1995 to 2007),
while advanced materials and mass-optimized designs have entered the vehicle fleet. These broad trends
were discussed above, as well as the individual component trends (e.g., in engine heads and blocks,
panels) that are linked to the material trends. The primary substitutes in the historical mass-reduction
trend are high-strength steel (45% increase from 1995-2007), plastics and composites (25% increase),
aluminum (23% increase), and magnesium (127% increase).
The Lotus design concepts show an apparent continuation of the recent historical trend in shifting
vehicle material composition. The Lotus report indicates that the Low Development vehicle mass-
reduction technology concepts are available in 2014 for model year 2017 commercial deployment. The
primary material change for the Low Development vehicle is to greatly increase the amount of high-
strength steel usage in the structural body components. The High Development Lotus vehicle design
utilizes techniques that are to be implementable in a model year 2020 commercial deployment. This more
advanced mass-optimized vehicle design employs a more diverse array of materials and integration
techniques in the vehicles structural body and throughout all of the other vehicle systems. In percentage
terms, this vehicle utilizes substantially more magnesium, aluminum, plastics and uses about the same
amount of high-strength steels as the reference vehicle design. These increases in the usage of lower
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density materials occur at the expense of iron and mild steel, which see decreases in their composition
percentage.


Historical trend, 1995-2007
(Wards Automotive, 2009)
Mass-reduced vehicle design
(Lotus Engineering, 2010)
Figure 16. Comparison of Lotus mass-reduced designs to historical vehicle composition trend

To give further perspective on the vehicle weight breakdown from the mass-optimized vehicle
designs from the Lotus study, Figure 17 shows the Lotus reference, Low Development, and High
Development vehicles mass and material composition. The above figure, by normalizing mass to 100%
of the reference Toyota Venza that was the benchmark, does not reflect the actual gross amount of the
materials that are being utilized in the two mass-reduced Lotus designs. As shown in Figure 17, the two
Lotus designs reduce the overall vehicle mass by 20% and 33%, respectively, when including that studys
constant-performance re-sized hybrid powertrain. From this figure, it becomes clear that even though the
percentage composition of higher cost materials like magnesium, aluminum, and composites each
increase, their actual material amounts by-mass do not change much for the Low Development Vehicle.
For example, the Low Development vehicle results in an increase in magnesium by 20 kg, a decrease in
plastic/composite content by 30 kg, and a decrease in aluminum by 3 kg; meanwhile, the use of high-
strength steel sees a 400-kg increase from the reference vehicle. The High Development vehicle,
however, shows greater increases in non-steel materials; for example the magnesium and aluminum
content both increase by over 170 kg from the baseline vehicle.

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32

Figure 17. The mass by material of the Lotus baseline and mass-reduced vehicle designs

Despite the greater use of the higher-cost stronger steels, aluminum, magnesium and composites,
some of the studies suggest that the mass-optimized vehicle designs could have minimal or modest cost
impacts on new vehicle manufacturing costs. Table 22 highlights major findings from the above studies
related to the cost impacts of utilizing mass-reduction technologies in new vehicle designs. The findings
indicate that by using higher-cost advanced materials, the net result can actually be an overall reduction in
the vehicle cost for a number of the mass-optimized designs. In many cases, material cost increases are
offset entirely by the reduction of the use of that material due to the material being stronger and therefore
less of the material being required. Furthermore, cost reductions occur in some of the studies because
optimized techniques for using purpose-built tubular designs, forming techniques with less structural
material, and variable gage materials allowed for further reductions in material use in stronger structures.
Another mechanism that allowed for cost reductions in some components within the studies mass-
optimized designs was parts consolidation, whereby the integration of parts allows for major reductions in
the overall part count in many of the body structures and other systems throughout the vehicle.
Table 22 suggests that manufacturing cost reductions seem likely for many of the more near-term
incremental options for vehicle mass reduction up to about 20%. The near-term incremental options
generally involve greater use of emerging material substitution alternatives that are currently employed by
only a fraction of the light-duty vehicles in the 2009 fleet and still utilize forming and assembly
techniques that are common but not widespread in current manufacturing practices. Such near-term
mass-and-cost reduction findings often include prodigious use of high-strength steels, indicating that
some of the emerging steel-intensive designs, in particular, appear to present the low-hanging fruit of
vehicle mass-optimization. For example, the IMPACT Ford F150 project found that vehicle designs that
reduce the pickups mass by 19% come at net-zero manufacturing cost, whereas the full 25% mass-
reduction package came with a $500 per vehicle cost increase. The ThyssenKrupp steel design resulted in
a 24% body mass reduction, with potential for secondary mass reductions from design optimization
elsewhere on the vehicle, at a 2% cost increase. The Low Development Lotus design, which relied on the
use of advanced steel alloys, similarly demonstrates that a 20% mass-reduced vehicle could actually
decrease the overall vehicle piece costs by 2%. Aluminum-intensive designs also showed the potential
for minimal net-vehicle costs with substantial mass reductions. In particular, the IBIS aluminum-intensive
design, even though its aluminum unibody structure had a cost premium of over $500, offers an overall
vehicle cost increase of less than $200, due to its inclusion of powertrain re-sizing and secondary mass-
reduciton effects, for a vehicle that had its mass reduced by 17% from its baseline steel-intensive vehicle.
More advanced mass-optimized concepts that went beyond the above incremental steel and
aluminum techniques were found to deliver greater mass reductions but come at increased vehicle costs.
More innovative mass-optimized designs that exploit stronger materials and reach further into cutting-
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33
edge assembly and manufacturing techniques offered mass reductions of 35% and greater. The multi-
material design of the Volkswagen-led mass-reduction project shows the feasibility of a unibody structure
of aluminum, magnesium, and composites that delivers up to a 39% body mass reduction that has costs
that are less than 10 per kilogram of reduction. However, the ability to fully compare that study is
limited here, because that study neither clearly spells out the derivation of its costs nor examines the
potential for whole vehicle mass reductions that many of the other studies detailed here demonstrate for
holistic vehicle designs that exploit the full capability of parts integration and mass decompounding
elsewhere on the vehicle. On the other hand, the Lotus High Development case does present such
comprehensive cost and whole-vehicle analysis. That study finds that a 33% vehicle mass reduction is
achievable at a 3% cost increase, which would roughly correspond to a $400-600 per vehicle increase in
manufacturing cost (with an uncertainty ranging from a 3% cost decrease to a 9% cost increase).

Table 22. Findings related to the costs of mass-reduced vehicle designs
Project Mass reduction
a
Cost impact findings
a

IMPACT Ford F150
Body: 20%
Vehicle: 25%
Most mass reduction actions came with cost savings from baseline
A 19% overall vehicle mass reduction comes at net zero cost
A 25% mass reduction comes at a $500 increase in the total variable vehicle
manufacturing cost of the vehicle
Mass-reduction features are currently entering Fords new vehicle fleet
Porsche Engineering
ULSAB-AVC
Body: 17%
Vehicle: 19-32%
The total estimated manufactured cost of the mass-optimized vehicles is
found to be about $9,200 to $10,200 per vehicle.
Mass-optimized vehicle designs using high-strength steels are affordable
with minimal additional manufacturing costs
ThyssenKrupp
New Steel Body
Body: 24%
Material, assembly, tool/die costs decrease; production costs increase
Overall: 24% body mass reduction has a 2% manufacturing cost increase
IBIS aluminum-intensive
design
Body: 48%
Vehicle: 17%
Aluminum body has a $500-600 cost increase from steel (22% increase)
Aluminum vehicle overall has an approximate $100 additional cost (1%
increase) over conventional baseline vehicle retail price
EDAG steel-intensive
Future Steel Vehicle
Body: 16-30%
Vehicle: 17%
Found mass-optimization allows hybrids and plug-ins can have improved
total ownership cost from conventional 2020 vehicles (i.e., reductions in fuel
consumption and other benefits offset mass-reduction and powertrain costs).
US AMP concept
magnesium-intensive body
Body: 49%
Reduced part count (-78%) along with reduced mass (-161 kg)
Increased variable cost (3%), decreased investment cost (-46%)
Volkswagen-led
Super Light Car
Body: 14-39%
Steel-intensive (-14%, 40 kg): less than 2.5 /kg
Multi-material, economic (-22%, 62 kg): less than 5.0 /kg
Multi-material, advanced (-39%, 114 kg): less than 10 /kg
Multi-material concepts promise cost effective light weight solutions
Lotus Engineering Low
Development
Body: 16%
Vehicle: 20%
Body-in-white cost decreases by 18%, or about $60/vehicle
The vehicle cost is decreased by 2%, or about $300/vehicle
Lotus Engineering High
Development
Body: 42%
Vehicle: 33%
Body-in-white cost increases by 35%, or about $1000/vehicle
The vehicle cost is increases by 3%, or about $500/vehicle
RMI Revolution
Body: 57%
Vehicle: 52%
Sticker price of $35,000, designed for cost comparability with luxury sport
utility vehicles (e.g., Lexus RX, Mercedes ML).
Cost-competitiveness due to parts consolidation and reduction and the
reduction in use of materials offsetting price of high-cost composites
a
This tables findings are based on a variety of sources from the various projects (See Tables 5-21 above for further details and sources)



4. Implications
The above review of technology developments in vehicle designs and advanced materials suggests
that mass-reduction technology has been, is, and will continue being, a core component of automobile
manufacturers efforts to improve the efficiency of light-duty vehicles. Directly following from these
developments are a number of broader implications for optimal policy frameworks to best promote mass-
optimization technology in the near- and long-term timeframes. This section discusses policy-related
implications that follow from the above technology assessment.


34
4.1. Vehicle mass-reduction and policies for CO
2
emissions and fuel economy
Standards for CO
2
emissions and fuel economy exist for most major automobile markets. The
standards are designed to be technology neutral so as to promote the full range of potential efficiency
technologies from improved engine combustion, to increased transmission efficiency, to mass-
reduction, to electric drivetrains. However, there are considerable differences in the standard designs that,
as a result, provide different incentives for different types of efficiency technology.
As shown in Table 23, a number of the major global automotive markets have various forms of
CO
2
, fuel consumption, and fuel economy standards. Together about 70% of the world automobile
market has some form of standards that will promote efficiency. Of those standards, nearly every one has
some accommodation for the varying utility, size, or mass of the vehicle. In particular, three of the four
largest markets Europe, China, and Japan index their standards to the mass of the vehicle. The U.S.
and Canada index their standards to the size of the vehicles. Other smaller markets have regulatory
standards that use engine size (e.g., in South Korea, Taiwan). Nearly every regulatory program uses some
form of attribute-basis to take into consideration the diverse fleet of vehicle sizes and the different
automakers particular vehicle sales characteristics. With attribute-based standards, more lax targets are
applied to larger or heavier vehicles and the results are to somewhat levelize the automaker-specific
impacts from standards and to more directly regulate the technical efficiency of all vehicles of all sizes.

Table 23. Worldwide automobile efficiency and GHG standards
Country/region
Annual automobile sales
in millions in 2009
(and world market share)
a

Regulatory metric
b
Standard design elements
European Union 14 (24%) CO
2
(CO
2
/kilometer) Mass-indexed, continuous
United States 10 (18%) FE (mile/gallon); GHG (CO
2
e/mile) Size-indexed, continuous, two classes
China 8 (14%) FC (liter/100kilometer) Mass-indexed, discrete
Japan 5 (8%) FE (kilometer/liter) Mass-indexed, discrete
Canada 1.5 (3%) GHG (CO
2
e/mile) Size-indexed, continuous, two classes
South Korea 1.1 (2%) FE (kilometer/liter) Engine size-indexed
Australia 0.9 (2%) FC (liter/100kilometer) Flat
Taiwan 0.3 (1%) FE (kilometer/liter) Engine size-indexed
a
Based on data from JD Power, AutomotiveNews; data are approximate, some countries use different vehicle category definitions.
b
Abbreviations: CO
2
=carbon dioxide; GHG=greenhouse gas; FE=fuel economy; FC=fuel consumption

Because of the different regulatory designs with different attribute-based structures, the standards
will offer different levels of compliance incentive for different approaches to improve the fuel economy
or CO
2
emissions of vehicles. All of the standard structures provide a direct incentive for automakers to
deploy new technologies that increase powertrain efficiency; however, attribute-based standards can
introduce different levels of incentive for other automaker strategies. Generally, engine-size-indexed
standards take away the incentive for deploying a greater percentage of smaller engines, size-based
standards take away the incentive to shift the fleet composition smaller, and mass-based designs take
away the incentive to sell vehicles with more mass-reduction technology. Standard designs that are
flat, or have no accommodation for different vehicle attributes, maintain the incentive for automakers to
use any of the potential CO
2
-reduction strategies including all efficiency technology and sales fleet
composition strategies.
Among the basic regulatory structures employed worldwide, of particular importance for this
review of mass-reduction technology is the popularity of the mass-based vehicle standards which are in
effect in China, Europe and Japan (almost half of the world automobile market). On the surface, because
vehicle mass is a fundamental determinant of vehicle efficiency, it seems that mass could be a logical
choice for the regulatory structure of the vehicle standards. However, as illustrated above, vehicle mass-
reduction technology (advanced materials, mass-optimized designs) is a major technology strategy for
increasing vehicle efficiency. As a result, by using a mass-based standard structure, the core efficiency
technology of mass-reduction is essentially neutralized.
To demonstrate the difference in the regulatory treatment of mass-reduction technology in
regulatory structures that are based on size and mass, an identical vehicle powertrain efficiency-plus-


35
mass-reduction technology package is considered. Figure 18 illustrates the potential for efficiency
improvements and vehicle mass reduction to contribute toward compliance with footprint-based and
mass-based regulatory standards. In the figure, Toyotas 2008 Corolla, Camry, and average car values are
shown. Then the models are modified to reflect a 13% CO
2
reduction from improved powertrain
efficiency (e.g., with an improved engine and transmission) and a 13% mass reduction in both regulatory
systems. In the left portion of the figure for a footprint-based standard, both the powertrain efficiency and
mass-reduction technology steps result in vertical drops in the vehicle models GHG emissions, pushing
each model substantially below the diagonal regulatory standard line, thus aiding in the automakers
compliance with the standards. In the right mass-based portion of the figure, the powertrain technology is
shown with a vertical improvement in CO
2
emissions; however, mass-reduction would not be a successful
strategy because the mass-reduced vehicles would be subject to a more stringent standard.


Powertrain-plus-mass-reduction technology
in a size-based regulatory structure
Powertrain-plus-mass-reduction technology
in a mass-indexed regulatory structure
Figure 18. Impact of an identical efficiency-and-mass-reduction technology package in size- and
mass-indexed CO
2
emission regulations

As shown in the above figure, the GHG benefits of vehicle mass-reduction are directly captured and
incentivized in the footprint-indexed standard structure, but they are not in the mass-based regulatory
design. In size-based standards, technologies like material substitution and optimized vehicle design for
overall vehicle model mass reductions are fully valued toward automaker compliance. Those automakers
that elect to deploy more mass-reduction technology that reduces CO
2
emissions and increases fuel
economy will not be fully rewarded for this technology in mass-indexed regulatory schemes. Thus mass-
indexed standards put a relative discouragement on one entire category of efficiency technology mass-
optimized design while still promoting the use of other efficiency technologies (e.g., engine and
transmission efficiency).
Mass-based standards can attempt to mitigate their relative disincentive for mass-reduction
technology. A way to install some incentive for mass-optimization in a mass-based scheme is to reduce
the slope of the mass-to-CO
2
emission standard-setting line. Shifting this slope to be more gradual than
the actual baseline regression of existing vehicle models in the fleet would, to the extent that it is done,
effectively be shifting the mass-based standard toward a flat standard. For example, the European scheme
does intentionally set the standard target line at a slope that is lower than the actual fleet of vehicles to, at
170
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270
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Vehicle footprint (ft
2
)
Toyota car models (MY2008)
Toyota car average (MY2008)
U.S. car 2016 standard
Powertrain efficiency (-13% CO2)
Mass-optimized (-13% mass)
Corolla
Camry
Toyota car
average
170
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Toyota car models (MY2008)
Toyota car average (MY2008)
A mass-indexed standard
Powertrain efficiency (-13% CO2)
Mass-optimized (-13% mass)
Corolla
Camry
Toyota car
average


36
a minium, protect from future shifts toward a fleet with higher average mass (EP, 2009; CEC, 2007).
However, as long as there is any slope in a mass-based standard target line, a mass-indexed standard will
always provide less inducement for automakers to deploy mass-reduction technology than flat or size-
indexed standards because vehicle models that see mass reducitons would be subject to more stringent
standards in the mass-indexed structure.
As illustrated in Section 3 above, mass-reduction of components, system optimization, and
comprehensive whole-vehicle designs are fundamental to many automaker plans for achieving lower CO
2

emissions and higher fuel economy. For example, Section 3.3 shows how automakers are currently
deploying a whole host of engine, transmission, body, interior, and other parts throughout the vehicle, and
further more, Section 3.4 indicates that those component-level changes are but smaller incremental steps
compared to the larger potential of whole-vehicle mass-reduced designs. Standards that index regulatory
CO
2
or fuel economy targets to the mass of vehicles run the risk of providing little to no incentive for the
introduction of these technologies. If all of the critical technology tools for automakers to improve the
efficiency of vehicle are to be promoted by regulatory standards, mass-indexed standards should be
avoided.

4.2. Vehicle mass-reduction and electric drivetrain technology
Another critical implication of vehicle mass reduction for future automotive technology more
generally is the importance of mass-optimized designs for advanced vehicle with greater electrification of
the drivetrain. A critical consideration for advanced electric-drivetrain vehicle technologies those that
go beyond incremental engine, transmission, aerodynamics, and accessory improvements is the extra
electric componentry for electric motors, energy storage, and power electronics which all significantly
increase the cost and weight of vehicles.
Current hybrid vehicles give some indication of how important vehicle weight and advanced
electric-drive vehicle technologies are interrelated. Figure 19 shows how hybrid vehicle models define the
frontier in low-CO
2
emission technology in the U.S. automobile market. The hybrid models shown in the
figure result in an average CO
2
gram-per-mile reduction of 32% (corresponding to a 48% increase in fuel
economy) from their similar non-hybrid counterparts. However, also shown in the figure is how these
technologies exhibit a characteristic increase in weight. The hybrid models shown have, on average, a
9% weight increase over their comparable non-hybrid models, due to the addition of electric system
components like batteries, motors, and motor controllers. More advanced vehicle technologies, such as
plug-in-capable hybrid electric-gasoline vehicles, electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles offer the
potential for greater vehicle efficiency improvements than hybrids, but do so with even greater upward
pressure on vehicle weight as their energy storage and electric powertrain components increase in
capacity and size.



37

Figure 19. CO
2
emissions of model year 2008 hybrids and their non-hybrid counterparts

If mass-reduction technology countermeasures are not taken to offset mass increases from the
additional vehicle electric-drive systems, the overall CO
2
or fuel economy benefits of these technologies
is compromised, as is the ability to minimize the costs of these electric components. The importance of
mass-optimization technology is far greater for electric-drive vehicles than for conventional vehicles, due
to the requirement of designing the size of the all of the electric components (i.e., the battery pack,
motor/generator, motor controller, etc) to the overall mass of the vehicle. Any amount of mass-reduction
technology allows for a proportional decrease in the capacity, mass, and cost of these electric system
components, which are kilogram-for-kilogram among the costliest major components on the vehicle. As
a result, mass-reduction technology is not simply a core vehicle efficiency technology; it could also be an
enabling technology for the affordability of the next generation of electric-drive technologies.
A number of studies indicate the importance of mass-reduction for advanced electric-drive vehicles.
Most major forward-looking assessments of advanced vehicle efficiency technologies include mass-
reduction as a critical component of these technology packages. For example, a number of technical
studies of various levels of advanced vehicle technology include vehicle mass reductions of 14-30%
(Weiss et al, 2000; Santini et al, 2001; An et al, 2001; Graham et al, 2001; Lipman and Delucchi, 2006;
Cheah et al, 2007; Pagerit et al, 2006; DeLorme et al, 2009).
Several technology studies indicate that looking at mass-reduction technology and hybrid
drivetrains together has synergistic effects involved. Two studies find that a 17-20% vehicle mass
reduction with vehicle hybridization effectively reduces the total incremental cost required for electric
powertrain components (engine, controller/inverter, batteries) while offering the increased efficiency
benefits of HEVs (Graham et al, 2001; Bull et al, 2008). One of those studies found that a 17% mass-
reduced hybrid would save almost $800 in per-vehicle powertrain costs over a conventional hybrid (Bull
et al, 2008). A similar general relationship is found for plug-in HEVs. An aluminum-intensive design
study shows that the adoption of mass-optimization technology for a 17% weight reduction could
downsize battery capacity by 1 to 3 kWh; as a result, the reductions in battery costs exceed the additional
costs of the mass-reduced vehicle body (IBIS, 2009). Similarly, EDAG (2009) finds that a vehicle body
mass reduction of 30-48% from stronger and mass-optimized steel designs drastically reduces electric
powertrain requirements for plug-in hybrid, battery electric, and fuel cell vehicles. These research
findings all point to the critical importance of mass optimization to minimize the costs of electric-drive
technologies for future vehicles.


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Vehicle curb weight (lb)
Non-hybrid
Hybrid
Insight!
Civic!
Prius!
HS 250h!
Altima!
Fusion!
Camry!
Escape!
Highlander!
RX 450h !
Tahoe! Silverado!
ML450!
X6!
Vue!
Aspen!


38
5. Conclusions
The intent of this assessment is to inform discussions on the potential for automotive mass-
optimization technology to contribute to reductions in the mass of vehicles (i.e., independent of
downsizing trends toward smaller vehicles). A number of technology trends are apparent regarding the
continuing emergence of mass-optimization technology in automobiles. In turn, these technology trends
provoke a number of policy findings and questions. These technology and policy findings, as well as
unaddressed research areas, are summarized here.

Mass-reduction technology trends for vehicles:
Vehicle mass-reduction has historically been a core efficiency technology for automobiles.
Automobiles have fundamentally shifted toward more mass-efficient vehicle designs with stronger
and lower-density materials (e.g., front-wheel-drive, unibody construction, high-strength steels,
aluminum, plastics). These mass-reduction innovations have substantially increased technical
vehicle efficiency. However, these efficiency improvements are unseen due to several
confounding trends in vehicle size, engine size, vehicle content, and vehicle performance.
Vehicle mass-reduction continues to be a critical emerging efficiency technology for automobiles.
Emerging trends for advanced materials, forming techniques, integrated vehicle parts, and more
holistic vehicle design planning are as promising as some of the more prominently discussed near-
term powertrain technologies (from valvetrain technologies, turbocharging, direct injection, dual
clutch transmission) in terms of their potential for increased fuel economy and CO
2
emission
reductions. For example, the application of near-term technology for a 20% reduction in vehicle
mass would result in a 12% to 16% reduction in reduction in CO
2
emissions.
Different automakers utilize mass-reduction technology to different degrees. Mass-reduction
technology is not a discrete either-or question, as automakers all consider the mass of vehicles in the
vehicle design process. Technically all vehicles use mass-optimization techniques to some extent.
But the degree to which vehicle models are relatively mass optimized (i.e., have low mass for a
given size or level of utility) is determined by which components or systems utilize mass-optimized
designs with stronger materials.
Vehicle mass-reduction technologies range from incremental component substitution to major
vehicle body redesigns. Automakers, in model redesigns, can achieve up to a 20% mass reduction in
vehicles at little to no additional manufacturing cost and without paradigm-shifting technologies.
Looking at whole-vehicle, mass-optimized designs results in further opportunities for secondary
mass-reduction effects in powertrain, chassis, and structural systems. A number of technical studies
indicate that vehicle mass reductions from 20-35% could be affordable and feasible with automotive
technology shifts toward advanced mass-reduction techniques; these next steps include known
technology advances in materials, vehicle designs, and manufacturing processes.
There are multiple competing mass-optimization strategies that achieve major mass reductions.
Different automakers and suppliers specialize in different materials, processes, and components for
mass reduction. Existing mass-optimization vehicle designs demonstrate how different approaches
(e.g., all-steel, all-aluminum, and multi-material) can achieve 30-40% vehicle body mass reductions
that also exceed structural performance objectives. More forward-looking designs that utilize
carbon fiber composites for the body structure would go further yet in reducing vehicle mass.
Mass-reduction will only grow in importance with more advanced future vehicle technologies. A
combination of public pressure, government incentives, and technology innovation are all pushing
electric-drive vehicles forward. The whole range of electric vehicles from hybrids to plug-in-
capable hybrids, full electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles benefit from mass-reduction
technology even far greater than conventional gasoline vehicle technologies. Mass-reduction
technology delivers direct efficiency gains to all vehicles, but mass reduction could ultimately be a
critical enabling technology for affordable future electric-drive technologies due to its potential to
reduce the required sizes for high-cost electric powertrain components.


39

Policy-related findings on vehicle mass-reduction technology:
Vehicle efficiency policies should provide compliance incentives for all efficiency technologies
including mass-reduced materials and designs. Mass-reduction technologies are available, and the
plans of automakers indicate their clear intent to commercialize these technologies. The particular
mass-indexed automobile efficiency policies in Europe, Japan, and China fail to provide a full
compliance inducement to encourage the deployment of mass-optimization technology. These
policies therefore run the risk of not capturing or incentivizing the potential associated energy and
environmental benefits of mass-reduction technology. Whereas mass-indexed standards neutralize
mass-reduction technologies, flat and size-indexed efficiency standards do not.
Under relatively lax fuel economy or CO
2
emission standards, mass-reduction technology has been
lost to larger and faster vehicles. This is in evidence from the 1987-2008 period of relatively
unchanging fuel economy standards in the U.S., when mass-optimized designs and advanced
materials penetrated the automobile fleet, vehicles got larger, their powertrains got larger and
heavier, their acceleration performance increased, and average fuel economy was relatively stable.
Regulatory standards for fuel economy or CO
2
emissions can capture mass-reduction technology
trends for vehicle efficiency (or not). Competing automobile companies naturally deploy automobile
efficiency innovations, such as new mass-reduction technology. These efficiency technologies can
interchangeably be used for increasing vehicle acceleration performance (under modestly increasing
or stable standards) or used for public environmental goals (with increasingly stringent standards).
Increased stringency of standards more fully captures and induces mass reduction in vehicles.
Mass-reduction technology is a potential green technology growth area. Automobile markets that
do promote mass-reduction through stringent fuel efficiency standards (i.e., those standards that are
stringently set and are not mass-indexed standards) have the additional benefit of promoting
innovation and growth in high-value advanced materials (e.g., advanced steels, aluminum,
magnesium, composites) that could see continued growth in the automotive industry. In addition,
mass-reduced vehicle fleets are in a better technical position to enable the growth in advanced
electric-drive vehicle technologies over the long term.

Areas for further study:
To varying degrees, automotive mass-reduction technologies assessed in this report have addressed
potential safety concerns. The deployment of mass-reduced automobiles sometimes gives rise to
safety questions. Potential effects of vehicle mass reduction on safety have been researched
extensively. Most recently, U.S. automobile regulators found that, under the new size-indexed
efficiency standards, there could be minimal to perhaps positive safety effects with a new vehicle
fleet with lower average mass. However, this issue is beyond the scope of this report. Mass-
reduction technologies for production vehicles examined above (e.g., increased aluminum use across
the fleet, high-strength steel thoughout Honda models, and aluminum frames in Audi models) have
not exhibited any known safety compromises from their incremental mass reductions. Some of the
studies that resulted in larger mass reductions (e.g., the Volkswagen, Lotus, and steel projects) seek
to further investigate the crashworthiness and safety implications of their mass-optimized designs.
Life-cycle analysis of mass-reduced materials and designs could be an important consideration.
This report discusses the implications of mass-reduction technology for reducing the energy
consumption and CO
2
emissions of vehicle use. At present, the vast majority of vehicles overall
energy and CO
2
emissions are from vehicle use, and much lesser impacts are associated with
upstream manufacturing processes. However, some of the materials discussed herein (e.g.,
aluminum and magnesium) have greater upstream material energy requirements and greenhouse gas
emissions that would impact an overall assessment of their potential energy and environmental
benefits.


40
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